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The Social Cost of Resettlement: the Case of Halfawiyyin at Suburban Khartoum

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The Social Cost of Resettlement: the Case of Halfawiyyin at Suburban Khartoum The Social Cost of Resettlement: The Case of Halfawiyyin at Suburban Khartoum By: Haydar Mohamed Ali Hassan Bsc. (Sociology and Social Anthropology 1992) Msc.( Environmental Studies 1998) A Thesis submitted for the requirement of Ph.D. in Social Anthropology Supervisor: Dr. Fahima Zahir Faculty of Economic and Social Studies-Department of Sociology and Social Anthropology December 2008 For Rasheed, again, always Table of Contents List of tables and figures:………………………………………………………. iv (b)List of figures:…………………………………………………………… iv (c) list of Photos ............................................................................................. iv v ..…………………………………………………………………… اﻟﺨﻼﺻﺔ Abstract…………………………………………………………………….. vii Acknowledgments ………………………………………………… ix Chapter One:Back ground to the research problem…………………… 2 Biases for irrigation ………………………………………………………….. 6 The New Halfa Scheme: ………………………………………………… 9 The problem ………………………………………………………………. 15 Research objectives and research assumption ……………………………. 20 Justification for choosing the topic: ……………………………………… 21 Methods of data collection: ……………………………………………….. 23 Notes: ……………………………………………………………………. 30 Chapter Two: Literature Review ……………………………………….. 32 Stresses associated with resettlement …………………………………….. 33 Types of land settlement……………………………………………………. 33 Irrigation and dams: ………………………………………………………… 37 Types and sources of irrigation: …………………………………………….. 38 Irrigation and land degradation: Error! Bookmark not 40 defined.…………………………………………….. 42 The technical and economic failure of large-scale irrigation ………………... 43 Modern Irrigation: ......................................................................................... 46 Resettlement policies ………………………………………………………. 48 Land acquisition ……………………………………………………………. 51 The problem of sedimentation ……………………………………………… 57 Notes: ………………………………………………………………………. 59 Chapter Three: Historical Background …………………………………. 59 Nubia and the Nubians …………………………………………………… 62 The economy and community: ……………………………………………. 66 The effects of the dams ……………………………………………………. 69 Cultural implication and coping strategies: ………………………………. 72 The Social costs ……………………………………………………………. 76 Notes: ……………………………………………………………………… 77 Chapter Four: Conceptual and Theoretical Framework 78 1- Conceptual framework ………………………………………………….. 84 Theories of the resettlement process ………………………………………. 84 (1) Cost-benefit analysis …………………………………………………… 88 (2) The four-stage framework ……………………………………………… 89 The first stage: ………………………………………………………………….. 90 The second stage: ……………………………………………………………… 91 The third stage: ………………………………………………………………… 93 The fourth stage: …………………………………………………………… 96 (3) Impoverishment risks and reconstruction model ………………………….. 100 (4) The Inherent Complexities Approach: …………………………………….. 107 Notes: ................................................................................................................ Chapter Five: Agricultural Production and the Present Situation………… 109 i The New Halfa Agricultural Scheme: ………………………………………. 110 (1) Introduction ……………………………………………………………….. 110 (2)The Khashm el- Girba dam ………………………………………………… 111 The turbine pumps: …………………………………………………………. 113 Farmers’ use of irrigation water: …………………………………………… 114 (3)The New Halfa Agricultural Corporation: ………………………………. 116 Participation of farmers in the management of the scheme: ……………….. 119 Rehabilitation of the New Halfa Scheme: ………………………………….. 120 (4) Agricultural rotation and crop composition …………………………….. 121 (1) Cotton crop: ……………………………………………………………… 122 (a) Joint account (1964-1980): ………………………………………………… 122 (b) Individual account (1981-1989) …………………………………………… 123 (C) Finance through Banks Portfolio: …………………………………………. 123 (d) Self- reliance system: ………………………………………………………. 124 (2) Groundnuts: …………………………………………………………….. 128 (3) Sorghum: ……………………………………………………………….. 131 (4) Wheat …………………………………………………………………… 133 The high costs of cultivation: ………………………………………………. 137 Major pests of agricultural crops in the NHAC: ……………………………. 137 (5) Freeholds and investment lands: ……………………………………….. 138 Investment lands …………………………………………………………….. 141 (6) Animal in the scheme …………………………………………………… 141 Halfwiyyin farmers and the Animal production: …………………………… 143 Bases of livestock production in the scheme: ………………………………. 145 Integrating animal to the agricultural rotation: ……………………………… 146 (7) Other related agricultural services and organizations: …………………. 148 Agricultural financing through the Banks: …………………………………... 152 Agricultural inputs private stores: ………………………………………….. 153 Transportation and storing: …………………………………………………. 153 (8) Marketing: ………………………………………………………………. 154 (9) Concluding remarks: …………………………………………………….. 155 (10) The problem of Mesquite ………………………………………………. 160 The history of Mesquite in the Sudan: ……………………………………. 161 (11) The future of the NHAC in the light of the present problems: ………… 166 Chapter Six : The Present Halfawiyyin Situation, and the rising Halfawiyyin community at suburban Khartoum………………………. 172 1-Location and characteristics: …………………………………………….. 172 2-Villages sending migrants: ………………………………………………. 182 3-Village.26. ……………………………………………………………….. 184 4-Differences in responses towards agriculture: …………………………… 197 5-Village 5, Argin north……………………………………………………… 203 Rise and Collapse of Cooperative Societies: ………………………………. 210 6- Kilo 14: ………………………………………………………………….. 213 The belly of the stone (Ard- el Hajar) ……………………………………… 217 Concluding remarks:…………………………………………………………. 226 Notes: Error! Bookmark not 236 defined................................................................................. ii Chapter Seven: Changes in Some Aspects of Halfawiyyin Social Life……... 237 Introduction…………………………………………………………………. 238 1- Marriage: ………………………………………………………………… 238 2-Death and religious occasions…………………………………………….. 240 3-Religious occasions: ……………………………………………………… 242 4- Pregnancy and Giving Birth: ……………………………………………. 247 5. Nubian dress: ……………………………………………………………. 249 6. Women ornaments: ……………………………………………………… 251 7. Halfawiyyin art: …………………………………………………………. 252 (1) Songs………………………………………………………………………. 252 (2) Nubian architecture: ………………………………………………………. 256 Concluding remarks: ……………………………………………………….. 261 notes: ………………………………………………………………………… 262 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………. 263 Bibliography……………………………………………………………...Error! 268 Bookmark not defined. iii List of tables and figures: (a) List of tables 1- Tenant population of the new Halfa scheme 13 2- Annual siltation and the storage capacity of the Dam 54 3- The declining cultivated area in the new Halfa scheme 113 4- Cultivated areas, production rates, costs and returns of Cotton 127 5- Cultivated areas, production rates, costs and returns of groundnuts 130 6-Cultivated areas, production rates, costs and returns of sorghum 133 7- Cultivated areas, production rates, costs and returns of wheat 136 8- Freehold lands 140 (b)List of figures: 1- possible resettlement locations 5 2- the new Halfa scheme 10 3- Agricultural inspections 12 4- Halfawiyyin new settlements 18 5- Batn el-Hajar 218 6-old Nubian villages 220 (c) List of Photos 1- Diesel pump to raise water from irrigation canal 168 2- Minor irrigation canal after rehabilitation 169 3- Cattle at the fringes of the scheme 169 4- Mesquite trees before and after rehabilitation 170 5- New lands at Batn el –Hajar 228 6- Silts accumulation at Batn el-Hajar 228 7- Food of Farmers at Batn el-Hajar 229 8- Engine boat 229 9- Fishermen at Batn el-Hajar 230 10- Nubian graves 230 11- New house at village 26. new Halfa 231 12- Standard resettlement house 231 13- The Karawoos 232 14- New Karawoos 232 15- Drinking water pipes 233 16- Kilo 14 233 17- Improved latrine at Kilo 14 234 18- Halfawiyyin hut at Kilo 14 234 19- El-Thawra quarter- New Halfa 235 iv v ﻣﺴﺘﺨﻠﺺ أﺷﺎرت ﻣﻌﻈﻢ اﻷدﺑﻴﺎت اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻨﺎوﻟﺖ ﻣﻮﺿﻮع ﻣﺸﺎرﻳﻊ اﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ اﻟﺰارﻋﻴﺔ اﻟﻘﺎﺋﻤﺔ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ اﺳﺎﺳﻰ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺪﺧﻼت أﺟﻨﺒﻴﺔ وﺗﻌﺘﻤﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺮي اﻻﻧﺴﻴﺎﺑﻲ اﻟﺤﺪﻳﺚ اﻟﻘﺎﺋﻢ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺴﺪود ﻹﺣﺪاث ﻧﻘﻠﺔ ﻧﻮﻋﻴﺔ ﻣﺮﻏﻮﺑﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺣﻴﺎة اﻟﻨﺎس ، أن ﺗﻠﻚ اﻟﻤﺸﺎرﻳﻊ ﻏﺎﻟﺒﺎ ﻣﺎ ﺗﺆدى إﻟﻰ اﻟﻤﺰﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ اﻹﻓﻘﺎر وﺧﻠﻖ اﻟﻤﺰﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﺸﺎآﻞ واﻟﺘﻌﻘﻴﺪات، وﻳﻜﻮن ﻣﺮدودهﺎ ﺳﻠﺒﻴﺎ ﺑﻮﺟﻪ ﻋﺎم ﻋﻠﻲ اﻟﻤﺪى اﻟﻄﻮﻳﻞ. ﻓﻜﺎن اﻟﺘﺴﺎؤل ﻟﻬﺬﻩ اﻟﺮﺳﺎﻟﺔ ﻟﻤﺎذا اﻷﺛﺮ اﻟﻌﻜﺴﻲ واﻻﻧﺘﻜﺎﺳﺔ اﻟﺘﻨﻤﻮﻳﺔ ﺗﺤﺪث ﻏﺎﻟﺒﺎ رﻏﻢ اﻟﺘﺨﻄﻴﻂ اﻟﺠﻴﺪ واﻹﺷﺮاف اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﻲ اﻟﻜﺎﻣﻞ واﻟﻤﺪﺧﻼت اﻟﻐﺎﻟﻴﺔ؟ ﻓﻲ هﺬﻩ اﻟﺪراﺳﺔ ﺗﻢ ﺗﻨﺎول ﺣﺎﻟﺔ اﻟﺤﻠﻔﺎوﻳﻴﻦ اﻟﻤﻬﺠﺮﻳﻦ إﻟﻰ ﻣﺸﺮوع ﺣﻠﻔﺎ اﻟﺠﺪﻳﺪة،وﻳﻀﻢ اﻟﻤﺸﺮوع ﺑﺠﺎﻧﺐ اﻟﻤﻬﺠﺮﻳﻦ، ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺎت أﺧﺮى ﻣﻦ ﻗﺒﺎﺋﻞ اﻟﻤﻨﻄﻘﺔ، واﻟﻮاﻓﺪﻳﻦ ﻟﻠﻌﻤﻞ واﻻﺳﺘﻔﺎدة ﻣﻦ اﻟﻔﺮص اﻟﺘﻲ وﻓﺮهﺎ اﻟﻤﺸﺮوع. ﺣﻴﺚ ﺗﻼﺣﻆ أن أﻋﺪادا آﺒﻴﺮة وﻣﺘﺰاﻳﺪة ﻣﻦ اﻟﺤﻠﻔﺎوﻳﻴﻦ هﺠﺮوا اﻟﻤﺸﺮوع اﻟﻤﺘﻌﺜﺮ، ﻣﺘﻌﻠﻠﻴﻦ ﺑﺴﻮء اﻷﺣﻮال اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدﻳﺔ واﻟﺨﺪﻣﻴﺔ ،وإﺣﺴﺎﺳﻬﻢ ﺑﺎﻟﺨﻮف ﻣﻦ "اﻟﻐﺮﺑﺎء". واﺗﺠﻬﻮا ﺻﻮب اﻟﺨﺮﻃﻮم ﺣﻴﺚ ﺷﻜﻠﻮا ﻓﻲ ﺑﻌﺾ ﺿﻮاﺣﻴﻬﺎ اﻟﺠﻨﻮﺑﻴﺔ ﺗﺤﺪﻳﺪا (ﻣﻨﺎﻃﻖ اﻟﻜﻼآﻼت، أﺑﻮ ادم، واﻟﺸﻘﻴﻼب وأم ﻋﺸﺮ) ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻃﻨﺎت ﺟﺪﻳﺪة ﻓﻲ ﻧﻤﻮ ﻣﻄﺮد، ﺑﻴﻨﻤﺎ اﺗﺠﻬﺖ أﻋﺪاد أﺧﺮى ﻣﻨﻬﻢ ﺗﺠﺎﻩ أوﻃﺎﻧﻬﻢ اﻟﻘﺪﻳﻤﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻨﺎﻃﻖ ﺣﻠﻔﺎ اﻟﻘﺪﻳﻤﺔ، وﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﻗﺮى ﺑﻄﻦ اﻟﺤﺠﺮ، ﻟﺰراﻋﺔ اﻻراﺿﻰ اﻟﻐﺮﻳﻨﻴﺔ ﻋﺎﻟﻴﺔ اﻟﺨﺼﻮﺑﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻜﻮﻧﺖ هﻨﺎﻟﻚ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ اﻻﻃﻤﺎء اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻲ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺠﺰء اﻟﺠﻨﻮﺑﻲ ﻟﺒﺤﻴﺮة اﻟﺴﺪ اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻲ. وﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻨﻘﻴﺾ ﻣﻦ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ اﻟﺤﻠﻔﺎوﻳﻴﻦ، ﺗﺘﺰاﻳﺪ داﺧﻞ اﻟﻤﺸﺮوع أﻋﺪاد اﻟﻮاﻓﺪﻳﻦ ﻃﻮﻋﺎ إﻟﻴﻪ ، واﻟﻤﻌﻨﻰ هﻨﺎ "اﻟﻌﻤﺎل اﻟﺰراﻋﻴﻴﻦ" واﻟﺬﻳﻦ ﻳﺤﻘﻘﻮن اﻟﻤﺰﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺘﻜﻴﻒ واﻟﺘﺄﻗﻠﻢ واﻻﺳﺘﻔﺎدة ﻣﻦ اﻟﻔﺮص واﻻﻣﻜﺎﻧﺎت اﻟﺘﻲ ﻳﻮﻓﺮهﺎ اﻟﻤﺸﺮوع. وﺗﻤﻜﻨﻮا ﻓﻲ ﻣﻌﻈﻢ اﻟﺤﺎﻻت ﻣﻦ اﻟﺪﻣﺞ اﻟﻜﺎﻣﻞ ﺑﻴﻦ اﻹﻧﺘﺎج اﻟﺰراﻋﻲ واﻟﺤﻴﻮاﻧﻲ. ﻏﻴﺮان اﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ ﺑﻴﻨﻬﻢ واﻟﺤﻠﻔﺎوﻳﻴﻦ ﻏﺎﻟﺒﺎ ﻻ ﺗﺘﺠﺎوز ﺣﺪود ﺗﺤﻘﻴﻖ اﻟﻤﻨﻔﻌﺔ اﻟﻤﺸﺘﺮآﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻹﻧﺘﺎج اﻟﺰراﻋﻲ. اﻋﺘﻤﺪت اﻟﺪراﺳﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻤﻨﻬﺞ اﻻﺛﻨﺮوﺑﻮﻟﻮﺟﻰ، ﺑﺎﻹﺿﺎﻓﺔ إﻟﻰ اﻟﻤﻨﻬﺞ اﻟﻤﻘﺎرن، آﻤﺎ اﻋﺘﻤﺪت ﻓﻲ ﺟﻤﻊ اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎت ﻋﻠﻰ وﺳﺎﺋﻞ ﻣﺘﻌﺪدة، آﺎﻟﻤﻘﺎﺑﻼت اﻟﻔﺮدﻳﺔ واﻟﺠﻤﺎﻋﻴﺔ واﻟﻤﻼﺣﻈﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﺸﺎرآﺔ، ﺑﺎﻹﺿﺎﻓﺔ إﻟﻰ اﻟﻤﺼﺎدر اﻟﺜﺎﻧﻮﻳﺔ. واﻋﺘﻤﺪت اﻟﺪراﺳﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺗﺤﻠﻴﻞ اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎت ﻋﻠﻰ اﺧﺘﺒﺎر ﻋﺪد ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﺪاﺧﻞ اﻟﻨﻈﺮﻳﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺘﻨﺎول ﻣﺴﺄﻟﺔ إﻋﺎدة اﻟﺘﻮﻃﻴﻦ، ﺣﻴﺚ ﺗﻮﺻﻠﺖ اﻟﺪراﺳﺔ
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