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I Master's Thesis Regional Studies Development Geography RESETTLEMENT and IRRIGATION SCHEMES AS KEYS to DEVELOPMENT?

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Master’s thesis Regional Studies Development Geography RESETTLEMENT AND IRRIGATION SCHEMES AS KEYS TO DEVELOPMENT? THE CASE OF NEW HALFA AGRICULTURAL SCHEME, SUDAN Marianna Wallin 2013 Supervisors: Senior Lecturer Paola Minoia, Ph.D. Professor John Westerholm, Ph.D., Head of Department UNIVERSITY OF HELSINKI DEPARTMENT OF GEOSCIENCES AND GEOGRAPHY DIVISION OF GEOGRAPHY PL 64 (Gustaf Hällströmin katu 2) 00014 University of Helsinki i Tiedekunta/Osasto Fakultet/Sektion ) Faculty Laitos Institution ) Department Matemaattis-luonnontieteellinen Geotieteiden ja maantieteen laitos TekijäFörfattare ) Author Marianna Wallin Työn nimi Arbetets title ) Title Uudelleenasuttaminen ja keinokastelualueet kehityksen keinoina? New Halfan keinokasteluprojekti, Sudan Oppiaine Läroämne ) Subject Kehitysmaantiede Työn laji Arbetets art ) Level Aika Datum – Month and Year Sivumäärä Sidoantal – Number of Pages Pro Gradu Marraskuu 2013 122 + liitteet Tiivistelmä Referat ) Abstract Suuret patohankkeet aiheuttavat usein ihmisten pakkosiirtoja ja uudelleenasuttamista. Monet alkuperäisväestöt joutuvat muuttamaan pois näiden kehityshankkeiden alta ja voivat menettää elinkeinonsa, sosiaaliset verkostonsa ja perinteisen maanomistuksen. Tämä johtaa usein köyhtymiseen ja marginalisoitumiseen. Patohankkeet ovat yleensä valtion ja monikansallisten organisaatioiden ajamia ja ylhäältä alas suunniteltuja. Paikallisia asukkaita ei oteta tarpeeksi huomioon suunnitteluvaiheessa ja heidän omia toiveita kehityshankkeesta ja uudelleenasuttamisesta kuunnellaan heikosti. Tämä johtaa lopulta vähäiseen integraatioon ja juurettomuuteen uudessa asuinalueessa. Sudanissa patohankkeet ovat usein yhdistetty keinokastelualueiden kehitykseen. Joissakin tapauksissa pakkosiirretyt asutetaan keinokasteluprojekteihin maanviljelijöiksi. Assuanin padon rakentaminen 1960-luvulla Sudanin ja Egyptin rajalle johti nubialaisen Wadi Halfan kaupungin peittymiseen veden alle. Suuri osa asukkaista siirrettiin New Halfan keinokasteluprojektiin Itä-Sudanissa. New Halfa osoittautui pettymykseksi sekä valtiolle että maanviljelijöille sillä se ei saavuttanut sille asetettuja tavoitteita. Aluetta varten rakennetun Khasm el Girba – padon kapasiteetti laski ja veden saanti vaikeutui. Myös maaperän hedelmällisyys köyhtyi ja maanviljelijät joutuvat työskentelemään kovasti saadakseen viljelystään tuottavaa. New Halfan aluetta alun perin asuttaneet paimentolaiset menettivät projektin takia laidunmaita. New Halfan asukkaiden välille syntyi suuria taloudellisia ja elinkeinollisia eroja, mikä johti sosiaaliseen eriytymiseen. Tutkimus käsittelee uudelleenasuttamisen sosiaalisia seurauksia ja keinokastelualueiden kannattavuutta kehityksen kannalta. Tutkimus toteutettiin Sudanissa kesällä 2011 New Halfan keinokasteluprojektissa. Tutkimuksessa todettiin, että New Halfan maatalouden kannattavuus on laskussa ja maanviljelijät joutuvat turvautumaan muihin tulonlähteisiin turvatakseen elinkeinonsa. Alueen väestöryhmät ovat toisistaan eriytyneitä ja asuvat kehitysasteeltaan eriävissä alueissa. Alkuperäinen suunnittelu epäonnistui eri väestöryhmien huomioon ottamisessa, mikä johti irrallisuuteen ja epätasa-arvoon. Avainsanat – Nyckelord ) Keywords Sudan, uudelleenasuttaminen, keinokastelualueet, patohankkeet, kehitys Säilytyspaikka – Förvaringställe – Where deposited Kumpulan tiedekirjasto Muita tietoja ) Övriga uppgifter ) Additional information ii HELSINGIN YLIOPISTO HELSINGFORS UNIVERSITET – UNIVERSITY OF HELSINKI Tiedekunta/Osasto Fakultet/Sektion ) Faculty Laitos Institution ) Department Faculty of Science Department of Geosciences and Geography TekijäFörfattare ) Author Marianna Wallin Työn nimi Arbetets title ) Title Resettlement and Irrigation Schemes as Keys to Development? The Case of New Halfa Agricultural Scheme, Sudan Oppiaine Läroämne ) Subject Development Geography Työn laji Arbetets art ) Level Aika Datum – Month and Year Sivumäärä Sidoantal – Number of Pages Master’s Thesis November 2013 122 + appendixes Tiivistelmä Referat ) Abstract The construction of large dams is causing human displacement and resettlement. In many cases indigenous groups of people are forced to move due to these development projects and are at a risk of losing their livelihoods, social networks and rights to customary land. This can cause impoverishment and marginalization. Constructing dams is usually initiated by the state and multinational organizations and have a top-down approach. The indigenous groups of people are not well considered during the planning process and their wishes about the development and resettlement are not properly acknowledged. This may eventually result in lack of integration and rootlessness in their new settlements. In Sudan the construction of large dams is often combined with the development of irrigation schemes, where the displaced people can be resettled as tenant farmers. The construction of the Aswan High Dam at the border between Sudan and Egypt in 1960s caused the inundation of the Nubian town of Wadi Halfa. Most of the residents were resettled in the New Halfa irrigation scheme in east Sudan. New Halfa proved a failure for the state and the farmers as it failed to meet the goals set out for it. The Khasm el Girba dam that feeds the irrigation scheme with water lost some of its capacity and consequently made irrigation more difficult. The agricultural land also lost fertility and the farmers are forced to work harder to make farming profitable. The local nomadic inhabitants of the original area have also lost pastoral land due to the project. Large differences between the livelihoods and economic situations of the residents have emerged which has led to social segregation. This study discusses the social consequences of resettlement and the profitability of irrigation schemes as a development initiative. The study was conducted in Sudan during the summer of 2011 in Khartoum and New Halfa agricultural scheme. The study states that the conditions for agriculture have deteriorated in New Halfa and the farmers are forced to depend on additional sources of income to secure their livelihoods. The different groups of people within the scheme are socially segregated and live in areas with a varying degree of infrastructure and services. The original planning of the scheme failed to acknowledge the needs of the different ethnic groups which led to detachment and social inequality. Avainsanat – Nyckelord ) Keywords Sudan, resettlement, irrigation schemes, dams, development Säilytyspaikka – Förvaringställe – Where deposited Kumpulan tiedekirjasto Muita tietoja ) Övriga uppgifter ) Additional information iii Acknowledgements Thank you, To the Viikki Tropical Resources Institute (VITRI) and their programme North-South-South Higher Education Exchange in Forest Sciences between Ethiopia, Sudan and Finland for granting me the opportunity and the financial support to conduct my field work in Sudan. I am especially grateful for Eshetu Yirdaw for his support and encouragement in the first steps of my research. To Dr. Mohamed Ahmed El Fadl for assisting me with my field work arrangements both in Finland and in Sudan and to my undaunted research assistants, Eltayib Hamed and Hind Baballa. Thank you for my thesis supervisors, Prof. John Westerholm and Dr. Paola Minoia for your advice and guidance. Thank you, Paola, for sharing your expertise and patience with me throughout my studies. I am also grateful to the Nordic Africa Institute in Uppsala, Sweden, for allowing me to use their facilities and endless information resources at the final stages of my research work. Lastly, with deepest appreciation, I wish to thank the communities and individuals of New Halfa, Sudan, for their friendliness, time and honesty. iv CONTENTS 1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Aims and justification of the study............................................................................................ 4 2. Theoretical framework ............................................................................................................... 5 2.1 A multidisciplinary approach to the theoretical framework ....................................................... 5 2.2 Previous studies related to the topic .......................................................................................... 7 2.3 Development perspectives ...................................................................................................... 11 2.3.1 Displacement for development ......................................................................................... 14 2.3.2 Resettlement consequences .............................................................................................. 16 2.4 Political ecology, land rights and territorialisation................................................................... 18 2.4.1 Political ecology .............................................................................................................. 18 2.4.2 Land rights and territorialisation ...................................................................................... 20 3. Methodology .............................................................................................................................. 23 3.1 How the methods were chosen for the study ........................................................................... 23 3.2 Methods ................................................................................................................................
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