Chapter 7 Water Demand, Use and Hydraulic Infrastructure

Nile Basin Water Resources Atlas / 169 Key messages

Ethiopia (18%). The topography and reservoirs within the Nile of the Nile provides opportuni- basin is estimated at 17.6 BCM. ties for power generation, espe- Due to the size of the reservoir cially Ethiopia. Hydropower is surface area and the climate, the a major water user in the Nile, evaporation from the High Aswan relying on water passing through Dam is the highest. turbines to generate electricity. Most power plants within the Despite the power deficits in the Nile are run of the river. However Nile Partner states, power trade water can be consumed via seep- is low, and only restricted to lim- age and evaporation from the ited exchange (Ethiopia-Sudan; reservoirs created for hydropow- Kenya-Uganda; Uganda-Rwan- er facilities. Factors determining da and Rwanda-DRC-Burundi. Photo: istock Photo: the amount of consumed water The NBI in collaboration with Agriculture is a major livelihood major limiting factor for agricul- – climate, reservoir design and the Eastern African Power Pool strategy in the Nile Basin, sus- tural development in the basin. allocations to other uses – are (EAPPP) promotes regional taining tens of millions of people. Productivity is highly influenced highly site-specific and variable. transmission interconnection. It provides occupations for more by spatial variations of rainfall in The regional interconnection than 75% of the total labour the rain-fed system while in the The net evaporation from dams backbone under development is force and contributes to one- irrigated areas scheme manage- third of the GDP in the basin. An ment is the main determining estimated 5.4 million hectares factor in the productivity varia- of land is under irrigation ba- tion sin-wide, where over 97% of this area is in Egypt and Sudan. The Energy is vital to the future actual area cultivated on aver- growth of the Nile Basin riparian age is approximately 6.4 million states. The per capita energy hectares. The total estimated consumption in the Nile riparian annual irrigation water demand states, except Egypt, is below for irrigation is approximately 85 the requirements for rural supply BCM; the actual basin-wide with- in sub Saharan Africa (250kWh/ drawal of water from the Nile for capita/year) which calls for irrigation is estimated as 82.2 increased production. Hydro- BCM. In few irrigation schemes, electric power is key in meeting due to mainly lack of sufficient the energy deficit in the partner water storage, all the irrigation states. The current installed ca- water requirements are not met. pacity of hydropower on the Nile Water scarcity in terms of both is estimated at 5660MW of which physical water scarcity and eco- 40% is generated in Egypt. This

nomic water scarcity remains the is followed by Sudan (28%) and istock photo:

170 / Nile Basin Water Resources Atlas photo: istock photo: expected to add more than 4600 The per capita water availability torrential rain followed by a long fold to five to six-fold during the circuit kilometers of new trans- among the Nile riparian states is dry season which requires the same period. mission lines at various voltage decreasing, due to rapid popula- storage of water. Perhaps most levels in the riparian states of tion growth, urbanization and in- difficult of all is a combination of Although fisheries are usually non Ethiopia, Uganda, Kenya, Tanza- adequate investment of riparian extreme seasonality (intra-annu- consumptive users of water, they nia, Rwanda, Burundi, DRC, South states in hydraulic infrastructure al) and variability (inter-annual) require particular quantities and Sudan, and Djibouti (outside NBI). over the last four decades. The – characteristics of many of the seasonal timing of flows in rivers Such interconnection projects very low per capita water storage Nile riparian states which affects and their dependent wetlands, allow utilities to share reserve capacity available to the Riparian the Nile riparian state economies. lakes, and estuaries. Freshwater margins across a wider operating States, Kenya (103m3/capita) and fish resources in the Nile basin area, thus reducing the need for Ethiopia (38m3/capita), clearly The total water demand for are probably among the most costly installed capacity to meet illustrates the risks the countries Municipal and Industrial uses has resilient harvestable natural reserve requirements. As exam- are facing due to the high sea- been estimated at 12,900 MCM resources, provided their habitat, ple the 500 kV HVDC Eastern sonality of the Nile and its trib- per year for the whole Nile Basin. including the quantity, timing, Electricity Highway Project under utaries, especially those in the Nearly 97% of this demand oc- and variability of river flow, is the Eastern Africa Power Inte- Eastern Nile. This exposes Nile curs in Egypt. Nearly 97% of this maintained. The Nile Basin annual gration Program will allow Kenya basin riparian states to flood and demand occurs in Egypt. While fresh fish production is estimated to purchase relatively cheaper drought risks. Even more diffi- population in the Nile basin ripar- at three million tons of which 57% hydropower energy from Ethiopia cult hydrology is in the Blue Nile ian states is estimated to nearly is apportioned to capture fish- and support Ethiopia’s system system, where rainfall is mark- double by 2030, domestic water eries in the lakes and rivers. The when water is scarce. edly seasonal – a short season of demand is expected to grow five- total fisheries capture is estimat- ed at three million tons annually in the Nile riparian states (WDI, 2016). Egypt has the greatest yield in fisheries production at 50%, followed by Uganda 19% and Tanzania 12%.

There has been a long history of water transport on Lake Victoria, contributing to domestic and in- ternational trade within the lake basin. However, deterioration of train service severely affected rail networks and the rail-depen- dant lake transport. Most cargo and passengers are now moving by road around the lake, whose economic life decreased. As for South Sudan, navigation is also a long established practice, although it suffered during the South/North political conflict. Cheaper and safer than roads, it now represents a mode of consid- erable importance for the coun- try developing transport sector. photo: istock photo:

Nile Basin Water Resources Atlas / 171 introduction photo: istock photo:

Water use is simply the amount of as well as non-consumptive Together, the countries of the other countries in the basin (FAO water used by a country or other uses. The water use sectors Nile basin use almost 90% of Aquastat 2005). lower entity such as a household. that have been included in the the region’s renewable water Some of the varied uses in the Nile Basin water Resources resources. Egypt and Sudan, which Recent strategic analysis by the Nile basin riparian states include Atlas are: Irrigated agriculture; need water from outside their Nile Basin Initiative secretariat hydro-electricity generation, Hydropower, Municipal and borders, account for the largest supports this fact indicating Municipal and Industrial water Industrial (M and I) uses for large water withdrawals at 57 and 31 per that most of the stream flow of supply, agriculture, fishing, urban centers. Evaporation from cent of the total renewable water the Nile is allocated - used for recreation, transport, tourism and dams is also considered as water withdrawals, respectively. The industrial, domestic, agricultural waste disposal. use. Water demands for other per capita withdrawals for these and ecological water supply. Each uses are not included due to lack two countries are almost 10 to 15 year, on the average, 12 – 14 BCM Water use includes consumptive of information. times the amounts withdrawn by reaches the Mediterranean.

172 / Nile Basin Water Resources Atlas Hydraulic Infrastructure in the Nile

Edfina weir Alexandria Zifta Barrage El-Giza Location of a Dam / Barrage Delta Barrage Cairo Suez Location of small scale irrigation scheme

Large scale Irrigation scheme

Main Nile

Assiut Barrage

Egypt Photo: Milly Mbuliro Milly Photo: Nag-Hammady Barrage Jebel Aulia dam Esna barrage

Old Aswan dam High Aswan Dam

Lake Nasser

Bur Sudan Photo: ENTRO Photo: Tekeze dam in Ethiopia Merowe

Main Nile

Tekeze

Sudan Khartoum Eritrea Asmara Jebel Aulia Khashm el Girba

Sennar Dam Tekeze Dam TK5 El Obeid

Blue Nile Rahad Photo: A’Melody Lee; World Bank

White NileWhite Lake Tana Kira power station Jinja, Uganda Roseires Dam Tana Beles Koga

Bahr el Arab Amerti

Sobat Finchaa Lol Addis Ababa Jur Ethiopia Baro Bahr el Zeraf

Kuru Akobo Alwero Pongo

South Sudan Pibor

Suo Photo: istock Photo: High Aswan dam

Tanj

Bahr El Jebel

Albert Nile Aswa

Lake Albert Lake Kyoga Uganda

Kampala Bujagali Ellegirini Democratic Republic of the Congo Owen Falls Sondu Miriu Kenya Lake Edward Lake George Photo: NBI Photo: Migori Kagera Lake Victoria Nairobi GERD dam under construction

Mara

Rwanda Ruwana

Ntaruka Mugere United Republic of Tanzania 0 95 190 380 Ruvyironza Kilometers Burundi The NBI is not an authority on international boundaries

Nile Basin Water Resources Atlas / 173 Dams

Storage dams in the Nile Basin

Growth in Cummulative Storage of Dams in the Nile Basin

450

400

350

300

250

200

Cumulative Storage (BCM) Storage Cumulative 150

100

50

0 1902 1937 1964 1970 1995 2009 2011 2012 2015

Photo: Milly Mbuliro Milly Photo: Year Storage dam in Ethiopia

3 Data obtained from NBI member states Renaissance Dam, which has become the Renewable internal fresh water resources per capita (m ) show that as of 2014, there are 14 stor- key project in the nation’s plan to increase Burundi 930 age dams basin-wide with a total storage its electricity supply fivefold by 2015. It DR Congo 12,020 capacity of about 203 BCM. The growth in will have an estimated installed capacity Egypt 20 1,258 aggregate storage capacities of all dams in of 6000 MW, and a reservoir capacity (74 Ethiopia Kenya 461 the basin is shown in the adjacent figure. BCM). The dam together with its power Rwanda 838 house, when finished, will be Africa’s larg- South Sudan 2,183 It is interesting to note that, after a peri- est hydroelectric power plant. Sudan 102 od of four decades of near stagnation in Tanzania 1,621 1,032 dam construction during 1968 – 2007, Per Capita Water Availability in the Uganda 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000 11000 12000 13000 the basin is witnessing more and more Nile Partner States Source: WDI 2016 storage dams added to the system. In addition, the Owens Fall (Nalubalee) Population growth, urbanization and Water storage per capita in selected countries (m3/capita) dam built at the outlet of Lake Victoria socio-economic growth are the major rea- in Uganda provides an additional 200 sons for the decreasing per capita water North America 5961 BCM of live storage to the Lake. Dams availability in the Nile Basin states. With Australia 4717 on the Nile conserve water and provide per capita internal water resources avail- Brazil 3386 sustained supply for meeting demands. ability less than 1000 m3, Sudan, Rwanda, China 2486 1277 Lake Nasser, in Egypt was formed after Kenya, Egypt and Burundi can be catego- Thailand 1104 the construction of the Aswan High rized as water scarce. The per capita stor- Mexico South Africa 687 Dam in 1970. The total capacity of the age capacity of the partner states is low. Kenya 103 Aswan reservoir (162 BCM) consists of These trends call for improved storage in Ethiopia 38 dead storage of 31.6 BCM, active storage these Nile Basin States. 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 of 90.7 BCM and emergency storage for Source: FAO-Aquastat 2008 flood protection of 41 BCM. After the With an aggregate basin-wide storage construction of the High Aswan Dam, capacity of just over 200 BCM (excluding completed in 1970, no storage was added the Nalubaale dam), most of the Nile Basin Storage and Economic Performance in Kenya to the Nile Basin till 2009 when the countries have the least per capita water Water storage has been positively correlated with performance of Nile Tekezze dam with capacity of 9.29 BCM storage by world standards. In a region economies. Where economic performance is closely linked to rainfall was built. Other storage dams construct- with severe seasonal and intra-annual and runoff, growth becomes ed since then include, the Merowe dam variability and anticipated climate change, hostage to hydrology. Kenya’s (12.39 BCM capacities) and Roseries absence of adequate storage capacity limited water storage capacity heightening (to 5.9 BCM) completed in means more vulnerability to impacts of leaves the country vulnerable 2009 and 2012 respectively. Bujjagali climate shocks. to climate and hydrologic vari- dam with capacity of 0.75 BCM was built ability. Kenya’s total water stor- in Uganda. In Sudan, the main reser- There is a trend between a country’s age capacity is 4.1 bcm, or 103 voirs are the Jebel Aulia reservoir on the Human Development Index (HDI) and per m3 per capita, which is very White Nile, Senar and Roseries storage capita water storage. Water storage in coun- 3 Photo: Flore de Preneuf / World Bank low. Of the estimated 103 m reservoirs on the Blue Nile, Merowe tries with a high HDI (>0.85) tends to be Siltation threatens hydropower, per capita, 100 m3 per capita is an important source of electricity in Kenya reservoir on the Main Nile and Khashm in the range of 2,500 and 3,000 m3/capita. single-purpose storage for hy- El Girba reservoir on Atbara. Countries with HDI of 0.55 tend to have dropower production only. This means that only 3 m3 per capita of storage In 2012, work began on Ethiopia’s Grand has a storage of about 173 m3 per capita. is available for water supply and other uses such as irrigated agriculture and livestock. No major dams have been constructed since Ndakaini dam in the mid-1990s, which supplies water to Nairobi. Kenya also experiences significant hydrologic variability throughout and between years. Without sufficient water storage to lessen the effects of variability, frequent and severe floods and droughts have been resulting in devastating economic and livelihood consequences. Kenya, with a HDI of 0.548 in 2015, has a per capita storage of 103 m3, which is low (adapted from UNDP, 2015)

174 / Nile Basin Water Resources Atlas Storage and Economic rates drop by as much as 38% as performance in Ethiopia a consequence of this variability. In Hydrological variability seriously Ethiopia, so sensitive is economic undermines growth and perpetuates growth to hydrological variability that poverty in Ethiopia. The economic even a single drought event within cost of hydrological variability is a twelve year period (the historical estimated at over one third of the average is every 3-5 years) will dimin- nation’s average annual growth ish average growth rates across the potential, and these diminished rates entire 12-year period by 10%. During are compounded over time. Yet, with the 1984–5 drought, for example, GDP declined by 9.7%, agriculture NBI Photo: much greater hydrological variability GERD dam under construction than North America, Ethiopia has less output declined by 21%, and gross than 1% of the artificial water storage domestic savings declined by 58.6%. can be disrupted, because there is and water-logging of productive land capacity per capita to manage that Drought also severely undermines inadequate water storage capacity to undermines agriculture by delay- variability. Economy-wide models hydropower generation, Ethiopia’s smooth and schedule water delivery. ing planting, reducing yields, and that incorporate hydrological vari- main source of electricity. If rains Flooding meanwhile causes signif- compromising the quality of crops, ability in Ethiopia show that projec- fail, or simply come too early or too icant damage to settlements and especially if the rains occur around tions of average annual GDP growth late, the entire agricultural cycle infrastructure, and the inundation harvest time

Evaporation from Dams along the Nile

Net Evaporation from Dams (BCM/year) On the average an estimated 17.6 BCM of Due to its large reservoir surface area water evaporates from major dams in the and the hot climate, the High Aswan Dam 12 Nile Basin. Net evaporation from dams has the biggest net annual evaporation is defined as the year total of evaporation followed by Jebel Aulia dam. In most up- 10 from the dams reduced by the annual stream dams, the net evaporation is very total of precipitation on the reservoir small due to partly the relatively cool/ 8 surface. As example, an estimated 10 – 12 temperate climate and high rainfall. This 6 BCM are lost through evaporation each is the case, for instance, for most Ethio- year from the High Aswan Dam (HAD). pian dams. Net Evaporation (BCM) Evaporation Net 4 Net Evaporation from selected dams on the Nile 2 Dam Period Net Evaporation (BCM) Gebel Awlia 1950 - 2014 2.4 0 Khashm el Girba 1964 - 2014 0.19 TK-5 Merowe Alwero Koga dam High Aswan Dam 1970 - 2014 12.35 Gebel Awlia Fincha Dam Khashm el Girba High Aswan Dam Fincha Dam 1973 - 2014 0.14 Amerti-Neshe dam Roseries (heightened) Koga dam 2007 - 2014 0.04 TK-5 2009 - 2014 0.18 Merowe 2009 - 2014 1.54 Amerti-Neshe dam 2011-2014 0 Roseries (heightened) 2012 - 2014 0.75 Alwero 1995 - 2014 0

Hydro-electricity Power Generation in the Nile Basin Member States

Hydropower is one of the purposes most load power in the Nile Basin states. Hydro- dams in the Nile Basin serve. The aggre- power options remain the preferred source gate installed capacities of 22 hydropower of energy in the region because they have plants basin-wide is approximately 5660 long economic life which translates to very MW. The distribution of the existing low per unit cost of energy and a renewable hydropower installed capacity and annual source of energy at that and with proper generation capacity as of 2014 is shown in preparation of the reservoir, are pollution the figures below. free and could be eligible for carbon credits

Hydropower offers an important low-car- In the next section, details will be given on bon energy solution to meet the massive selected hydropower generation potential

unmet demand and provides reliable base- for the sub-basins of the Nile. istock Photo: Hydroelectric power plant in Aswan dam (Egypt).

Baseline Installed capacity (Hydropower) by Country (MW) Energy generation by selected member states (GWH/year)

Burundi 930 Egypt 10,000 DR Congo Egypt 2281 Ethiopia 4283 Ethiopia 1070 Kenya 83 Kenya 224 Rwanda South Sudan Sudan 8239 Sudan 1591 Tanzania Uganda 2822 Uganda 630 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000

Nile Basin Water Resources Atlas / 175 Hydropower Generation Potential

Nile Basin’s potential for hydroelectric pow- substantial discharge, the Blue Nile has the er is quite substantial. The Blue Nile drops largest hydropower potential in the Nile Ba- some 1,360-m between Lake Tana and sin. A number of sites with high hydropower its exit point into Sudan. Coupled with its potential have been studied in the past. Photo: istock Photo: Owen falls dam, Jinja Uganda

Blue Nile River Longitudinal Profile Tekeze-Atbara River Longitudinal Profile

1950 2400 Lake Tana Karadobi 1800 Karadobi 2250 proposed dam proposed dam 2100 1650 1950 1500 1800 1350 Beko Abo 1650 proposed Tekeze II dam proposed dam 1200 1500 Sudan 1050 1350 GERD dam 1200 Upper Atabara and 900 Roseires dam Sennar dam 1050 Setit dam Complex Elevation (masl) Elevation 750 (masl) Elevation 900 600 750 Kashm El Girba dam 450 600 Ethiopia Sudan 450 Ethiopia 300 300 150 150 0 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1350 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 850 Distance (km) Distance (km)

The Tekeze-Atbara river drops for about 1770-m between the Ethiopian highlands and Rumela-Burdana (Atbara Complex) dam on Atbara river. The identified potential hydropower site in the reach is Tekeze II (450 MW).

Victoria Nile Longitudinal Profile Ruvubu River Longitudinal Profile 1100 1650 Oriang proposed dam 1050 1610 1000 Lake Kyoga 1570 950 Ayago proposed dam Karuma 1530 900 proposed dam 1490 850 Kiba proposed dam

800 Murchison proposed dam 1450 Rusumo Falls 750 1410 proposed HPP Elevation (masl) Elevation Elevation (masl) Elevation 700 1370 650 1330 600 Lake Albert 550 1290

500 1250 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 Distance (km) Distance (km)

In the Nile Equatorial Lake Sub-basin, the Victoria Nile drops for about 415- The Ruvubu river drops for about 300-m from upper Kagera mountains to m between Lake Kyoga and Lake Albert. The identified potential hydropow- the junction with the Nyabarongo river at Rusumo falls er sites in the reach include Karuma (576 MW), Oriang (392 MW), Ayago (582 MW), Kiba (288 MW) and Murchison Falls (648 MW).

176 / Nile Basin Water Resources Atlas Bahr El Ghazal river profile (originating Lol River to Lake No) Bahr El Jebel River Profile and downstream part of main Nile

800 700 Fula dam Lake Shukoli dam 700 600

Lakki 600 Jebel Aulia dam Jebel Aulia dam 500 Bedden dam Shereiq dam Shereiq dam 500 Dagash Dagash dam Elevation (masl) Elevation

Elevation (masl) Elevation Lake No 400 Lake No 400 Khartoum city Merowe dam Khartoum city Merowe dam 300 300 South Sudan Sudan South Sudan Sudan Uganda 200 200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 2800 Distance (km) Distance (km)

The Bahr El Ghazal is formed by a number of poorly defined streams. Bahr El Jebel River stretches a distance of about 1,000 km from the outlet Many of these streams originate from the Nile Congo divide. The streams of Lake Albert to the inlet of Lake No. The stretch has a drop of about are Bahr El Arab, Lol, Jur, Gel, Tonj, Yei and Naam. Lol stream originates 250m and has several potential hydropower sites such as Fula I, Shukoli, from the highlands at an altitude of about 700 masl and drops to about Lakki, and Bedden. 400 masl before it joins other streams and forms Bahr El Ghazal river with confluence at Lake No with Bahr El Jebel. Lake No is a large shallow lagoon, where the sluggish Bahr el Ghazal joins the Bahr el Jebel.

Projected increment in installed capacity Projected growth in total installed capacity of hp plants, MW Looking into the future, existing national Most of the increase is expected to be in plans indicate a substantial increase in in- the Blue Nile sub-basin. The GERD will 30000 stalled capacity in the period 2017 – 2050. inject 6000 MW of installed capacity. The Projected growth in aggregate installed Rusumo falls project, which is the first 25000 capacity in the Nile Basin is shown in hydro-electric power project cooperatively the adjacent chart. The total increase implemented by Burundi, Rwanda and 20000 in installed capacity by about 2050 will Tanzania with the facilitation of NBI will 15000 be over 20,000 MW bringing the total produce 81 MW. installed capacity to about 26,000 MW. Installed capacity, MW capacity, Installed 10000

5000

0 2015 2016 2017 2018 2020 2021 2022 2025 2028 2030 2035 Power Plants in the Basin Year

Uganda’s Bujagali Hydroelectric Power Plant Financing through Power Plants in the Basin- The Tekeze Hydroelectric Power Plant Public-Private Partnerships1 The dam is located on the Despite being one of Africa’s Tekeze River, a tributary of the fastest growing economies, Nile, in a mountainous region Uganda had one of the lowest of Ethiopia. At 188m high, the electrification rates in the Tekeze Arch Dam ranks as the world. Only 2% of its rural highest dam in Africa, eclipsing population had access to the previous record height for an electricity, and the country African dam of 185m held by the suffered from frequent rolling ENTRO Photo: Katse Arch Dam in Lesotho. It Photo: www.akdn.org Photo: The Tekeze Dam Aerial view of the Bujagali plant blackouts – requiring expen- generates 300 MW adding 40% sive emergency generation, energy to the 683 MW previous- The project which was regionally identified through the NEL- SAP SSEA, will enhance power trade with neighboring Kenya, costing USD 9 million per ly generated for the entire country. The dam impounds a 70-km-long reser- through the Nile Basin Planned Kenya-Uganda Interconnector. month. In 2007, to meet these voir. An underground powerhouse, containing four 75 MW Francis Turbines, shortfalls, the government is located 500 mm downstream from the dam and fed by a 75-m-high intake decided the least cost option - a USD 860 million hydroelectric power plant structure connected by a 500-meter-long concrete-lined power tunnel. in Bujagali, 8 km down the Nile from Lake Victoria. However, it needed A 105-km-long 230 kV double-circuit transmission line was constructed financiers and large hydropower developers to implement the project. The through rugged, mountainous terrain with minimal environmental impact to government established a public-private partnership called Bujagali Energy connect to the Ethiopian national grid. Limited, which would own the plant for a 30-year concessionary period before transferring it to Uganda.

The project which was regionally identified through the NELSAP SSEA, will enhance power trade with neighboring Kenya, through the Nile Basin Initia- tive Planned Kenya-Uganda Interconnector Multilateral lenders including the World Bank, the European Investment Bank, and the African Development Bank joined in with private financiers, such as South Africa’s ABSA Capital and Standard Chartered Bank. Commissioning of the dam took place in Au- gust 2012. Today the 250 MW hydropower plant meets half of Uganda’s en- ergy needs. The project’s construction created over 3,000 local jobs. Bujagali was registered in 2012 as a Clean Development Mechanism project, making it the largest ever registered in a Least Developed Country.

1International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA)

Nile Basin Water Resources Atlas / 177 Regional Interconnection Backbone Photo: istock Photo: Panorama across Cairo skyline at night

The Nile Basin Initiative promotes regional need for installed capacity to meet reserve Phase of the Eastern Africa Power Integra- transmission interconnection projects in requirements. Regional interconnection tion Program will allow Kenya to purchase partnership with the Eastern Africa Power becomes even more important as the pene- relatively cheaper hydropower energy from Pool. Such interconnection projects allow tration of variable renewable energy grows. Ethiopia and support Ethiopia’s system utilities to share reserve margins across As example, the 500 kV HVDC Eastern when water is scarce. a wider operating area, thus reducing the Electricity Highway Project under the First

Electricity Consumption

Electricity net consumption (KWh/c), 2010 Electricity demand in much of the Nile Except Egypt, the Nile Basin member states

Basin is constrained by available supply, all have a per capita electricity consumption Uganda 64.5 resulting in people either not having any which is lower than the initial threshold Tanzania 89.0 access or not being able to consume as much level of electricity consumption for rural Sudan & South Sudan 140.8 as they would like. Such unmet demand is households (250 kilowatt-hours per year). Rwanda 30.3 not captured in electricity data and makes it Investments are required in hydropower Kenya 150.3 difficult to measure electricity demand in a and transmission interconnectors, to raise Ethiopia 50.9 1567.3 holistic sense. the threshold to at 500 kWh per year (rec- Egypt Congo (Kinshasa) 107.3 ommended for urban households). Burundi 24.7 0 500 1000 1500 2000 Source: US Energy Information Administration

Cost of Electrical Outages Losses due to electrical outages as percentage of annual sales 2012 Today, unreliable power services mean the cost of running backup generators that businesses and factories are frequent- and forgoing production during power Uganda 11.2 Tanzania 15.1 ly interrupted, reducing profits and re- shortages. As an example, the use of Sudan 1.2 quiring an array of back-up sources. These backup generators as a hedge against South sudan 13.6 often come in the form of diesel gener- unreliable supply is estimated to cost Rwanda 2.6 ators, which are polluting and require the East African Economies of Kenya, Kenya 7 6.9 costly fuel inputs. The economic costs of Uganda and Tanzania, 2 %, 5% and 4% Ethiopia Egypt 7.7 power outages are substantial in the Nile of GDP each year (AICD, 2012). Through DR Congo 7.8 basin partner states. Interconnectors, the distributed nature of Burundi 3.4 renewable power generation can also help 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Source: US Energy Information Administration The immediate economic cost of power to alleviate the problem of power service shortages can be gauged by looking at unreliability.

178 / Nile Basin Water Resources Atlas Electricity Trade

The remote location of many Hydro Elec- hydropower, to serve larger markets. As Net power trade (GWh), 2012 tric Power (HEP) plants (Victoria Nile, shown in the adjacent chart, power trade

Bahr el Jebel or the Baro Akobo Sobat and within the Nile Basin is limited. Uganda 0.011 Blue Nile systems) require new trans- Tanzania mission infrastructure to connect power The transmission lines in the Ethiopia Sudan & South Sudan 0 plants to load centers. Until recently, Power Trade project and the NEL Inter- Rwanda -0.077 Nile Basin states developed their power connector Project are being designed and Kenya -0.011 0.4 systems largely independently of one built with a view to creating a backbone Ethiopia Egypt 1.397 another, focusing on domestic resources for enhanced future trade within the NBI DR Congo 0 and markets, but there has been progress region and with power blocks outside Burundi -0.095 towards regional co-operation to permit of it (such as SAPP to the south and the -0.5 -0.3 -0.1 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5 concentrated resources, such as large Maghreb to the north). Source: US Energy Information Administration Photo: istock Photo: Mbuliro Milly Photo: Electricity substation Troder Bugoye Hydropower plant in western Uganda

Eastern Nile Power Export Project Nile Equatorial Lakes Power Export Project

The Ethiopia Power Export Project (formerly called the Ethiopia-Sudan Ethiopia has plans to increase electricity exports to Eastern Africa, based on Interconnection Project) connects the power grids of Ethiopia and Sudan and new hydropower generation, and construction is underway to boost inter- facilitates cross-border energy trade and optimizes existing and planned gen- connections with Kenya. Rwanda –Burundi and eastern DRC. The present eration capacity. This is needed in order to overcome the severe electricity facilitated investments are expected to add more than 4600 circuit kilome- shortage in both countries, which is a major constraint to poverty reduction ters of new transmission lines at various voltage levels in the partner states and economic growth. It is considered a first step toward greater regional of Ethiopia, Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, Rwanda, Burundi, DRC, South Sudan, power trade. Other Interconnectors promoted by the NBI include: and Djibouti (outside NBI). The regional transmission network backbone for • Ethiopia and Kenya 500 kV HVDC interconnection transfer capacity Victoria Lake countries includes: 3.200 MW • Kenya (400kV) - Uganda (220 kV) interconnections (260.5km) • Ethiopia to Djibouti 220 kV (282km) interconnection • Uganda - DR Congo 220 kV interconnection (352km) • Ethiopia to Sudan 230 kV transmission line (335 km) from Gambela in • Uganda - Rwanda 220 kV interconnection (164km) Ethiopia to Malakal in South Sudan • Rwanda – Burundi-DRC 220 kV interconnection (400km) • Ethiopia – Kenya 500 kV HVAC (1045km) • Kenya - Tanzania 400 kV interconnection (507.5km) • Tanzania (Iringa-Mbeya)- Zambia (Kabwe) 400kV Interconnector to SAPP (1247km)

Longer-term NBI ambitions for significant electricity trade are predicated on developing the substantial hydropower resources of the DR Congo (partic- ularly Inga with 40,000 MW of potential in a single site) and of Ethiopia and Sudan. Photo: Milly Mbuliro Milly Photo: Mpaga Hydropower plant

Nile Basin Water Resources Atlas / 179 REGIONAL POWER TRANSMISSION IN THE NILE BASIN

Damietta Atfe

Giza North Banha Helwan South Tebbin POWER PLANTS Ain Sokhna Noweiba Existant Hydro Power Plant West of River Nile Committed/under construction Hydro Power Plant Dabaa Proposed Hydro Power Plant Committed Geothermal Plant

Existant Geothermal Plant Safaga Gulf of Suez Menengai Nakuru Proposed Geothermal Plant Qena High Grand Falls Existant Thermal Plant Sasumua Wanji Committed Thermal Plant Olkaria 3 Tana Gitaru Olkaria 3 Masinga Proposed Thermal Plant Olkaria 2 Nairobi Agrekko Nairobi Proposed Wind Plant Suswa Aswan Dam II Nairobi Proposed Nuclear Plant Aswan Dam I Mulina

CAPACITY OF TRANSMISSION LINES 132kV Transmission Line EGYPT 220kV Transmission Line 600kV Transmission Line (DC) 500kV Transmission Line (AC)

500kV Transmission Line (DC) Low Dal 400kV Transmission Line Kishanda

STATUS OF TRANSMISSION LINES Kagbar Existing Transmission Line Garri 1 Garri 2 Committed Transmission Lines Kibuye Mukungwa Dagash Port Sudan 1-3 (Under construction) Nyabarongo Jabana I Proposed Transmission Lines Gatsata Jabana II Shereiq Country Boundary Lake Kivu Merowe Lake Kivu Makungura River

Lake Rusumo Falls

Nile Basin Boundary Ruzizi I Marangara Garri 3 Mugere Garri 4 ERITREA Khartoum North Ntaruka Kayenzi Kassala 1-5 Hirgigo Khartoum North Kassala Gikonge El Bagair Asmara Kilo Girba Kashm El Girba Sanzu Ruvyironza SUDAN Sennar Jiji 03 Kosti Tekeze I Nyemanga Siguvyaye

Beles Al Fula Roseires Tendaho Djibouti Tis Abay I GERD Djibouti

Mabil Mandaya Finchaa Dire Dawa El Fau Karadobi

Birbir A Geba I Genji Awash 7 Kilo Birbir R Koka

Tams Dams Baro I Aluto Maleka Wakana Gibe III SOUTH Gibe V Abaya Gibe I SUDAN ETHIOPIA Genale VI Gilgel Gibe II Genale III Mobayi (Foreseen Extension) Mobaye Mbongo Bedden Lac Turkana Sho Fula I Lakki Shukoli

Bereguma East African Great Rift Valley Kiba KENYA UGANDA Turkwel

Aruwimi Budana Bengamisa Tshopo Isimba Semliki Tororo Semliki Babeba I Namanve Nakuru Eala Aggreko Mutundwe Wanie Rukula Maiko Mugomba Olkaria 3 Wanji Tana Kishanda Olkaria 3 Gitaru Olkaria 2 Agrekko Nairobi Kibuye Nairobi Mulina RWANDA Gatsata DR CONGO Kigali Mwanza Ruzizi I Tsavo Lomami BURUNDI Sanzu TANZANIA Siguvyaye Kipevu Nyemanga Kipevu Kibombo Jiji 03 Zongo Kipevu Bendera II (Foreseen Extension) Kyimbi Sanga Portes d'Enfer Banda Bombo Katambayi Malagarazi Cascade Tubi Pangani Falls Inga 2 Kilemfu Bamba Tshala II Katende Ubungo Mtera Piana Mwanga Mpanga Kidatu Somanga Fungu Kiwira II Kiwira I Ikondo Songwe Manolo Ngaka Ruhudji Songwe Sofwe NSeke Mtawara 0 140 280 560 Nzilo Mnazibay Nzilo II Koni Kilometers Mwadingusha THIS MAP IS NOT AN AUTHORITY ON INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES Data source CBWS, 2011, NBI

180 / Nile Basin Water Resources Atlas Irrigation in the Nile Basin

Overall, agriculture dominates all other water uses in the basin, accounting for more than 80% of water withdrawals (Timmerman 2005, Karyabwite 2000, FAO 2011b). The total equipped area in the Nile Basin is estimated at 5.4 million hect- ares. Actual cropped area is estimated at 6.4 Million hectares. The cropped area is variable depending on what percentage of the irrigation equipped areas is covered by crops in any given year and whether more than one crop is planted. In most Nile Basin countries, the cropped area is much less than the area equipped for irrigation.

Egypt has the highest cropping intensity (cropped area divided by equipped area). Due to higher cropping intensity, approx- imately 79% of the total cropped area under irrigated agriculture in the Nile Basin lies in Egypt. The equipped irrigated area is dominated by the large schemes in Egypt (3.45 million ha) and Sudan (1.764 million ha), while in the remaining parts, only relatively small areas of irrigation have so far been developed. In Egypt, the use of double cropping means that the istock Photo: effective area in production is greater than Tea Plantation the total area of land under irrigation. The vast majority of the irrigation water requirements are supplied from surface Estimated equipped and crop areas across the Nile riparian states water. The table below shows estimated Country Equipped Area (‘000 ha) Equipped Area (% of total) Cropped Area (‘000 ha) Cropped Area (% of total) equipped and crop areas across the Nile Burundi 15.3 0% 8.7 0% riparian states. Dr Congo 0 0% 0 0% Egypt 3447 64% 5021 79%

The Growing agricultural production will Ethiopia 91 2% 134 2% further increase pressure on land and Kenya 47.8 1% 20 0% water resources. A realistic assessment Rwanda 7 0% 7 0% of future food requirements is therefore South Sudan 0.5 0% 0.15 0% essential for Nile Basin governments to Sudan 1764.63 33% 1146.7 18% Tanzania 19.753 0% 6.464 0% take informed decisions about agricultural Uganda 9.7 0% 9.7 0% planning and water resource use. In most Total 5402.683 100% 6353.714 100% of the Nile Basin countries, irrigation systems use surface gravity method of water application where water is conveyed through open canals and finally distrib- Cropped Area (% of total) Equipped Area (% of total) uted over the irrigation fields by gravity. Uganda - 0.2% Burundi - 0.1% Uganda - 0.2% Burundi - 0.3% Tanzania - 0.4% However, some pressurized irrigation is Tanzania - 0.1% DR congo - 0 DR congo - 0 practiced in Egypt, Sudan and in some Sudan - 18% Burundi Burundi South Sudan - 0 DR Congo DR Congo schemes in Ethiopia, Kenya and Uganda. Rwanda - 0.1 Egypt Egypt Sudan - 32.7% In all countries except Egypt and, to some Kenya - 0.3 Ethiopia Ethiopia Kenya Kenya extent in Sudan, there are no drainage Ethiopia - 2.1% Rwanda Rwanda systems whereby excess water is removed South Sudan South Sudan Sudan Sudan from the irrigation fields. Tanzania South Sudan - 0 Tanzania Uganda Rwanda - 0.1% Uganda Egypt - 63.8% Egypt - 79% Kenya - 0.9% Ethiopia - 1.7%

Nile Basin Water Resources Atlas / 181 Water Withdrawal for Irrigation in the Nile Basin

On average 82 Billion Cubic Meter (BCM) Water withdrawals (MCM) of water is withdrawn from Nile waters ev- Country Withdrawal requirement Actual Withdrawal Actual Water Withdrawal [MCM] ery year for irrigation where approximate- Burundi 28.9 28.7 ly 8.6 BCM is re-used drainage water in DRC 0.0 0.0 Egypt. An estimated 80% of the irrigation Egypt 66551.5 66054.0 Burundi Ethiopia 2018.2 1500.9 water abstraction in the Nile Basin occurs DR Congo in Egypt followed by Sudan (about 17% of Kenya 367.4 307.5 Egypt Ethiopia South Sudan 3.4 3.2 the total basin-wide abstraction for irriga- Kenya tion). The total abstraction for irrigation Rwanda 58.6 57.4 Rwanda Sudan 13959.8 13921.6 South Sudan in the rest of the Nile Basin countries is Sudan estimated at 3%. In most countries, there Tanzania 102.2 63.4 Tanzania Uganda are no appreciable deficits in meeting Uganda 260.4 260.3 the total annual irrigation requirements. Total 83350.4 82197.0 In few upstream countries, due to lack of adequate water storage facility, lower irrigation water demand satisfaction rate Country Unmet Demand [MCM] Overall irrigation demand satisfaction rate have been estimated. Burundi 0.132 100% DRC 0.000 In the next section, details will be provid- 90% Egypt 499.379 ed on irrigation practices in the Nile Basin 80% Ethiopia 517.336 countries 70% Kenya 59.874 60% South Sudan 0.000 Rwanda 0.853 50% Sudan 38.258 40%

Tanzania 38.821 30% Uganda 0.054 20% Total 1154.708 10%

0% Burundi DRC Egypt Ethiopia Kenya South Sudan Rwanda Sudan Tanzania Uganda Irrigation areas in South Sudan Year

Infrastructure for irrigated agriculture in South Sudan is yet to develop. Currently, there is one irrigation scheme, the Aweil scheme located in the southern bank of the Lol river, with a total equipped area of 500 ha and an esti- mated cropping intensity of 30%. The main crop cultivat- ed is rice. The total annual water demand is estimated to be 3.4 MCM with all the water coming from Lol River. Photo: Robert Zakayo Main canal in Aweil rice scheme during dry season Secondary canal in Aweil rice scheme during dry season Abu Zabad Nyala Dalang

SUDAN

Muglad Kadugli

Talawdi

Malakal

Aweil

Sudd ETHIOPIA

CENTRAL AFRICAN SOUTH SUDAN REPUBLIC

Rumbek Capital City Major Town River Country Boundary Open Water Area within the Nile Basin Tambura Existing Irrigation Scheme

Juba Yambio Torit

DR.CONGO KENYA

The NBI is not an authority on international boundaries

182 / Nile Basin Water Resources Atlas Irrigation areas in Egypt

Area equipped for irrigation by governorate % of total irrigation Dumyat S.No. Governorate Kafr ash Shaykh area Alexandria Ad Daqahliyah Bur Sa`id Al Iskandariyah Al Gharbiyah 1 Janub Sina (South Sinai) 0.1% Ash Sharqiyah Al Buhayrah 2 As Suways (Suez) 0.2% El-Giza Al Isma`iliyah Shamal Sina' Al Minufiyah 3 Al Qahirah (Cairo) 0.2% Al Qalyubiyah Cairo Al Qahirah Suez 4 Bur Said (Port Said) 0.3% 5 Al Jizah (Giza), West 0.3% Matruh

Al Fayyum As Suways 6 Dumyat (Damietta) 1.3%

Janub Sina' 7 Al Wadi/Al Jadid 1.5% Al Jizah Bani Suwayf 8 Shamal Sina (North Sinai) 1.7% 9 Aswan 1.8%

Al Minya 10 Al Iskandariyah (Alexandria) 1.9% 11 Al Jizah (Giza), East 2.2% 12 Al Qalyubiyah (Kalyoubia) 2.3%

Capital City Asyut 13 As Ismailiyah (Ismailia) 2.6% City 14 Beni Suwayf (Beni-Suef) 3.4% River Country Boundary Suhaj 15 Suhaj 3.8% Area with in the Nile Basin 16 Al Minufiyah (Menoufia) 3.9% Water Body Qina EGYPT 17 Matruh 4.0% Irrigation Schemes 18 Asyiut 4.1% Alexandria Al Bahr al Ahmar Assiut 19 Qina 4.6% Aswan 20 Al Gharbiyah (Gharbia) 4.8% Behirah Al Wadi al Jadid Beni Suif 21 Al Fayyum (Fayoum) 5.3% Cairo 22 Al Minya (Menia) 5.9% Daqahliah Dumiat 23 Kafr-El-Sheikh 7.8% Fayoum 24 Al Daqahliyah (Dakahlia) 7.8% Gharbiah Aswan Giza 25 Ash Sharqiyah (Sharkia) 9.8% Ismailiah 26 Al Buhayrah (Behera) 18.2% Kafr Elsheikh L. Nasser Matrouh Menia Menofiah Qalyubiah Qena Kassala Sharqiah Sohag Northern SUDAN

The NBI is not an authority on international boundaries

The data on irrigated agriculture in Egypt has been com- areas) is based on a cascade of pumping stations from piled from NBI projects and global data sources notably the main canals to the fields, with a total lift of up to from FAOSTAT (FAO). These values haven’t been vali- 50 m. Surface irrigation is banned by law in the new dated with ground observation as this was not available reclaimed areas, which are located at the end of the at the time of preparing the Atlas. Egypt has the largest systems, and are more at risk of water shortage. Farm- irrigation area among Nile Basin countries. The total ers have to use sprinkler or drip irrigation, which are area equipped for irrigation in Egypt is estimated at 3.45 more suitable for the mostly sandy soil of those areas. million hectares (3.4% of the total area of the country) Egypt’s irrigation system extends some 1,200 km. and a cropped area estimated at about 5 million hectares. from Aswan to the Mediterranean Sea and includes 85% of this is in the Nile Valley and Delta. The estimated 2 storage dams at Aswan (the Low and High Aswan cropping intensity is 146%. The irrigation system in the Dams), 7 major barrages on the Nile that divert river Photo: Terry Feurborn Nile Valley, Egypt old land of the Nile Valley is a combined gravity and water water into an extensive network of irrigation canals. lifting system (lift: about 0.5-1.5 m). This includes 13,000 km of main public canals, 19,000 km of secondary public (Branch) and 100,000 km of Most of the water used in irrigation in Egypt is surface tertiary private watercourses (mesqas) that form the water with some water taken from groundwater sources. main distributaries to farmer’s fields. Complimentary Estimates of water used for irrigation by NB states based drainage networks cover about 272,000 km with 17,500 on globally available data sources show that an average of km of main drains, 4,500 km of open secondary drains 66 BCM per year is used for irrigation where 57 BCM per and 250,000 km of covered secondary & tile drains. annum is supplied from the Nile while the remaining 8.5 Holdings average less than 1.9 fed (0.8 ha) one of the BCM supplied from groundwater and re-use of drainage lowest in the world. The most limiting resource for water from agricultural fields. Egyptian agriculture is irrigation water. Management of its water resources has always been a central feature The irrigation system in the new lands (reclaimed of the country’s development strategy.

District Equipped (ha) Gitega 1186.47 Irrigation areas in Burundi Karusi 1857 Kyanza 1200.4 A total of about 8737 hectares of land is equipped for irriga- tal annual estimated water use for irrigation for all schemes Kirundo 1413 tion in Burundi. Nearly all areas are cultivated rice. The to- is estimated at 29 Million cubic meters per annum. Muramya 185.4 Muyinga 731.5 Mwaro 20 Ngozi 2144 8737.77

Nile Basin Water Resources Atlas / 183 Irrigation areas in Ethiopia

While small-scale individual farmer managed irrigation Nile Basin is about 91,000 ha. All except one scheme lie in Export crops such as coffee, oilseed and pulses are mostly in Ethiopia has a relatively long history, large scale irriga- the Blue Nile sub-basin. Lying in relatively high rainfall rain fed but industrial crops such as sugar cane, cotton tion started in the 1970s as part of the government owned area, irrigation of these areas is supplemental where the and fruit are irrigated. Other irrigated crops include state farms. Broadly, irrigation schemes in Ethiopia can rainfall is expected not to meet the crop water require- vegetables, fruit trees, maize, wheat, potatoes, sweet be of any of the following four types: ments. Nearly half (46%) of the irrigation area depends potatoes and bananas. Sugarcane is mainly cultivated • traditional small-scale schemes of up to 100 ha in area, on the flow of the Blue Nile without a storage facility that as part of the Fincha sugar estate that also includes the built and operated by farmers in local communities would regulate the highly seasonal flows of the river. As Amerti-Neshe scheme. Overall, pulses make most of the • modern communal schemes of up to 200 ha, built by a result, the schemes face shortage of water during the crop cultivated in the irrigated systems Government agencies with farmer participation dry season. With the exception of the Fincha irrigation • modern private schemes of up to 2,000 ha, owned and scheme, which uses sprinkler system, all irrigation in There is a marked value added in irrigated agriculture. operated by private investors individually, Ethiopia in the Nile Basin relies on surface – gravity The total estimated annual water use for irrigation in • in partnership, or as corporations method for water conveyance and application. Ethiopia is estimated at 1.5 BCM. Growing population • public schemes of over 3,000 ha, owned and operated pressure in the highland areas of rainfed agriculture on by public enterprises as state farms Both irrigated and rain fed agriculture are important in a rapidly declining natural resource base has secured ir- the Ethiopian economy but virtually all food crops are rigated agriculture a prominent position on the country’s The total area equipped for irrigation in Ethiopia in the rain fed with irrigation accounting for only about 3%. development agenda.

Irrigation Schemes Water Source Scheme Name District (Level 3) Type Name Koga Merawi Dam Koga Neshe Abay Chomen Dam Amerti

SUDAN Fincha Sugar Abay Chomen/Guduru Dam Fincha Lake Tana Several Lake Lake Tana Tis Abbay Bahir Dar Zuria River Blue Nile Us/ Abbay@Kessie Several River Blue Nile Abobo Abobo Dam Alwero

City Small Town River ETHIOPIA Country Boundary Area within the Nile Basin Lake Irrigation Schemes Finchaa Sugar Alwero- Abobo Abbay-Kessie Amerti-Neshe Koga Lake Tana Schemes SOUTH SUDAN Tis Abbay

Addis Ababa

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Cropped Area Percentage area per crop Crop Area (Ha) Pulses Groundnuts 1261.848 Maize Soybean 1261.848 Sugarcane Fruits 5878.85 Cotton Sorghoum Vegetables 11011.848 Vegetables Cotton 13000 Fruits Sorghum 13000 Groundnuts Soybean Sugarcane 19009.6 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 Percent Maize 28628.85 Pulses 32500 Total 125552.844

184 / Nile Basin Water Resources Atlas Irrigation areas in Kenya

The total area equipped for irrigation in the Nile Basin about 367 MCM. The actual water use is estimated to be to timber structures. They cover on average ¼ acre and parts of Kenya (Lake Victoria North and Lake Victoria 307 MCM. The scheme level water supply reliability ranges are irrigated by drip. South Catchments) is about 47500 hectares while the from 66% for Sare to 100% for Nzoia downstream scheme. cropped area is on the average 20000 hectares. Most of The total estimated irrigation water demand for all these schemes are less than 300 ha in size. In 1957 some Almost all irrigation is achieved through run of river schemes is about 367 MCM and actual abstraction es- 1,691 hectares of this were under irrigation and by 2003, developments although water pans and small dams timates lie at 307.5 MCM, which indicates a volumetric this had risen to 10,700 ha but this still represents only have been built the former being located in the medium demand satisfaction rate of about nearly 84%. 5% of the irrigation potential in the Kenyan part of the potential zones. Basin, furrow and flood irrigation meth- Lake Victoria basin. ods are used in most community irrigation schemes The major constraints and challenges to accelerated with sprinkler and drip being used on some private irrigation and drainage development in Kenya include: (i) Public and Private Irrigation schemes in the Kenyan Nile farms especially for the cultivation of flowers and hor- Inadequate Public and Private sector Investment in the basin include West Kano, Ahero and Bunyala irrigation ticulture crops. Greenhouses are used by commercial sector; (ii) Inadequate development of irrigation infra- schemes. Yala swamp development is being undertaken flower growers and also by some small-scale farmers structure and water storage facilities; (iii) Weak Irrigation by a private investor called Dominion Farms Limited. The in Kericho and Eldoret. The simple greenhouses are Water Users’ Associations (IWUAs); and (iv) Inadequate total annual average irrigation demand is estimated at constructed from clear plastic material and are built on support services.

Irrigation Demand and estimated actual water use Suam Nyakinywa Nzoia US1 Rongai Amuka Liyavo Nzoia Losorua Nzoia US Mucharage Goseta Wehonia Wamwini Noigameget Kapomboi Nzoia DS Nyando

Itare UGANDA Sare Mabusi Awach Kibuon

Apokor Kokare Sirare LakeVic East Kwangamol Siritinyi Kamolo Osarete Sio Kisaluni Yala

Yalili Sio Agolot Soilo Mirere Esisari Kiambaa Migori Kamuli Location of Schemes Namamali Bulimbo River 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Ekama Lelmolok Country Boundary Matawa Irrigation Demand (MCM) Actual Withdrawal [MCM] Magoya KENYA Area within the Nile Basin Kanyumba Usula Lake Kathieno B Irrigation Water Demand, Kenya Mahawa Nyamninia BUNYALA U KAMAYOGA Kapchorwa T Net Irrigation Irrigation Demand Scheme Requirement (MCM) Mugona SINYOLO TOG AMIRA Nzoia US1 20 40 Alungo B NYACHIRA CHIGA Kore Nzoia US 25 51 AHERO TANGKENDI Nyamthoe Dakrao Masume Nzoia DS 28 58 WEST KANO Gem Rae Kopudo Ondilla Awach Kano Nyando 12 24 Gem Nam Miruka Itare 22 45 Wasare nam Wasare rice Sare 37 75 Awach Kibuon 4 9 Rangwena Kandito Nyamusi Maugo Rice Mong'a swam LakeVic East 20 41 Nyaroya A Riomega Monsore Sironga Yala 2 5 Kebuku Moromba Enunda Mobamba Sio 8 17 Mriri Opapo Gekano Rigoma Mogusi Magombo Migori 1 2 Angogo Minyenya Alara Nyamaura Chirichiro Mongoni Isoge Total 180 367 Nyaturubo Kanga Manga Kineni Saberi Chunge Nyasore Lietego Nyanturago Ekerubo Thimlich Mori Rinya Ekerubo/Get Omiti Waware Kanyimach Ranjira Ulanda Nyarongi Achuth Arambe Oruba Ogada Girib Wasio Sagegi

Waloma

TANZANIA

The NBI is not an authority on international boundaries

Nile Basin Water Resources Atlas / 185 Irrigation areas in Sudan

EGYPT Scheme Name Cropped (Ha) Equipped (Ha) Wadi Halfa' Blue Nile System 9,09,652 13,19,176 Abu Naama 0 12,600 Pump schemes u/s of Sennar (inlcuding Shashena) 56,700 75,600 Hurga and nour-el-deen (Pump schemes Argo as part of gezira) 9,352 42,000

Dongola Genaid (Sugar) 16,800 22,400

Hasanab-Merowe Seleit 6,300 12,600 Meraowe Small Private Pump Schemes (through out Merowe-Dongola Berber blue nile) 75,000 1,00,000 Atbara Ed Damir Waha (Blue Nile) 9,450 12,600

Irrigation Schemes Gezira - Managil (Al Jazira); c 5,88,000 8,46,720 Khartoum-Tamaniat Abu Naama Rahad I 98,700 1,26,000 Asalaya Suki Scheme (Old and new) 28,350 37,800 Gash Gash Gezira - Managil Omdurman NW Sennar Sugar Scheme 14,700 22,456 Khartoum New Halfa Kassala Guneid & Guneid Extension Guneid Extension (haddaf/wadel faddul) 6,300 8,400 Hasanab-Merowe SUDAN New Halfa Al Qutaynah Guneid & Guneid Ext Teseney Hurga & Nuredin White Nile System 79,413 1,40,259 Kenana Sugar Scheme Sodari Gezira - Managil Kutum Mellit Shuwak Kenana Sugar Scheme 29,988 39,984 Khartoum-Tamaniat-Hasanab Ad Duwaym Rahad I Al Qadarif Merowe-Dongola Suki Scheme Kenana - mixed crop 4,725 6,300 Al Fashir Bara Minor Pump Schemes Minor Pump Al Hawata Asalaya (sugar) 14,700 18,375 NW Sennar Sugar Scheme El Obied Tandalti Asalaya New Halfa Kenana Sugar White Nile Pump Schemes 30,000 75,600 Rahad I Er Rahad Abu Naama Gonder Abu Zabad Atbara System 88,200 2,10,000 Suki Scheme Nyala White Nile Pump White Nile Pump Schemes Dalang New Halfa 75,600 1,94,250 River New Halfa Sugar 12,600 15,750 Country Boundary Area within the Nile Basin Muglad Kadugli Main Nile System 71,400 95,200 Lake Talawdi Merowe - Dongola; Main Nile Pump Potential Schemes schemes 31,500 42,000 Hasanab - Merowe 8,400 11,200 Malakal ETHIOPIA Khartoum_Tamaniat_Hasanab 31,500 42,000 The NBI is not an authority on international boundaries Total 11,48,665 17,64,635

Sudan has the largest irrigated area in sub-Saharan scarcity of water during the long dry season. Percentage equipped area by sub-basin Africa and the second largest in all Africa, after Egypt. The total estimated area fully equipped for irrigation is Large-scale gravity irrigation started more than 100 5.4%

1,764,635 ha and an estimated cropped area of 1,148,665 years ago and was characterized by the promotion of 11.9% Blue Nile ha, i.e. an estimated cropping intensity of 65%. The cotton production in the Nile Basin. Irrigation by pump- White Nile Atbara irrigated sub-sector contributes more than 50% of the ing water began at the beginning of the 20th Century, Main Nile 7.9% total volume of the agricultural production although the substituting traditional flood irrigation and water wheel irrigated area constitutes only about 11% of the total culti- techniques. vated land. It has become more and more important over 74.8% the past few decades as a result of drought and rainfall The Gezira Scheme is Sudan’s oldest and largest gravity variability and uncertainty. irrigation system, located between the Blue Nile and the White Nile. The scheme together with its extension of The irrigated sector produces 95% of the long stable high Managil scheme with a total equipped area of 846,772 ha Distribution of area equipped for irrigation - kenya quality cotton produced, 100% of sugar production, 36% is the largest single scheme in Sudan and one of largest of sorghum and 32% of groundnuts. Other main irrigated irrigation schemes in the world. Nearly 75% of the total Wheat Sorghum crops are fodder, wheat and vegetables with other crops irrigation area is in the Blue Nile sub-basin in Sudan. Groundnut comprising maize, sunflower, potatoes, roots and tubers Started in 1925 and progressively expanded thereafter, it Forest (Gardens) Summer Veg and rice. receives water from the Sennar Dam on the Blue Nile and Cotton Win Vegetables is divided into some 114 000 tenancies. Sugarcane Irrigated agriculture falls into two broad categories: Fodder 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 traditional and modern schemes. Traditional irrigation is The total net abstraction of water for irrigation from the Percent practiced on the floodplains of the main Nile downstream Nile system is estimated at 13.3 BCM per year. The lion’s of Khartoum and on substantial areas along the Blue and share of this amount is taken by the Gezira – Managil White Nile, and the Atbara river as well as on the Gash scheme with an estimated withdrawal of nearly 6.5 BCM and Tokar deltas. Many schemes are fully equipped with followed by the New Halfa scheme with annual net ab- infrastructure but have low cropping intensity due to straction of about 1.5 BCM.

186 / Nile Basin Water Resources Atlas Irrigation areas in Tanzania

Distribution of Areas Equipped for Irrigation by Scheme There are approximately 64 schemes of irrigation with a 123%. More recently government has been implementing total area of 19,753 ha in the Nile Basin parts of Tanza- irrigation schemes based on traditional rainwater har- Chumwi nia. Most of the schemes are less than 200 ha and only 7 vesting technologies together with storage dams. Manawa schemes have areas 1000 ha or greater. Main crops in most Nkenge irrigation areas are maize, beans, rice and vegetables. The average annual irrigation water demand is estimated Mara Others IS < Chela at 102 MCM. The estimated annual volume of water used Ibanda/Isom Almost all schemes are gravity-fed (99%) from sur- for irrigation is 63 MCM, which is about 62 percent of the Nyawa Farm face sources with the remainder using pumps for water annual irrigation water demand. Bukigi abstraction. Surface irrigation is practiced widely using Kasoli furrows and basins with conveyance by both lined and The major challenges to improved agricultural growth Luhala unlined canals. Sprinkler irrigation is used by a few large- through irrigation as identified by the Ministry of Agri- Suguti Vall Sumve scale commercial farms with drip rarely used except on culture in the 2012 include (i) developing new sources A.M. Farm pilot schemes run by Government or in small-scale water of growth in response to markets, (ii) increasing farm Ikungulyambeshi harvesting. productivity, (iii) improving agribusiness and processing Kimiza to enhance rural employment, (iv) establishing producer Lubana Farm The main irrigated crops are paddy and maize, account- incentives for export and food crops, (v) fostering the par- Butiama ing for about 48% and 31% respectively of the irrigated ticipation of the rural poor in agricultural growth and de- Bukangilija Kyakakera areas in 2002. Other irrigated crops account for 44% velopment, (vi) enhancing the sector investment climate, Kyota of irrigated areas with an average cropping intensity of and (vii) improving public expenditures in the sector. Nyathorogo Rwamugango Shilanona Irienyi Chereche Kagera Sugar Estate Kagera Other IS < 1 Buswahili Bugolora Mahiga Shilanona I

Rifa (Ryang Sumve Lugul Kagera Sugar Estate Minigo Sola Rwangenyi Tamau Nkenge Malya Kyakakera Irienyi Kirogo Ngono Project Baraki Sist Nyatwali Ochuna Maruku Tea Kisorya Nyamaguku B Chereche Biswari Mara Valley Kasela

Buswahili Masinono

Buhangaza Rwamugango Butiama Mara Others Is < Nansimo Shyinianga Others IS < Buyaga Chumwi Suguti Valley Project Busekela Va Rusoli Ochuna Masinono Maliwanda D Bugelera Buhangaza Bugwema Project Bugwema Sol Kyamiorwa Bugwema Gia Kisangwa Da Buyaga Kisorya Nyatwali Nakatunguru Iharara Buzirayombo Kalukelele Tamau Bugolora Buligi Plai Kyota A.M. Farm Kyamiorwa Nansimo Kalemela Mpera Nyisanzi

Nyisanzi Katunguru Biswari Kafunzo Kahama Nyamadoke Nyawa Farm Shinembo Kalukelele Kishiri Misungwi Rwanzazi Valley Itumbi Kasoli Nyamirembe Luchelele Kirogo Lwanimaha Mwabulenga Ilungu Farm Itale Nyambogo Manawa Project Shinembo Mwalogwabagole Sumve Lugul Buzirayombo Kalemela Ibanda/isom Sumve Makurugusi Baraki Sist Kibumba-isi Lubuga Kasela Shilanona Kidabu Lubuga Project Nakatunguru Manawa Mahiga Malya Mwanza Others Is < Misasi Kimiza Kafunzo Ibaya Isang Ibaya-ikonz Isanga Ipililo Nyamadoke Magisa Isanga Valley Project Isawi Hinduki Bukigi RIFA (Ryang Luhala Bigombo Val Minigo Sola Isanga Vall Rwinyana

Chela Bugelera Luchili Luchelele Manonga-wembere Project Lwanimaha Existing Irrigation Schemes Sangilwa 0 300 600 900 1200 1500 Mpera River Hectare Country Boundary Area within the Nile Basin

Lake

The NBI is not an authority on international boundaries

Nile Basin Water Resources Atlas / 187 Irrigation areas in Uganda

Agriculture dominates the Ugandan economy. The aver- the dry season at small-scale informal level with most of although the more recent developments involving green- age cropped area in a given year is estimated at 9,700 ha this located on the fringes of swamps. Nowadays rainfall house irrigated flower farms that started in 1990s utilized with a cropping intensity of about 80%t. Over 80% of the has become less reliable with supplementary irrigation drip and micro sprinkler. irrigation area gets water from Victoria Nile. Main crops needed in rain season at times and much of this has been cultivated are sugarcane, rice and vegetables. The total developed by smallholders without planning and with Some work has started on the water for production com- estimated total annual irrigation water demand is 260 little or no technical assistance. The technology used is ponent (WfP) for Uganda, but this has still a long way to MCM. Irrigation is a relatively new as rainfall has been basic and approaches are sometimes inappropriate. go. An irrigation policy is in place. There is a strong need more or less sufficient in the past. Most parts of the coun- to clearly establish the needs for irrigation and drainage try experience at least one long rainy season and this has Most smallholder schemes grow rice and vegetables, with and the process by which it can be realized. This needs been sufficient for farmers to produce at least one crop the larger commercial estates cultivating rice and sugar- to go hand in hand with the training of technical staff to a year. In the past, irrigation was only practiced during cane. Most irrigation developments use surface methods support any proposed interventions.

Sr. No Scheme Name District Equipped area Ha 1 Nyamugasani Kasese 360 South Sudan 2 Mubuku Kasese 516 3 Olweny Lira 500

Agoro 4 Lugazi Sugar Jinja 2000 5 Agoro Kitgum 130 6 Kakira Sugar Mukono 6800 7 Tilda Uganda (kibimba) Iganga 600 8 Doho Tororo 830 9 Total Roses Wakiso /Mukono 280 Total 12,016

Democratic Republic of the Congo

Olweny

Uganda

Doho

Total Roses Kakira Sugar

Tilda Uganda (kibimba) Mubuku Kampala Lugazi Sugar

Bwera Kenya Photo: flickr.com Photo: Drip irrigation in a flower farm in a green house in Entebbe, Uganda Existing Irrigation Schemes City River Country Boundary Area within the Nile Basin

United Republic of Tanzania Lake Rwanda The NBI is not an authority on international boundaries Photo: Albert Water Management Zone, Uganda Main water division canal from Water division box at secondary canal-Mubuku field ditches filled with water during irrigation-Mubuku irrigation Scheme river Sebwe-Mubuku Irrigation Irrigation Scheme Scheme Irrigated Areas in Democratic Republic of Congo

The Nile basin in DRC covers less than 1% of the area of Major crops grown include Cereals (rice, maize), Tubers, Kikwit region, the Ruzizi valley in the south of Kivu, Lod- the country. The area is hilly and does not really lend itself Cash crops (coffee, cocoa) and Sugarcane. In the past, the ja in East Kasai, Mbandaka-Bikoro, Gemena-Karawa and to irrigation. This area is rather densely populated with national program for rice production (PNR) has managed Bumba in the Equator Province. The total irrigated water most people engaged in cattle rearing and fishery activities 80 ha including the reparation of irrigation canals and withdrawal for the Nile basin part has been estimated at around Lake Albert. It is considered that about 10,000 ha drainage and the distribution of pumping material. It has 600,000 m3 per year (FAO, 2010) could be developed for irrigation (FAO, 1997). also managed a total of 300 ha of valley bottoms in the

188 / Nile Basin Water Resources Atlas Irrigation areas in Rwanda

The total area equipped for irrigation in Rwanda is Irrigation in Rwanda dates back to 1945 when the Bel- irrigation structures (regulators, diversions, head works, estimated at 11467 ha. With an estimated cropped area gians built the main Ntaruko – Rubengera canal with 8 etc.). of 7000 ha, the overall cropping intensity is 61%. Main km of length to irrigate a small farm. From 1962 to 1994, crop planted in most irrigation schemes is rice. The total the total cultivated and irrigated lands were estimated to Rice is an important crop and approximately 62,000 tons estimated irrigation water demand for all schemes is be 4000 ha. The major part of irrigated lands (8.3% of the are produced annually on about 12,000 ha. Due to the about 58 MCM and actual abstraction estimates lie at estimated potential) are located is in the marsh lands that retention of flood flows, the marshlands are important to 57.4 MCM, which indicates a volumetric demand satis- cover 164,947 ha with around 57% already cultivated with downstream users as they maintain relatively continuous faction rate of about nearly 99.% an estimated 11,467 ha currently managed with moderate flow rates in the dry season.

Kabale Equipped area Kikungiri Ser No Scheme Name District (ha) Omukagasha UGANDA 1 Base Gitarama 170 P4 2 Codervam Umutara 460 Ruhengeri 3 Gisaya Kibungo 300 Kabuye Byumba

Mukungwa 4 Kabuye Kigali-Ngali 344

Base 5 Mareba Kibungo 200 Ntende 6 Mirenge Kibungo 600 Muhazi Codervam TANZANIA Satinsyi 7 Muhazi Kibungo 96 Nyabarongo Mushikiri 8 Mukunguli Gitarama 440 RWANDA 9 Ntende Umutara 120 Mirenge Ruramira 10 Mushikiri Kibungo 160 Gitarama Gisaya Kigali Nasho 11 Ngenda Kigali-Ngali 756 Kibaya Mukunguli 12 P4 Umutara 460 Mbirurume 13 Cyunuzi-Rwa Kibungo 400 Mareba Ngenda Cyunuzi-Rwa 14 Kibaya Kibungo 240 Irrigation Schemes

City Rwondo 15 Nasho Kibungo 160 Rusuri-Rwam Kagera Small Town Ruvubu 16 PRB (8 schemes) Butare 4358 River Runukangoma Country Boundary 17 Runukangoma Butare 170 Area within the Nile Basin Butare 18 Ruramira Kibungo 90

Kanyaru Lake 19 Rusuri-Rwam Butare 600 Nyiranda BURUNDI 20 Rwamagana (5 schemes) Kibungo 1343 The NBI is not an authority on international boundaries Migina Photo: Adam Cohn Adam Photo: Rice paddles in Rwanda

Nile Basin Water Resources Atlas / 189 Rain-fed agriculture Photo: Simone D. McCourtie / World Bank Rain fed agriculture

Evapotranspiration for rainfed production for selected Countries (km3) Rain-fed farming, covering 33.2 Million niques such as rainwater harvesting. ha, is the dominant agricultural system Burundi 4.153 in the Nile Basin. Over 70% of the basin While the proportion of (evapotranspira- Egypt population depends on rain-fed agricul- tion) ET from rain-fed crops remains rel- Ethiopia 14.881 ture (Seleshi et at., 2010). Sudan, with atively stable between years, the absolute Kenya 18.163 14.7 million ha accounts for 45% of the amount varies very significantly, from 180 Rwanda 8.82 total rain-fed lands, followed by Uganda, to 256 km3, representing a large differ- Sudan 52.11 Ethiopia, Tanzania, Kenya, Rwanda and ence in potential crop production between Tanzania 13.887 Burundi. Low rainfall does not allow years and at the same time illustrating the Uganda 65.625 rain-fed farming in Egypt, and rain-fed risks associated with rain-fed agriculture 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 areas of Eritrea that fall within the Nile in the region. The variability is in low Source: FAO, 2010 boundary are almost negligible. The main rainfall areas: the ratio of rain-fed crop ET rain-fed crop in the Nile Basin in terms between the driest and the wettest years of cultivated area is sorghum, followed by is around 0.7- 0.9 in the humid uplands, sesame, maize, pulses and millet, covering but falls to around 0.5 in the semi-arid ture. The vast untapped potential of rain Stroosnijder (2011) found that in northern 7.39, 3.68, 3.35, 2.94 and 2.86 million ha, catchments of central Sudan and the At- fed agriculture could be unlocked through Ethiopia, where crops failed in more than respectively. Rain-fed agriculture in the bara basin. In terms of food security, this knowledge-based management of land and a third of years in the period 1978-2008, Nile Basin is characterized by low yields annual variability is exacerbated by the water resources, bridging the yield gaps (a one month of supplementary irrigation with the majority of crops having an av- occurrence of multi-year droughts. factor of two to four) between the current at the end of the wet season could avoid erage yield of less than 1ton /ha. Different farmers’ yield and the researcher-man- 80 per cent of crop yield losses and 50 sets of reasons have been proposed for the Under these conditions, opportunistic aged or commercial plot yields (Rock- per cent of crop failures. Other strategies low yields in rain-fed systems from natu- cropping in wet years may be a viable ström et al. 2007). used in the area to manage erratic rain- ral causes such as poor soils and drought- strategy commercially, although it is fall include supplementary irrigation to prone rainfall regimes to distance from difficult to reconcile it with the need for Small-scale agricultural water man- establish crops (to avoid false starts to the urban markets (Allan, 2009). However, subsistent smallholders to produce crop agement techniques, such as rainwater wet season), postponement of sowing until the opportunity of favorable rainfall in every year to ensure food security. Much harvesting and groundwater within a adequate soil moisture is available, and many rain-fed areas of the basin provides of the additional food demand in the watershed management approach have growing quickly maturing cash crops such a high potential for yields to increase by Nile partner states is expected to be met important potential roles in securing as chickpea at the end of the growing peri- improved farm water management tech- through improvements in rain fed agricul- rain-fed crops in these regions. Araya and od, to utilize unused soil water reserves.

190 / Nile Basin Water Resources Atlas Crop water productivity in the Nile Photo: Arne Hoel/World Bank Hoel/World Arne Photo: Dina farms, Egypt

Large gaps between actual and potential High productivity zone amounts of rainfall, the predominantly rain tral and western part of the basin. Agricul- crop yields reflect the presence of so- The high productivity zone includes the fed agriculture has rather low yields and, ture in this zone is rain-fed and it receives cio-environmental conditions that limit delta and irrigated areas along the Nile therefore, relatively low Water Productivity. a low amount of rainfall in most areas production. In much of the Nile, lack of River in the northern part of the basin. The fact that rainfall is sufficient to grow rainfall amounts received cannot meet the farmers’ access to available water is the This zone is characterized by intensive ir- crops in this zone opens a wide prospect for crop water demands and therefore crops prime constraint to crop production. With rigation, high yields and high-value crops. improvement in this region. Two parallel suffer from high water stress. As a result, increasing numbers of people and their These characteristics collaboratively strategies that could be applied are, first, yields are extremely low. In this zone growing demand for food, combined with contribute to the high level of the WP at- improving farm water management and, improving water and land productivity little opportunity to access new water tained and art’ in fact correlated. Access to second, promoting irrigated agriculture. is contingent upon expanding irrigated sources, great need exists to make more irrigation results in higher yields; higher The main obstacle for irrigated agriculture agriculture. A good example that shows productive use of agricultural water. yield results in higher incomes; and higher in this zone is accessibility to water rather how irrigation can bring improvements is Based on Crop Water Productivity, the incomes result in higher investment in than its availability. For example, in Ethi- the Gezira scheme in Sudan. spatial distribution of the basin can be di- from inputs by farmers. opia, due to lack of storage infrastructure vided into three zones: the high productiv- the majority of generated run-off leaves the This scheme is located in the same zone ity zone, the average productivity zone and Average productivity zone country without being utilized. Controlling (geographically) but irrigation has resulted the low productivity zone. The WP index The average productivity zone consists these flows and diverting the water to in significantly higher WP in the scheme serves as a useful indicator of the perfor- of two major areas, one in the eastern farms can drastically improve both land compared to its surrounding rain-ted mance of rain-fed and irrigated farming in part (Ethiopia mainly) and the other in and water productivity areas. However, due to poor water man- water-scarce area the southern part (areas around the Lake agement, WP in the Gezira scheme is much Victoria). Despite the fact that most of the Low productivity zone lower than in irrigated areas in northern areas in this zone receive relatively good The low productivity zone covers the cen- parts of the basin (i,e. in the delta).

Nile Basin Water Resources Atlas / 191 Inland Fisheries Management and Development

Fisheries production in the Basin Fisheries and aquaculture are important people and contribute towards food and 3000000 components of agricultural production nutritional security of millions in Kenya, and productivity in the Nile. Nile Basin southern Sudan, Tanzania and Uganda. 2500000 fisheries are mainly freshwater lakes, Fisheries are non-consumptive users of 2000000 rivers and marsh sources and human-de- water, but require particular qualities, 1500000 rived aquaculture. Freshwater fisheries quantities and seasonal timing of flows tons Metric have a large potential to enhance income in rivers and dependent wetlands, lakes, 1000000 opportunities for many thousands of and rivers. 500000

0 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2014 Aquaculture production Captured fisheries production

Total Fish Production by Country

Burundi DR Congo Egypt Ethiopia Kenya Rwanda South Sudan Sudan Tanzania Uganda 0 200000 400000 600000 800000 1000000 1200000

Photo: The world bank world The Photo: Capture Fisheries poduction (metric tons) Aquaculture production (metric tons) Fish being washed Source: WDI, 2016

Aquaculture production (metric tons)

Aquaculture production (metric tonnes)

Aquaculture is understood to mean the farmers’ use of earthen ponds in produc- 1200000 farming of aquatic organisms including tion systems. Uganda is a distant second 1000000 fish, mollusks, crustaceans and aquatic of the total basin aquaculture production. plants. Aquaculture production specifi- Kenya, Rwanda and Sudan are develop- 800000 cally refers to output from aquaculture ing fisheries with the help of foreign aid 600000 activities, which are designated for final to boost production which, together with tonnes Metric 400000 harvest for consumption. other basin countries, represents 1 per cent of the farmed fish in the basin. 200000 In 2014, aquaculture production in the 0 Nile Basin countries reached 1,289,234 Uganda’s aquaculture export market, 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2014 Burundi DR Congo Egypt Eritrea Ethiopia Kenya tons, 88% of which is farmed in Egypt. regional use and employment have risen Rwanda South Sudan Sudan Uganda Tanzania Egypt is the main producer of farmed fish; dramatically over the past 10 years. Aqua- Source: World Development Index since the mid-1990s it has rapidly expand- culture production is still negligible in ed its aquaculture. Aquaculture expansion most of the sampled countries, although has contributed to increasing the total in countries such as Kenya,– in addi- At the low end are small ponds of less than fish for household consumption and sale fisheries production in Egypt. Aquaculture tion to Tanzania which mostly cultivate 500 square meters, which contribute to or barter. However, aquaculture has also activities in Egypt are more concentrated seaweed - aquaculture is developing and the stability and durability of small-scale contributed to serious water pollution in sub-regions of the Nile Delta, where the its contribution to GDP is rising. Most farming systems in Africa. When regularly when not well managed, a problem that is water resources are available. Most of the aquaculture is conducted in earthen stocked and fertilized, these units produce likely to intensify with increased aquacul- aqua culture production is derived from ponds, but at a wide range of intensities. 1,000–2,000 kg per hectare per year of ture activities.

Capture fisheries production (metric tons) Captured fisheries production (metric tonnes) Capture fisheries production measures the areas which are of particular importance volume of fish catches landed by a country for numerous fish species, at least in 1800000 for all commercial, industrial, recreational certain stages of their lives. Pollution also 1600000 1400000 and subsistence purposes. poses a problem for fishery productivity in 1200000 the Nile Basin. Some of the rivers feeding 1000000 Diminishing water level, and pollution the lake and the shoreline are particular- 800000 Metric tonnes Metric have acute consequences for several ly polluted by municipal and industrial 600000 economic sectors that depend on the discharges. Cooperation between all 400000 basin lakes, It greatly affects the fishery concerned authorities is necessary to 200000 by changing water levels. Water-level vari- search for coherent solutions to ensure the 0 1960 1963 1966 1969 1972 1975 1978 1981 1984 1987 1990 1993 1996 1999 2002 2005 2008 2011 2014 ations affect shallow waters and coastal sustainability of the fisheries. Burundi DR Congo Egypt Ethiopia Kenya Rwanda South Sudan Sudan Uganda Tanzania Source: FAO, 2016

192 / Nile Basin Water Resources Atlas Lake Victoria Fisheries Trends in the most important fish stocks Lake Victoria is the second largest lake in Victoria by species is shown in the adjacent Lake Victoria: Total annual Catched by species or species groups the world, covering an area of 68,000 km2 chart. The most notable change in the de- 1200000 and surrounded by a dense and fast grow- mersal Lake Victoria fish community and ing human population of at least 25 million fishery is the fundamental metamorphosis 1000000 people. In addition to its size, the lake is in the mid 1980’s when it suddenly changed 800000 unique in several ways. It supports one of from being dominated by the diverse 600000 the world’s biggest inland fisheries aimed at species flock of endemic haplochromines tonnes Metric both domestic consumption and interna- (contributing around 90% of the demersal 400000 tional export and it has experienced some biomass) to a much simpler fauna consist- 200000 of the most extreme ecological perturba- ing of three primary species: Nile perch, 0 tions ever observed in a large freshwater Dagaa in the open waters and the intro- 1959 1962 1965 1968 1971 1974 1977 1980 1983 1986 1989 1992 1995 1998 2001 2004 20072010 environment. The total catch from Lake duced Nile tilapia along the shores. Dagaa Haplochromines Nile perch Tilapia Others

Trends in effort and estimated total catch rates

Indicators of fishing effort in the Lake Victoria Fishery Effort statistics prior to 2000 are less Nile perch/Dagaa fishery from 1990 to reliable than the catch statistics, but the turn of the century; a doubling of the 250000 1500 the overall pattern largely mirrors the Dagaa fishery 2003 - 2006 and a possible 1470 200000 1440 changes in overall catches. There have new stable phase since 2005/6. Water lev- 1410 been three main periods intersected els, flows modification, pollution, affects 150000 1380 with periods of rapid growth: the mixed fisheries production. From late 2000 to 1350 100000 1320 cichlid fishery from the 1950s to the 2005, L- Victoria level receded on the Landing Sites 1290

1980s; the fast growing Nile perch fishery coastline by ~5m, reducing fish habitats / Boats fishermen No of 50000 1260 during the 1980s; the relatively stable and spawning grounds. 1230 0 1200 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010

No of fishermen No of boats Landing sites

Benefits from Fisheries Management in the Nile

Based on current stock estimates, the generate an additional value of about US$ Employment in inland fisheries in sampled countries 2013 lake has the potential to yield fish valued 57 million. 445,981 at over US$ 800 million annually on a Tanzania sustainable basis. Further processing and Inland fisheries, and related export and Rwanda 5,499 marketing the fish in the local and export regional trade, can play a significant role Kenya 87653 markets could provide opportunity to gen- in the economy of regions and countries. Ethiopia 22546 erate additional earnings. Currently, how- The sector contributes 4% to GDP in Egypt 75517 ever, only about 500,000 tons of fish is DR Congo and 2.5% in Tanzania (2013). landed annually, with an average landing Inland fisheries provide employment and DR Congo 362074 value of approximately US$ 600 million. income for several million people (esti- Burundi 6914 Further processing and marketing of this mated employment population employed 0 100000 200000 300000 400000 500000 fish in the local and export markets can in the sector amounts to 445,981 people.

Industrial sector contribution to national water withdrawal, 2014 Types of benefit Kenya Uganda Tanzania Production (US$ Million) 115 156 180 Contribution to GDP 0.5% 1.5% 1.8% Employment of fishermen (2002) 54163 41674 80053 Foreign Exchange Earnings (US$ Million) 50 88 112 Per Capita Fish Consumption (Kg/year) 5 12 12 Contribution to Animal Protein (1994-97) 10.6% 29.7% 32.6% Balance of Trade N/A N/A N/A Photo: istock Photo: Fisherman in Uganda

Nile Basin Water Resources Atlas / 193 Inland Waterway Transport

Alexandria Idfina Weir Inland navigation is often the most cost-effective and Zifta Barrage Ruweifa Dam Mohammad Ali Barrage Delta Barrage least polluting means of transport and, with improved Cairo Suez trade and exchange, has contributed to the development of the Nile Basin riparian states economies. Inland water- Main Nile ways can efficiently convey large volumes of bulk com-

Cairo to Aswan modities over long distances. However, inland shipping remains an underdeveloped sector on most waterways. Asyut Barrage

Egypt Nine of the 11 Nile riparian countries have navigable Nag Hammadi Barrage water bodies, and a total of 72 inland water ports between Isna Dam them, with Egypt and Uganda having the highest number. The main areas important for inland water transport are Lake Victoria which provides a vital transportation link for Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania with the main ports be- ing Jinja and Port Bell in Uganda, Kisumu in Kenya, and Lake Nasser Aswan to Wadi Halfa Mwanza, Musoma and Bukoba in Tanzania; Sections of the White Nile in South Sudan, and the Main Nile in The Sudan and Egypt. Low Dal In Egypt, the Nile is navigable by sailing vessels and shal- Kajbar Bur Sudan low-draft river steamers as far south as Aswan. In South Sudan, steamers still provide the only means of transport Merowe Shereiq Main Nile facilities, especially where road transport is not usually Dongola to Kuraymah Tekeze Atbara possible from May to November, during the flood season. The Blue Nile has an 800 km stretch that is navigable during high water times. The main types of goods and Sabaloka services transported comprise agricultural produce, live- Sudan Khartoum Jebel Aulia Dam Eritrea stock, fish, general merchandise, and passengers. Inland Asmara Khashm El Girba at Atbara ports, linked to other modes of transport connecting to Kutum international markets, also handle export/import traffic Mellit Al Fashir Sennar Dam of agricultural products and manufactured goods. Rahad El Obeid Blue Nile

Dinder Navigation is a sector that does not consume water. It Abu Zabad Nyala NileWhite Lake Tana depends on the state of water resources in terms of quan- From Khartoum to Juba tity (a minimum depth is needed) and, quality (invasive Muglad aquatic plants or excessive solid waste in the water bodies From Lake No to Wau From Sobat mouth to Gambella on river Jur (seasonal) would obstruct engines and waterways). It also brings the Bahr el Arab on river Baro (seasonal) Sobat threat of potential hazards to water quality, such as oil Lol Aweil Ethiopia spills from tankers operated on Lake Victoria, or ships Jur Bahr el Zeraf Addis Ababa Baro degassing.

Kuru Wau Akobo Gambella Pongo South Sudan Inland waterway transport on Lake Victoria Tanj Pibor Lake Victoria is the primary inland waterway servicing Rumbek Suo both the central and northern corridors. Lake Victoria

Tambura acts as a principal waterway with commercial traffic. In conjunction with train services, Uganda and Tanzania Juba Bahr El Jebel Yambio operate train wagon ferries on the lake between railhead Lake Albert and the ports of the two countries and Kenya. AlbertNile

Albert Nile Aswa The three main lake ports are: (i) Kisumu for Kenya, located in the North Eastern corner of the Winam Gulf, Democratic Republic of the Congo Lake Albert Lake Kyoga fronting Kenya’s third largest city, (ii) Mwanza South Uganda for Tanzania, located within a natural shallow bay on Major city Kampala Town the Eastern shore of Mwanza Gulf, and (iii) Port Bell for Lake George KenyaRiver Uganda, located at the end of Murchison Bay, South-East Lake Edward Lake Victoria Lake Kagera Migori Nairobi of Kampala. They are directly included in the regional Mara All year round navigation route multimodal trade routes, namely the Northern and Cen- Seasonal navigation route Rwanda Ruwana tral Corridors Basin boundary

Country boundary 0 90 180 360 540 720 United Republic of Tanzania Traffic across all public ports on Lake Victoria is estimat- Kilometers The NBI is not an authority on international boundaries Burundi Mombasa ed at 500,000 tons a year. However, it should be noted that local traffic has increased since 2005 while inter- national transit traffic has been decreasing (imports to Uganda estimated at 3,000 tons in Port Bell over the last years).

However, developing rivers for navigation often results in irreversible transformation of river courses, with negative impacts on vulnerable groups and ecosystems (such as fish mortality from propeller impact and larvae stranding due to drawdown).

194 / Nile Basin Water Resources Atlas Photo: Pierre Lesage Ship on the Nile Egypt

Water use for Navigation various vessels had known difficulties to elevation of 11.33 m, which corresponds than the present 11m level) would rejuve- berth properly. Loading and offloading to the highest level in 1957 when the lake nate navigational activities with positive The hampering of port and navigation of passengers was severely affected in was surveyed. The operation of vessels effects to the livelihood and environmental activities due to low water levels received Tanzania. And several accidents involving below this level is risky and if it has to be sector. The opposite could be said of Ugan- much attention in the 2005/06 water their vessels found to be related to low lake done, reassessment of the routes to ensure da who heavily relies on power generation level crisis on Lake Victoria. Lake Victoria levels. The minimum and maximum levels safety would be required. Low lake levels for livelihood at national scale. In general, transport system for passenger and goods for days when accidents were reported are would also compromise most of the main- it is envisaged that in all the five countries suffered as well as its essential role for 10.76m and 11.05m (JJG) respectively. tenance structures functioning, leading to sharing Lake Victoria, the infrastructure, island connection. Declining water levels a high operational cost of navigation. navigation risk and revenue will not be cause a decrease in draft and so ships can- Generally it may be concluded that the seriously affected while navigation and not enter ports safely when the water depth safety of marine navigation in Lake In Kenya and Tanzania, maintaining the dredging cost may go up. These will in turn is too shallow. During the water level crisis, Victoria cannot be guaranteed below an lake level between 11.5 and 12.5m (higher affect livelihoods and the environment.

Nile Basin Water Resources Atlas / 195 Conclusions Photo: Milly Mbuliro Milly Photo: River Nyamugasani

The water resources in the Nile Basin A survey made in 2014 showed the exis- development and will become Africa’s having the highest numbers. Navigation is serving multiple purposes and are tence of 14 storage dams basin-wide. The largest hydroelectric power plant with an is a sector that does not consume water. It essential for sustaining life, the economy existing dams are highly beneficial from installed capacity of 6000 MW. depends on the water resources in terms of and a healthy environment. Water is used a power generation point of view and are quantity (minimum water depths) and qual- off-stream (withdrawn e.g. for agriculture, also helping equalizing flows. However, Fisheries and aquaculture are important us- ity which can cause excessive amounts of, municipal or industrial use), in-stream there is substantial evaporation from the ers of water although not consumptive. Nile for instance the water hyacinth. Such plants (e.g. hydropower, fisheries, environment) reservoir surfaces causing loss of water. Basin fisheries are mainly seen in freshwa- can block harbors and prevent the launching or on-stream (e.g. navigation, tourism The loss reaches an estimated 540 m3/s ter lakes, rivers and marsh sources as well of small crafts at landings. and recreation). By far, the largest con- with 70% occurring from the reservoir of as in human-derived aquaculture and has sumptive use is for agriculture/irrigation the High Aswan Dam. significant impact on the socio-economy. In a not too distant future, the Nile Basin (roughly 2600 m3/s) although part of the Fisheries require particular water qualities, will be in a critical situation, where in- abstraction is returned as drainage water. The total reservoir capacity per capita in quantities and seasonal timing of flows and creases in consumptive use in one sub-ba- Egypt and Sudan are the largest users the basin is very low compared to world water depths in lakes, rivers and wetlands. sin will have to be covered by decreases in accounting for 96% of the total. Municipal benchmarks. In a region with severe consumptive use in another sub-basin and and industrial consumption is estimated seasonal and inter-annual variability The environment is another, though silent reallocation of water will have to be nego- at over 400 m3/s. Population in the Nile and anticipated climate change, absence user. A sound aquatic environment is tiated. Changes in climate could very well Basin is forecasted to double by 2030 and of adequate storage capacity adds to the essential to maintain the productiveness aggravate the situation. These conditions municipal water demand will grow five- vulnerability of the population as prudent of the water bodies and the wetlands and require a very high degree of trust, coop- fold during the same period due to urban- reservoir operation can help reduce flood providing suitable habitats for diverse fau- eration and sharing of water and benefits ization and increase in standard of living. and drought impacts. na and flora populations. Water pollution between the riparian nations. The Nile Ba- Industrial demand will be likely to grow from urban and industrial sources endan- sin Initiative has a vital, strategic mission at a comparable rate. The largest munici- Hydropower is generated primarily in gers the soundness of the environment in facilitating the cooperation, promoting pal and industrial consumption is taking Uganda, Sudan, Ethiopia and Egypt but is and the furthest downstream environ- Integrated Water Resources Management, place in Egypt (close to 97%) followed by only meeting a small part of the power de- ment is at greatest risk. providing access to Decision Support Sys- Sudan and Uganda. Drainage water from mand. However, there is a large untapped tems and reliable databases and raising irrigation and sewage from urban areas potential for hydropower especially in Nine of the 11 Nile riparian nations have awareness on known or innovative ways of and industries present pollution threats to the Blue Nile, where the Grand Ethiopi- navigable water bodies and a total of 72 demand management, water conservation the aquatic environment. an Renaissance Dam (GERD) is under inland water ports with Egypt and Uganda and efficiency in water use.

196 / Nile Basin Water Resources Atlas References

• “Water for Growth and Development.” David Grey and Claudia W. Sadoff in Thematic Documents of the IV World Water Forum. Commission Nacional del Agua: Mexico City. 2006. • Northern Corridor Transit Transport Coordination Authority; Northern Corridor Infrastructure Master Plan: Final Report; Executive Summary (2011) • Ethiopia: Managing Water Resources to Maximize Sustainable Growth A World Bank Water Resources Assistance Strategy for Ethiopia • Water storage and hydropower: supporting growth, resilience and low carbon development; A DFID evidence-into- action paper • Sutcliffe,]. (2009) The hydrology of the Nile Basin, in The Nile, H.j. Dumont (ed.), Monographiae Biologicae 89,335-364, Springer, Dordrecht, The Netherlands. • Sutcliffe, J V and Parks, Y. E (1999) The Hydrology of the Nile, IAHS Special Publication 5, International Association of Hydrological Sciences, Wallingford, UK. • Eastern Africa Power Pool (EAPP) and East African Community (EAC) Regional Power System Master Plan and Grid Code Study, May 2011, SNC Lavalin International Inc. In Association with Parsons Brinckerhoff • Uganda Ministry of Energy and Mineral Development, The Development of A Power Sector Investment Plan For Uganda, Generation Plan, 20 October 2009 • Nile Basin Initiative Regional Power Trade Project; Comprehensive Basin-wide Study of Power Development Options and Trade Opportunities Final Report; RSWI/Fichtner JV, with the participation of Parsons Brinkerhoff • Nile Basin Initiative; Efficient Water Use for Agricultural Production (EWUAP); Large Scale Irrigation Practices in the Nile Basin Best practices, weaknesses and opportunities; Wim Bastiaanssen, Wageningen, NL; Chris Perry, London, UK • Nile Basin Initiative ; Efficient Water Use for Agricultural Production (EWUAP); Agricultural Water In The Nile Basin – An Overview; Final Report; Ian McAllister Anderson; April 2008 • NELSAP / NBI, December 2012. Nile Equatorial Lakes Multi Sector Investment Opportunity Analysis (NEL MSIOA). NEL indicative Investment strategy and action plan. Draft version. Report prepared by BRL Ingénierie. 111 pages • Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Rome, 2011. Agricultural Water Use Projections in the Nile Basin 2030: Comparison with the Food for Thought (F4T) Scenarios • The Value of African Fisheries; Gertjan de Graaf FAO consultant Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Luca Garibaldi; Fisheries and Aquaculture Statistics and Information Branch FAO, Rome, Italy • Availability of water for agriculture in the Nile Basin; Robyn Johnston

Nile Basin Water Resources Atlas / 197 Overall Conclusion

The Nile Basin Initiative, established Albert, Victoria Nile, Bahr el Jebel, sources and the environment. Water stations adding water quality moni- in 1999, has initiated the preparation White Nile and Bahr el Ghazal. The pollution will be one of the serious toring and laboratory strengthening. of the Nile Basin Water Resourc- Eastern Nile sub-system compris- challenges for the water resources Groundwater monitoring is generally es Atlas as part of their quest for ing the Main Nile sub-basin and the management. very sparse. Automated water level basin-wide cooperation, enabling sub-basins of Tekeze-Atbara, Blue registrations and telemetric transfer water resource management and Nile and Baro-Akobo-Sobat. Totally, The Human development index (HDI) of data are still underused. Calibra- water resource development. The there are ten sub-basins with large is an aggregation of the average tion of hydrometric stations is often primary objective of the Atlas is to variations in characteristics. achievement in the key dimensions, not adequate and data reliability support collaborative monitoring a long and healthy life, being knowl- suffers. the water and related resources of The Nile and its tributaries is the edgeable and having a decent stan- the Nile Basin by Riparian States and lifeline for a population of 257 million dard of living. All Nile Basin countries Climatically, the Nile Basin has large thereby contribute towards achiev- or more than 10% of the population fall into the Low Human Development variations ranging from the trop- ing their shared vision objective “to of the African continent. The Nile and category with the exception of Egypt, ical climate in the Equatorial Lake achieve sustainable socio-economic the socio-economy of the 11 riparian which is in the middle category. region to the Mediterranean climate development through the equitable countries are intimately connected. However, all basin countries show im- of the Nile Delta. This is brought utilization of, and benefit from, the Agriculture, hydropower production, provements compared to year 2000. about by the latitude range (4o S to common Nile Basin water resources”. wetlands, water supply, navigation, The higher the HDI, the higher the 32o N) and the variation from sea fisheries and tourism are among the potential for involvement of the broad level to an altitude of around 3,000 The Atlas provides a snap-shot of the many sectors depending on water population in the stewardship of the m. Regarding rainfall, the Equato- present water resources situation resources and providing livelihoods environment, the water resources rial Lakes region and the Ethiopian and aims to give overviews of the for the riparian population. and the battle against water pollution. Highlands receive an average annual conditions and the huge variations Poverty is widespread and by income, rainfall above 1,000 mm, while the in water resources parameters in The settlement patterns also reflect around 40% of the population of the high altitude areas (Rwenzori moun- the Nile Basin that is roughly 10% of the availability of water, which seems basin countries live below a poverty tains, Mount Elgon and the Ethiopian the African continent and compris- to overshadow other factors such as line of USD 1.25 per day. Highlands receive an average annual es eleven countries. In such a huge social and economic infrastructure. rainfall in excess of 1,500 mm. The area with large variations the Atlas In the downstream countries, popula- The full dependence of the so- northern part of Sudan and Egypt will give aggregated information. tion is concentrated along the course cio-economy on shared basin water receives less than 50 mm and there The Nile flows from its spring in the of the Nile and in the Nile Delta. resources makes a fact based man- are years, which are completely dry. highlands southwest of Lake Victo- Upstream population densities are agement and development essen- This accentuates Egypt’s and Sudan’s ria and join the Kagera River, which highest in the Equatorial Lakes re- tial. Monitoring of water resources full dependence on a steady flow of empties into Lake Victoria. Totally the gion and in the Ethiopian Highlands, is therefore done by all countries the Nile as very little surface runoff is Nile flows roughly 6700 km to the both being regions of high rainfall and close to 1,000 meteorological generated there. north before reaching the delta and and abundant water resources. The stations for rainfall and tempera- eventually the Mediterranean Sea. trend in migration is from rural areas ture recording exists. Almost 450 Temperature is a significant factor in to urban areas. For the Nile Basin as hydrometric stations for gauging for instance evapotranspiration and The physiography of the basin rep- a whole, the rural population is larger of streamflow were registered. is, together with water, essential for resents the result of the processes, than the urban population. Projec- Technical and financial resources plant growth. In the Equatorial Lakes which have formed the landscape tions for 2050 shows that the urban to operate the networks of sta- region and the Ethiopian Highlands, over millions of years. In historical population will reach above 60% of tions have been dwindling in most maximum temperatures are record- time, humans have started influenc- the total population in 4 of the 11 Nile countries and station densities can ed in the range of 30oC while parts ing erosion and sedimentation, land Basin riparian nations. In the remain- become inadequate. The need for of the Blue Nile, Tekeze-Atbara and cover, soils and the wetlands. The ing seven nations the urban popula- improvements have been realized the White Nile in Sudan are measur- physiography divides the Nile Basin tion will increase but stay well below by the Nile Basin Initiative, which has ing maximum temperatures of 45oC. into two broad sub-systems. The 40%. Urbanization will increase completed a design of a Nile Basin High temperatures entail large evap- Equatorial Nile sub-system comprises the pressure on urban services and Regional Hydromet System based oration losses from water surfaces the sub-basins of Lake Victoria, Lake facilities as well as on the natural re- primarily on upgrading of existing like lakes and reservoirs.

198 / Nile Basin Water Resources Atlas Climate change as a result of global Kagera River is the southernmost of the Nile Basin. warming, is a challenge for water river discharging into Lake Victoria. The Nile Basin is expected to un- resources management and develop- The reservoir effect of Lake Victoria Another source of water is ground- dergo substantial changes as more ment. Adaptation is the immediate re- makes the outflow almost constant water, which is, however, not well and more hydraulic infrastructure is sponse to climate change and trends and Jinja Dam is operated to simulate studied and inadequately exploited. realized to meet the growing water and statistics have to be closely mon- the natural outflow of roughly 900 The most significant groundwater demands the riparian states. Accord- itored as they are no longer stable. m3/s as an annual average. The Nile aquifer is the Nubian Sandstone un- ing to consulted national planning Even small changes in temperature continues through Lake Kyoga and derlying part of Egypt, Sudan, Chad documents, the total storage capacity averages or extremes can have seri- the surrounding wetlands and run and a part of Libya. of dams in the Basin is expected to ous consequences for water resourc- through a stretch with a good hydro- double by around 2040 – 2050; total es availability, floods and droughts, power potential before it joins Lake The water resources in the basin area under irrigation can grow to 8.7 agriculture, power and transportation Albert at Murchison Falls. The Nile are essential for sustaining life, the Million Hectares – an increase of some systems, the natural environment and continues through South Sudan and economy and a healthy environment. 60 percent of current size of irrigated even health and safety. enters the Sudd, one of the largest Water is used off-stream (withdrawn areas; aggregate installed capacity of wetlands in the world. A huge amount e.g. for agriculture or domestic use), hydropower plants is expected to grow The Nile Basin streamflow patterns (approx. 50%) of the Nile inflow is lost in-stream (e.g. hydropower, fisher- from a current value of 5600 MW to are influenced by the variations in to evaporation when passing the Sudd. ies, environment) or on-stream (e.g. over 25,000 MW. meteorological parameters such as The Nile proceeds towards Khartoum, transport, tourism). The total area rainfall and evaporation as well as by where it is joined by the Blue Nile and under irrigated agriculture in the Basin Unless actions are taken to enhance the physiography in terms of among now, combined flows of close to 2300 is estimated at 5.4 million hectares – the water supply and manage the others, topography, land cover, soils m3/s are recorded. The last significant over 97percent of the area lie in Egypt growth of consumptive demands, in a and geology. This is evident when contribution to the Nile flow comes and Sudan. not too distant future, the Nile Ba- comparing the White Nile and the from the Tekeze-Atbara Sub-basin sin will thus be in a critical situation, Blue Nile being key tributaries to where about 350 m3/s is received on By far, the largest consumptive use is where increases in consumptive use in the Main Nile. The Blue Nile is highly the average. The Nile enters the reser- for irrigation, which has been esti- one sub-basin will have to be covered seasonal with most of its flow occur- voir created by High Aswan Dam. The mated at 82 BCM per year with over by decreases in consumptive use in ring between July and September, reservoir, Lake Nasser, has capacity to 96 percent of this occurring in Egypt another sub-basin and reallocation while the White Nile flow is almost regulate Nile flows on an inter-annual and Sudan. In a region that is beset of water will have to be negotiated. stable over the year mainly due to basis, but causes a huge water loss with strong seasonal and inter-annual Changes in climate could very well the regulating effect of Lake Victoria, by evaporation estimated at roughly variation of climate, storage dams aggravate the situation. These con- Lake Kyoga, Lake Albert and the Sudd 10 – 12 BCM on the average. The Nile provide one way of reducing vulnera- ditions require a very high degree of (a huge wetland in South Sudan). ends its 6700 km journey at the two bilities of water use sectors to climate trust, cooperation and sharing of wa- The Blue Nile contributes almost 160 branches at the Delta and close to shocks. The total storage capacity of ter and benefits between the riparian percent of the annual flow of the 12BCM reaches the Mediterranean dams in the Nile Basin is estimated at nations. The Nile Basin Initiative has White Nile and has a large potential Sea – with a good proportion of this about 200 BCM. Water demand for a vital, strategic mission in facilitating for development of dams and reser- volume being drainage water from municipal and industrial use, estimat- the cooperation, promoting Integrat- voirs, among others, for hydropower irrigation fields in Egypt. Surface water ed at 12.9 BCM per year is rapidly in- ed Water Resources Management, production. Seasonality is a dominant quality is mainly influenced by human creasing from the present estimates providing access to Decision Support hydrologic feature in the Nile riparian activities relative to urban areas and of roughly 400 m3/s. Forecasts for Systems and reliable databases and nations. This exposes the countries to industrial activities. Sediment produc- 2030 are expecting a five-fold in- raising awareness on known or inno- floods and droughts with a devastat- tion takes place in the upland areas crease and the Nile Basin population vative ways of demand management, ing effect on the national economies with the Ethiopian Highlands as the seen as a whole, will become unable water conservation and efficiency in and the affected communities. main source compared to other parts to meet the water demand. water use.

Nile Basin Water Resources Atlas / 199 Index

A Eastern Nile Technical Regional Office 6, 7, 16 Hydrological functions 34 A1B 124 Egypt 1, 9, 16, 17, 19, 23, 34, 36, 50, 52, 53, 54, 56, 57, 58, Hydrological Stations 9, 137 A1FI 124 59, 60, 61, 62, 65, 66, 68, 69, 71, 72, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 83, Hydrologic Extremes 165 Acacia –Commiphora bushlands 29 97, 98, 100, 101, 122, 132, 148, 160, 161, 166, 170, 171, 172, hydrology 5, 15, 47, 85, 86, 87, 100, 132, 134, 135, 138, Agriculture Production 8, 66 174, 175, 11, 181, 182, 183, 186, 190, 191, 192, 194, 195, 196, 142, 166, 171, 174, 197 Albert Delta 34 198, 199 Hydromet 8, 76, 78, 80, 81, 84, 88, 91, 11 Albert Nile Sub-basin 8, 43 Equatorial Lakes region 23, 25, 84, 138, 198 HYDROMET 7, 15 Annual rainfall patterns 9, 112, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, Equatorial Nile sub system 35 Hydromet Network 81 120, 121 Eritrea 16, 17, 19, 23, 52, 53, 56, 60, 65, 77, 113, 160, 190 hydrometric stations 76, 79, 81, 82, 83, 87, 88, 89, 90, Aquaculture 192, 197 Ethiopia 1, 6, 9, 15, 16, 17, 19, 23, 32, 35, 37, 38, 39, 40, 92, 198 aquifers 26, 160 50, 53, 56, 59, 63, 65, 66, 68, 69, 71, 77, 79, 80, 82, 83, 84, Hydropower 9, 170, 172, 175, 176, 179, 196 Aswan Dam 25, 36, 81, 138, 148, 170, 174, 175, 196, 199 85, 92, 97, 98, 100, 101, 105, 113, 115, 124, 139, 149, 150, Hydropower Generation Potential 176 Atbara 8, 9, 15, 17, 22, 23, 24, 28, 35, 37, 79, 82, 84, 92, 158, 160, 170, 171, 173, 174, 139, 175, 177, 178, 11, 179, 181, 96, 100, 103, 113, 122, 135, 137, 139, 149, 166, 174, 176, 182, 184, 190, 191, 196 I 186, 190, 198, 199 Ethiopian Highlands , 31, 38, 40, 52, 113, 11, 198 IGAD-HYCOS 7, 76, 91 Automated stations 77, 79 Eutrophication 162 IGEBU 6, 7, 77 Evaporation 9, 77, 78, 98, 124, 125, 128, 156, 158, 172, 175 Infant mortality 8, 58 B evapo-transpiration 81 IPCC 124 Bahr el Ghazal Sub-basin 8, 35, 42, 87 Evapotranspiration 7, 9, 28, 125, 127, 128 Irrigation 5, 6, 9, 77, 90, 132, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, Bahr El Jebel 23, 33, 34, 41, 166, 177 187, 188, 189, 197 Bahr el Jebel Sub-basin 8, 9, 35, 41, 86, 107, 117, 143, 153 F ITCZ 7, 99, 100, 114 Baro-Akobbo-Sobat 17 Farming System 64, 65 Baro-Akobo-Sobat 8, 23, 35, 39, 40, 79, 85, 92, 166, 198 Fisheries 192, 193, 196, 197 K Baro-Akobo-Sobat Sub-basin 40 flow patterns 9, 135, 137, 138, 148 Karisimbi National Park 32 Blue Nile 8, 9, 15, 17, 22, 23, 24, 34, 35, 38, 47, 79, 83, 84, Food security 69 Kenya 5, 6, 7, 9, 16, 17, 19, 23, 45, 52, 56, 57, 60, 63, 65, 87, 92, 96, 100, 104, 113, 114, 122, 135, 137, 138, 140, 141, 66, 68, 69, 71, 72, 73, 77, 79, 80, 89, 90, 92, 101, 124, 132, 150, 158, 164, 165, 166, 171, 174, 176, 177, 11, 179, 184, 186, G 136, 156, 158, 160, 161, 162, 165, 167, 170, 171, 174, 177, 178, 194, 196, 198, 199 Gambela National Park 32 179, 181, 182, 185, 190, 192, 193, 194, 195 Blue Nile Sub-basin 8, 9, 35, 38, 83, 104, 114, 140, 150 gauging stations , 11 Kenyan Flood Diagnostics and Forecasting Centre 77 Boma National Park 32 GDP 7, 50, 51, 59, 66, 72, 165, 170, 175, 178, 192, 193 Burundi 5, 6, 9, 15, 16, 17, 19, 23, 45, 53, 54, 56, 58, 59, Gender 8, 57 L 60, 65, 66, 68, 69, 71, 77, 78, 79, 80, 90, 92, 101, 158, 160, Geology 8, 26, 132 Lake Bisina 34 170, 171, 174, 177, 179, 181, 182, 183, 190 GERD 83, 177, 196 Lake Burullus 34 Bwindi National Park 32 GHCN 101 Lake George 34, 158 Gini coefficient 60 Lake Mburo 34 C Global warming 11 Lake Nabugabo 34 Conclusion 8, 9, 72, 93, 131, 166, 198 GNI 7, 59 Lake Nakuwa 34 gradient 25, 162 Lake Opeta 34 D groundwater 33, 46, 76, 77, 79, 91, 93, 160, 183, 190, 199 Lake Victoria 6, 7, 8, 9, 17, 22, 23, 34, 35, 45, 79, 89, 90, Dinder National Park 34 92, 98, 100, 111, 120, 121, 125, 128, 132, 135, 146, 147, 156, DR Congo 16, 19, 23, 52, 53, 56, 58, 59, 60, 63, 69, 77, 79, H 158, 159, 161, 162, 166, 167, 171, 174, 177, 185, 191, 193, 194, 80, 88, 92, 101, 179, 193 High Aswan Dam 25, 36, 81, 138, 148, 170, 174, 175, 196, 195, 198, 199 199 Lake Victoria Sub-basin 8, 9, 45, 90, 111, 121, 146, 156 E Humidity 9, 129 land cover 8, 22, 23, 30, 31, 198, 199 Eastern Nile Power Export Project 179 Hydro-electricity 9, 175 longitudinal bed profiles 25 Eastern Nile sub system 35 hydrological cycle 23, 33, 97

200 / Nile Basin Water Resources Atlas M population 3, 5, 8, 15, 17, 22, 23, 32, 45, 50, 51, 52, 53, Sudd 22, 23, 26, 32, 33, 34, 39, 41, 86, 96, 98, 116, 135, Machar Marches 34, 116 54, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 65, 66, 69, 71, 72, 98, 161, 143, 153, 160, 166, 199 Main Nile 8, 9, 23, 28, 30, 34, 35, 36, 38, 79, 81, 84, 92, 165, 171, 177, 11, 184, 190, 193, 196, 198 T 96, 100, 102, 112, 113, 135, 138, 148, 166, 174, 186, 194, Poverty 8, 60, 73, 11 Tanzania 5, 6, 9, 15, 16, 17, 19, 23, 45, 50, 52, 56, 65, 66, 198, 199 PPP 59, 60 68, 69, 73, 77, 79, 80, 90, 92, 101, 111, 124, 131, 156, 158, Main Nile Sub-basin 8, 9, 35, 36, 81, 102, 112, 138, 148 precipitation 36, 38, 40, 41, 42, 43, 45, 46, 47, 77, 91, 96, 160, 161, 162, 171, 177, 178, 179, 181, 182, 187, 190, 192, 193, Malakal 33, 39, 84, 105, 115, 122, 137, 151, 152, 153, 166, 97, 98, 100, 101, 113, 114, 115, 124, 127, 166, 175 194, 195 179 Precipitation 41, 77, 98, 99, 100, 101, 124 Tekeze-Atbara 8, 9, 17, 22, 23, 24, 28, 35, 37, 79, 82, 84, Mbamba Bay 34 92, 139, 176, 198, 199 Mean monthly rainfall 9, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, R Tekeze-Atbara Sub-basin 8, 9, 35, 37, 82, 139, 199 108, 109, 110, 111 Ramsar 22, 23, 33 Telemetry 77, 79 MEDIWR 77 References 8, 9, 47, 73, 132, 167, 197 telemetry system 77, 80 Meteorological monitoring network 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, Regional Working Group 5, 16 Temperature 9, 77, 98, 122, 124, 198 86, 87, 88, 89, 90 Relative humidity 77, 129 TMA 77 METTELSAT 7, 77 RELIEF CHARACTERISTICS 24 topography , 16, 22, 23, 24, 26, 30, 135, 166, 170, 11 MEWNR 77 riparian countries 2, 15, 51, 77, 91, 93, 134, 194, 198 TRMM 7, 100, 101 Millennium Development Goals 61 Rugezi- Bulera Ruhondo 34 MINIRENA 77 runoff , 25, 36, 38, 40, 42, 47, 96, 114, 118, 124, 158, 161, U Miombo woodlands 29 174, 11 Uganda 2, 5, 6, 9, 16, 17, 19, 22, 23, 24, 30, 32, 33, 34, 40, MOWR 77 Rwanda 5, 6, 9, 15, 16, 17, 19, 22, 23, 25, 31, 34, 45, 53, 41, 43, 44, 45, 53, 54, 56, 57, 58, 60, 63, 65, 66, 68, 69, 71, Mt. Elgon 31 56, 58, 60, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 73, 77, 78, 79, 80, 72, 73, 77, 78, 79, 80, 86, 88, 89, 90, 92, 98, 100, 101, 116, Mt. Rwenzori 31 90, 92, 98, 101, 156, 158, 160, 170, 171, 174, 177, 179, 181, 120, 124, 136, 145, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 166, Municipal effluent load 162 182, 189, 190, 192 167, 170, 171, 173, 174, 176, 177, 178, 179, 181, 182, 188, 190, Murchison Falls 34, 135, 144, 176, 199 Rwenzori Mountains 34, 119, 166 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197 MWE 101 UNMA 77 MWRE 77 S upper Kagera 22, 23, 176 salinization 28 N Sediment , 79, 92, 162, 163, 11 V National Meteorological Services agencies 77 Sediment yields 162 Victoria Basin forest savannah mosaic 29 NBE 101 Soil moisture 23, 28 Victoria Nile Sub-basin 8, 9, 35, 44, 89, 110, 120, 145, 155 NBI Regional Data Management system 93 South Sudan 2, 5, 6, 9, 15, 16, 17, 19, 23, 32, 34, 39, 42, Virunga Mountain 32 NBRP 101 54, 56, 58, 60, 61, 65, 69, 73, 77, 79, 80, 84, 85, 86, 87, 92, NELSAP-CU 6, 16 100, 101, 105, 116, 117, 118, 142, 152, 160, 165, 171, 179, 181, W Nile Basin climate zones 9, 98 182, 194, 199 Water Resources Development 16, 132, 167 Nile Basin Regional Hydro-meteorological Monitoring SRES 124 Water Withdrawal 9, 182 System 91 SSEA 124, 177 wetlands 22, 23, 33, 34, 37, 40, 41, 44, 72, 86, 93, 98, 127, Nile Basin Regional Hydromet System , 11 State of River Nile Basin Report 16 131, 134, 135, 153, 158, 159, 166, 171, 192, 196, 198, 199 Nile-COM 7, 16 Storage dams 9, 174 White Nile 8, 9, 15, 17, 22, 23, 24, 34, 35, 36, 39, 79, 84, Nile Delta , 22, 34, 52, 81, 11, 192, 198 streamflow , 92, 11 85, 90, 92, 97, 100, 105, 115, 118, 122, 132, 135, 141, 142, Nile Equatorial Lakes Power Export Project 179 Sudan 1, 2, 6, 9, 15, 16, 17, 19, 23, 32, 33, 34, 36, 37, 38, 151, 152, 153, 158, 166, 174, 11, 186, 194, 198, 199 Nile-SEC 7, 16 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 52, 53, 54, 56, 58, 59, 60, 61, 65, 69, White Nile Sub-basin 8, 9, 35, 39, 84, 85, 105, 115, 141, Nile-TAC 7, 16 71, 73, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 92, 96, 97, 151 Nubian Sandstone , 160, 11 98, 100, 101, 103, 104, 105, 108, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, World Reference Base for Soil Resources 27 122, 137, 138, 139, 142, 148, 151, 152, 160, 161, 165, 166, P 170, 171, 172, 174, 176, 11, 179, 181, 182, 186, 190, 191, 192, Y Per Capita Water 174 194, 196, 198, 199 Yield 8, 66

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