PUBLISHED TO PROMOTE THE GOALS OF THE BEIJING DECLARATION AND THE PLATFORM FOR ACTION

December 2007 Women, gender equality and sport Edwina Sandys Edwina

UNITED NATIONS Division for the Advancement of Women Department of Economic and Social Affairs women2000 and beyond December 2007

have a higher risk of developing than Women, men.6 Participation in physical activity aids in the prevention and/or treatment of other chronic and degenerative dis- gender equality eases associated with aging, such as type-2 diabetes, hypertension, arthritis, osteoporosis and cardiovascular abnor- and sport malities. It also helps in the manage- ment of weight and contributes to the formation and maintenance of healthy bones, muscles and joints. Physical Introduction past that sport was harmful to wom- activity can reduce the incidence of en’s health, particularly their repro- falls among older women. “Bicycling has done more to ductive health. In 1896, Baron Pierre An important role of physical activ- emancipate women than any one de Coubertin, founder of the modern ity in the life of older women lies in thing in the world” Olympics, stated: “No matter how prolonging independence. Much of the —Susan B. Anthony, suffragist, 1896 toughened a sportswoman may be, physical decline that was presumed an her organism is not cut out to sustain inevitable consequence of aging is now Women’s participation in sport has a certain shocks.” 2 Such stereotypes thought to be the result of inactivity. long history. It is a history marked by fuelled gender-based discrimination in While no one can guarantee that exer- division and discrimination but also one physical education and in recreational cise will prolong life, it can enhance filled with major accomplishments by and competitive sport, sporting organi- the quality of life for older women who female athletes and important advances zations and sport media. value their independence.7 for gender equality and the empower- The benefits for women and girls ment of women and girls. with disabilities are also well estab- Among the many remarkable lished. It has been noted that sport achievements are those of Helene The benefits for women provides a double benefit to women Madison of the United States of and girls of physical with disabilities by providing affirma- America, the first woman to swim activity and sport tions of self-empowerment at both the 100-yard freestyle in one minute 8 Although many of the clinical trials personal and collective levels. Apart at the 1932 Olympics; Maria-Teresa and epidemiological studies in health from enhancing health, wellness and de Filippis of Italy, the first woman to research have excluded women, the quality of life, participation in physical compete in a European Grand Prix auto data available suggest that women activity and sport develops skills such race in 1958; Nawal El Moutawakel derive many health benefits from an as teamwork, goal-setting, the pursuit of Morocco, the first woman from active lifestyle.3 The health benefits of of excellence in performance and other an Islamic nation to win an Olympic women’s participation in physical activ- achievement-oriented behaviours that medal for the 400-metre hurdles at women and girls with disabilities may ity and sport are now well established. the 1984 Olympics; and Tegla Loroupe not be exposed to in other contexts.9 Participation in sport and physical activ- of Kenya, who in 1994 became the Participation in sport and physical ity can prevent a myriad of noncom- first African woman to win a major activity can also facilitate good mental 1 municable diseases which account marathon. Women have taken up top health for women of all ages, includ- for over 60 per cent of global deaths, leadership positions in sport, such as ing the management of mental disor- 66 per cent of which occur in develop- Presidents and Secretaries-General of ders such as Alzheimer’s disease.10 It ing countries.4 For girls, it can have a National Olympic Committees. More can promote psychological well-being positive impact on childhood health, as and more women have also taken up through building self-esteem, confi- well as reduce the risk of chronic dis- employment opportunities in all areas dence and social integration, as well eases in later life. of sport, including as coaches, manag- as help reduce stress, anxiety, loneli- ers, officials and sport journalists. For older women, it can contribute ness and depression. This is particu- These achievements were made in to the prevention of cardiovascular dis- larly important as rates of depression the face of numerous barriers based on eases, which account for one third of among women are almost double gender discrimination. Women were deaths among women around the world those of men in both developed and often perceived as being too weak for and half of all deaths among women developing countries.11 Adolescent sport, particularly endurance sports, over 50 in developing countries.5 Physi- girls in particular are vulnerable to anxi- such as marathons, weightlifting and cal activity also helps to reduce the ety and depressive disorders and are cycling, and it was often argued in the effects of osteoporosis, which women significantly more likely than boys to

 December 2007 women2000 and beyond have seriously considered suicide by ment in many different areas, including the age of 15.12 Inequalities in the home, the community and the In addition to improvements in and discrimination: labour market. The current dominance health, women and girls stand to gain constraining of men in the world of sport makes their involvement and contributions to specific social benefits from partici- women in sport achieving gender equality in this area pation in sport and physical activity. The positive outcomes of sport for critical. Sport provides women and girls with gender equality and women’s empow- erment are constrained by gender- This publication explores the power of an alternative avenue for participation based discrimination in all areas and at sport and physical education to advance in the social and cultural life of their all levels of sport and physical activity, gender equality and the empower- communities and promotes enjoyment fuelled by continuing stereotypes of ment of women and girls. It examines of freedom of expression, interper- women’s physical abilities and social persistent inequalities and challenges sonal networks, new opportunities and roles. Women are frequently segre- to equal participation and benefits increased self-esteem. It also expands gated involuntarily into different types for women and girls, as well as ways opportunities for education and for the of sports, events and competitions to address them. Examples of good development of a range of essential life specifically targeted to women. Wom- practices are provided in all areas. The skills, including communication, leader- en’s access to positions of leadership report outlines recommendations for ship, teamwork and negotiation. and decision-making is constrained action in the areas of research, policy Inactive adults can rapidly improve from the local level to the international and operational activities. their health and well-being by becom- level. The value placed on women’s ing moderately active on a regular basis. sport is often lower, resulting in inad- Physical activity need not be strenuous equate resources and unequal wages The United Nations to achieve health benefits and it is and prizes. In the media, women’s sport is not only marginalized but also human rights and sport never too late to gain benefits.13 often presented in a different style for development and that reflects and reinforces gender The benefits of women’s peace framework participation stereotypes. Violence against women, for sport and society exploitation and harassment in sport are manifestations of the perceptions “The practice of physical educa- In addition to benefits for women and of men’s dominance, physical strength tion and sport is a fundamental right girls themselves, women’s increased and power, which are traditionally por- for all.” involvement can promote positive trayed in male sport. —UNESCO International Charter development in sport by providing alter- of Physical Education and Sport, A number of critical elements have article 1 native norms, values, attitudes, know- been identified for challenging gender ledge, capabilities and experiences. discrimination and unequal gender A rights-based understanding of sport The contributions of women, particu- relations, and establishing an enabling and physical activity has been present larly in leadership positions, can bring environment for gender equality and since the founding of the United Nations. diversity and alternative approaches the empowerment of women, in many In 1948, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights set out a framework of and expand the talent base in areas different areas, including women and rights and duties and recognized that such as management, coaching and sport. They include improving wom- “Everyone has the right to rest and lei- sport journalism. en’s capabilities, through education and health; increasing their access to sure . . .” (article 24); “Education shall The participation of women and girls and control over opportunities and be directed to the full development of in sport challenges gender stereo- resources, such as employment and the human personality . . .” (article 26); types and discrimination, and can economic assets; enhancing their and “Everyone has the right to freely therefore be a vehicle to promote gen- agency and leadership roles; protect- participate in the cultural life of the der equality and the empowerment of ing and promoting their human rights; community . . .” (article 27).14 women and girls. In particular, women and ensuring their security, including Sport and physical activity were first in sport leadership can shape attitudes freedom from violence. specifically recognized as a human right towards women’s capabilities as lead- The role of men and boys in chal- in the International Charter of Physical ers and decision-makers, especially lenging and changing unequal power Education and Sport, adopted in 1978 in traditional male domains. Women’s relations is critical. In recent years, a by the United Nations Educational, involvement in sport can make a sig- stronger focus has developed on the Scientific and Cultural Organization nificant contribution to public life and positive role men and boys can and do (UNESCO). The Charter states: “One of community development. play in promoting women’s empower- the essential conditions for the effec-

 women2000 and beyond December 2007 tive exercise of human rights is that creative ways. Women play an integral level, and to promote the use of sport everyone should be free to develop role in the achievement of every MDG, as a recognized tool in development. and preserve his or her physical, intel- and every MDG is vital to gender equal- The Task Force report Sport as a tool lectual, and moral powers, and that ity and women’s empowerment. for development and peace: Towards access to physical education and sport In 2002, the Secretary-General con- achieving the United Nations Millen- should consequently be assured and vened the United Nations Inter-Agency nium Development Goals provides an guaranteed for all human beings.”15 Task Force on Sport for Development overview of the growing role that sport The Convention on the Rights of the and Peace to encourage a more coher- activities play in many United Nations Child, adopted in 1989, also supports ent approach to the use of sport-related policies and programmes and summa- the notion of sport and physical educa- initiatives in the pursuit of development rizes the lessons learned. The report tion as a human right. In article 29 (1), goals, particularly at the community concludes that sport programmes must States parties agreed that the educa- tion of the child shall be directed to “the development of the child’s personality, Sport and the MDGs talents and mental and physical abilities Goal 1: Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger. Providing develop- to their fullest potential”.16 ment opportunities will help fight poverty. The sport industry, as well as The adoption of the United Nations the organization of large sporting events, creates opportunities for employ- Convention on the Rights of Persons ment. Sport provides life skills essential for a productive life in society. The with Disabilities in 2006 marked a opportunity to acquire such skills is often more limited for women, making significant step forward in the policy their access to sport of critical importance. framework on sport for people with Goal 2: Achieve universal primary education. Sport and physical edu- disabilities. The Convention affirms the cation are an essential element of quality education. They promote posi- right of persons with disabilities to par- tive values and skills that have an immediate and lasting impact on young ticipate in mainstream and disability- people. Sport activities and physical education generally make school more specific sporting activities at all levels attractive and improve attendance. and to have equal access to training, Goal 3: Promote gender equality and empower women. Increas- resources, venues and services. It also ing access for women and girls to physical education and sport helps build affirms the right of children with dis- confidence and promotes stronger social integration. Involving girls in sport abilities to have equal access to recre- activities alongside boys can help overcome prejudice that often contributes ation and sporting activities, including to social vulnerability of women and girls. those in the school system.17 The spe- cific focus on equality between women Goals 4 and 5: Reduce child mortality and improve maternal and men and women with disabilities health. Sport can be an effective means to provide women with a healthy in this new Convention will benefit lifestyle as well as to convey important messages on a wide range of health issues. women and girls in sport.18 Goal 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases. Sport can Over the past decade, there has help engage otherwise difficult-to-reach populations and provide positive been a growing understanding that role models delivering prevention messages. The most vulnerable popula- access to and participation in sport and tions, including women and girls, are highly responsive to sport-targeted pro- physical education is not only a right in grammes. Sport can also effectively assist in overcoming prejudice, stigma itself, but can also be used to promote and discrimination. a number of important development goals through facilitating democratic Goal 7: Ensure environmental sustainability. Sport is ideal for raising principles, promoting leadership devel- awareness about the need to preserve the environment. The interdepen- opment, and encouraging tolerance and dency between the regular practice of outdoor sports and the protection of respect, as well as providing access to the environment is clear. opportunities and social networks. All Goal 8: Develop a global partnership for development. Sport offers areas of development can be influenced diverse opportunities for innovative partnerships for development and can by sport, including health, education, be used as a tool to build and foster partnerships between developed and employment, social inclusion, political developing nations to work towards achieving the Millennium Development development and peace and security. Goals. Sport has the potential to contrib- Source: Adapted from International Year of Sport and Physical Education ute to the achievement of each of the (2005). A year of sports. Available from http://www.un.org/sport2005/a_year/ United Nations Millennium Develop- mill_goals.html ment Goals (MDGs) in unique and

 December 2007 women2000 and beyond be based on the “sport for all” model, action plan serves as an initial road mentation of these commitments has ensuring that all groups are given the map for a three-year period to expand begun in all regions, and has resulted opportunity to participate, particularly and strengthen partnerships, sport for in real and tangible progress for gen- those who gain additional benefits, development and peace programmes der equality and the empowerment of such as women, persons with disabili- and projects, as well as advocacy and women and girls. However, the imple- ties and young people.19 communications activities. The plan mentation of the frameworks continues In 2004, the General Assembly calls for the development of a global to be constrained by gender-based dis- adopted resolution 58/5, “Sport as a framework to strengthen a common crimination in all areas and at all levels means to promote education, health, vision, define priorities and further raise of sport and physical education. development and peace”, which invited awareness to promote and mainstream Governments, the United Nations, the easily replicable sport for development and peace policies. It also calls for pro- specialized agencies, where appro- United Nations moting innovative funding mechanisms priate, and sport-related institutions intergovernmental and voluntary arrangements, including to work collectively so that sport and processes the engagement of sport organizations, physical education could present civil society, athletes and the private The Beijing Platform for Action, adopted opportunities for solidarity and coop- sector. at the Fourth World Conference on eration, in order to promote a culture Women in 1995, provides important of peace and social and gender equal- policy recommendations on women, ity and to advocate dialogue and har- Policy/normative gender equality and sport. The Platform mony. It recognized the power of sport frameworks on women, calls for the provision of accessible rec- to contribute to human development reational and sport facilities by educa- and proclaimed the year 2005 as the gender equality tional institutions, the establishment International Year of Sport and Physical and sport and strengthening of gender-sensitive Education. programmes for girls and women of all ages in education and community The International Year aimed to “States parties shall take all appro- institutions, and the creation and sup- facilitate better knowledge-sharing priate measures to eliminate discrim- port of programmes in the education among different key stakeholders, raise ination against women in other areas awareness and create the right condi- of economic and social life in order system, workplace and community tions for the implementation of more to ensure, on a basis of equality of to make opportunities to participate sport-based human development pro- women and men, the same rights, in in sport and physical activity available grammes. It provided a unique oppor- particular . . . [t]he rights to partici- to girls and women of all ages, on the tunity to use the power of sport to mo- pate in recreational activities, sports same basis as they are made available 21 bilize individuals, organizations and local and all aspects of cultural life.” to men and boys. communities, drawing together diverse —Convention on the Elimination The Commission on the Status of groups in a positive and supportive of All Forms of Discrimination Women, the principal global policymak- environment. During the International against Women (article 13) ing body on gender equality, addressed Year, over 100 international initiatives Within the established framework of sport and physical activity in its review and thousands of local projects were human rights and sport for develop- of progress made in the implementa- undertaken by Governments, the United ment and peace, a number of United tion of the Beijing Platform for Action. Nations system, non-governmental Nations intergovernmental and treaty In agreed conclusions 1999/17 (I) on organizations (NGOs) and the private body processes, as well as other inter- women and health, the Commission sector. An unprecedented amount of national and regional processes, have called on Governments, the United media attention was accorded to the specifically addressed some of the Nations system and civil society to issue of sport and physical educa- critical gender equality issues in sport encourage women to practise regular tion. The notion of “sport for all” was and physical education. Global and sport and recreational activities, which emphasized and the principle of non- regional policy/normative frameworks have a positive impact on women’s discrimination was upheld as a funda- on women, gender equality and sport health, well-being and fitness through- mental human right. have been developed. out the whole life cycle, and ensure In 2006, Secretary-General Kofi These policy/normative frameworks that women enjoy equal opportunities Annan presented the United Nations have laid the foundation for a just and to practise sport, use sport facilities Action Plan on Sport for Development equitable world of sport for women and and take part in competitions.22 and Peace, which was included in his men. They have also recognized the The outcome of the five-year review report on “Sport for Development power of sport as a catalyst for social of the implementation of the Beijing and Peace: the way forward”.20 The and economic development. Imple- Declaration and Platform for Action rec-

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States parties to take all appropriate Sport and the Beijing Platform for Action measures to eliminate discrimination against women in other areas of eco- Under the critical area of concern on education, the Platform calls for Gov- nomic and social life in order to ensure, ernments, educational authorities and other educational and academic insti- on the basis of equality between women tutions to provide accessible recreational and sport facilities and establish and men, the same rights, including and strengthen gender-sensitive programmes for girls and women of all the right to participate in recreational ages in education and community institutions and support the advancement activities, sports and all aspects of of women in all areas of athletics and physical activity, including coaching, cultural life.25 training and administration, and as participants at the national, regional and The Committee on the Elimination international levels. of Discrimination against Women has In relation to health, the Platform calls for Governments to create and also reminded States parties, in its gen- support programmes in the education system, workplace and community eral recommendation No. 25 on tempo- to make opportunities to participate in sport, physical activity and recreation rary special measures, that temporary available to girls and women of all ages on the same basis as they are made special measures, such as positive available to men and boys. action, preferential treatment or quota In the critical area of concern on power and decision-making, the systems, should be implemented in the Platform notes that the underrepresentation of women in decision-making areas of sports, culture and recreation. positions in the areas of art, culture, sport, the media, education, religion The Committee further emphasized and law have prevented women from having a significant impact on many that, where necessary, such measures key institutions. should be directed at women subjected In relation to the situation of the girl-child, the Platform calls for Govern- to multiple discrimination, including 26 ments and international and non-governmental organizations to promote the rural women. full and equal participation of girls in extracurricular activities, such as sport, drama and cultural activities. Other international Source: United Nations (1995). Report of the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing, 4-15 September 1995. New York (United Nations publication. and regional policy Sales No. 96.IV.13). Critical Area of Concern B, Education and training of frameworks women, Strategic Objective B.2, para. 83 (m). See the Critical Area of Concern C, Women and health, Strategic Objective C.2, para. 107 (f); Critical Area of Other processes have also contributed Concern G, Women in power and decision-making, para. 183; and, Critical Area to global and regional policy frame- of Concern L, The girl-child, Strategic Objective L.4, para. 280 (d). works on women, gender equality and sport. International bodies that have been particularly active in developing ognized the need for gender equality in to promote gender equality and the such frameworks include the Interna- sport and physical education. It called empowerment of women.24 tional Council of Sport Science and on Governments and regional and Physical Education, the International international organizations, including Olympic Committee, the International the United Nations system, to ensure United Nations Paralympic Committee and numerous equal opportunities for women and treaty bodies groups and networks, such as the Inter- girls in cultural, recreational and sport national Working Group on Women and The Convention on the Elimination of activities, as well as in participation in Sport, WomenSport International and athletics and physical activities at the All Forms of Discrimination against the International Association of Physi- national, regional and international lev- Women provides binding obligations cal Education for Women and Girls. els, such as in access, training, compe- for States parties on eliminating dis- tition, remuneration and prizes.23 crimination against women and girls in International The understanding that sport pro- the area of sports and physical educa- processes grammes can be an important vehicle tion. Article 10 calls for States parties to The International Olympic Committee for promoting gender equality has con- take all appropriate measures to elimi- (IOC) plays a central leadership role tinued to advance, particularly since nate discrimination against women in in the world of sport, and its policies the establishment of the International order to ensure to them equal rights set standards in international, regional Year of Sport and Physical Education. with men in the field of education, and national sporting events and pro- In 2006, the General Assembly, for the including ensuring the same opportuni- cedures. In 1994, it requested that first time, specifically invited Member ties to participate actively in sports and the Olympic Charter be amended to States to initiate sport programmes physical education. Article 13 calls for include an explicit reference to the

 December 2007 women2000 and beyond need for action on women and sport. This is reflected in the current Charter, Resolution of the Second International Olympic adopted in 2004, which states that Committee World Conference on Women and Sport one of the roles of the Committee is to “encourage and support the promotion The resolution, adopted in 2000, calls for a number of strategies and actions of women in sport at all levels and in all to be taken by the International Olympic Committee, Governments and structures with a view to implement- international organizations, including the United Nations system, such as: ing the principle of equality of men and • Meeting the 20 per cent goal of women in decision-making by 2005; women.”27 • Increasing scholarships and training for women athletes, coaches and In 1995, the International Olympic other officials; Committee established a Working • Raising awareness about the positive influence of the Convention on Group on Women and Sport, which the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women on the was elevated to the status of a Com- development of physical activity and sport for women and girls; mission in 2004. The Women and Sport • Urging the Commission on the Status of Women to recognize the impor- Commission, which meets once a year, tance of physical activity and sport to women’s and girls’ development monitors the participation of women in at all stages of their lives; the Olympics as well as their represen- • Raising awareness about the importance of quality physical education; tation in decision-making. The Commis- • Developing strategies and educational material to support physical edu- sion organizes quadrennial IOC World cation for girls; Conferences on Women and Sport to • Implementing sexual harassment policies, including codes of conduct; assess progress made in women and and sport within the Olympic Movement, • Working with the media to ensure a more accurate projection of wom- define priority actions and increase the en’s sport. involvement of women. Source: International Olympic Committee (2000). Resolution of the 2nd The International Working Group IOC World Conference on Women and Sport. Paris, France. Available from on Women and Sport, an indepen- http://www.olympic.org/common/asp/download_report.asp?file=en_report_ dent coordinating body of government 757.pdf&id=757 organizations, aims to be a catalyst for the advancement and empowerment of women and sport globally. It was established in 1994 at the First World The Brighton Declaration on Women and Sport Conference on Women and Sport, held The Brighton Declaration on Women and Sport calls for: in Brighton, United Kingdom, organized • Equality in society and sport; by the British Sports Council and sup- • Sport facilities that meet the needs of women; ported by the International Olympic Committee. At this conference, the • An increase in the number of women coaches, advisers and decision- Brighton Declaration was adopted and makers in sport; endorsed by the 280 delegates from 82 • Education, training and development programmes that address gender countries representing Governments, equality; NGOs, National Olympic Committees, • Information and research on women and sport; international and national sport fed- • Allocation of resources for sportswomen and women’s programmes; erations, and educational and research and institutions. • Incorporation of the promotion of gender equality and sharing of good The Second International Working practices into governmental and non-governmental policies and pro- Group on Women and Sport World grammes on women and sport. Conference on Women and Sport took Source: International Working Group on Women and Sport (1994). The place in Windhoek, Namibia, in 1998. Brighton Declaration on Women and Sport. Available from http://www.iwg- gti.org The Windhoek Call for Action further developed the aims of the Brighton Declaration, calling for the promotion of sport as a means to realize broader adopted at the Third IWG World Con- variety of actions, including information goals in health, education and women’s ference in Montreal, Canada, in 2002, and advocacy campaigns and the inte- human rights.28 This idea was strength- which recognized that the path to real- gration of sport into community devel- ened in the Montreal Communiqué izing these broader goals involves a opment projects.29 The Fourth IWG

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the 2006 Doha Asian Games, and to The Montreal Tool Kit—A Manual for Change include therein a special chapter on women with disabilities.37 The Montreal Tool Kit was developed for the Third World Conference on The Commonwealth Games Federa- Women and Sport as a reference manual containing 20 tools to help women tion also promotes the role of women activists working to increase women’s participation in sports. The manual in sport as participants and as decision- includes tools on advocacy and awareness-raising, such as “Creating an makers. Regulation 6 of its March 2006 advocacy strategy” and “Non-sexist sport commentary for media”; tools Constitution states that the Common- for changing organizations, such as “Terms of reference for a Women and wealth Games retains its status as a Sport Committee” and “Sample harassment policy”; tools for individual leader in promoting gender equality, development, such as “Building a case for mentoring”; and other tools for and that future programmes in sports action, such as “Measuring your success”. will have a balanced participation and Source: International Working Group on Women and Sport (2002a). The profile for males and females. Article Montreal Tool Kit. A legacy of 2002 World Conference. Canada: International 17 of the Constitution also states that Working Group on Women and Sport. Available from http://www.canada2002. both women and men shall contribute org/e/toolkit/index.htm at least 20 per cent or two of the repre- sentatives on the Executive Board and World Conference, held in May 2006 women, young people and children in on the Sports Committee and any other in Kumamoto, Japan,30 concluded with sport (3/2000).33 committees and commissions formed the Kumamoto Commitment to Collab- In 2002, the African Sports Confed- by the Executive Board.38 oration, which expressed participants’ eration of Disabled (ASCOD) estab- commitment to building a collabora- lished a policy on disabled women’s tive network in order to realize gender and girls’ participation in sport and rec- Sport as a vehicle equality in and through sport.31 reation. The policy aims to increase the for gender equality participation of women and girls at all Regional levels of sport and recreation in order and the empowerment processes to achieve gender equality, and calls of women and girls Regional bodies also address gender on the Confederation and its member equality issues in sport. For example, nations to bear the duty of advising ”. . . [M]y trainers taught me to in 2005, the Parliamentary Assembly Ministers of Sport on ways to meet the believe in myself . . . I was inspired of the Council of Europe passed rec- targets set out in the policy.34 ommendation 1701 on discrimination and learned determination and dis- In 2001, the first Asian Conference against women and girls in sport. The cipline. Sports allow you to get to on Women and Sport, held in Osaka, recommendation calls on the Commit- know yourself.” Japan, led to the establishment of tee of Ministers to promote women’s —Nawal El Moutawakel, the Asian Working Group on Women sport and women’s participation in the first Olympic gold medallist sport; accord greater importance to and Sport (AWG). The Working Group from Morocco (1984 Olympics —hurdles)39 school-based physical education for developed the Asian Women and Sport women and girls; conduct awareness- Action Plan 2001, which sought to The relationship between gender raising among officials in sport, edu- expand equal opportunities for women equality and sport is not solely about cation and health; support women’s and men and girls and boys in Asia to achieving equality in women’s partici- 35 participation in top-level sport; ensure participate fully in sport. The sec- pation and treatment within sports, but equality in terms of pay, prize money ond Asian Conference, held in Qatar it is also about promoting “sport for and bonuses; ensure that women in 2003, adopted the “Doha Confer- gender equality”, or harnessing the play a greater role in ruling bodies of ence Resolutions”, which encouraged potential of sport for social empower- sports organizations; conduct an in- all parties to actively support women ment of women and girls. Sport offers depth study of national sport policies; and sport.36 The “Yemen Challenge”, a valuable channel to strengthen wom- ensure collection of gender-specific adopted at the third Asian Conference en’s and girls’ capabilities and provide statistics; and increase media coverage in Yemen in 2005, emphasized the information on important social issues, of women in sport.32 The recommen- importance of continued promotion such as health, HIV/AIDS and women’s dation also calls for the combating of and development of women in sport rights. Women’s and girls’ participation sexual abuse in relation to sport, which in Asia and included a request for all in sport can also challenge gender ster- follows on from the 2000 Council of Asian Governments and National eotypes and break down entrenched Europe resolution on the prevention Olympic Committees to formulate a discriminatory attitudes and behav- of sexual harassment and abuse of national women and sport policy by iours. Myriam Lamare, a World Boxing

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Association champion from France, has said that the punches she lands shake Women swimming into the future the foundations of society.40 In the 2004 tsunami in Indonesia, many women and girls were not able to swim or were not capable of climbing onto the roofs, up trees or to other Empowering women safe areas. Women Without Borders, together with the Austrian Swim- and girls through sport ming Association and the Austrian Life-Saving Federation, are therefore implementing a programme to offer swimming lessons for girls and women Sport can be an important tool for in the South Indian coastal regions. This is not only a valuable contribution social empowerment through the skills to their future survival, but also strengthens self-confidence and develops and values learned, such as teamwork, group identity and solidarity among the women. In addition, this unique negotiation, leadership, communica- initiative will bring more respect and an elevated status for women within tion and respect for others. The social their rural societies. benefits of participation in sport are thought to be especially important for Source: Women Without Borders. Women Swimming into the Future. Promoting and strengthening women in the South Asian Tsunami region. girls, given that many girls, particularly A Women Without Borders Pilot Program for Swimming Training. Available in adolescence, have fewer oppor- from http://sport.austria.gv.at/Docs/2005/7/8/Women%20Swimming%201% tunities than boys for social interac- 20page%20ok.doc tion outside the home and beyond family structures.41 Women and girls acquire new interpersonal networks, pursuit of active spiritual practices. economic and social gains. The con- develop a sense of identity and access The psychological benefits of physical cept starts with traditional fitness and new opportunities, allowing them to activity, essential for a sense of positive adds psychosocial wellness strategies become more engaged in school and embodiment, can be acquired through and the pursuit of active self-care for 42 community life. Participation in sport the enjoyment of the physical activity, body, mind and spirit. Positive embodi- also enables women and girls to enjoy self-chosen levels of competition, and ment requires a lifestyle incorporating freedom of expression and movement the provision of social support from the self-assertion and self-care which is and increase their self-esteem and self- family and the community.43 the basis of a vigorous and satisfying 44 confidence. The concept of positive embodiment sense of one’s own body. It has also been argued that sport implies that women and girls have the Positive embodiment can be seen as a model of self-care that allows women and physical education can serve as the right and responsibility to create active, to achieve a balance between caring for basis for a sense of “positive embodi- healthy lifestyles to sustain vitality in themselves and caring for others. Most ment”. This concept goes beyond the their lives. There are psychological, women prioritize the needs of others idea of physical fitness and incorpo- emotional and medical benefits to before their own needs, a pattern that rates psychological benefits and the doing so, as well as significant broader often leads to neglect of themselves. As a result, women deplete their Empowerment of Afghan women through sport resources of time and energy in the care of others. Self-care involves the The Afghan Women’s Network (AWN) is a network of 97 NGOs working to creation of personal time and space empower Afghan women. They work on, among other things, breaking the for women and opportunities for posi- restrictions on free movement of women, including through sport. The Net- tive interaction of the mind, body and work creates opportunities for girls to participate in sport in schools and be spirit. Adoption of the physical embodi- more physically active, and improve confidence and positive self-esteem. ment approach, with its critical con- The Network also raises awareness among the young women about their cept of active self-care, would require rights and their potential contributions to their families, communities and complex changes in lifestyle for many to the nation. AWN is working in four schools in two locations: Jalalabad women.45 and Peshawar. Each school has a volleyball team and is supported by a Sport can serve as a vehicle to coach. Matches have been played in the schools and a final match was improve women’s and girls’ leadership held between schools at the end of 2007. A total of 48 young girls benefited roles and participation in decision- directly from the programme. making. The acquisition of valuable Source: Mama Cash (2007). (she’s into sports) How sports promote skills in management, negotiation and gender-equity worldwide. Available from http://www.mamacash.org/uploads/ decision-making empowers women File/she%20has%20news/publicaties/Shes_into_sports_18-05-07_web.pdf and girls to become leaders in all areas of community life, as well as in the household.

 women2000 and beyond December 2007

Sporting activities can be an impor- tant forum for providing information Empowering girls as leaders to women and girls on sexuality and A number of initiatives are being implemented to give girls the chance to health, including reproductive health. be leaders, improve their confidence, increase their self-awareness and Girls’ participation in sport can generate strengthen their capacities in terms of decision-making, critical thinking and a greater awareness and understanding negotiating. A project in Kenya on football and peer-led health education of their bodies and its functions, as well for rural teenage girls uses trained girl referees to officiate at all matches as a greater sense of self-ownership and during the organization’s annual tournaments. In Zambia, the Go Sisters! respect. A study by the Women’s Sports project aims to empower girls through sport by training them to become Foundation on sport and teen pregnancy peer leaders, providing them with scholarships, and involving them in all in the United States found that the sense levels of decision-making. of ownership and respect for their bod- Source: Sports and Development Projects. Sport and Development ies developed by adolescent girls who official website. Available from www.sportanddev.org/en/projects/index.htm; participate in sport encourages them and International Association of Physical Education and Sport for Girls and to delay sexual activity, thereby reduc- Women (2005). Newsletter. November. Available from http://www.iapesgw. ing the levels of teen pregnancy.46 org/Newsletters/IAPESGW%20Newsletter%20December%202005.doc Research on links between sport and In Saint Lucia, the Healthy Lifestyles Programme exposes girls to sport girls’ sexual behaviour has also been skills through regional netball tournaments as well as through instruction conducted by the Wellesley Centers in healthy lifestyles. Workshops build leadership among girls, with training for Women. The study showed that in goal-setting, teamwork and decision-making skills. The Programme also the decrease in risky sexual behaviour promotes healthy lifestyles and covers topics such as exercise, nutrition, among girls who participate in sport is sexuality, drugs and alcohol. partly due to a delay in sexual initiation Source: Caribbean Community (CARICOM) Secretariat. “Regional Survey and partly due to social-psychological of Development through Sport Programmes implemented at the country level”. dynamics, such as enhanced self- Available from http://www.caricom.org/jsp/community_organs/regionalsurvey_ confidence, a less stereotypical gender sportsprogrammes.jsp?menu=cob identity and/or a stronger desire to avoid teenage pregnancy.47 As more and more women and girls menting the successes of women and The United Nations Inter-Agency serve in leadership and decision- girl leaders in the world of sport is an Task Force on Sport for Development making positions, their influence as important step in raising awareness and Peace found that the groups most role models and mentors encourages and providing encouragement and sup- at risk of contracting HIV/AIDS—women more women and girls to participate at port to other aspiring leaders. and young people, especially girls— all levels of sport. Promoting and docu-

Reaching out Enhancing women’s confidence to young women on and leadership through sports in Pakistan reproductive health The Pakistan Association of Women Sport, affiliated with the national sports A Kenyan NGO, Moving the Goal- organization, is active in promoting women’s participation in sports in Paki- posts Kilifi, uses football practices stan. Believing that sport provides an excellent venue for women to gain and matches as an entry point for confidence and develop decision-making and leadership skills for future life, peer education on reproductive the Association organizes seminars, clinics and workshops of women lead- health. The organization holds ers in the sports field to promote a cross-cultural exchange of ideas on discussion groups with girls after women in sports and sports decision-making. The Association also aims practice, facilitated by trained peer to raise awareness about the development needs of Pakistan, particularly educators, on topics such as repro- those relating to young women. ductive health, HIV/AIDS, asser- Source: Oglesby, Carole A., in collaboration with the International Working tiveness and decision-making. Group on Women and Sport, WomenSport International, the International Association of Physical Education for Women and Girls, and the International Source: Sports and Development Council of Sport Science and Physical Education (2006). Positive Embodiment: Projects. Sport and Development Contributions of Sport, Exercise and Physical Recreation to the Life-long official website. Available from Development of Girls and Women. (Brief prepared for the Division for the www.sportanddev.org/en/projects/ Advancement of Women). index.htm

10 December 2007 women2000 and beyond were highly responsive to sports-tar- prevention and resolution of conflicts 48 geted initiatives. This is an important and in peacebuilding, as reaffirmed Reducing stress 51 finding since women now represent in Security Council resolution 1325. conditions through half of all people living with HIV, nearly The power of sport and its inclusive physical activity among 60 per cent of all infections in Africa nature makes it a good tool to increase women in Bosnia- and 77 per cent of new HIV infections knowledge, understanding and aware- Herzegovina among young people in Africa.49 ness about peaceful coexistence. Sport Dr. Fadila Ibrahimbegovic-Gafic Ways in which sport can contrib- could be more effectively used in the from the University of Sarajevo ute to halting the spread of HIV/AIDS context of follow-up to Security Council assessed the initial physical and include, for example, sports leagues resolution 1325. mental conditions of 70 women and matches that provide a forum for and conducted a physical activity public information campaigns on pre- programme that aimed to reduce vention and protection, and a safe and Programmes using stress conditions in women aged supportive environment among teams sport as a vehicle 40-55 in war-stricken areas of and organizations to encourage open to promote peace, Bosnia-Herzegovina. The pro- discussion about HIV/AIDS and sexual tolerance and gramme succeeded not only in behaviour.50 understanding reducing stress but also in chang- Sport can provide a critical space In 2003, “Sport pour la Paix” ing attitudes towards physical to build a culture of peace in countries (“Sport for Peace”) was launched exercise and its effects on physi- emerging from conflict. Through its in Côte d’Ivoire to bring together cal recovery. power to bring people together across over 1,600 young people, a third Source: Oglesby, Carole A., in boundaries, cultures and religions, it can of them girls, from different eth- collaboration with the International promote tolerance and reconciliation. nic, political and religious groups Working Group on Women and Women play an important role in the after years of conflict. Sport, WomenSport International, the International Association of Source: Schaub Reisle, Maia Physical Education for Women (2005), “Sport as tool for peace and Girls, and the International Raising awareness building”. In Tip Sheet. Bern: Council of Sport Science and in the sport community Swiss Agency for Development Physical Education (2006). Posi­ tive Embodiment: Contributions about HIV/AIDS and Cooperation, SDC Conflict of Sport, Exercise and Physical In 2004, the United Nations Prevention and Transformation Recreation to the Life-long De- Joint Programme on HIV/AIDS Division (COPRET). Available velopment of Girls and Women. (UNAIDS) signed a Memoran- from http://www.deza.ch/de/ (Brief prepared for the Division for the Advancement of Women.) dum of Understanding with the Home/Themes/Conflict_pre- International Olympic Committee vention_and_transformation/ to combine their efforts to raise Violence_prevention/ressources/ awareness about HIV/AIDS, par- resource_en_92813.pdf The promotion of education can ticularly among the sport com- “Kicking for Reconciliation!”, also be facilitated by sport. Sports munity. Following this initiative, a project in Rwanda by Women teams and organizations, as well as an HIV-positive woman from Without Borders, aims to provide local, national and international compe- South Africa, Musa Njoko, one of football training to 160 Hutu and titions, provide an excellent opportunity the first South African women to Tutsi girls together, with a focus to provide information and knowledge publicly disclose her HIV status, on self-confidence, self-awareness on the importance of girls’ education. was nominated by UNAIDS to and trauma healing, so that they In particular, sport can be a useful tool participate in the Olympic Torch may contribute to the establish- to expand educational opportunities Relay held in Cape Town in June ment of a peaceful and modern 2004. society in their country. for children who are not able to go to school or who only attend on an irregu- Source: Right to Play (2004). S o u r c e : Wo m e n W i t h o u t lar basis. Harnessing the Power of Sport for Borders (2005). Rwanda: Kicking Development and Peace. Greece: for Reconciliation! Vienna, Austria: Research on the impact of physical Position Paper presented at the A Women Without Borders Football education on academic performance is Athens Roundtable Forum on for Girls’ Project in Kigali. Available also emerging. The interlinkages between 14 August 2004. Available from from http://www.women-without- http://www.sportanddev.org/data/ borders.org/projects/underway/18/ perceptual, cognitive and motor develop- document/document/15.pdf ment are such that many argue that phys- ical activity such as physical education

11 women2000 and beyond December 2007 and sport is critical for optimal learning. Research findings indicate that: Challenging Coaching boys into men stereotypes • Physical activity has positive effects As part of the Fédération Inter- on the ability to concentrate; and reducing discrimination nationale de Football Association • An increase in physical activity can (FIFA) and UNICEF Unite for Chil- lead to improvements in problem- Given that sport was traditionally a dren, Unite for Peace campaign, solving skills and improved aca- male domain, the participation of women a manual for football coaches, demic results; and and girls in sport challenges a multi- “Coaching Boys Into Men”, was • There is a high correlation between tude of gender stereotypes, not only launched during the 2006 World high standardized test scores and those related to physical ability but also Cup. In recognition that coaches high fitness scores.52 those regarding women’s role in local can have a unique role in address- Studies in the United States, for communities and society at large. By ing issues of violence and dis- example, have also pointed to a posi- directly challenging and dispelling mis- crimination, particularly against tive relationship between girls’ par- conceptions about women’s capabili- women and girls, the manual is ticipation in sport, positive attitudes ties, integrated sport programmes help intended to help coaches talk to towards education and higher aca- to reduce discrimination and broaden young athletes about tolerance demic achievements.53 Gender- the role prescribed to women.54 An and teach them that violence sensitive programmes that suc- increase of women in leadership posi- does not equal strength. tions in sport can also have a significant cessfully increase girls’ participation S o u r c e : U n i t e d N a t i o n s in sport therefore have the potential influence on social attitudes towards Children’s Fund (2006). UNICEF to positively influence girls’ academic women’s capabilities as leaders and and FIFA partnership for 2006 FIFA performance. decision makers. World Cup Germany highlights peace and tolerance. United Kingdom: UNICEF News. Available Promoting girls’ from http://www.unicef.org. education uk/press/news_detail_full_story. news_id=685 through sport Sport as a catalyst asp? A UNICEF project links sport to for challenging gender stereotypes Girls’ participation in sport car- girls’ education based on the ries with it an enormous potential for belief that sport, like education, The Population Council operates positive impact on attitudes towards can help girls become equal a community-based programme, gender equality among the younger players in society. On 11 Octo- “Safe Spaces to Learn, Play and generation. An analysis of the Mathare ber 2003, Global Girls’ Football Grow”, in rural Egypt through Youth Sports Association in Kenya Day, UNICEF country offices NGO and government partners found that although boys in the Associ- and national associations of the that provide protected spaces, ation expressed stereotypical attitudes Fédération Internationale de such as schools or youth centres, to the girl soccer players (for example, Football Association (FIFA) came where girls meet for learning and that girls do not learn quickly, are fragile together to mobilize efforts for recreation. The programme aims and give up easily), seeing girls achieve girls’ education through the power to challenge traditional concepts success in soccer, which had previously of sport. That same year, FIFA of gender-appropriate behaviour been a male domain, had begun to dedicated its Women’s World by incorporating sport and recrea- reshape their notions about girls’ roles Cup to UNICEF’s Go Girls! Edu- tion activities, along with literacy, and capabilities.55 cation for Every Child campaign. life-skills training and reproduc- The sports arena provides an oppor- Go Girls! was seen and heard tive health awareness. throughout the tournament in tunity to reach out to men and boys on Source: Brady, Martha (2005). issues related to stereotypical attitudes a variety of ways—from sta- “Letting girls play: Using sport and gender-based discrimination and dium announcements and video to create safe spaces and build screenings to match programmes social assets.” In Promoting violence. The broad participation of men and web pages. healthy, safe, and productive and boys in sport, as both athletes and transitions to adulthood, Brief spectators, provides a powerful forum S o u r c e : U N I C E F. S p o r t , No. 1, May 2005. New York: for educating and informing men and Education and Girls. Available Population Council. Available from from http://www.unicef.org/ http://www.popcouncil.org/pdfs/ boys on a variety of issues, including girlseducation/campaign_sport_ TABriefs/GFD_BRIEF1_SPORTS_ violence against women and girls, and education_girls.html update.pdf for breaking down entrenched attitudes and stereotypical behaviours. Male ath-

12 December 2007 women2000 and beyond letes who speak out on such issues can be particularly effective given their posi- Football teams raising awareness tion as role models in the community. of violence against women Role models of women in sport, In 2005, top football teams from Barranquilla, Bogotá, Cali and Cartagena including star women athletes, such as in Colombia supported White Ribbon Day, the International Day against Nellie Kim (Russian Federation—gym- Violence against Women, by displaying placards in their stadiums for the nastics), Mia Hamm (USA—soccer), campaign before their championship matches in order to raise awareness Takahashi Naoko (Japan—marathon about all forms of violence against women. runner), Kirsten Bruhn (Germany— swimmer), Hortencia Maria de Fatima Source: United Nations Office of Sport for Development and Peace (2005). United Nations Sports Bulletin, No. 4, 15 June. New York. Available Marcari (Brazil—soccer) and Maria from http://www.un.org/sport2005/newsroom/bulletin/united_nations_sport_ Sharapova (Russian Federation—ten- bulletin_4_15_june_05.pdf nis), also play a central role in challeng- ing stereotypes. Nawal El Moutawakel University of Toronto, Canada, (Morocco—hurdles) recognizes her Addressing and former Regional Coordinator position as a role model for women, for International Council of Sport gender Science and Physical Education, especially Muslim women, and says North America (1999). that her main function as a member of inequalities the International Olympic Committee in sport In order to realize the full potential for is “to encourage more women to par- sport as a vehicle for gender equality ticipate in sport worldwide.”56 Serena and the empowerment of women and “It is heartening that so many pub- girls, gender inequality in sport must be Williams, motivated by her participa- lic and voluntary sports and physi- addressed. The prevalence of gender- tion in the United Nations Global Youth cal education organizations have based discrimination in sport mirrors Leadership Summit, held in New York embraced the challenge of gender traditional gender stereotypes and rein- from 29 to 31 October 2006, under- equality. It means that more and forces gender inequalities. Opportuni- took a mission to Ghana and Senegal more girls and women may receive ties for women and girls to participate to highlight the role of sport, youth, the same benefits which boys and in sport may be restricted. Even when and empowerment of women and men have enjoyed for years, and participation is allowed, the dynam- girls in achieving the MDGs.57 their fair share of the social resources ics of gender relations and notions of The potential for sport to contribute available . . . It is not enough simply masculinity and femininity may result in to the social, economic and political to extend the programs which males gender segregation in different types of empowerment of women and girls have enjoyed to females. Given the sport and physical education. Inequali- is clear and has been recognized by differences in needs, interests and ties also exist in access to resources, Governments, the United Nations circumstances, and the diversity of wages and financial incentives and in system, NGOs and other actors. The the female population, it will require media representation of women ath- task ahead is to act on this recogni- careful ‘needs based’ planning and letes and women’s sport. The lack of tion and bring the benefits of sport innovative programming.” women and girls in decision-making and physical education to women and —Professor Bruce Kidd, Dean of the Faculty and leadership positions, as well as of Physical Education and Health, girls throughout the world. exploitation, harassment and violence against women and girls, is also preva- lent in sport and the commercial sport- Promoting role models in South America ing industry. and the Caribbean The Women and Sport Working Group in Guyana, established under the Min- istry of Culture, Youth and Sports, promoted women role models in sport dur- ing Guyana’s 2001 International Women’s Day celebrations. They organized a Access “Female Cavalcade of Sport”, which showcased females in 15 different sports and participation with approximately 300 athletes taking part. The Working Group also produced Although restrictions on women’s and a television programme of highlights of women in sport at all levels. girls’ access to and participation in sport Source: International Working Group on Women and Sport (2002). Women have been present throughout history, and Sport Progress Report 1998-2002. Bonn, Germany. Available from http:// gradual progress has been achieved. In www.canada2002.org/e/progress/worldwide/chapter3_america.htm 1900, the first 19 women competed in the modern Olympic Games in Paris in

13 women2000 and beyond December 2007

way for women to qualify for the PBA Sports legislation for women Tour and, in 2006, Kelly Kulick became in Hungary the first woman to qualify for a season- long exemption.62 The “Law of Sports”, enacted by the Hungarian Parliament in December Although some physical barriers to 2000, ensured equal opportunities for men and women and for boys and women’s participation in sport are com- girls to choose and participate in sport, contribute to the development of mon across the world, including a wide- leadership in sport and enjoy funding to execute different sport programmes. spread lack of appropriate facilities and It also required all sporting organizations, foundations, federations and com- resources, it is also important to rec- mittees to raise the participation of women to 10 per cent by November ognize that participation varies across 2001, 20 per cent by November 2002, 30 per cent by November 2003 and time and space and many constraints 35 per cent by November 2004. are context-specific. For example, par- Source: International Working Group on Women and Sport (2002). ticular restrictions on women’s mobility Women and Sport Progress Report 1998-2002. Bonn, Germany. Available in some countries can make it difficult from http://www.canada2002.org/e/progress/worldwide/chapter3_america. for them to take part in events held in htm public spaces. Sport clothing has been a constant just three sports—tennis, golf and cro- area of controversy and resistance to quet.58 By the 2004 Olympic Games women’s participation in sport. In 1931, The International Lili de Álvarez (Spain) shocked social in Athens, women competed in 26 out Olympic Committee’s of 28 sports and represented 40.7 per propriety by playing Wimbledon in Women and Sport shorts instead of the long dresses that cent of the total number of athletes, Trophy setting a historical record for women’s women tennis players were expected participation in the Olympic Games.59 The International Olympic Com- to wear. Sporting accessories have tra- Such progress has been spurred on by mittee’s Women and Sport ditionally been designed for use by men women athletes, as well as Govern- Trophy, introduced in 2000, is ments and civil society organizations awarded annually to promote that have advocated for gender equal- the advancement of women in Pakistan ity in sport and sought to address the sport and recognize outstanding mini-marathon many physical and social barriers to the achievement and contributions overcomes obstacles full participation of women and girls. made to develop, encourage facing women and strengthen the participation The Human Rights Commission of women and girls at all levels Physical barriers of Pakistan and the Joint Action in the sports world. The world to the participation Committee for People’s Rights trophy for 2006 was awarded to of women and girls in sport organized a symbolic mini- Argentinean tennis player Gabriela Women continue to be discriminated marathon on 21 May 2005 in Sabatini. In addition, five regional Pakistan to challenge arbitrary against in official regulations of interna- trophies were presented: Alber- curbs on women’s public par- tional competitions and rules of major tine Barbosa Andrade (Senegal/ ticipation in sport and to highlight sporting facilities. The Augusta National Africa—cycling), Charmaine rising violence against women. Golf Club in the United States, which Crooks (Canada/Americas— About 500 mostly middle-aged hosts the annual Masters Tournament, sprinting), Elisa Lee (Korea/ men and women jogged through continues to uphold its men-only Asia—table tennis), Dominique a police-lined street of Lahore, membership policy. This has led to Petit (France/Europe—volleyball) just a week after police had used strong opposition by national wom- and Lorraine Mar (Fiji/Oceania– force to halt the first attempt at a en’s organizations and women’s rights badminton/tennis). activists.60 Progress is, however, being mixed-sex race. Source: Gabriela Sabatini, win- made in other institutions. For example, ner of the world IOC Women and Source: United Nations Office the 250-year-old Royal & Ancient Club of Sport for Development and Peace Sport Trophy. In official website of in Scotland, considered the world’s (2005). United Nations Sports the Olympic Movement. Available leading authority on golf, lifted a long- Bulletin, No. 4, 15 June. New York. from http://www.olympic.org/uk/ Available from http://www.un.org/ standing ban on women playing at the organisation/missions/women/ sport2005/newsroom/bulletin/ Open Championship in 2005.61 Also, in full_story_uk.asp?id=1748 united_nations_sport_bulletin_4_ 2004, the United States Professional 15_june_05.pdf Bowlers Association (PBA) opened the

14 December 2007 women2000 and beyond and, for example, it was not until 1996 that Spalding Sports introduced the first Clothing and girls’ baseball glove specifically designed for participation in sport a woman’s hand.63 The issue of cloth- ing can also be a constraint where “Play Soccer”, an NGO that offers football programmes for girls and boys socio-economic conditions mean that in Zambia, recognized that a lack of clothing was prohibiting some children women and girls are unable to afford from participating. The programme provided shorts that children, especially appropriate sporting attire. girls, could wear during games, thereby enabling girls to move from specta- tors to active participants. Sporting attire may present a partic- ular problem for Muslim women when Source: Meier, Marianne (2005). Gender Equity, Sport and Development. dress codes prohibit them from wearing Geneva, Switzerland: Swiss Academy for Development. Western-style sport clothes. This issue is a concern not only for local commu- Sarah Hillyer, coach of the American Stereotypical attitudes nity sports, but also for Muslim women team, the games have been successful towards women participating in international events. For in providing a venue for Muslim women and girls in sport example, the Algerian Hassiba Boul- to celebrate self-expression and develop Social constraints are a further impedi- merka, who won the 1,500 metres self-confidence.67 In non-Muslim ment to access to and participation in the 1992 Olympic Games wearing countries, it can be difficult for Muslim in sport and physical education by shorts, was forced into exile following women to participate in sport because women and girls. Some constraints are the Games because of death threats.64 of the lack of segregated facilities.68 similar throughout the world, such as On the other hand, Iranian women The physical barriers to the partici- the perception that women’s physical competed in kayaking in the hijab at the pation of women and girls in sport can capabilities are inferior and the unequal 65 1996 Olympic Games in Atlanta. To be overcome with a gender-sensitive sharing of household work and child- provide suitable conditions for the par- approach to the redesign of existing care responsibilities which imposes ticipation of women in sporting activi- facilities, the planning of new infra- constraints on women’s involvement in ties in compliance with Islamic codes, structure, and the rules and regulations community activities, including sport. the Women Islamic Games, organized of sporting events and institutions. For A common social constraint is the by the Islamic Federation of Women example, the schedule of activities stereotyping of sport as “masculine” 66 Sport, were created. According to held in a community sports hall can or “feminine”, which affects both be changed to allow women and girls male and female participation, and can access at convenient times. When a be difficult to overcome. Men can be Sports clothes new sport complex is built, it can be branded as “effeminate” if they abstain for Muslim women designed as a space that encourages from sporting activities, and women are women and girls to participate, for Women playing volleyball at a often channelled into “aesthetic” sports, example, by providing separate chang- camp for displaced Somalis in such as gymnastics and ice-skating, ing facilities. In addition, policies can Kenya have encountered consid- where traits perceived as “female” are be developed that ensure that existing erable pressure from their com- exhibited. Accepted norms of behav- facilities emphasize sport for all and munity because of dress codes. iour that expect women to be “ladylike” explicitly welcome women and girls.69 In response, the Office of the and demure excludes women in some United Nations High Commis- sioner for Refugees (UNHCR) has worked with Nike and other pri- Building sports vate companies to design sport- infrastructure for women in Ecuador ing apparel that is comfortable In 2000, the Ecuadorian Olympic Committee opened the Juan Antonio and practical for sport but which Samaranch Women’s Sports Centre—a sport centre exclusively for keeps within the dress code women—which offers courses in table tennis, volleyball, basketball and acceptable to communities. aerobic gymnastics. The Centre is named after the former President of S o u r c e : UNHCR ( 2 0 0 5 ) . the International Olympic Committee (IOC), in recognition of his commit- Designers on a mission: dressing ment to the participation of women in the Olympic Games and his role as refugee girls for sports. Available the first IOC President to name a woman to the Executive Board. from http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/ texis/vtx/news/opendoc.htm?tbl= Source: International Working Group on Women and Sport (2002). Women NEWS&page=home&id=42cbed and Sport Progress Report 1998-2002. Bonn, Germany. Available from http:// 364 www.canada2002.org/e/progress/worldwide/chapter3_america.htm

15 women2000 and beyond December 2007

Ice hockey for women and girls in the Himalayas The Commission A recent film, Thin Ice, documents the efforts of women and girls in the on Women and Sports Himalayas to play ice hockey. Since ice hockey was traditionally a male in Ecuador sport, women and girls were not encouraged to participate. Women cre- The Commission on Women and ated their own women’s ice hockey team which brings together girls from Sports, established by the Ecua- different groups and backgrounds. The women and girls make their own ice dorian Olympic Committee in courts and skates. They have successfully challenged many stereotypes 1998, tries to influence social atti- around this sport. tudes by promoting educational Source: Håkan Berthas, Frederik Gertten & Margarete Jangard (2007). Thin activities on the role of women Ice, a film by WG Film/Sveriges Television. Sweden. and their situation in sport. The Commission’s activities include: contexts from participation in sporting ciation champion from France, dispels • Providing special funds to activities that exhibit traditional male the myths surrounding women’s partic- promote sport for women; characteristics, especially contact sports ipation in “painful” sports. On Interna- • Offering information courses (such as rugby) and “painful” sports tional Women’s Day 2006, she stated, to discuss the future of (such as boxing).70 When women and “A woman who can box is a woman women in sport; girls do engage in such sports, they can who can fight—at once capable of giv- • Organizing conferences and be labelled with negative traits, such as ing life and of defending it, in the true other events to increase wom- being “manly” or “unfeminine”. sense of the word. I am strong and en’s participation in sport; Sport provides opportunities for feminine, vulnerable and active.”72 • Creating regional and local addressing discrimination faced by Stereotypes can greatly affect the networks that encourage particular groups of women and girls. attitudes of men towards women and women to participate in sport; Women and girls with disabilities, for their role in sport. The attitudes of and example, are frequently subject to mul- parents are particularly important for • Undertaking research and col- tiple forms of discrimination. A prevail- promoting girls’ participation in sport. lecting data on women and ing code of silence71 may result in fears While some fathers strongly resist their sport in order to monitor and of homophobia, preventing women and daughter’s participation, others are maintain progress. girls from participating fully in sport and gradually accepting it, such as Rajku- Source: International Working achieving positive benefits. mar Singh, a poor farmer in the Indian Group on Women and Sport Some leading sport figures are state of Bihar, who admitted: “Initially, (2002). Women and Sport . Bonn, challenging such traditional notions of I had a lot of doubts. But today I feel Progress Report 1998-2002 Germany. Available from http:// what it means to be a woman athlete. proud of being father to two national www.canada2002.org/e/progress/ Myriam Lamare, a World Boxing Asso- football-playing daughters . . .”73 worldwide/chapter3_america.htm

Studying attitudes towards women The attitudes of women and girls and girls in sport in India towards sport can also be restrictive. Women and girls may not have devel- A study was carried out in rural and urban India by the Indira Gandhi Insti- oped an understanding of the intrinsic tute of Physical Education and Sports Sciences on the attitudes of parents, value of sport and its contribution to teachers and coaches towards female participation in sport. The findings personal development and well-being, indicated that policies are needed at the local level to support and protect or of their rights and potential in this women’s participation in sport and, in particular, efforts are required to area. Women and girls may also have remove misconceptions related to women’s participation in sport and the internalized many negative percep- impact of sport on women’s health. tions of women and sport. Advocates Source: Oglesby, Carole A., in collaboration with the International Working are trying to change this perception, Group on Women and Sport, WomenSport International, the International including Anita DeFrantz, Chairperson Association of Physical Education for Women and Girls, and the International of the International Olympic Commit- Council of Sport Science and Physical Education (2006). Positive Embodiment: Contributions of Sport, Exercise and Physical Recreation to the Life-long tee’s Women and Sport Commission, Development of Girls and Women. (Brief prepared for the Division for the who promotes the idea that “sport is Advancement of Women.) a birthright [and] belongs to all human beings”.74

16 December 2007 women2000 and beyond

This type of practice is also common Raising awareness of sports and women at the community level. A study on in local communities a youth and sport initiative by the Mathare Youth Sports Association In Lithuania, the National Women and Sport Association used athletic festivals in Kenya found that boys were given to raise awareness about women and sport, and established women’s sport- priority in access to opportunities and ing days that demonstrate women’s willingness and ability to coordinate resources, such as preferred schedules sporting competitions and ceremonies. In West Bengal, local community- and playing fields. To address such prac- based NGOs developed a project to raise awareness of community sport tices, a gender-sensitive analysis of all and health development through local campaigns and training for women. areas of an organization’s activities and The project also involved developing basic infrastructure for girls in com- operations can help to identify deeply munity sport—such as playgrounds and gyms—and building a database on entrenched attitudes and behaviours community sport for girls. that discriminate against women and Source: International Working Group on Women and Sport (2002). Women girls. and Sport Progress Report 1998-2002. Bonn, Germany. Available from http:// www.canada2002.org/e/progress/worldwide/chapter3_america.htm Stereotypical attitudes towards the value of women’s sport also fuel inequality in wages, prizes and other Historical attitudes and the absence tion of physical resources for women’s financial incentives. For example, the of gender stereotypes in sport have sport. Resources are often less or of average salary in the United States been recognized as an important factor a lower standard than those provided Women’s National Basketball Associa- in the remarkable success of Chinese to their male counterparts and, when tion (WNBA) is only 2 per cent of the women athletes in international com- resources such as equipment or play- all-male National Basketball Associa- petitions. Such attitudes are reflected ing fields are shared, men’s teams tion’s (NBA) average.77 Furthermore, in the prioritization of elite women’s are often given priority. For example, although many international competi- sport by the Chinese Government. At the men’s and women’s singles finals tions have achieved equality in prize the same time, however, women are at the Wimbledon Tennis Champion- monies, including the French, Austral- underrepresented in sport administra- ships are both supposed to be held on ian, Wimbledon and US Tennis Opens, Centre Court, the centrepiece of the tion, coaching and other decision- others continue to offer different championships. When, however, post- making positions in China.75 rewards for men and women. In 2007, ponements due to weather or other for the first time, Wimbledon offered Stereotypical attitudes towards factors result in the matches being equal prize money for the men’s and women and girls and traditional gender played simultaneously, the women’s women’s singles winner.78 roles are also prevalent in the organiza- match will invariably be relocated to tional cultures of sporting bodies—the No. 1 Court. This is rationalized as part Commercial endorsements and norms, values, power dynamics and of Wimbledon’s efforts to “have the sponsorships are also an important part practices that underlie the way such most attractive matches played on the of a professional athlete’s salary and bodies and institutions do their work. courts with the most spectator accom- career development. In general, it is This often results in unequal alloca- modation”.76 an area where women receive far less support than their male counterparts, but there are some examples of female Changing gender norms and stereotypes athletes breaking ground. The Russian tennis star Maria Sharapova has signed The Mathare Youth Sports Association in Kenya initially followed gender deals with Nike, Canon and Motorola norms in the division of labour for organizational tasks, for example, by mak- and is worth an estimated US$ 18.2 ing girls responsible for washing the football shirts and looking after younger million, making her the world’s best- children, while the boys handled the sport equipment and did maintenance compensated female athlete.79 This chores. Following a series of gender-training workshops, the organization trend is reflected in the Forbes 2006 made concerted efforts to redefine the responsibilities of girls and boys and list of top-earning athletes, which has to share tasks equally. five women placed in the top 25.80 As Source: Brady, Martha (2005). Letting girls play: Using sport to create safe more women athletes obtain such spaces and build social assets. In Promoting healthy, safe, and productive high-paying endorsements, greater transitions to adulthood, Brief No. 1, May 2005. New York: Population Council. Available from http://www.popcouncil.org/pdfs/TABriefs/GFD_BRIEF1_ recognition of women athletes as SPORTS_update.pdf major-league players is likely to fol- low.

17 women2000 and beyond December 2007

Wimbledon 2005 Prize Money Summary (GB£) Sport for older women 2006 2005 Increase 2004 Increase The Egyptian Government pro- Gentlemen’s Singles winner £655,000 £630,000 4% £602,500 4.6% moted older women’s participa- tion in sport and physical activity Ladies’ Singles winner £625,000 £600,000 4% £560,500 7.0% by establishing 37 sports centres Gentlemen’s Doubles winners £220,690 £218,500 1% £215,000 1.4% for women over 35 years of age. Ladies’ Doubles winners £205,280 £203,250 1% £200,000 1.6% In each centre, around 150 women Mixed Doubles winners £90,000 £90,000 — £90,000 — play basketball, volleyball, table tennis and other forms of recrea- Source: 2007 Wimbledon Prize Money. Wimbledon, The Official Website. tional activities. In China, many Available from http://www.wimbledon.org/en_GB/about/guide/prizemoney.html older women visit local parks to participate in group exercise, ranging from t’ai chi to ballroom Sport and physical education Women face specific challenges dancing. Through these activities throughout the life cycle to access and participate in sport and they can improve their health and fitness at the same time as they Despite all the evidence on the benefits physical activity throughout the differ- build social networks. These net- of an active lifestyle, including physical ent stages of the life cycle. While it is works are increasingly important education and sport, for women and increasingly understood in many parts due to shifts in demographics girls, the percentage of women who of the world that older women must and family structures—tradition- describe themselves as physically engage in physical education and sport ally, older people used to live with active remains low. As powerful as the in order to add “years to life” and “life their children, whereas today, rationales and motivation for physical to years”, many older women continue over 23 per cent of the elderly activity may be, the barriers faced by to live sedentary lifestyles. Strategies to live alone. women can be overwhelming. These address this must identify and address can include traditional perceptions that the particular barriers older women face Source: Oglesby, Carole A., in sweating and defined musculature and must tailor programmes to their collaboration with the International are inappropriate for women; the lack specific needs and priorities.82 For older Working Group on Women and Sport, WomenSport International, women, a lack of knowledge on the of culturally relevant role models; the the International Association scarcity of facilities offering women- benefits of sport and physical activity o f P h y s i c a l E d u c a t i o n f o r friendly equipment and programmes; is a significant barrier to increased par- Women and Girls, and the the lack of free time due to work and ticipation, as are stereotypical attitudes International Council of Sport family responsibilities; worries about towards older persons, inadequate Science and Physical Education (2006). Positive Embodiment: safety; and shame and embarrassment community infrastructure and sport pro- Contributions of Sport, Exercise about present appearance and capabili- grammes, and illnesses and conditions and Physical Recreation to the ties.81 that affect movement and agility. Life-long Development of Girls and Women (brief prepared for the Division for the Advancement of Women); and “China’s break- Promoting participation in sport in Malaysia dancing grandmother”. In BBC News. 10 April 2005. Available The Women’s Sports and Fitness Foundation in Malaysia is an NGO estab- from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/ lished in 1995 to pursue the empowerment of women through sport and asia-pacific/4424789.stm physical activities. The Foundation has established, together with the Min- istry of Sport, the biannual National Women’s Games (2005 and 2007). For women of childbearing age, there Participants in the 2nd National Women’s Games competed in 12 sports. are particular issues surrounding preg- A total of 5,000 athletes and officials attended. Through the well-managed nancy and childbirth. During a National programme of the Foundation, women of all ages and from all walks of life Sport and Pregnancy Forum in Australia have the possibility to participate in a wide range of activities, ranging from in 2001, it was noted that the benefits sport for all activities to high-performance sports. In addition, the Founda- of staying active and continuing sport tion organizes women’s coaching training throughout the country, and many at some level throughout pregnancy women have obtained paid positions as coaches. outweigh the potential risks. Experts Source: Women’s Sports and Fitness Foundation in Malaysia. Website. also noted that there are several clear Available from http://www.wsffm.com/index.php steps sporting organizations can take to minimize any risk of liability, for exam-

18 December 2007 women2000 and beyond ple, by alerting pregnant sportswomen that there are possible risks involved Maternity rights for Poland’s sportswomen in their participation and in obtaining appropriate releases and/or indemni- Recognizing that the overwhelming majority of sportswomen abandoned ties if they should choose to continue further involvement in sport after giving birth to a child, Poland introduced an to participate. In most circumstances, anti-discrimination provision in the Qualified Sports Act in 2005. The provi- Australia’s Sex Discrimination Act 1984 sion ensures that sportswomen receive a sport stipend in the full amount effectively means that sporting admin- for the duration of their pregnancy and half the amount of the stipend for six istrators cannot ban the continued par- months following childbirth. ticipation of pregnant sportswomen. Source: Introductory statement by Mrs. Joanna Kluzik-Rostkowska, Under- Nevertheless, in most countries, preg- Secretary of State in the Ministry of Labour and Social Policy of the Republic nancy and childbirth often mean that of Poland to the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, thirty-seventh session, 16 January 2007. women do not continue to compete in professional sport.83 The relationship between sport and eral density and a higher risk for oste- • Create girls-only spaces that are the body raises particular issues for ado- oporosis. This pattern of disordered safe from both physical and emo- lescents and young women. In some eating, disrupted menstrual cycles and tional dangers and provide girls with cultural settings, the onset of menstrua- osteoporosis is known as the “female an arena for self-expression that is 88 tion can be a barrier to adolescent girls’ athlete triad”. not hindered by male domination or school attendance and, similarly, girls’ The female athlete triad is an issue authority. participation in sport and physical educa- that the International Olympic Com- • Seek parental and community per- tion. In sub-Saharan Africa, researchers mittee Medical Commission’s Work- mission for girls’ participation prior have documented that lack of sanitary ing Group on Women in Sport has to launching a programme, which products, clean, girls-only latrines and examined closely. They noted that it is will enhance girls’ ability to take water for washing hands results in a the responsibility of team physicians part. significant number of girls not attending to ensure the health and safety of ath- • Enlist female coaches, referees and school.84 Estimates by UNICEF show letes by educating athletes, coaches trainers. Developing a talent pool of that one in 10 school-age African girls and parents about the issue; recogniz- female leaders is an urgent need in either skips school during menstruation ing symptoms of eating disorders; pre- most developing countries. or drops out entirely because of lack of venting activities that place pressure • Identify a few key health issues that sanitation.85 on athletes to lose weight; and provid- need to be addressed, and tailor a The heavy focus on the body in ing adequate treatment for conditions simple health education programme 89 sport, including in the context of the associated with the triad. Wom- around them.91 sexualized promotion of female ath- enSport International has also been For high school and collegiate girls letes, may lead to poor body image, active in this area and has appointed and young women in the United States, particularly among adolescent girls.86 a task force to educate athletes and the enactment of Title IX in 1972, a The pressure to meet unrealistic those responsible for their welfare federal law that prohibits sex discrimi- about the dangers of the triad.90 weight or body fat levels can result nation in education programmes and in excessive dieting that may in turn Sport programmes should also take activities at any federally funded edu- lead to serious eating disorders such into consideration the specific needs of cational institution, has had significant as anorexia nervosa or bulimia ner- girls. Lessons learned from a series of impact on girls’ participation in sport. vosa. The number of females who sporting activities piloted by the Popu- Despite a rapid increase of girls in exhibit restrictive eating behaviour, lation Council suggest that successfully high school sport after the passage of which does not necessarily meet the designing a girls’ sport programme Title IX, the percentage of girl athletes strict criteria for bulimia or anorexia, requires a number of specific actions: has been increasing very slowly since is estimated to range from between • Adopt a “girl-centred” approach. the late 1970s: in 1978, girls made up 15 and 62 per cent, depending on Learn directly from girls about their approximately 32 per cent of athletes, the sport.87 Disordered eating can needs and interests and seek their rising only 5 percentage points—to affect the health and performance of input in the design and scope of 37 per cent—by 1993. If this trend an athlete in various ways, including programmes. Recognition of girls’ continues, it will take until the year low energy and disrupted menstrual work burden and time constraints is 2033 to achieve parity.92 At the col- cycles, which can lead to a decrease required and serious consideration lege level, women make up 54 per in endogenous oestrogen and other must be given to ways to address cent of students but only 43 per cent hormones, resulting in low bone min- these problems. of athletes. Men’s college athletics

19 women2000 and beyond December 2007 also continue to receive more money than women’s in scholarships, recruit- Title IX and gender equality in sport ing, head-coach salaries and operating expenses.93 Although the law states Title IX requires that women be provided an equitable opportunity to partici- that schools in violation of Title IX will pate in sport; that female athletes receive athletic scholarships proportional lose their federal funding, this has to their participation; and that female athletes receive equal treatment, for never happened since the law came example in the provision of equipment and supplies, scheduling of games into force. Instead, Title IX compli- and practice times, coaching, practice and competitive facilities, access to ance has been driven by lawsuits and tutoring, publicity and promotions, and recruitment of student athletes. Title threats of lawsuits.94 IX has also increased the salaries of coaches for women’s teams. Such actions are behind recent rul- Source: The National Collegiate Athletic Association. Official website. ings across the United States that Available from http://www1.ncaa.org/membership/ed_outreach/gender_equity/ faq.html require school cheerleading squads to support girls teams on an equal basis with the boys teams. The rulings have, by a lack of facilities, such as changing should be provided for all teachers; and however, received a mixed reaction. rooms for girls.97 adequate resources allocated. Some cheerleaders are not enthusias- In addition to policies that support Sport and women tic about cheering for the girls teams, the right to physical education, there with disabilities often because the need to comply with is a need to ensure that policies and the ruling has increased their workload programmes on school-based physical Participation of disabled women and and they are no longer sent to away- education fully incorporate gender per- girls in physical education and sport has games. Some members of girls’ sport spectives. For example, in addition to increased in recent years but neverthe- teams have also been unhappy about promoting an increase in participation less remains lower than participation by the ruling, noting that they do not by girls and young women, traditional non-disabled women and girls. Limited need or want cheerleaders during their stereotypes and gender-based segre- access to resources and activities leads games.95 gation in sport and physical education in many countries to significant health should be discouraged. Both boys and disparities between women and girls Physical education girls need to be encouraged to move with disabilities and those without. A in schools beyond the traditional classification of recent study in the United States indi- For all girls and young women, access different types of sports as male (such cates that 93 per cent of women with to physical education in schools can as rugby) or female (such as netball), physical disabilities report engaging in play an important role in promoting and to pursue a diverse range of physi- no physical activity, compared with 43 their participation in sport. During the cal activity. To achieve this, policies and per cent of women without disabilities. 1970s, 1980s and 1990s, physical programmes should be established to The study also reported that the preva- education in schools worldwide was raise awareness among students, par- lence of chronic health conditions such subject to decreasing curricula time, ents and staff; the number of women as arthritis, diabetes and high blood reduced financial, physical and human physical education teachers should be pressure was 3 to 4 times higher in resources, and a low subject status. increased; gender-sensitive training people with disabilities.98 Recreational Since the Berlin Physical Education World Summit in November 1999, there have been significant improvements Basketball for girls in Afghanistan in school-based physical education in The project “Basketball for Girls” was established in Afghanistan in 2001 to developed countries, but unfortunately introduce and monitor basketball as an educational leisure activity for girls’ little change in developing countries.96 schools. In commemoration of the International Year of Sport and Physi- The inclusion of physical education cal Education, the Sports Division of the Austrian Federal Chancellery, in in official curricula does not necessarily partnership with the NGO Women Without Borders, implemented sport promote physical activity among girls, programmes as a tool for development cooperation by providing courts, as the physical education provided may uniforms and equipment to two girls’ schools in Kabul. A Women Without be heavily biased towards boys in terms Borders training handbook and sport empowerment brochure was tested of types of activity, teaching styles and and used, with 500 girls given the chance to practise basketball skills, com- accessible resources. For example, pete in matches and train in teams. physical education in some countries Source: United Nations (2006). Sport for a Better World: Report on the is optional for girls and many choose International Year of Sport and Physical Education 2005, Geneva. not to take part, a situation exacerbated

20 December 2007 women2000 and beyond sport not only has a positive effect on disabled women’s and girls’ overall Self-defence for women and girls with disabilities physical activity, but also contributes positively to their empowerment.99 International Training Advice and Research (ITAR) has organized many self- Participation of women and girls with defence courses for women and girls with disabilities in Europe and the disabilities in sport not only challenges United States. These courses are targeted at the empowerment of women gender stereotypes but can also chal- and girls with disabilities through physical activities and include specific lenge prejudices about disabilities and teachers’ training courses for female martial arts and self-defence trainers. impairments. Women Win—a women sports fund from the Netherlands—is financing a The low level of participation by disa- teachers’ training project in Malaysia for women and girls with disabilities, bled women is in part a reflection of in collaboration with Women’s Sports and Fitness Foundation Malaysia the double discrimination that disabled (WSFFM). The training is provided by a highly ranked martial arts wheelchair- women face, both as disabled per- using woman teacher. sons and as women. Greater physical Source: Lydia la Rivière-Zijdel, 3rd Degree Black Belt Karate and 1st Degree and communication barriers are faced Black Belt Aikido and self-defence instructor. Women Win—http://www. by disabled women, such as the lack womenwin.org of access to appropriate facilities and technological aides, including sport- The lack of research and data on Externally funded sport projects for ing wheelchairs, prostheses, special women with disabilities in sport hinders disabled persons in developing coun- materials for blind women such as tan- efforts to develop programmes and ini- tries do not always reach disabled dems, ringing balls and sign language tiatives which take into account their women and girls. There is seldom suf- interpretation.100 The lack of equipment needs and priorities. It is, for example, ficient attention to gender perspectives and accessible training facilities can be difficult to assess the global situation in projects and, as a result, disabled men linked to negative attitudes towards of women and girls with disabilities and boys benefit to a greater extent than women and girls with disabilities.101 In in sport at recreational and competi- women and girls. Sport development order to reduce the marginalization of tive levels.104 The empowering effect programmes in developing countries disabled women and girls, their specific of sport on women and girls with dis- should incorporate specific attention needs, for example for accessible infra- abilities should be further investigated. to gender perspectives and disability structure and suitable sporting equip- Increasing research and data collection in order to ensure that they reach dis- ment, should be taken into account in must be given priority. abled women and girls.105 local, national and international sport programmes and initiatives. Practical interventions must ensure The Cambodia women’s wheelchair racing team that locations, facilities and equipment The Battambang Ladies Racing Team, established in 2007 through collabo- are accessible to women and girls with ration of the Cambodian National Volleyball League (Disabled) Organization all types of disabilities, that is, by ensur- (CNVLD), the ICRC Battambang Rehabilitation Centre and WomenSport ing that those who use wheelchairs can International, is the first of its kind in Cambodia. The CNVLD will establish access buildings, locker rooms, bath- more female teams in provincial locations in 2008. The Battambang Ladies rooms, and activity or meeting areas; Racing Team became the first All-Female team in the ANZ Royal–CNVLD that those who are deaf or hearing- Wheelie Grand Prix. The five-member team trained to compete in the ANZ impaired can have access to sign Royal–CNVLD 2nd Round Competition in September 2007. language interpreters; that those who are blind or have low vision have tactile The collaboration between CNVLD and ANZ Royal, the Cambodian sub- access and visual activities or images sidiary of one of Australia’s leading corporate bodies, demonstrates that described to them;102 and that women long-term partnership between local sports organizations and the corpo- and girls with learning disabilities can rate sector can be an effective path to sustainable sport development. The access safe, adapted sport environ- programme also illustrates that sport as a catalyst for social change in ments. Guthrie and Castelnuovo (2001) post-conflict nations is an exceptionally valuable tool, when issues such observe that “in order to produce the as a culture of violence, weak social cohesion, high unemployment, disaf- greatest good for the greatest number, fected youth and a high percentage of disability per capita can threaten to more opportunities for women with undermine efforts to bring about stability. disabilities in both sport and exercise Source: ANZ Royal CNVLD Wheelie Grand Prix Welcomes First All-female must be made available, and those that Team (2007). Cambodian National Volleyball League (Disabled). Website. do exist must be made more accessi- Available from http://www.standupcambodia.org/blog/?p=1062 ble and accommodating”.103

21 women2000 and beyond December 2007

In terms of participation of disabled women in international competitions, Promoting women’s participation 47 per cent of the nations compet- in the Paralympic Games ing in the 1996 Paralympic Games brought no women athletes, compared The International Paralympic Committee’s Sport Technical Department to 13 per cent of nations that brought promoted women’s participation in the 2000 Paralympic Games in Sydney no women athletes to the Olympic focusing on women in the allocation of sport wildcards, adding more events Games. In 2004, a record 31 per cent and disciplines for women, and raising awareness of issues related to women of participants in the Summer Paralym- and sport among the leadership of national Paralympic committees. pic Games in Athens were women, but Source: International Paralympic Committee (2006). IPC women in sport this was still below the 40 per cent par- leadership toolkit: Increasing opportunities for women in Paralympic sport. ticipation of women in the 2004 Olym- Bonn, Germany: IPC. Available from http://www.paralympic.org/release/ pic Games.106 Main_Sections_Menu/IPC/Organization/Standing_Committees/Commission_ Women_Sport/WISC.html The Women in Sport Committee of the International Paralympic Commit- tee provides advice and consultation December 2004, the Network’s first reflect traditional gender segregation on issues of gender equality in Para- regional summit for the Middle East in sport. For example, there is no quota lympic sport. The role of the Commit- was organized by the National Paralym- for female athletes in football and the tee is to: advocate for the full inclu- pic Committee of Iran, where an action quota for male athletes in judo is almost sion of women and girls at all levels of plan for the region was developed that twice that of female athletes. Eques- Paralympic sport; identify barriers that will create new opportunities in Para- trian events are the only discipline with restrict participation; make policy rec- lympic sport for women and girls in the higher quotas for women.109 108 ommendations to address these barri- region. The International Paralympic Com- ers; and oversee the implementation of The International Paralympic Com- mittee has acknowledged that it has initiatives. mittee set targets for the numbers given priority to the participation of The Committee also oversees the of male and female athletes in the disabled women in sport at the elite Women in Paralympic Sport Network, 2008 Beijing Paralympics, with a level and that more needs to be done which aims to mobilize the worldwide quota of 65 per cent men and 35 per to increase participation and access at Paralympic community to increase cent women. This total participation the grass-roots and recreational levels, access to Paralympic sport for women quota was also broken down into tar- which in turn will allow more women and girls. In 2005, two summits were gets for individual categories of sport. with disabilities to proceed to interna- held for the Africa region in Niger and Two disciplines—sitting volleyball and tional competitions.110 Improving par- Tanzania, which produced a regional wheelchair fencing—currently have ticipation at the grass-roots level can action plan to effectively incorporate equal participation targets for men and bring the benefits of participation in women into Paralympic sport.107 In women. However, other disciplines sport and physical education to local disabled women and girls, including improved physical and mental health, Developing female leaders development of social skills, building of within the Paralympic Movement social networks, and expanded opportu- nities for education and employment. The International Paralympic Committee organizes Women in Sport Leader- ship Regional Summits and National Trainings in all regions to encourage full participation of women with disabilities and acknowledge their right to Women’s leadership be leaders within the Paralympic Movement. It has developed a blueprint and decision-making for action on gender equality in paralympic sport and calls for commitments for action to facilitate increased participation by girls and women. Leader- Throughout the world, women’s par- ship Summits have been organized in Africa—in Tanzania (2005) and Kenya ticipation in leadership and decision- (2006) and in the Niger (2006). A pilot Regional Summit for Asia was held making remains limited in sport and in Tehran, Iran, in 2004. The first European Summit was held in Bonn in sport-related organizations. Women are 2007. underrepresented at all levels, including in coaching, management, commercial Source: International Paralympic Committee (2007). Developing Female Leaders Within the Paralympic Movement. Bonn, Germany. Available from sporting activities and the media, as http://www.paralympic.org/release/Main_Sections_Menu/Development/ well as in decision-making bodies at Development_Programmes/WIS/index.html the local, national, regional and interna- tional levels, including the International

22 December 2007 women2000 and beyond

Olympic Committee. To give an exam- ple of one country, in the Czech Repub- Targets for women’s participation lic: only 8 per cent (33 women) of all in sport decision-making members of executive boards in Czech Progress in women’s leadership at the International Olympic Committee sport federations are women; only 3 was seen in 1997 when Anita DeFrantz became the first female vice-presi- women have ever been members of dent of the IOC Executive Committee and Nawal El Moutawakel, appointed the executive board of the Czech Olym- as Minister of Sport and Youth in Morocco that same year, became the first pic Committee in its 105-year history; Muslim woman ever elected as a member of the IOC. and only 21 per cent of elite athletes are coached by women.111 Source: Promotion of women sports leaders (2007). Official website of the The lessons learned from efforts to Olympic Movement. Available from http://www.olympic.org/uk/organisation/ missions/women/activities/leaders_uk.asp increase women’s participation in politi- cal decision-making show that many of the gains made can be attributed of Zambia became the second in the world to elect women as both Presi- to affirmative action, such as quotas, Promoting women’s dent and Secretary General.112 The established in constitutions, by leg- leadership in national study recognized that it is critical not islation or through temporary special strategies for women to view targets as ceilings for women’s measures. Targets do work, although and sport incentives as well as sanctions for non- participation, but as minimum require- compliance are often needed to ensure ments for women’s representation. Women and Sport South Africa, their effectiveness. The study found that, in terms of a national strategy launched in 1996, is aimed at empowering In 1997, as part of its Women and impact, women on these committees women to be actively involved in Sport policy, the International Olympic had influenced ongoing policy debates all spheres of sport and recrea- Committee (IOC) established targets to on women and sport, and the Secretaries General of various National Olympic tion. In particular, it targets gov- increase the number of women occupy- Committees indicated that women ernmental and non-governmental ing leadership and administrative posi- were among the most active members agencies in South Africa to develop tions within the Olympic Movement. By of the Executive Committees. The a culture where all girls and 31 December 2005, the National Olympic benefits cited by the women commit- women have equal opportunities, Committees, International Sports Fed- tee members included the increases equal access, and equal support erations and sporting bodies belonging in women’s influence in the National in sport and recreation at all levels to the Olympic Movement should have Olympic Committees, in participation and in all capacities, as decision- established that at least 20 per cent of of women in leadership training, in makers, administrators, coaches, the positions in all their decision-making appointment of women to other com- officials and participants. structures are held by women. mittees, and in the general profile of Source: Oglesby, Carole A., in A study conducted in January 2004 women in sport.113 collaboration with the International by the International Olympic Commit- The study identified a number of Working Group on Women and tee (IOC) and the Institute of Sport & constraints to women’s participation Sport, WomenSport International, the International Association of Leisure Policy at Loughborough Uni- in leadership and decision-making, versity (UK) found that the introduc- Physical Education for Women including the challenge of getting and Girls, and the International tion of targets in the IOC had a positive women nominated and elected from Council of Sport Science and impact on the proportion of women in a constituency of National Federations Physical Education (2006). Positive the Executive Committees of National whose representatives were predomi- Embodiment: Contributions of Olympic Committees. Sixty-two per Sport, Exercise and Physical nantly and traditionally male. Further- Recreation to the Life-long Develop- cent of National Olympic Committees more, the targets were limited to only ment of Girls and Women. (Brief (NOCs) had achieved the targets. As one part of the Olympic decision-making prepared for the Division for the of December 2005, there were nine structure—the National Olympic Com- Advancement of Women.) women NOC Presidents: five in Africa, mittees—and more work is needed to three in Europe and one in the Ameri- increase women’s participation at all cas; and there were 14 women Secreta- levels. There was also recognition In addition to targets and quotas, a ries General: four in Europe, four in the that successful implementation of number of other approaches are impor- Americas, three in Africa, two in Asia the targets will not necessarily lead to tant in promoting the participation of and one in Oceania. Africa is leading policy changes in support of women’s women and girls in sport leadership the way for women’s leadership, and in increased participation in decision- and decision-making, including skills 2005, the National Olympic Committee making. training and recognition of achieve-

23 women2000 and beyond December 2007 ments. Men’s leadership on this issue is critical. The Chairperson of the Sport as a platform to advance International Olympic Committee’s women’s leadership in all spheres Women and Sport Commission, Anita DeFrantz, has highlighted the need for UNESCO and the Sony Ericsson Women’s Tennis Association Tour women and men to work together to announced a landmark global partnership in 2006, which marked a new level achieve the goals set for women’s par- of commitment to raise awareness of gender equality issues and advance ticipation in sport leadership.114 Such opportunities for women’s leadership in all spheres of society. Activities cooperation can help to achieve the planned included a fund for women’s leadership; appointment of global benefits of women’s increased partici- “Promoters of Gender Equality”; mentoring, scholarship and fellowship pation in decision-making in sport for programmes; and the use of UNESCO and Sony Ericsson WTA Tour events both women and men, including the as awareness and fund-raising platforms. Tennis star Venus Williams, the diversification of the talent pool among first global Promoter of Gender Equality, noted that “our goal is to let women coaches, managers, administrators and and girls throughout the world know that there are no glass ceilings, and to other officials. do our part to support programs that provide real opportunities for women to succeed in whatever they set their minds to.” A number of international and regional meetings and conferences Source: UNESCO (2006). “UNESCO and Sony Ericsson WTA Tour announce have explored women’s participation in Global Partnership to Advance Gender Equality.” Press release. 12 November. Available from http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=35640&URL_ sport leadership and decision-making. DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html The International Paralympic Commit- tee regularly addresses this issue in its regional “Women in Sport Leadership tive outcome of this incident was the Summits”, which have been held in criticism that his remark drew from a the Middle East, Africa and Europe. In Employment opportunities wide variety of sources, and the atten- October 2005, a conference on “Effect- tion given to the fact that the woman ing social change through women’s lead- An enabling environment is also neces- in question was the first woman to be ership in sport” was held in the United sary to improve the access of women employed full-time in a major-league States as part of the International Year to sport-related employment. A wide club’s training room. of Sport and Physical Education. The range of opportunities for employment In Canada, for example, more than conference, hosted by Kennesaw exists in the world of sport, as coaches, 95 per cent of an estimated 1.2 million State University, in association with the managers, sport administrators, train- coaches work at the community level. United States Olympic Committee and ers, game officials, physical education In community-level softball, hockey and the International Labour Organization teachers, sports therapists, journalists soccer, it is estimated that less than 5 (ILO), included programmes on: fos- and editors. Positions also exist in the per cent of the coaches are women, tering socio-economic improvement commercial sporting industry, in areas even though the number of female through the perspective of women’s such as sport marketing and branding. participants in these sports at the com- leadership; the role of media in shap- Women’s participation in all these fields munity level is growing significantly.117 ing society’s perception of women; of sport-related employment is low. The and facilitating women in leadership poor representation of women in sport- A number of initiatives are under positions that make an impact on soci- related employment is not a reflection way to encourage and promote wom- ety.115 of the number of working women in the en’s work in all sectors of the sporting industry. At the policy level, the Brighton Educational role modelling as a world today; women represent more Declaration calls upon sports and means to reach community youth than 40 per cent of working people was a special focus of the conference. worldwide.116 sports-related organizations to develop policies, programmes and design struc- Positive role models are recognized as Many barriers to equitable employ- an important way to increase partici- ment opportunities remain, including tures that increase the number of women pation of women and girls in sport and stereotypical attitudes towards women coaches, advisers, decision-makers, sport leadership. Long-term mentor- and sport. A recent example in the officials, administrators and sport per- ship is also important, as the encour- United States was a derogatory remark sonnel at all levels with special atten- agement and moral support offered made by a prominent New York Mets tion given to recruitment, development 118 through such relationships are key broadcaster about women’s presence and retention. factors in providing an enabling envi- in baseball dugouts: “I won’t say that The International Olympic Commit- ronment for increased participation in women belong in the kitchen, but they tee (IOC), in cooperation with Olympic this area. don’t belong in the dugout”. A posi- Solidarity, established a programme of

24 December 2007 women2000 and beyond regional seminars for female adminis- trators, coaches, technical officials and Women in coaching journalists in the national and interna- tional sport movement. The Interna- The Coaching Association of Canada (CAC) launched the “We are coaches” tional Labour Organization (ILO) has campaign in February 2006 to increase the number of women coaching at also been active in promoting wom- the community level from 5 per cent to 10 per cent in three years. As part en’s employment in the sport sector. It of the initiative, participating women will receive quality coach training in adopted women in sport as the theme certain sports through the National Coaching Certification Programme. CAC for its 2006 celebrations for Interna- anticipates expansion of the programme to include at least 15 additional tional Women’s Day and held a panel sports and many more communities in the second year, and to increase the discussion to explore gender equality number of sports and communities again in the third year. issues in the sport-related employment Source: “The Coaching Association of Canada launches a three-year campaign sector.119 to increase the number of women coaches at the community level.” In , 7 February 2006. Available from In some countries, progress has Canada Sports News Online http://www. canadiansport.ca/news/news_view_e.cfm?id=9449&search=&show=& been made through legal channels to month=&year=&search_where lift some of the barriers to women’s careers in sport-related areas. For example, in 1978, Melissa Ludtke of Sports Illustrated, a highly recognized Supporting women’s professional periodical of American sport, filed a development in sport lawsuit in which a United States District Court judge ruled that male and female The International Olympic Committee (IOC), in cooperation with Olympic reporters should have the same access Solidarity, established a programme of regional seminars for female admin- to athletes, even if it means entering istrators, coaches, technical officials and journalists in the national and inter- locker rooms while athletes are dress- national sport movement. The International Labour Organization (ILO) has ing.120 also been active in promoting women’s employment in the sport sector. It adopted women in sport as the theme for its 2006 celebrations for Interna- tional Women’s Day and held a panel discussion to explore gender equality Providing skills issues in the sport employment sector. for a career in Source: Support Activities. Official website of the Olympic Movement. international sport Available from http://www.olympic.org/uk/organisation/missions/women/ The second Sport Management activities/activities_uk.asp Seminar for Women, organized by the International Academy of events was 95 to 1 in television and 20 Sports Science and Technology to 1 in print media.121 (AISTS), took place in June 2006 Women’s sport In Australia, a 1996 study conducted in Lausanne, Switzerland. A total and the media by the Australian Sports Commission of 51 women representing 38 The gender-based discrimination found that coverage of women’s sport nationalities took part in this four- against women in sport-related employ- was just two per cent of total sport day education programme organ- ment is also apparent in the unequal broadcasting in television, 1.4 per ized to provide women in sport representation of women in sport cent in radio and 6.8 per cent in sport management with a solid under- media, and the negative portrayal of magazines. Newspaper reportage of standing of the key skills needed women athletes and women’s sports women’s sport was higher at 10.7 per to pursue a successful career in remains a persistent problem. In addi- cent.122 When the South Australian international sport. The seminar tion, women’s sporting events remain Premier’s Council for Women com- included workshops and lectures marginalized from the mainstream missioned similar research in 2006, it on sport marketing, sponsorship multi-billion dollar sport-media indus- found that newspaper coverage was and media; project management; try and while many local, national and just 4.1 per cent, despite a number of and communication, teamwork international competitions include both and leadership. men’s and women’s events, the men’s high-profile women’s sporting events held during the study period.123 Source: International Academy events invariably dominate media cov- of Sports Science and Technology. erage and local and global attention. Frank Deford, a senior writer for Website: http://www.aists.org/ For example, in the United States, the Sports Illustrated, has argued that events.htm media coverage ratio in 2004 between coverage of sport is dictated by what male and female professional sporting people want to see. He maintains that

25 women2000 and beyond December 2007 there is little coverage of women’s sport because women do not support female athletes nearly as much as men Sport media and stereotypes support male athletes.124 The Women’s Austria, Iceland, Italy, Lithuania and Norway have taken part in a cross- Sports Foundation has, however, noted European research project initiative, “Sport media and stereotypes—women that there is no evidence to support the and men in sport and media”, to explore similarities and variations in rep- contention that women are not as inter- resentations of women and men in sport. The initiative aims to promote ested in sport as men.125 change in gender stereotypes in sport by raising awareness among influen- Frank Deford has also suggested tial target groups about the impact of representation of male and female ath- that although individual female ath- letes, particularly in the media, and how it creates and maintains traditional letes are able to command attention, images of women and men. women’s team sporting events do Source: The 2005 United Nations International Year of Sport and Physical not because men cannot conceive of Education: Austrian Projects. Available from http://sport.austria.gv.at/ women representing them, for exam- Docs/2005/7/8/UN%20Year%20of%20Sport%20&%20Physical%20Education ple when supporters closely associate %20Austrian%20Projects.doc?wai=true their own identity with a college or pro- fessional team. He has recommended The coverage, marketing and promo- Girls and Women in Sport, noted that that major women’s competitions, such tion of women’s sport are also often while the number of sexualized images as the national Collegiate Basketball highly sexualized. The value of the of male athletes is far outweighed Championships in the United States, female athlete is often determined in by pictures depicting men simply as should be moved to a different month terms of her body type, attractiveness great athletes, this is not the case for in the year so that they do not have to and sex appeal, rather than in terms of women.133 Female athletes can also be compete with the men’s events.126 The the qualities that define her as an ath- sexualized through official game rules, Women’s National Basketball Associa- lete. Donna Lopiano, the former Chief which sometimes require revealing uni- tion (WNBA) has already been moved Executive of the Women’s Sport Foun- forms, even when there is no functional to a summer season.127 dation in the United States, says that purpose. This has been referred to as Media representation and portrayal the sports media culture is “deciding sexploitation.134 of men’s and women’s sport are also what sells, and they’re not willing to significantly different. Media cover- sell legitimate female athletic achieve- age of women’s sport continues to ment”.130 be influenced by gender stereotypes, This approach is sometimes imposed which reinforce traditional images of Promoting women on female athletes but may also be men and women. Numerous research in sport media used voluntarily as a strategy to gain studies have, for example, shown that media coverage. For example, in 2000, The Ministry of Youth and Sports in sport media, women are frequently the Australian national women’s soc- of Hungary funded a promotional portrayed as “girls”, no matter what cer team, the Matildas, launched a programme for women in sport their age, and described in terms of nude calendar to generate publicity and with a specially designed logo their physical attributes and emotional increase their public profile.131 Capital- and the slogan “Keep in Shape”. responses, often in ways that stress izing on attractiveness is one way that The programme includes weekly their weakness, passivity and insig- women athletes are earning more women of sport pages in a daily nificance.128 Such gender stereotyping money and corporate sponsorships, newspaper, articles in sport mag- can have a powerful influence on the but it is argued that the enhanced sexu- azines and a weekly television younger generation’s perceptions and alization of female athletes diminishes health and lifestyle programme. attitudes towards women and gender their accomplishments and reinforces The Ministry also produced a 30- equality. In this context, the findings of the image of women as sex objects, minute programme on the “His- a research study conducted on gender- which is harmful to all women.132 tory of Women in Sports” for specific images inSports Illustrated for national television. Kids are particularly disheartening. The Male athletes are also taking advan- study showed that stereotypical mascu- tage of the commercialization of the Source: International Working Group on Women and Sport line and feminine ideologies continued sporting industry—as seen by clothing (2002). Women and Sport to dominate the magazine, even when collections of male sport starts such as Progress Report 1998-2002. Bonn, progress in gender equality in sport has Björn Borg (Sweden) and Ian Thorpe Germany. Available from http:// been achieved and cultural acceptance (Australia). However, Dr. Mary Jo Kane, www.canada2002.org/e/progress/ and expectations of women in sport Director of the University of Minneso- worldwide/chapter3_america.htm have evolved.129 ta’s Tucker Center for Research on

26 December 2007 women2000 and beyond

The promotion and popularization of ing someone close to them who had a victim, of harassment in sport. Of women’s sport requires an increase in been harassed.139 those, 67 per cent said the abuser was media coverage as well as a significant Women and girls may face ver- the trainer and 92 per cent said that the improvement in the breadth, depth and bal harassment, including of a sexual harassment took place in a sport facility quality of women’s sport media, as nature, which can originate from other or workplace.144 called for in the 1998 Windhoek Call athletes, coaches, managers, specta- Violence, exploitation and abuse in for Action. Non-discriminatory portrayal tors, and family or community mem- the context of sport are of concern for all of female athletes in sport media and bers. For example, girls playing football women, not only women athletes. The marketing could not only provide posi- in the Mathare Youth Sports Associa- notion of masculinity based on men’s tive role models that encourage more tion programme in Kenya spoke of the dominance, physical strength and power women and girls to become athletes, taunts and jeers of the boys who teased that is traditionally enhanced by male but it could also persuade more women them as they walked in the community sport can manifest into violence against to become consumers of sport media and of the risk of being harassed by all women. Such notions of masculinity and other products, as well as posi- street boys who were present near the may be a factor in the increasing levels tively influence gender stereotypes and playing field.140 of sexual violence committed by male the sexualization of women in all areas The risk of violence and harassment athletes. Negative conduct, however, of society. may stem from men’s resistance to the does not seem to have had an impact challenging of gender-specific bounda- on the popularity of male sport stars, ries and assertion of women’s inde- as recognized by United States sports Violence against pendence, or may occur because women commentator Frank Deford: women, exploitation are participating in sport viewed as “Hardly a week goes by it seems and sexual harassment male domains. For example, one of the without some pro or college star girls in the Mathare Youth Sports Asso- being hauled up on some brutal A further impact of the sexualization of ciation (MYSA) programme in Kenya charge against a woman. It is risky women athletes is increased harass- noted, “When I started playing for to try to explain this simply, but cer- ment, exploitation and violence against MYSA my father would say that there tainly part of this sorry trend can be women.135 Studies conducted in a is no football for girls, and he would accounted for by the fact that ath- number of countries give some indica- beat me up. So whenever I wanted to letes are now given so much, and tion of the prevalence of violence and go and play, my mother would cover forgiven so much, and from so early harassment in sport: 40-50 per cent of up for me by saying that she had sent on, that they become imbued with a female athletes surveyed in Canada and me somewhere.”141 Such attitudes can sense of entitlement previously only 27 per cent in Australia reported harass- sometimes be altered if the sport takes found with royal princes of the realm. ment.136 A study of Australian athletes place within school grounds, rather After a while it is hard to believe that found that 31 per cent of female and than in other facilities, as parents may anybody will turn you down, particu- 21 per cent of male athletes reported see schools as safer environments for larly any woman. Yet while there is a experiencing sexual abuse at some their daughters to practise sport. lot of bemoaning about the athletes’ time in their lives. Of these, 41 per cent Verbal and physical harassment by violence towards women, has it of females and 29 per cent of males coaches and managers, such as derog- affected the popularity of any sport, had been sexually abused within the atory remarks and inappropriate looks especially the NBA [National Basket- sport environment.137 A Norwegian or touching, is a particular concern. ball Association], where misconduct research project administered by the A study in the Czech Republic found of all kinds appears most abun- Norwegian Olympic Committee from that 45 per cent of female athletes dant? . . . Until we see evidence 1995-2000 found that 28 per cent of had experienced sexual harassment to the contrary, we can continue to female athletes had experienced sexual from someone in sport, 27 per cent assume that how pro-athletes treat harassment in a sporting context. The noting harassment from a coach.142 In women is simply not germane so study also showed that female athletes Canada, 21.8 per cent of female ath- long as they treat the games we love had experienced sexual harassment letes surveyed reported relationships with respect and devotion.” 145 from both women (15 per cent) and with a sporting authority figure, 23 per The link between international sport- men (45 per cent), either in or outside cent of whom were under 16 years of ing events and prostitution, and the use of the sport setting.138 Young athletes age and 8.6 per cent of whom felt obli- of human trafficking to fill the demand, are particularly vulnerable. In the United gated to enter into the relationship.143 is a further concern relating to the States, adolescents made up 31 per A survey conducted during a marathon exploitation of women in the context of cent of cases of harassment, and in in Mexico revealed that 71 per cent of sport. While the link between sporting Denmark, 25 per cent of sportswomen the 150 respondents had been a vic- events and human trafficking is often under 18 reported harassment or know- tim, or knew someone who had been made, a representative of Ban Ying, an

27 women2000 and beyond December 2007

NGO assisting prostitutes from South- to sport.150 This followed on from the A group of experts on women and east Asia, reports that the organization Council of Europe resolution passed in sport, Kari Fasting (Norway), Celia and money required to traffic large 2000 on the prevention of sexual har- Brackenridge (England), Sandi Kirby numbers of women into a country for assment and abuse of women, young (Canada) and Trisha Leahy (Hong Kong), a short-term event would be too much people and children in sport (3/2000), have also been contracted by UNICEF of an investment, particularly given which resolved to commission research Innocenti Research Centre in Florence the large police presence.146 Interpol on the phenomena, prepare a national to prepare a digest on violence against has noted, however, that “prostitution policy and suggest actions for imple- children in sport. networks set up specific organizations mentation.151 A great deal remains to be done to to take advantage of major sporting The International Olympic Commit- combat exploitation, harassment and events” and, for example, an increase tee’s Executive Committee adopted a violence against women in sport. For in prostitution was detected during the consensus position statement on Sex- example, affordable and reliable trans- Fédération Internationale de Football ual Harassment and Abuse in Sport in portation, appropriate hours for events, Association (FIFA) Confederations Cup February 2007. It was prepared by a and safe sporting locations are all impor- in 2005.147 group of experts/researchers at a sem- tant criteria for increasing the safety of A research project by the International inar in Lausanne in October 2006. The women and girls when participating in Organization for Migration on traffick- statement defines the problems, identi- sport, especially when scheduled prac- ing and the 2006 World Cup found that fies the risk factors and provides guide- tice or competition times finish after although data on trafficking is limited, all lines for prevention and resolution. The dark. Further efforts should include information available strongly indicated objective is to improve the health and research, awareness-raising and advo- that an increase in trafficking during protection of athletes through the pro- cacy; the adoption of harassment-free pol- and after the World Cup did not occur. motion of effective preventive policy, Prevention campaigns by the German as well as to increase the awareness of Government and local and international these problems among all stakeholders NGOs, as well as increased police and actors in sport. The recommenda- Combating harassment focus, may have positively contributed tions include: and violence against to this development. For example, a • Adopting harassment-free policies women and girls by range of initiatives were implemented and procedures that are in line with coaches including multilingual hotlines, shelters international ethical and human WomenSport International for victims of trafficking, and outreach rights statutes, and that are inclu- encourages all sport organiza- activities to women in their home sive; tions to establish codes of ethics countries. The study also noted that • Encouraging open debate about and conduct for coaches; foster the characteristics of the fan commu- sexual harassment, homophobia a climate of open discussion nity and the overall setting of the World and exploitation of women and men about sexual harassment and Cup 2006 played an important role, as in sport; abuse; develop athlete autonomy many of the fans included families with • Embedding an equitable balance of wherever possible; incorporate children.148 Unfortunately, attempts males and females in all roles and the issues of sexual harassment to prevent human trafficking in these democratic leadership styles to miti- and abuse into coach education contexts can lead to further discrimina- gate against abuses of power; programmes; introduce report- tion against women, as illustrated in the ing and mediation systems; and proposal to impose special visa require- • Acting as advocates of harassment- adopt rigorous screening proce- ments for women visitors from some free sport through education and dures for the appointment of all non–European Union countries as a training programmes for everyone personnel. measure to address the trafficking of involved in sport; women for the purpose of prostitution • Actively monitoring the effective- S o u r c e : W o m e n S p o r t at the World Cup.149 ness of all anti-harassment initia- International (WSI) Task Forces. The tives; Sexual Harassment Task Force: Prevention of violence, harassment Brochure on Sexual Harassment and exploitation in sport is gradually • Initiating research into men’s, wom- and Abuse in Sport. WomenSport being addressed at both policy and en’s and boys’ and girls’ experiences International. United States: operational levels. For example, the rec- of abuse and bullying within sport; Wo m e n S p o r t I n t e r n a t i o n a l . and Available from http://www.sportsbiz. ommendation on discrimination against bz/womensportinternational/ women and girls in sport passed by taskforces/harassment_brochure. the Parliamentary Assembly of the • Giving active representation to ath- htm Council of Europe in 2005 calls for the letes in decision-making at every combating of sexual abuse in relation level of sport.152

28 December 2007 women2000 and beyond icies and procedures; the promotion of on the benefits of sport and the capa- all aspects of sport policies and pro- women in coaching, management and bilities of women and girls are all useful grammes, and providing specific tai- other leadership positions; and access strategies for bringing about change. lored support where appropriate. This to open channels of redress.153 A sys- It is important to keep in mind, how- approach is essential to ensure that tem of impunity must not be allowed ever, that gender mainstreaming does women and girls with disabilities par- to perpetuate harassment, exploitation not eliminate the need for targeted ticipate fully, enjoy the benefits of both and violence against women and girls activities focused on women and girls. recreational and competitive sport, and in sport. Resources, responsibilities and power are empowered through the process. are not equitably allocated between In relation to women’s participation women and girls and men and boys. in decision-making, it is important to go Given the significance of the gender beyond increasing numbers to enhanc- Where to now: gaps in many areas of sport, redress- ing the effectiveness and impact of conclusions ing this situation will continue to require women’s participation, through increas- and affirmative action and the develop- ing women’s voice in shaping policies, ment of specific targeted programmes resource allocations, and programme recommendations for women and girls for some time to development and management. Wom- come. en’s access to promotion opportunities The foundations of a sound action within sporting organizations at all lev- A range of actors are taking actions to framework for the promotion of gen- els should be assessed, and the types address discrimination and inequali- der equality and the empowerment of of support mechanisms required to ties in sport, including governments, women in sport are already in place. increase these opportunities should be the United Nations system, sport- Bodies at international, regional and identified and provided. The impact of ing institutions and NGOs. Common national levels, in particular the women affirmative action measures must also strategies include awareness-raising, and sport movement, have made major be regularly assessed and strategies advocacy and gender-sensitive policy- efforts to provide clear policy recom- adjusted as necessary. Furthermore, making and programming, using both mendations to redress the imbalances databases on women leaders in sport gender-mainstreaming approaches and women and girls face in their involve- are needed as a resource for those women-specific initiatives. However, ment in all areas and at all levels of seeking candidates for leadership posi- the extent of the problem of discrimi- sport. They have also worked to accel- tions. Without such databases, organi- nation against women and girls in sport erate the process of change, in particu- zations can continue to claim that there demands further action, and success- lar through advocacy, research and data are no women with the necessary skills ful strategies and programmes must collection, and monitoring and report- or experience willing to take up key be scaled up and expanded. ing progress. There are, however, a positions. Gender mainstreaming in sport is number of areas in which this frame- Initiatives that address all forms essential and requires that sporting work can be significantly strength- of violence, exploitation and harass- bodies and institutions identify and ened and expanded, including through ment are needed at a variety of lev- explicitly address the relevant gender gender-sensitive resource allocations; els, including within families, schools, perspectives in all areas of their activi- establishing higher targets for wom- sport teams, communities, and in local, ties, for example, in policy develop- en’s participation in decision-making national, regional and international com- ment, planning processes, budget and leadership, and enhancing follow- petitions. There should be commitment procedures, human resources devel- up of these targets; and developing to creating safe and supportive envi- opment—including recruitment, pro- and implementing policies and codes of ronments for women and girls to par- motion, retention and training—and conduct in relation to violence, exploi- ticipate in sport. Improving safety and in research and statistics. The main- tation and harassment in sport. Action security requires, for example, atten- streaming of gender perspectives into plans are needed at all levels that pro- tion to suitable locations; appropriate all sport policies and programmes will vide concrete guidance on what needs scheduling; and the design of gender- require a deeper understanding of the to be done and by which actors, and sensitive and disability-aware facilities barriers women and girls may face in that also outline timelines, concrete tar- that take into account the need for accessing, participating in and benefit- gets, resource implications, and moni- secure changing rooms and adequate ing from sport and physical activity, and toring and reporting requirements. lighting and transport. Initiatives must the identification of ways to address A twin-track approach on sport for address a number of key issues such them. For example, establishing appro- women and girls with disabilities is as gender stereotyping, power relation- priate physical resources and infra- necessary, that is, ensuring that issues ships between coaches and athletes, structure, developing equitable rules of women and girls with disabilities as well as the link between interna- and regulations, and raising awareness are systematically mainstreamed into tional sporting events and prostitution

29 women2000 and beyond December 2007 and the risk of human trafficking to fill not only required for girls and young equately addressed—is identifying that demand. women; there is also a critical need means of developing accountability of A number of other critical areas need for gender-sensitive male athletes, these key actors. further attention. Monitoring and evalu- coaches, journalists and other leaders Men and boys also need to be tar- ation of the impact of initiatives, such to provide positive role models and geted for training on gender equality in support for boys and young men. as the use of targets and quotas, need sport and the empowerment of women to be significantly strengthened. Reli- Organizational change is particularly and girls. The women and sport move- able and comparable data are required, important, including changes to organi- ment should identify critical allies both as an advocacy and awareness- zational cultures, values, norms, rules among male athletes, coaches, manag- raising tool, and as a means to improve and procedures. Practical aspects of ers and other leaders, including in the the effectiveness of monitoring and organizational change can be critical to media. Men must be encouraged to play reporting on the implementation of poli- ensure women’s full involvement, such a more visible supportive role. Follow-up cies and programmes. Improved means as establishing appropriate meeting to ensure the effectiveness of training of disseminating data and statistics schedules and provision of childcare. programmes provided to both women should be sought, including through the Since the representation of women and men is critical. in sporting organizations is currently media. Initiatives are needed to build a Other critical allies could also be good knowledge base on successful low, men in leadership positions have a major responsibility for promoting and identified, for example, in parliaments strategies and promising practices for as well as in the national mechanisms increasing participation of women and sustaining the required organizational change. established to promote gender equal- girls in sport and promoting sport for ity and empowerment of women, such A range of actors should be involved gender equality. as women’s ministries, gender equal- in and collaborating on promoting Strategies that address the inad- ity commissions and ombudsperson increased access, involvement and equate and often negative portrayal of offices. benefits for women and girls in all women’s sport in the media are essen- areas of sport. These include govern- The International Year of Sport and tial. Attention should be paid not only to ments, public authorities, sporting Physical Education in 2005 generated increasing coverage but also to improv- organizations at the local, national and considerable attention to the issue of ing the quality and style of media report- international levels, research and train- sport and development throughout the ing. Efforts may include reducing the ing institutions, women’s organizations world. Now is the time to harness the sexualized representation, marketing and networks, and development agen- momentum created by the Interna- and promotion of women’s sport, and cies. Individuals who are involved with tional Year and ensure the systematic changing the dominant stereotypical promoting, conducting, researching, and effective integration of a gender gender images to reflect the progress reporting on and in any way influencing perspective in all areas and at all levels on gender equality in sport. sporting activities—such as coaches, of sport. Concerted efforts are needed The establishment of positive role trainers, managers, other officials, by all key actors to move positions for- models and development of mentor- journalists and athletes themselves— ward on gender equality in sport and on ing systems are important strategies. should also be actively involved. A the empowerment of women and girls Positive role models and support are major challenge—which remains inad- through sport.

30 December 2007 women2000 and beyond

10 Endnotes World Health Organization (2007c). Disability in Sport Working Group, Physical activity and older people: For Sport in the United Nations Conven- 1 History of Women in Sports Time- people of all ages, physical activ- tion on the rights of persons with dis- line, 1930-1959 and 1990-1997. ity improves the quality of life in abilities. Boston, United States: North- Available from www.northnet.org/ many ways. Geneva, Switzerland. eastern University. stlawrenceaauw/timelne3.htm and Available from http://www.who.int/ 19 United Nations Inter-Agency Task www.northnet.org/stlawrenceaauw/ moveforhealth/advocacy/informa- Force on Sport for Development and timelne6.htm tion_sheets/elderly/en/index.html Peace (2003). op. cit. 2 History of Women in Sports Timeline, 11 Ibid. 20 United Nations (2006b). Sport for -1899. Available from www.northnet. 12 Bailey, Richard, I. Wellard and H. Development and Peace: the way for- org/stlawrenceaauw/timeline.htm Dismore (2004). Girls’ participation ward, report of the Secretary-General 3 Oglesby, Carole A., in collaboration in physical activities and sports: Ben- (A/61/373). New York. with the International Working Group efits, patterns, influences and ways 21 United Nations (1995). Report of the on Women and Sport, WomenSport forward. Centre for Physical Education Fourth World Conference on Women International, the International Associ- and Sport Research. United Kingdom: in Beijing, 4-15 September 1995. ation of Physical Education for Women Canterbury Christ Church University New York (United Nations Publication, and Girls, and the International Council College. Available from http://www. Sales No. E.96.IV.13). See Critical Area of Sport Science and Physical Educa- icsspe.org/portal/download/Girls.pdf? of Concern B, Education and training tion (2006). “Positive Embodiment: PHPSESSID=002ba9b543c789519ae of women, Strategic Objective B.2, Contributions of Sport, Exercise and 82d8eaf0862b8 Physical Recreation to the Life-long para. 83 (m), and Critical Area of Con- 13 Development of Girls and Women”, Darlison, E (1998). Gender, sport, cern C, Women and health, Strategic brief prepared for the United Nations physical activity and social devel- Objective C.2, para. 107 (f). opment. Unpublished paper. Paris, Division for the Advancement of 22 United Nations Commission on the France: UNESCO. Quoted in: Oglesby, Women. Status of Women (1999). Report on the Carole A., et al. (2006), op. cit. 4 World Health Organization (2007a). forty-third session of the Commission Why move for health. Geneva, Swit- 14 United Nations General Assembly on the Status of Women. (E/1999/27- zerland. 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issues/part/article.html?record=863 south_asia/5094308.stm Women & Sport—Issues. Available 65 Ibid. 74 The Olympic Movement. (2004). from http://www.ausport.gov.au/women/ op. cit. fssex.asp 66 Islamic Federation of Women Sport. 75 Available from http://www.ifws.org/Eng- Riordan, James (2000). “Chinese 87 Oglesby, Carole A., et al. (2006), op. cit. Women and Sport Success, Sexual- lish/Default.aspx?page=AsasName 88 International Olympic Committee’s ity, Suspicion”, In Women in Sport and 67 “Objectives of Women Islamic Medical Commission Working Group Physical Activity Journal. 31 March on Women in Sport (2005). Position Games Met, American Coach”, 2000, vol. 9, issue 1. 28 September 2005. Available from Stand on the Female Athlete Triad. 76 Provisional Programme of Play. Wim- http://www.chnpress.com/news/ Indianapolis, United States: American bledon. The official website. Available ?Section=1&id=1251 Colleges of Sports Medicine. Avail- from http://www.wimbledon.org/en_ able from http://multimedia.olympic. 68 Women’s Sports Foundation (2006). GB/about/guide/schedule.html org/pdf/en_report_917.pdf Muslim women in sport: A minor- 77 www.pay-equity.org/PDFs/sports- 89 , WSF Factsheet, Ibid. ity within a minority professional.pdf (taken from ILO, 90 December 2006. “Facts on Women at Work”, March Oglesby, Carole A., et al. (2006), op. cit. 69 Oglesby, Carole A., et al. (2006), op. cit. 2006). 91 Ibid.

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92 Feminist Majority Foundation (1995). 102 Oglesby, Carole. A., et al. (2006), op. cit. and the Olympic Movement. Lough- “Empowering Women in Sports”. In borough, UK: Loughborough Univer- 103 Guthrie, S. R., and S. Castelnuovo Empowering Women Series, No. 4. sity. Available from http://multimedia. (2001). “Disability management United States. Available from http:// olympic.org/pdf/en_report_994.pdf among women with physical impair- www.feminist.org/research/sports/ ments: The contribution of physical 114 The Olympic Movement (2004). op. cit. sports2.html activity.” In Sociology of Sport Journal, 115 Kennesaw State University (2005). 93 Feminist Majority Foundation. Gender 18 (2001):16-17, cited in Oglesby, International Summit: Effecting social Equity in Athletics and Sports. Avail- Carole A., et al. (2006), op. cit. change through women’s leadership able from http://www.feminist.org/ 104 Oglesby, Carole A., et al. (2006), in sports. Available from http://www. sports/titleIXfactsheet.asp op. cit. kennesaw.edu/sport2005/index. 94 Ibid. shtml 105 Communication with Lydia la Rivière- 95 Equal cheers for boys and girls draw 116 Zijdel. International Labour Organization some boos. In The New York Times, press release ILO/06/8, 8 March 106 14 January 2007. International Paralympic Committee. 2006. “ILO celebrates International (2006). IPC women in sport leader- 96 Hardman, Kenneth (2004). An Update Women’s Day; champion female ath- ship toolkit: Increasing opportuni- on the Status of Physical Education in letes urge women to step up fight for ties for women in Paralympic sport. Schools Worldwide: Technical Report social justice.” Geneva. Bonn, Germany: IPC. Available from for the World Health Organization, 117 “The Coaching Association of Canada http://www.paralympic.org/release/ World Health Organization. Available launches a three-year campaign Main_Sections_Menu/IPC/Organiza- from http://www.icsspe.org/portal/ to increase the number of women tion/Standing_Committees/Commis- download/PEworldwide.pdf coaches at the community level.” In sion_Women_Sport/WISC.html 97 Ibid. Canada Sports News Online, 7 Feb- 107 The reports are available from 98 United States Centers for Disease ruary 2006. Available from http:// www.paralympic.org/release/Main_ Control and Prevention (2001). Data on www.canadiansport.ca/news/news_ Sections_Menu/IPC/Organization/ Disability Health Disparities, Healthy view_e.cfm?id=9449&search=&show Standing_Committees/Commission_ People 2010 Fact Sheet. Available =&month=&year=&searchwhere Women_Sport/WISC.html from www.cdc.gov, quoted in Oglesby, 118 International Working Group on Carole, A. et al. (2006). op. cit. 108 “IPC Celebrates International Wom- Women and Sport (1994). The Brighton 99 La Rivière-Zijdel, Lydia (2006). Dis- en’s Day 2005”, 8 March 2005. Avail- Declaration on Women and Sport: covering and Harnessing Changes: able from http://www.paralympic. Women, Sport and the Challenge of Paradigms of Change. Kuala Lumpur: org/release/Main_Sections_Menu/ Change. Available from http://www. South-East Asia Women in Sports Media/Press_Releases/2005_03_ iwg-gti.org Conference; and La Rivière-Zijdel, 08_a.html 119 International Olympic Committee Lydia (2007). Weerbaarheid krijgen we 109 International Paralympic Committee (2005). Support activities. The official niet in onze opvoeding aangeleerd. In (2006). op. cit. website of the Olympic Movement. Wieldraayer et al. De weerbare sporter. Available from http://www.olympic. 110 Ibid. Deventer: daM Publications. org/uk/organisation/missions/women/ 111 100 International Paralympic Committee Fasting, Kari, and Nadezda Knorre activities/activities_uk.asp (2001). Women and sport progress (2005). Women in Sport in the Czech 120 History of Women in Sports Time- report. Bonn, Germany. Available from Republic: The Experiences of Female line, 1960-1979. Available from: http://www.paralympic.org/release/ Athletes. Praha, Czech Republic: Nor- www.northnet.org/stlawrenceaauw/ Main_Sections_Menu/News/Cur- wegian School of Sports Sciences timelne4.htm rent_Affairs/2001_10_31_a.html and Czech Olympic Committee. 121 Ms. Magazine, Summer 2004, vol. 14, 101 La Rivière-Zijdel, Lydia (2007). ”The 112 International Olympic Committee issue 2, p. 54 (taken from ILO (2006), Convention as an instrument to (2005). Africa sets the pace in the pro- Facts on Women at Work, 2006). advance sport participation of women motion of women in sport. The official 122 Phillips, Murray G. (1996). An illusory and girls with disabilities: A response website of the Olympic Movement. image: A report on the media cover- from the International Working Group Available from http://www.olympic. age and portrayal of women’s sport. on Women and Sport”. In International org/uk/organisation/missions/women/ Australia: Australian Sports Commis- Disability in Sport Working Group, full_story_uk.asp?id=1582 sion Publications. Sport in the United Nations Conven- 113 International Olympic Committee 123 Mickan, Pat. Proof Committee Han- tion on the rights of persons with and the Institute of Sport and Leisure sard, 4 August 2006. Australia: South disabilities, Northeastern University. Policy (2004). Women, Leadership Australian Premier’s Council for

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Women. Available from http://www. August 2004. Available from http:// 144 Ibid. aph.gov.au/senate/committee/ecita_ www.womenssportsfoundation.org/ 145 Deford, Frank (2003). Commentary ctte/womeninsport/report/c06.pdf cgi-bin/iowa/issues/media/article. on “Morning Edition”. National Public 124 html?record=1064 “Women’s sports takes a hit when Radio. 23 July. Available from http:// Wie faces the men”, In Sports Illus- 131 Australian Sports Commission. Women www.npr.org/templates/story/story. trated, 20 July 2005. Available from and Sport Issues: Sexploitation. Avail- php?storyId=1354651 http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2005/ able from http://www.ausport.gov.au/ 146 writers/frank_deford/07/20/michelle. women/fssex.asp “Berlin, capital of football and prosti- tution”. In Guardian Weekly, 19 March wie/ 132 Huang, Thomas (2004). op. cit. 125 “Q & A: Media Coverage of Wom- 2006. 133 Ibid. en’s Sports”. Available from http:// 147 Smee, Jess, Society (2006). Forced 134 Australian Sports Commission. Women www.womenssportsfoundation.org/ Prostitution Shadows World Cup, Ber- and Sport Issues: Sexploitation. Avail- cgi-bin/iowa/issues/media/article. lin: Inter-Press Service IPS, 13 June html?record=965 able from http://www.ausport.gov.au/ women/fssex.asp 2006. Available from http://ipsnews. 126 Deford, Frank (2004).“Timing is every- net/news.asp?idnews=33590 135 thing: The women’s NCAA tourna- Ibid. 148 ment should be moved to February”, 136 Reus Bradley, Charlotte (2006). Abuso Hennig, J., et al. (2006). Trafficking in Sports Illustrated, CNN Network en el deporte. Mexico City: Asociación in human beings and the 2006 World Site, 17 March. Available from http:// Civil Deporte, Mujer y Salud. p. 3. Cup in Germany: Draft Report. Inter- national Office for Migration. See images.si.com/2004/writers/frank_ 137 Oglesby, Carole A., et al. (2006), deford/03/17/viewpoint/index.html op. cit. also: “No Rise in Human Trafficking in Germany Due to World Cup”, 15 July 127 Information received from Carole A. 138 Fasting, Kari (2005). Research on 2006. Available from http://www. Oglesby. sexual harassment and abuse in humantrafficking.org/updates/382 128 Phillips, Murray G. (1996). An illusory sport. Available from http://www. image: A report on the media cover- idrottsforum.org/articles/fasting/ 149 “Row over special visas for women age and portrayal of women’s sport. fasting050405.pdf for World Cup”, Indo-Asian News Australia: Australian Sports Commis- 139 Bradley Reus, Charlotte (2006). op. cit. Service, 10 March 2006. Avail- sion Publications; and Dianne Jones 140 White, Anita, and D. Scoretz (2002), able from http://in.sports.yahoo.com/ (2004). “Half the Story? Olympic From Windhoek to Montreal, Women 060310/43/62wno.html. Women on ABC News Online.” Inter- and Sport Progress Report 1998- 150 national Australia incorporating Cul- Council of Europe (2005). op. cit. 2002. Tokyo–Chiyoda Central Station. ture and Policy (110). pp. 132-146. 151 Council of Europe (2000). op. cit. Japan: International working group on 129 Lynn, Susan (2002). “Selling Girls women and sport—IWG Secretariat. 152 WomenSport International, Sexual har- Short: Advertising and Gender Available from http://www.sport- assment and abuse of girls and women Images in Sports Illustrated for Kids.” development.org.uk/html/women_ in sport, WSI Position Statement. In Women in Sport and Physical Activ- progress_report_2002.html Estados Unidos, WomenSport Inter- ity Journal, fall 2002, vol. 11, issue 2. 141 Virginia: National Association for Girls Ibid. national. Available from http://www. and Women in Sports. p. 77. 142 Fasting, Kari, and Nadezda Knorre sportsbiz.bz/womensportinternational/ archives/index.htm#IOCConcensus 130 Huang, Thomas (2004). August 2004 (2005). op. cit. Olympian Too Sexy for Their Own 143 Bradley Reus, Charlotte (2006). 153 Oglesby, Carole A., et al. (2006). Good? Dallas Morning News, 22 op. cit. p. 3. op. cit.

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40 Publications

Ending Violence against Women: From Words to Action— Study of the Secretary-General

The study, which addresses violence against women as a form of discrimination and a human rights violation, finds that such violence is severe and pervasive throughout the world, causing untold misery for women, harming families across generations, impoverish- ing communities and reinforcing other forms of violence throughout societies. The study acknowledges the work of grass-roots women’s organizations and movements around the world in bringing violence against women into the arena of public attention and State accountability. It analyses the causes, forms and consequences of violence against women, reviews available data and outlines States’ obligations to address such violence. While the study describes promising practices in the areas of law, service provision for victims and prevention, it also notes remaining challenges in bringing an end to violence against women. The study puts forward a blueprint for action, by different stakeholders, at local, national and international levels. Such action needs to involve demonstrations of political commit- ment; the investment of resources; and strong institutional mechanisms that can develop and implement comprehensive approaches for the prevention and eradication of all forms of violence against women. Securing women’s human rights and promotion of gender equality are crucial to this agenda. The study is available in English, French and Spanish.

Sales No. E.06.IV.8 • ISBN: 978-92-1-130253-0 • Price $38.00

World Survey of the Role of Women in Development: Women and International Migration A flagship publication of the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat, the 2004 World Survey on the Role of Women in Development addresses key issues related to women and international migration. A gender perspective is essential to understanding both the causes and consequences of international migration. Migrant women contribute to the economic development of their country of destination and to the country of origin through financial contributions from remittances, the improvement of their own skills and their contributions to the improvement of the education and skills of the next generation. Women often migrate officially as dependent family members of other migrants or marry someone in another country. Many national laws on emigration and immigration of voluntary migrants include discriminatory provisions that affect the protection of migrant women. Refugee women and girls face particular problems regarding their legal and physi- cal protection. The trafficking of people for prostitution and forced labour is one of the fastest-growing areas of international criminal activity and one that is of increasing concern to the international community. International migration affects gender roles and opportuni- ties for women in destination countries. The 2004 World Survey analyses key issues on labour migration, family formation and reunification, rights of migrant women, refugees and displaced persons, as well as trafficking of women and girls. It sets out recommendations, which, if adopted, will improve the situation of migrant, refugee and trafficked women.

Sales No. E.04.IV.4 • ISBN 92-1-130235-8 • Price $19.95 Publications

The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women and its Optional Protocol Handbook for Parliamentarians

This Handbook, produced by the Division for the Advancement of Women of the United Nations Secretariat in collaboration with the Inter-Parliamentary Union, offers a compre- hensive and educational presentation of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women and its Optional Protocol. The Handbook presents the background to and content of the Convention and the Optional Protocol and describes the role of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, which secures implementation at the national level. It provides examples of good practices and gives an overview of what parliamentarians can do to ensure effective implementation of the Conven- tion and encourage use of the Optional Protocol. It also proposes model instruments and reference materials as aids designed to facilitate the work of legislators. The Handbook is available in Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish.

Sales No. E.03.IV.5 • ISBN 92-1-130226-9 • Price $18.95 Ordering publications

All orders from North America, Latin America and Customers in the Caribbean, and Asia and the Pacific Europe, Africa and should be sent to: the Middle East should send their orders to: United Nations Publications 2 UN Plaza, Room DC2-853 United Nations Publications New York, NY 10017, USA Sales Office and Bookshop Tel.: 212 963 8302; CH-1211, Geneva 10, Switzerland toll free 1 800 253 9646 (North America only) Tel.: 41 22 917 2614 Fax: 212 963 3489 Fax: 44 22 917 0027 E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected]

Back issues of Women 2000 and Beyond

Back issues of Women 2000 and Beyond This issue of are available to download from: Women 2000 and Beyond http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/public/w2000.html was prepared in collaboration with Carole A. Oglesby Gender equality and empowerment and the International of women through ICT (September 2005) Working Group on Women and Sport (IWG) and Women and Water (February 2005) WomenSport International (WSI).

Making Risky Environments Safer: Women Building The document was Sustainable and Disaster-Resilient Environments (April 2004) peer-reviewed by Johanna Adriaanse, Women, nationality and citizenship (June 2003) Karl Fasting and Lydia la Rivière-Zijdel.

Gender Dimensions of Ageing (March 2002)

Widowhood, invisible women, secluded or excluded (December 2001)

Integrating a gender perspective into United Nations human rights work (December 1998)

Sexual Violence and Armed Conflict: United Nations Response (April 1998)

Women and decision-making (1997) The cover is adapted Women and the Information Revolution (1996) from “Sprite”, 1997, by Edwina Sandys

The role of women in United Nations peace-keeping (1995) Division for the Advancement of Women Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat

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