Partial Pulfillment of the Requirements : .; Va , for the Degree of '

Humanism at the University of Paris in the early Renaissance

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Authors Marcus, Leslie Bennett, 1937-

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Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/10150/318965 HUMMFISM If THE UHYEHSITI OF PffilS IH THE EIRIZ RENHSSfflGE

Xeslie B. Marcus

A Thesis Sutaitted to the Faculty of the

BEPAETMENT OF EOMMGE IfflGUAGES

I»; Partial Pulfillment of the Requirements : .; Va , For the Degree of '

. MISTER OP- iRTS

• In the Graduate College

' : :.HIIflRSlfI W iRIZCEA . '

1 9 6 2 STATEMENT BY AUTHOR

This thesis has been submitted in partial fulfillment of re quirements for an advanced degree at the University of Arizona and is deposited in the University library to be made available to borrowers under rules of the library.

Brief quotations from this thesis are allowable without special permission, provided that accurate acknowledgment of source is made. Requests for permission for extended quotation from or reproduction of this manuscript in whole or in part may be granted by the head of the major department or the Dean of the Graduate College when in their judgment the proposed use of the material is in the interests of scholarship. In all other instances, however, permission must be obtained from the author.

SIGNED: ^ . Ytaurvujl

APPROVAL BY THESIS DIRECTOR

This thesis has been approved on the date shown below:

LOYAL A. GRYTING Professor of Frenc T1BEB OF GOHTENTS

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Himianism was the dominant Intelleetual movement in France during the sixteenth .century« The word is derived from the Satin i#rd hnmarms (that. >M.efa concerns .mans; homo)« In its most general' ;

senses Hxrnianisn is the name given to these intelleetual activities / that survey the whole cultural condition of man® In the context of •this, thesis^, hewrer), it is the:'name,. giyeg:-:t^:,the:' rediscovery, trans^ lation, elucidation, commentary, and interpretation of the Greek and latih classics o ; ’ .

) Humani^n, "which originated in It.aly, did not meet with the • same initial success In 'France' as ."it hadin Italy. Indeed, the, early,

stages of its development were very difficult= Its chief and most

powerful • opponent in France was. the phseurantist and Scholastic ■Sorbonne, the Faculty of Theology of the University of Paris® •,

: So great was the renown and influence of the University of

Paris in a France then as now highly centralised,, that Humanism could and would not triumph until it; had. dvereom.@ the constant opposition ‘

of the great University = ' , • . ■

It is the purpose of this thesis to examine the intellectual • aspects ©f this-struggle between Humanism and the traditional learn ing at the Sorbonne in the sixteenth century, as revealed in the

writings of French Humanists and men of letters, aid in the writings of the doctors of the Sorbonne« First,' there will be an; examination of the background of the University of Paris in the sixteenth centm'jp which m i l show the University to be essentially a mediaeval instil •

tut ion o Secondly«, there 3d.ll be an examination of the evolution of the Humanism ©f the EensdLssanee at the University of FariSs. iiiieh show'tte hut steady infiltration of Humanism, into the ; University,: , Thirdly, there will be a detailed examination of the-;

Faculty of Theology of the University of Paris in the sixteenth century, iiiieh m i l show its conservative temper and obscurantist

spirit. Finally,: there m i l be a very detailed, examination of the

clash between the new Humanism and, the Faculty of Theology, with special emphasis oh the intellectual aspects, which will show the emergence of Human!sa over the implacable opposition of the Sorbonhe

at Paris,:'. v : vV::::: , -- , ^ .

■ : The period under discussion in.this thesis dpes not include

the entire century, but rather the period: from 1470 to approximately ' 1534=> This period opens with the first printing press in Paris and closes with the Affairs des Flacardso This is not the golden age of

Humanism in prance. It skirts such great writers as Montaigne. and ' Calvin,' such imaortal poets as, Su Bellay,‘ESnsard, Seeve, and, more .

relevant so far as this thesis, is concerned, such great scholars as

Henri Estieme, Sbienne Fasquier, Claude Fauchet, and Jacques.Amyot„

This thesis is primarily concerhed,, as stated previously, with the difficult but nevertheless successful struggle'of Humanism to es-

, tablish itself against its.chief, ehesy . in France, the Sorboane« It

: will be shown that by 1530, with the establishment of the College de Frances the struggle reached, its successful conclusion and that, in the following few years9 the - Humanists successfully beat off the r©ar"guard'"actiqBS ©f the Sorberae® ' : : .

This thesis does not deal with the Reformation in France9 idiose early adherents included many of the leading Humanists. The religious question is introduced indirectly to illuminate the sources of the;reaction-of the Theologians of the Sorborme to Hummism. ’ - ' It will be shown that the Humanists were correct, in judging the Sorbonne incorrigibly reactionary iti spirit9 and hence justi- ! fied.in their belief that salvation for .Humanism lay in creating a new Hmanistic University, independent of the Sorbonne»

' Great attention is placed throughout on. the words and ' . actions of the two chief actors in this :drama> the protagonist Guillaume Bade m d the antagonists Soel Beia.: • . g h &p w ;£

THE BACKGRGUHD OF THE UM¥EBS1TI OF PARIS

' - The origin of, the University of Paris is diffierilt to pin- . ■ point exactly o It is generally agreed, however % that it developed from the Cathedral, School of Paris» ' This school ■was placed on the

.■ intellectual;map, by Gaillaime ■■ de Champeaax (do its first great Master0 It was not Guillawae^ however$ brnt rather Pierre Abelard$ his pupil and adversaryg Vno first started students swarming to Paris from all over^a inigration that has » t yet stoppedo ; ■ ,'

Abelard is today justly noted for his famous love affair with Heloiseo

Yet it was his peerless skill as a logician and his philosophical eon.* tributions t© the development of Scholasticism vAieh attracted numer* -

©us students 'to Paris and helped to establish there a University of ■ the first ranko A University offering the studium generals or basic

eurrietdrm'gradualiy iaato beingf in the- twelfth centuryB A Society of Masters * as those iSo taught at the University were called s

..was '©stablished about 117©o '. 7 ; ' ■ ■-

■ . ■ Thus'by the end of the twelfth century a cosmopolitan band of ;

students alrea% existed at Paris and became organised because of ■■;'r ' - . 2 - • ' ‘ . " " three main reasons o First ^ there was the need to protect their ;

privilegess as eleriess against the • encroachments of lay authority.

To this end the University became an ecclesiastical polity independent . , :: -::::", , - _''. :::' .' . \ ^ :"',:' . . . : $ of the Klmgs eapable of 3^aotimg #ite vigorously to royal izitrmsiomso Secondlys a long straggle ensued between the University of Paris ‘and ; the Chlaacelior of Hotre. Bame'> the agent of the Bishop of Paris» in ; >jhich the school asserted, its autonony as belonging not to the kingdom

or to the diocese alone 3 but to the Ohureh universal o Thirdly9 the Papacys trying to centralize the activities of ;the Ghurchs supported

the University in its1 straggle for autonomy o ■ . , ' • ' : ' . , ilberb Guerard, summarized the evolution of the University of Paris as follows; • ' The University m s n©t s as we have seens a single school expanding in orderly fashions it m s , a confused aggrega- , tion of cosmopolitan students and" masters9 # i o h gradually9 ; and by the usual method s conflicfj, grew conscious of its unity and extended its privilegeso^ • The corporate existence of the University was acknowledged by Royal Charter■about 12S0O In 1215 it received a definite statute from the Pope$s Legate=' This :ms strengthened by the Bull Parens

Seientiarma issued in 1231 s which placed it directly under Papal

jurisdictioBo In 1219 the different ^Faculties411 were first mentioned= % i 222r the student3$ always a friendly and gregarious group and

blessed with a strong sense of national solidarity9 had formed numer ous regional Clubs or nations approximating their origins® These were

later reduced to fmir=-=Freneh@ Picard 9 H o m a n s and English® 86The ^English, nationwhich also, included 'Mortlern and Eastern Earopeans

and5, above all9 GarsnarxSj x-jere later transformed into the s,G@rman

’’ ■ 4 . ■■ ' ' : :: ' ' " : . nation os ' ■ % the middle ©f'the thirteenth centurya the, rector was.

elected by • the combined ®n'ati®nso81 ' The Sector gradually became head* not - ©mly of , the Faeulty of lrts9 tint ©f the "whole University, - : Prior to the fourteenth century^ the University of Paris pos™, sessed no property of its .ow# xmless mention be made of the Pre-anx- elercs. Thus lectures had to be held in random places? usually in churches or conventSo The University did not provide classrooms for its staff s ■which rented its own until the fourteenth century= The classrooms of the Faculty of Arts were found about the rue du . Fouarre® The staff, not being paid salaries by the University, m s ■ dependent ©a benefices, religious orders, or fees received from, their ■ ■ " ' 6 ' ' ■ : ■ ' / " ; ■ ■ ' . ■ . ■ ■ students. : . ■ - ' ’ The . University of Paris was noted for its system, of Colleges, similar to that prevailing today at Oxford and Cambridge. The Col- . ' : leges, were originally modest dormitories (hospicia) endowed by their founders— sometimes University Masters— t© provide room and board for impoverished.. schblars fbursars). '. The head of the- College at, ' first limited himself'generally to looking after the physical heeds ef his charges but, with the passage of time, played a gradually inereas- ' ^ : ■ y y-:'' 8 ■ - ■ ■■ • ■ .v.;/ ' . ing role..in-.their .education® There were many Colleges at the'; University of Paris™— some sixty ■■ ■■ y - - y- ■ . . ■ • : . ■■ were founded before 1500= Among the more famous ones ■were the Colleges

• of Montaiga,:lavarre, Hareourt s and Saint-Barbe ® Yet none of these were;to play an intellectual role equal to that played by the Sorbbnne.®. The College of the Sorbonne was, founded and endowed by Robert de

Sorbon in 1257® It gave its name, moreover, to the whole Faculty of

•Theolo^, and the main building of the present University of Paris® With. regard;'to the Colleges, ©riginaJJy only the bursars lived there®- 7 Gradually a3J. the students at the University came to ll've in them. The Masters originally had a monopoly of the teaching at the" IniTersityo The intrusions of the Mendicant Friars into the Faculty of Theologr challenged,"i3ieir supremacys however = These intrusions pro= / yoked the -hitter .and : strong reaction . of the University against the -.

friars 9 a controversy which lasted until the fifteenth century» The

University in 1253 ©gelled the friars, who them proceeded to appeal to the Fopeo The champion of the University in the initial dispute

' 'r##lved in 1255 Guilla'mae de Baint#^ immortalized fey the poet Eutefeeuf o % decision of the papal Bull Quasi lignum vitae s the friars Tfjere theoretically given permission to participate in the af fairs of the University, although, in fact, every obstacle m s placed

' , . ' q " ' :■ . \v:t . ■ . ■ • '■ v. ■ ' ; ■ ' ■ y ■ 'in',their"myo >"'■ • i ' Student life at the University "of Paris ■was very spirited and, if anything, even more boisterous than that of students today« Albert

_ Guerard gives us an excellent description, m i l worth quoting at

Mary of the students, clerics though they "wre, led singu larly medifying liveso The ^Goliards/3 as the most riotous ■ of them were called, were little better than vagabonds. Self- support through menial service, as it still exists in America, was not unlaiom in the mediaeval universities| but the meaning of self-support: seems.to have been stretched so as to cover petty larcenyo Villon, a whilom.student, who wrote some:of; his masterpieces in jail and under the shadow of the gallows, . • was exceptional only in his geniuso The poor student, neither fish nor fowl— a cleric without a benefice, a layman without a trade— formed a picturesque rather than a reputable element in mediaeval society» The fabliaux are full of his mad pranks» He might turn, according to the whim of fate, into a monk, a , minstrel, or a pick-pocket =, There is a lesson, in the fact that the same Celtic word which in. English became truant meant in French beggar and thief. • This dissolute behaviour of the students of tit© WniTersi-bj of

Paris t$3s@ even more shoekimg iAen it is remembered that they were' le gally considered to fee clerics® Yet the students redeemed themselves

fey tempering 'their, excesses, with 85piety also and a genuine democracy.^ and a wonderful eagerness for sacred and profane knowledge

The em*rietibam. at the University of Paris consisted of two . general categories s equivalent to the contemporary American under- ; '

graduate and.graduate schools respeetiyely®.■ First» there was the general or preparatory courses which comprised the trivium (grammarg rhetorics dialectic or logic) and the qmadrivium (arithmetic, geom-

. ■ TO - - • ■ ©try, astronomy and music)» .. ■ fhis was; the all-important Faculty of Arts whose lector served also as the Sector of the entire University ' ' ^ : ■ ' ■ ■ ■ of Parisc4-5

Secondly, together with the Faculty ©f Arts were, found the \-

graduate or professional schools: medicine (physica) 9 civil and canon law (leges and decretw), and theology (pagina sacra)« ; French Universities specialized in ©ne or two of Ithese studieso

Hotitpeliier, for examplea specialised in civil law and medicine (and. :

attracted Rabelais, who took his degree in. medicine there)| Toulouse•

in civil and canon law, with some theology? Orleans and Angers in arts and l&Wo"^ Paris m s renowned in.Europe, for the study of the-.

Olo^r, and: for that reason was to 'attract many of. the greatest minds of the Renaissance to its doors® .

The method of teaching consisted not in reading the original

sources or works .but rather texb~books an,d commentaries on them, such as Cicero in rhetoric, Porpliyrius in dialectic, and Bonatus in ' grammaro Great emphasis m s placed on Boethius 9 who m s highly valued as an authority on elassieal antiquity^ and idaese writings on ■ arithmetie^ music^ and philosophy m r e scrutinized closelya ■ • This method m s not limited to the Taeulty of Arts; rather it extended to all the Faculties: ,

: ôod ni;>6mr.'la MMeelhes ni pour 1@ Broit, ni pomr la ' Theologie on ne se preoeeupait dialler aux sources; le manuel dûn commentateur eminent.offrait le cadre et la ■ mat!ere d© lênseigmement ; aux ©coles, de Droit on comentait . Aeonrse et Bartolej, et a eelle de Theologie s la Bible et le Mvre des Sentences de Pierre lombard.,^? ■ Disputation played a very important role at the University: . " Ine part tres large etait reserree aux disputess / argumentations souvent' subtiles sur 'des sujets seolairesi , epcereise. intelleetuel qoi n’Z'est pas denue de valeur quand il eeteppe'a la futd^te ret av.la :sabtilites la dispmie jonait ■ dans la fomation dâlors le role attribue au„jourd8hui atzx

:: travam-.ecrits@-^ ; h ; v : - . • Everyx-jhere- prevailed the strong worship of tradition and the V

' supremacy of f o m a l iogicv.$8Seh©3„astieisa m s the application of formal logic ,to the data ..of revelati©n=,'sa^ ■ Scholasticism m s the, ,

dominant school of philosophy at the University of Paris during the

Middle ■Ag®s<> Its greatest figure was Sto Thomas Aquinas# who had

t m ght at the.WmivWsityo/:, - v; -'' Vi, ' .. : \;v;v In the fourteenth century the mueh-eherished autonomy of the

Wniversity of Paris m a restricted# mile the royal influence over it

' increasedo It m s hardly surprising# therefore# that in- the ever-®-., continuing struggle between -the- king and the.papacy it supported the '. fonner# thus ensuring for-itself a key role-at the Gouncil of Constanee

(1414=1415) o The iBlversity became an important voice in politics? As 'is often, the-ease# .however#: the.rising-worldly fortunes of the. . : . . ' ... o l ' Uialversity w r e llaked mtli intellectual, and spiritual decline 0 - ■ The language of instruction m s Lating whose standard un

fortunately declinedo French professers visiting Flerenee and Rome - compared the graceful Latin spoken in those two cities to the disad~

vanthge ef its less elegant variamt #ekem in Paris. Robert ■

Casambohs after listening to a long -and probably typical disputation

at the Sorbonne9 remarked that ®he had never heard so muph Latin spo~ ken mthout 'understanding it0OT

; Greek moreover ? fared even worse o Latin m s at least used

extensively^, t-ihereas Greek m s generally ignored$, at least until the ,

late Middle Ageso The all-important Aristotle suffered the erotming

indignity of being studied only by means of Latin translations and

commentariesc . The reading of classical literature amd. moreover9 that of the Church Fathers— Latin as well as Greek«=™ms negleeted :

generally 02^ .. . ' '

- B y the fifteenth century Scholasticism^ ©nee so powerful,,

seemed, to have ■ exhausted itself® It m s no longer a vital intellec

tual force 9 but m s no%f moribund and. mechanical 3' drawing justified

contempt from the new thinkers spamed by the Renaissance®

Thus the University of Pariss at the beginning of the six- • teenth century^ m,s a spent force o The : spirit of the University m s

conservativeo Its vast organized authority was mobilised and used' on behalf ©f Scholastieiaa at a time when the latter m s deeliningo ;

'. The University mas thus inhospitable to the irinds of the new Hwaanisn 'blomng. im from Italyo ' Hence it drew the .ire add barbs ,of:

the lumanistsi "' v .n Whatever the partieialar knowledges er teachings which Italian hmanists or Protestant reformers from time to time denoanees satirises or oast from themg we are eertain to find that im the Colleges of the University ©f Paris it had ■ its chief oitadel and its most powerful defenders«' Yet so ' maiverds^_was its remOTms, strong its.attraetion9 that# amongst the men of northern race at leasts its critics and its fiercest enemies" are. often those >jh© have passed through its doorsc Agricola^ iteuehlins Erasmus5 Wivesp' Calvins Dolets Gordiers .Stmms were all students or teaohers in its - . collegess and- all spent the best years of their lives in fighting its most cherished.' ideals o^o The beginning of the sixteenth; century thus found the Uni- .. . versity of Paris out of sympathy with,the Benaissanees its free intel lectual development having been arrested during the Middle Ages® 12

" V- ' 'V;:; ,. ■. '■ ■<; :.S%©ta©tess Chapter I -

,..,. .Sir Paul Harrey aati J o Eo Heseltinej The Cteford Companion to Preneh literature«. pe 726« .. ■ ■ ■ ■ .

. .Albert Ison,Gu@rards French Civilization from its Origins to the Close of the.. Middle Ages o 199-20@o :

...,, ; i :.3x^ 0.9 :i.0;:2^o:, ; ?'''' ■ ' ' / : ' : ■ . : % i d i, P. '200. • :V-V :■ . -vi ■ ' : iT ■ . ; Pre-aux-clercs— not a building at all but rather a meadow in front of the Abbey of Saint-^-Gei^ain-des-Pres in Paris P -was used in the Middle Ages as a playground of the University, .; Harvey and Heseltinej opo cite n Pc 727«

■ . ' , i- : $h@:. earliest college- m s the I8GoUege des dix-huit P'<$ estab lished in. 1130 by an Englishm.an returning, from a pilgrimage to the Holy Lando It was intended to support eighteen students0 ; -■ . ' -g - ■ • ■ .. ■ - • ■ - - V - . ' '■ ■ " . : Ibido n p, 727o ■ o - - , ^ ^ ' -- Guerardg French Civilization. ppe 200^201,

' ... ■ 10lbidc. ppl ,201^ 2'/ . it:' : \

^ b i d .. p. 202. i; \ ':v / . ' / . / : - v ’ . ^% a o u l Mor^ay. la Renaissance o II, pp. 162-63.

^%uerard. QPo eitO0 p. 202. :. ^fercay. op. cit. , p. . 163. ' ■ . :

. ;':^0uerard-a QPo cit. . 'p. .202. ' l'; t : ; ^ ■

• Ibid.. p. 203, . - -

-Ifereayj. eito s p 0 163. iA - : - ' ' ' . ' . ■■ ' Ibid. o p. 163.. . . :i.

' ^ 6 ierard9 op. elt09 po 205° . : ' , . ^ 'y y ; ... -yi'y::;;' ' ' ;,. The University had acquired, many buildings and its famous library. . : y. ^y .'. ; '. ' 13 21 'Harvey and Heseltines ©go clto 0 p 0 72?o

22 ' Jean Plattardr, La Renaissance des lattres en Francen p o So 23' John' Edxmi Sandyss A of Classical- Scholarship;, n , P o 210o 24, ) o GIL U o ^ p o 203o 25™Plattardj, ggo cito s ppQ 7”S= 26ifii:Lliam Harrison Woodtfardp Stndies in Education the of the Renaissance 0 p 0 129„ G MEIER 11

: ' ' fHEu HM B i m i OF if HE E E M I S S S C l -

The period of the Renaissance m s s -fer France 9 inaugurated by the series of wars in i/Siieh she participated, in Italy at the end of the fifteenth century and. the beginning of the sixteenth,, lauis U

(1/[23=»1AS3) proved to be as astute and forceful a monarch as ever . lived, in France0 His character did, not escape denunciations by moralistso His great contribution^, however 9 m s to give a strong $ orderly9 central government to France s a country reeling under the im» : pact of the chaos and weakness unleashed by the Hundred 'fears® - War*/

Charles H I X (1470-1498) and Inuis H I (1462-1513 )g as if to proclaim France8 s newly recovered virilitys followed a policy of military ©pension abroad $ most notably in Italy = This' policy was con tinued «ith a vengeance by Francis I (1515-1547)» the great king of the French Benaissanceo Francis I ' ms a leading poHtidal figure of his day$ a formidable rival of the all-important Charles V of Spain«

Francis X m s smitten by the Renaissance while on an . ©^edition in

Italy and s, as a consequence 9 became the great protector and patron of Humani#. in France. - ; ' - -

The invasion of Italy by France led her to an amreness of the life and spirit of'the.-Renaissancep She m s foi’eed to re-examine her own ideas and traditions in the light of idaat she had seen in Italy |

14 still chafing m d e r medi.e'ral resttietionsshe found these ideas'and. traditions laeking® Gommeree^ as well as marg mas a means of bringing the Renaissance to Franee«, The ancient city of Jyonss a former capi

tal of France and home of :.a large Ital3.an colonyj, served as .the center :f©r the French trade m t h Italy $ by virtue of its proxtidty to that' country as mell as .the entrance point of Renaissance' culture 'into Eramceo - ' - -. ■ , Thus dtrring the first part of the sixteenth eenturyy enthusiasm— even obsession"— for things .Italian was the order of the day® No

aspect of French literature -and art ment unaffected by the influence of Petrarchism.s Platozd.®aP and Italian art» Literature and Humanistic

studies s mith -which this thesis is primarily concerned, flourished in

France during this period- ' . . The study of■ the humanities, as distinct, from the formal logic

and barbarous Latin of.the Scholastics, had: as 'its-greatest chaapion^'■

the doughty Guillaume Bude o He declared grandiloquently that

?seo0 ©0 Bo ne changerait pas, pour toutes les riehesses, les joies / ' ; ' " . , '' ' ' 2 *' / ' - gue lui a donnees la Philologie 08t Bude believed strongly that - . - . ■"■ •' , - ' - V ■ - . : - . ■ ■ ■ . - ' . ' 3 ■' . ' ”every man, even if he fee a. King , ■ should fee devoted to philologro^ • Woodward summarises- Badets definition of philologr and its- im- ■

portaice as follows: Ehilolo^r is interpreted as the desire for and love of Letters and all liberal learning, idaich is so-called because for its pursuit a man must fee indep^dent and free c Such ■ learning again is called by. the ancients 8$humants or ^humamis- ..tic,#, for without interest in it, mth o u t ...88eraditos n - the world '" y ' ' .-would feecoW! aai m ^ m d pot hwaano But such learning is at- : taimafele only fey such as know ©reek and- %tin» Bude sets :.. forth the claim for the study of ©reek as above all: other knowledge o ' It is more important than Latin learning<, As a language 5 as the em'bsdlment of ideas 9 as the essential iastru.- meat of expression ef philosophical truth it is miqueo It , is the necessary key to Latins as' the Eomans readily allo>?edo

No feature of Bude$s personality %as so striking as this

seemingly insatiable thirst for Greek learning = He believed that

ôry/ms to be foundt herein; ® 0'o»; c#est par It etude - dm gree que / . les hmanistes pewent se distinguero Gêst par la que les jemies : ■ ' v . ' i - 5 ■: : " ; •gens peuvent arriver a la. gloire0i$ For Guillame Bade life and philologr iêre inseparable;

; It is philology. that has so :lomg been my eompanior^ ay ; . associatesy aistressj,. bound to me by every tie ©f , it ‘affection6 ■ a ’Sit-1. have been forced to loosen the: bonds. • of a love m devouring ° »: « that I found it destructive to ay healtho® :

Guillaume Bade was France® s great advocate of Hwanisn3 con tinually exhorting his countrynen9 young and old$, to warm themselves

: at its hearth. -fbls point of view had'already been expressed by an

earlier writer«, 1= Bo Alberti« in his work Traite d® la fainille a w ) : Vv ' v;. : ; .;

Jeunes gens dosnes toms vos efforts a, l®4tude des lettresg ooo aimes a coBnaitre les cheses du passe dignes de memoir© j, a = = goutea la joie de nourrir votre ■ esprit de belles sciences 0»«,, cherehes a eomaltre ■ les . phases humaizies.e 0 o <=,11 n®est pas de promenade si . : \ . = bellement fl®mrier^0tell@,»vaille^ l^agrernent et le chame ,. d®,un/discours de Dmosthene3 de Cicerom3' de Tite-Mve om de XenophoBc< v . _ Humanistic studies in France- may be said to have started in 1470° -In that year Guillaume Fiehet founded ^ a t was the first printing press:in Pariso The professor and librarian of the Sorbonne

' eh proflta pour mettre- a la portee'\d@ see' etudiants des ' ouvz'ages propres a leur enseigner l$art de M e n dire em latini" traites de^rhetoriques modeies de style episto- laire? recueils d®elegances ' : . ' . / ■: 17 Fitiket felt that he m s presiding at the inauguration ©f a golden age ©f Hrmanissns which he compared to the hard times it had

encountered:during his :y©uth$ ■ ‘ ' ■ / ' -''; ' Jêpromre m grand eoBtemtement oeo en "royant les Euses et toutes les parties de lêloquenee qu l®'age precedent avait ipiorees, fleurirênfin dans eette jille® Quand9 am temps de mes jeunes anneess je quittai le pays de Baux et me ^rendis a Paris pour^me mettre a l®etude d^'Aristotej, je m®etonhais de roir qu®a Paris un orateur ©u un poete etait chose plus rare qti®m,.phen±Xo Personne ne’etudialt nuit et jour Cie®rons eornme beaxieoup 1® font aujour#hmi; personae ; - ne: saTaii faire un rers correct ni scander les yers d®amtrii| I'B'deole parisieime arait desappris la latinites et tons ses„doeteurs ou presque en etalent deseendms a un langage barbare = MaiSj, a present ^ nous voyont enfin des jours meilleursj c^r, pour parler le langage des poetes, les dieux et les deesses font renaitre chea nous la science dm teem dire.9

, A setback to the cause of Humaniaa occurred in 1472 when.

Fiehet left France and did met return, fame m s marked until 1494s when the Paris press definitely began publishing humanistic Peeks.

This suggests that a market for such books was beginning, to exist. During the next eight years s a small but influential and conscientious circle of Ituaanists at the University of Paris studied ' ' ' . ■ ' • 10 ' the latin. language and literature diligently. The group®s leader was Robert ©agains a great leader of early French Humanism. He was a professor of rhetoric at the Universitys teaching its among othersP to leuchlin.: To assist the students Of Latins Robert ©again published a : . ' " ...... ' %% ' work on Latin versification. Ars versificatoria (1473/0 The death of ©aguin in 15©2 was a blow to French Humaniaa, as it signaled the end of the first, phase in the 'remval of classical studies in France^ the phase, of .latin rhetoric.- ' : ' - , , ; ■■■ ; At Badius Aseensius inaugurated a new phase in the study of Latin m t h the establismmeat at Paris of bis press, in 1563® : Together ■with M s friend Jean Petits Badius mrked incessantly ©n behalf of Htiaaiiismo M s labor resulted in the "works ©f many Latin classical

writersj, as x-iell as improved Latin grammars2 rolling from his bu^r presso To aid students ©f Latin h@ wrote M s 8'familiar eommentaries0'Z3 , Jearn Petit was the leading contemporary Parisian publisher and book- ' •

sellero It was sigMfieant of the growing strength of Humanism, at t M s time that Petit threw his support behind ito

; MeanwMle Jacques Lefevre d?Etapless working at the College of Cardinal Lanoin®? made important contributions to Humanismo Jacques .

Lsferre diStaples is one bf the great names in French Humanism. For the purpose of t M s thesiss his theology (#iieh brought him into eon~

fMet with loel Beda and the Sorbomae) is not stressed® Of greater

" ' ■ " " . . ' V relevance is his important reform of the study of Aristotle e Lefevre

d^itapies edited some of Aristotles s wrks®' ' ie preferred to examine Aristotle at the source s mthout commentaries: 5l?il faut boire a la

13 - source la pure liquer des livres d^Aristote®* Indeeds his method - of philology was similar to that of Guillaume Bude«

. Greek (suspect as the: language of hhseties) had fallen to a

' low estate during the Biddle Ages® : Greek was inevitably a plant of '

more delicate growth than Latin at Paris® Only in 1496 did the study

of Greek at Paris begin seriouslywith the arrival of Janus Lasearis®

T M s talented $ non-prof e ssional scholar helped no less a personage than Guillaume Bud® t© master Greek® Bmdes howevera Eiinisd-ged the im portance of Lasearisl help 'and insisted that M l ne m$‘a pas donne en tout vingt leeons®w In any case, when Lasearis left France for i Italy in 1504s Guillaume Bude m s already a competent Greek student» Lasearis-, moreover, left Bude his famous library of Greek books j, an .■ iHralBable :glft"fo the buddlwg.Greek soh©laro: \' ' . ' ; . Greek nevertheless continued to labor under the disadvantages

of inadequate facilities for scholarship. For example^ no Greek press as yet .existed,, Thus Greek studies got a neededbboost m t h the

establishment in Paris of the'.first Greek press in 1507= Inl5GB two important Humanistic works w r e published and. their influence was greatly felt<> Erasmus published his Adagia (Udine Edition) and Gnillanme Bude his Jmetations ami pandect Os o These two tradition^ defying books helped to stir mp interest considerably in classical antiquity and their numerous, translations of Greek 'writers proved

most useful t© studentSo^ -

Perhaps the most important event in 1503^ however,.was the ar*

rival in Paris ©f the great Italian Humanist s Jerome £Leandr©o ■ From

1509 almost continually until'. 1513. he, delivered brilliant and very ; successful public lectureSo : In addition to thiss he took over the di

rection of Goumont6 s Greek press» He left. France in 1514° With his departure the number of books issued from Gourmontts press deelinedo

In the period from 1514 to 1517 seven" Greek books, were issued^ while from 1517 to 1528 an average of ope Greek book a year was published in ' : IS'! " ' - • ■. ' 'i’ ' ' ■ ' ■ ' Pariso. - . : • ' . _ ■ . , v Matters improved in 1526 with the establishment of the Royal Press9 with Robert Estienne (a member of the famous printing family) as the first piinter* Its purpose was set out in its Charter as -

follows? "" ' . ' We are persuaded that these sound studies birth in our Kingdom to theologians * 0 shall teach the sacred - doctrines of religion | to magistrates Wno shall ad-^ minister justice mthout partiality and in the spirit ©f public equity | and fina].ly to skilled adnitni strators 9 the lustre of the State$ v f a a will be capable of sacrificing their private interest to affection for the public good,, o o o Such are"among the benefits that may reasonably be looked for from sound studies and from them almost exclusively»^

The Royal Press was a great suceesSo Woodward .remarks that $8the Royal Press was the instrument through which the noblest achieve- :"- ' IS ments of 'French scholarship w r e given to the world ots ' From the year 152S ons the output of Greek books increased considerablyo The Estiennesj, Robert and Henris were Latinists of world re—

nowno So fanatical were they in their advocacy of Latin that they 2© - • ' forced even their ©wn household to speak Latin»

‘ . The second generation of French Humanists (the generation of Francis l) found generally a considerably easier task before them than

their predecessors had® They were so fortunate as to benefit from the

considerable apparati of scholarship (printing pressess grammar manu- alss translations)"bequeathed to them by their predecessors after much

•painstaking 'and diligent wrko ■ T h e . competent Greek teaching now available in France obviated - the need both for Italian teachers and

trips, to Italy. Moreover, Guillaume Bude and others saw to it that - - v/ ... ■ ■ "' : 2© needed Greek, books met available in 'France, were imported, from'Italy o The most noted personality of the earlier Humanism in France

:was GuiHaume; Bude; (14SS-154©)0 A man of great learning,,', his .enthusi asm for ' Greek has .already been mentiohbd.' It is said that he m s . ©nee so absorbed in gaining knowledge that he forgot that it was M s wedding

day and forsook his bride for his booksAfter leading the life of a s©meifeat’ dissolute playboy9' Bu in which Bade was in his familiar role of- apologist for Hmaaniaai De asse (1514)s ah essay on ancient coinss that attempted .to^relate classical ■literature to economics9 inter- .' spsrsed with digressions on French patriotism and Christian piety; and

CoroHientarii linguae Graecae (1529)9 a philological study of the Breek language9 ®f great value to contemporary studentso His Institution du Prince was written in Freneho Guillaume Bude was a fomider ■ ©f philolo^r as a science» His method of .studying. Greek texts: was very rigorous 0 . He sought to estab*~ ; lish a better text; and to give truer explanations of its meaniago" He did so by an expert knowledge of Greek and of classical history9 and ■ .. . - . ■ : ■ ■ ■ .... . i:'g3 ’ he deliberately disregarded the works of the Gommentatorso -

Francois HabelaiSs during the period when he lived: at the

Franciscan convent of Fontenay^le^Gomte> corresponded m ^ h Bed@$ and .' V ^ : " : 2Zt - , ^ received from him encouragement on his Humanistic bento Bade was • wont to eneburage talented Humanistic tyroso Bude®*© correspondence is ' - ■ ■■ /•: ; .■■ ■ ■ ; ■ . 22

volijminousa It depicts Mjn as a man engage 9 the paladin of Enmanism,

and gives us much insight into the development of Humanismc. Bade corresponded with most of the greatest Humanists of the days Eabelaiss Erasmus s Ifere and others o His eorrespondenee«, vAieh has . been edited by I m d s Delaruellej, shows Bude as the ever active propa

gandist of Humanism$> elated by its triumphs and depressed by its set- backs o Yet - Bude nas confident that Humanism -would eventually triumph

•and confound its critics2 .58»= = les ad.versai.res de 1%'human!sme ■■

- . 25 finiront M e n par se taire j la faveur populaire les abandonnera«iS.

Lasearis was certainly. justified when he declared to lazare

de Baif that Bade had contributed as much to' the cause of Greek in . - - . . , 26 " . - 'France, as Cicero had in Italy® In the period under driscussion in ■

this thesis (147G-1530) $, he was indeed the greatest personality of French Humanism® : ' it '■ ■ y . '

,, ’ :; ■& fevitaliaed France ^ -me#.y recovered from the enfeeblement, of

the. Hundred Years* ¥ars proved receptive t© the new currents of the

Eenaissance blowing in from/Italy® This receptivity towards the Renaissance was mot shared initially by the entire nations but rather

. j^aall but elite groups at the Universities and at the Court. / \ ■ . These Humanists had as their first task the mastering of the

classical Greek and Latin languages o The establishment of the me

chanics of elassieal scholarship followed = Greek and latin presses

were 'established^ ’ dictionaries. were written f better''' translations were securedo The stress was laid on study of the.works themselves rather than stmdies of commentaries of them® Ifemy difficulties t-rere faced and smmemtedo It fas by the perseverance in study by a few lovers of classical learnings and above all, by Guillaume Budes that Humanism,

fa# established in 3ramGe'» ; : .. , \ : ■'' Before this happened^ hoifever^ Humanism had to overcome the

almost fanatical' opposition ©f the old Scholastic and conservative

University of Paris in general$, and its reactionary and obsetzrantist • .Fa^olty of -Theology, the Sorbonnes in particular<, This fierce opposition m i l be discussed in the follo-kdng chapter« 24

Footnotes,, Chapter IX

^ o r am excellent aeeomt of, the. origins o t .the. Renaissance, in . France d see Erieii Auerbachs Introduction atm etudes de philologie romane, Po 1 5 2 ». ■ ; . ^ZjOms Delaruelle, Repertoire de la Correspondanee de . Guillaume. Bade ^ ,Po 1 7 4 «> ‘

, ., - ' , William ’ Harrison Woodward5 Studies in Education during the Age of the Renalssaneet, p». 1 3 3 »

^- ^ ^Xhido„ Po 133o ■ ’ ; rV- ' ■ ' ; .

: %elarmelie q: ®po cito ^ ppo 1 3 k~3 5 « '

. %ill Durant 5 The Ref©mationn p= 7 9 1 ®.

fo-Lo Saulniero Xa Mtteratpre francaise d ® la Renaissance, p o ® g . ' ' ' . . . ' . - - . - . " ELattardp la Remaissa&ee dee lettres em/Praneeo p* @

^lauis Belaruelleo Guillaume Bnde» Po 1 2 . ' ■' '

i - ■ Arthur Tilley o The. B a m of the .French Renaissance 0 ..pp>■ 3 1 8 ^ = \ ■■ . : -

■ “^elaruelle^ Guillaume Bade0 Po 14° - ■ : ■ ■ ■

: ‘ ^Tilley,, og0 cito n pp0 3 1 9 ~2 0 o ;

Belaruelle, GuiHaume Bude0 p 0 5 2 =

V 1^ M d o = ' Po 7 4 =: ' ; : ' ,

^Tilley 9 ©p0 cit =« p= 3 2 0 = '

Arthur Tilley^ Studies in the French Renaissance 0 p= 1 4 4 ® ■ ggy: . . ' ' ■. • : ' ; . 1 ■■ • ' . . ■■ . . ‘ , Woodwardo.QPo cit= 0 po 1 3 1 = ... 18 ■ ‘ ' '' : ' ■ ' ' ' Ibido 0 po l31o

2,f* ' .' ' . Edith Sichel. The Renaissance, p= 220=

^Arthur Tilley „ 88lumanism under Francis li 8 English Historical ReTd-ewo M (1900) s p., 462= i ' - , ' - •

. Henry . Osborn Taylors Thought and Egression in the Sixteenth Oentmy, ls pp0 29B-3G0o 23lbido. ppo 298-300.

^^Plattards oito n p0 37

j “ 1 1 " 1 f ■* « - V , • Delaruelles Repertoire de la Correspondence de ©uillatame

W 9 p o 2 3 1 o • ------G M P f E B 111

THE mG¥l®T eF fSMSGI OF THE DIOTEESITY o f BffiXS

. The Sorbonne m s the Faculty of .Theolo^r at the University of Paid So It m s not always thuss howrer^ indeed, its origims m r e mueh

more modesto The Sorbome had been established, about 1257s the result of a philanthropic gesture by Robert de Sorbong Canon of Notre lame

and confessor and counselor of Xotds IXo The living conditions ©f

poor theologieal students at the University during the Middle Ages m r e a matter of deep concern to thoughtful people = Many of the stu dents Underwent great privation* having inadequate room and boardo Robert de Sorbon attempted to remedy this situation (to a small: degree)

by establishing a hostel to eare for sixteen bursars0 This hostel* . •

later admitting students bther than bursars and strengthened by fur

ther financial tramsfusiomsg developed into the College of the

' ' - x ' ' .. Serbonneo ' In the sixteenth cemtury the Sorbome.became the Theological

Faculty of 'the WniVersity of Pariso This m s "the result: of the de

cision ©f the Faculty about 1554 to use the Sorbome as the locale to

examine suspected heresies* as well as to hold the doctoral examina tions there o The name Sorbonne was thus used for the whole University<= The Sorbome was suppressed; at the time of the French Revolution* but ' it m s restored fey S&poleozu It present s the Sorbonne is the main block of buildings at the University of Faris | it is now the seat of public courses in arts and sciences at the University0 For the pur poses ©f this the sis s howrezy the Sorbeme is identified as the Faculty of Theology at . the University of Pariss despite the fact that this was not officially so until after the period covered in this thesis. ' \ ■

The theological instruction at the Sorbonne was thorough and rigorous^ and may fee described as follows: " oo= the course.was threefolds reading and interpreta tion of the Bible and. of the maxims of the Church Fathers, disputations,, and preaching. The exegetieal exercises were held tid.ce daily9 each student , feeing required to w i t e a summary of the main points presented; the disputationss upon some theme previously announceds took place between two stu dents each Sunday . *> . but preaching seems to have received little attention.5 ■ ; ■

' fiobert' de-Sorbon early 'undertook.to prevent his theological, students from being infected with professional narrowness. To this end Robert founded in 1570 the College de Galvi. in annex to the Sorbonnes it was intended to provide the theological students with proper background in literature and philosophy. In addition9 Robert founded' (together m t h .Smard d9-Abbeville) was to be the great ■, library of the Sorbonn©. : ■ ' i . ,; -

Almost from the beginning,, the Faculty of Theologjr had played a very active part in the life of the: times, never limiting itself merely to theological instruction. In the thirteenth century, for example, it reaeted most violently, when it considered its position threatened fey the mendicant friars. Such Was its reputation in Ghristendom tkai. In ■ 1393 ©f its doctors had. been asked to- - ; give adin.ee ©n ending the ?&pal sohiane The Universitjg moreover m e not only a religioms powr but aJ,so a political one® Throughout the Hundred Years#' War it was deeply coaunitted in French politicSj, generally supporting the Burgxmdian party = In addition to thiss it rec0gmi#d Hemry VI and. participated in the condemnation of Joan of Arco^ Thus the Faculty of Theology was indeed a force in its ©pa right j, a force to be feared arid reckoned mthj but never t© be ignored. The great fame of the University of Paris rested largely on its Theological Facultys idiose degree of Doctor Of Theology was the most prestigious in Western Europeo Students came from all over Europe to qualify. for: it,: -It was obtained: omly after fifteen long, years of rigorous j, eoneentrated study o , The candidate applied himself to ex haustive study of the Bible (four years) and Peter Xombard$,s Sentences (two years). For his pains,the candidate received the degree of bacealaureus ad biblia. This was a prefequisite to three years of assorted lecturing until he received his seritentiarlus or • ' baeealaurens f©mains, Only after Si% mere years of study- and teach ing m s the tired and harassed candidate finally permitted to take his doctorate ® ^ He foi'tht-n.th joined the company of the most august intellectuals in Europe, , The Sorbonne m s a formidable institution and such was its in fluence that it m s frequently said that ®Papa. @t bmiversitas : Parisiensis due lamina mundito (The Pope and the Iniversity of Paris are the two lights of the world)Indeed when it came to theological ©pinion it m s regarded as rivaling the Papacy it self 0 Erasmus g often as bitter a eritie as it ever had.s was forced to admit that “The University of. Paris is by the consent ofthe whole world the first of. '

a H nniversitieso ;/0; o^ 6® : : - During its prime the Sorbonne was generally a progressive

forceo It was; the Sorbonnefor examples that furnished the leaders of the University of Paris x-iios in the fifteenth century^ demanded the ' reform of . the" Ghhrph, by a general, Goxmeilo It also drove the ■ .

scandalous Feast of the Pools,out of the' Church and opposed the intro duction of the Peter^s-penceo To its eternal credit s it opposed the extension of the Inquisition into France» Throughout the Middle Ages the teaching at the Sorhomne was , the most brilliant in Christendom.? Among the names connected with it

Abelard? ,Sto • Thomas S#ainas9 Suns Scetuss and Thomas of Occam« . . The theology of the Sorbonne was Scholastic and may be summarized as follower The general tendency of that theology was that which must underlie all true theologyperfect mediation between faith and hnowiedge^ religion and* science,; theolo^- and ' ■ . ■ „ .,; philosophy| but^ in pursuing that tendencys the Sorbonne al~ . *' ' ways, kept its doc trine spures that'iss in harmony m t h the teachings of the Church^ though without submitting in a slavish manner to ecclesiastic^, misuses or sacerdotal ee~ centricitieso1®

Scholasticism reached its greatest maturity at the Sorbonne during the Middle Ages0 % the sixteenth century, however$

Scholasticism (oBce- so vigorous and/brilliant) had declined and. become , marrow, sterile/, ■ and mechanical. It ceased contributing significantly to the advancement of learning and became immersed in irrelevaneies® S© ■ t©o m s it m t h the theologiansc'% Their thinking m s mechaaicals their writings m o den = They became s indeed 9' fair game for contem porary satirist So - - .

■; ■■ Erasmus 3 for example $ satirised the . logical gymnastics of the theologians of the Sorbomeg

®, o, ;« will fell you to a tittle all the successive pro ceedings of fteipotenee in the creation of the universe; they will explain the precisemanner' of original sin . • being derived from our first parents| they will satisfy you as to how o o o our Saviour was conceived in the Virginia womb, and will demonstrate, in the eonseerated. wafer, how accidents may subsist without a subject c: o o how one body , ’ can be ia several places at the same time, and: how Christ*'© ' body in heaven differs from His body on the cross or in the sacramento"* . The Sorbonne had, in fact, become a sort of theological fac tory®. Belaruelie summarized' its aim sueeinflyS • seC8’est toujours la foimdable ma,ehine eonstruite au moyen age pour fabriquer les theologienso Tout continue d?y etre sabordonne a eette .fino8?^ ■

These theologians were often bitterly criticized by their students®

Clement Earot, for example, remarked that nT am willing to lose my share of paradise if those great beasts did not ruin my youth®#: lisputation was stressed greatly, some thought too macho' For example, a young Swiss, arriving at Paris- in 151?, had this to say about1 a disputation, which he was so unfortunate as to witness: On ne'en voulait pas pen a Adam de n^avoir mange de poires au lieu de pomaes et tous ees homes graves c o b - tenaient a peine leur indication® - lais . la gravite du; . - theologiea l^amporta sur la eolere0 Adam reussit a sseB '... -' '. tirer favorablsmsat- et sans blessureso ' Je suis parti ; ' eeoeure par tamt de sottiseso 5. Another briefer, but equally acrid criticism was uttered by : ' ’■ '/,; ';.. ^:: \ : ' A ; ' -33.

Eobert Casaubonc Qnee >iien he -was shorn the old. hall of the

Serbotine ? M s guide exclaimed s tlr?olla tahe sale ou il y a quatre eens ans qu$'on disputeo8? Casaubom replied with the questions ^Quâ-ft-on .. decide?5^ Eaams declared that 58On nêntendait parler que de supposi tions s dârapliationsj de restrietions, dâseensions^ dêxponibles,,

d?insolubless et autres ehimeres pareillesoe Despite the decline of the University of Paris, its reputation

remained universal^, its appeal powerfule It continued to be a magnet to men of genius $, particularly from Northern Europe« Thus Erasmus s GalvinPReuehlin$ YiveSg 'Agrieola^ Gordier* Bolet, and Sturm, were all teachers or students at the University of Paris» ' ■ : These gentlemen, all of them adventurous souls influenced by the- Humanism of the Renaissance, were repelled by the mediaeval!sm and

conservative temper of the Universitys and particularly that of the ;

Sorbonne c . Their most active and creative years were devoted to sup pressing that which the Sorbonne considered most sacred

Erasmus, the greatest Humanist of M s time, was particularly

disgusted with the Faculty of Theology0 He had made numerous visits • : to Paris in the last years of the, fifteenth century, having arrived . . for the first time in. September, 3.494= H i s :stay, with interruptions, • lasted until 1499$ to be continued later. His aim, not attained at PariSj'was to receive the doctorrs degreeo Erasmus had wished to stucy Sto Jerome at the Sorbonneo He soon found, however, that very

few read his writings,' that of these omiy a handful appreciated them, ' and, moreover, that scarcely two or threO. could understand .th#i-,

m Erasmus was repelled by the Scholasticism of the University of Paris, whose Colleges carried such names as 88»»» Scot, d8 Albert le Grand, et d8 autre s auteurs encore' plus ignorants0n^ He found it particularly hard to reconcile himself to the views of the Seotistess

1 A ee qu®ilsv disent, les mysteres de la theologie; restent inaccessibles a quiconque a frequents les Muses ou Xes ' - Grace So Ils vous forcent de desapprendre le pern qtte is-on salt de belles-lettres| ils vou^ font revamir tout ee que , - vous avez bu a la source de 1® Helicon« Waiment <, o0 " . y a-t^il eeryelles plus imbeciles que celles de theolo- . .y gastres? Pour moi^ je ne sais rien de plus barbare que leur langage«, frien de plus grossier que leur intelligence° rien de plus epineux que leur doctrine, rien de plus :violentXti4 :ie^s discours*^®'■ ; : : ' .: Erasmus continued his assault on Scholasticism^ He observed pungently that; ' ' ' . .Those studies can make a man opinionated and contentious; Gan.,they make him m s e ? They exhaust the inind by a certain . . jejune and barrm subtlety, id.thout fertilizing or inspiring ito By their stammering and by the strains of their impure style they disfigure theology which had been enriched and adorned by the eloquence of the ancients. They involve . y everything whilst trying to resolve everything=21

Erasmus was. one of the most , intransigent of eritids of the Sorbpnrieo Guillaume Bnde was also contemptuous of the Sorbonne, Originally he underestimated its obscurantism, declaring "lei les

y. / - theologiens sont moins feroces.ei$ He later changed his mind, how- v;';: v';: . ' 23 ' ever, and dismissed it as "l8ecole des sophisteso" .

Phobably the most famous: satire of all against the Sorbonne

was'penned by Francois Rabelais^ in Gargantuan He satirized violently

the professors of theology at the Sorbonne, With the humorously un forgettable portrait of Maitre Janotus, come to retrieve the bells of Notre Dame (carried off by Gargantua) and his pedantic, stilted ' ' ' - - ' - , i'-;"- . speech displaying all the, faults of the Scholasticism of the';.' - ; Sorhomme: - ' ' : v '' ' . -

o o o Ge he seroyt qme bon que noms rendissiez nos eloehess car elles b o u s font bien be going = Hen? Heni hash? Hons en avions bien aultresfoys refuse'’ de "bon^ ' - ' : argent de ceulx d„©: Isndres en Gahorss sy avions nous de r;^ ; eeulx de Bourdeaulx. en Brye, .qui leg vouloient aehaptert: .1:: , . pour la substantificque. qualiti de la eomplexio^ elemen- taire que est entr-onificquee en la terreistreite de leur ■ • ■ nature quidditative pouP eztrameizer lee halotz et lee f' turbines suz noz yignes, vrayement non pas nostras, mais d®icy aupreSo o.o o ^a je vous prouve que me les doibvsz 'v baLller * Ego sie argument or: ■ ... ■ • . Qmnis clocha eloehabilis in clocherio clochando^ elophmis ehpchativ© eloehare faeit cloehabiliter d o - - - ; . ■ ■ ■ ehantes-, Farisius habet eloehaso Ergo glue=24 •. ; r I

Eran^ois Rabelais condemned Scholasticism, in general<, He sketched a very mappealing portrait of Maxtre Thubal Holopherne^

. the first of Gargantnaf s teachers $ who comtented himself m t h forcing ' ' ' ' , ' . ' - ' '' ' ' his charge t© leam by heart. ridiculous and superannuated books,

' Maatre Holopherne was depicted; as a Doctor of Theology who succeeded

■ in asking his pupil progressively .more ignorant by forcing him to '

study the alphabet for five years and three months until he was able

to recite it backwards» Holopherae then made Gargantua study the

mediaeval textbooks for thirteen years s six months s and two weeks until he knew them' thoroughly® Next, Gargantua spent eighteen years and

eleven months studying, De Hodis Sigaificandi» finally, Gargantua spent sixteen years and two months on an obscure Roman work« Gargantua?:s next teacher, Maitre Jobelin Bride, proved to be . . no better o He was a wheezy old pedant who read M m such books as fiber Derivationum, . De Goto Partibus Grationis, and the monkish .■ ■ ■ Mammotreptus« Both these teaehers represented, in perhaps an •extreme and exaggerated f o m , ; the fanlts of the Scholastic Doctors of Theology of Francois Eabelaisr day.

Perhaps the key figmre in the Sorbonne and the leader of its struggle against Humanism was Noel Beda/Principal of the College of Montaigu and Syndic of the 'Facility of Theology. B o m in Picardy* date unknowns he died in 1536. During his lifetime he showed himself to be an. implacable enemy of Erasmus* Eefevre d('Staples and* indeeds of any- ■:

one whom he considered* in the matter of studies and religions.con taminated by the heresy of the Renaissance. By the violence of his reaction* Beda succeeded in arousing Scholastic passions, and dominated the Faculty of Theology® le managed to have the Sorbonne condemn* among others*. Erasmus and'lefeYre . d'f'EtapleSo.,r ; Beda unfortunately did not write his autobiography.

Virtually everything known about. Noel Beda has been culled from the writings of his enemies and thus may be questiomed as to accuracy® His critics, have been merciless on him and have, tried to. defame, M s reputation® Francois Rabelais* for example*, accused Beda of being the author of a work on the excellence of tripe* although he did not known him personaHy. Others accused Beda of being a goumand* a reputation '■ : : o A ■ . V:, ; 'v- . ■ " , w M c h has stuck® . .. - ■ , - - ■; Thus the beginning of the sixteenth century found the fhiversity of Paris and its Colleges the main bulwarks of mediaeval!gn. in French intellectual and cultural life ® During the Middle Ages the University : of Paris had been the foremost seat of learning in all Christendom. Its Faculty of Theology* the Sorbonne* was the brightest jewel in its ;:V 35 .'erom® It-toad attracted the best minds of the time to its doors and, within the limits of its Christian faith, had encouraged free inquiry» The dominant theology of the Sorbonne was Scholasticism,® & vigorous force during the Middle Ages, it had now become restrictive'

and mechanical, making the Sorbonne the butt of ridicule of Humanists everywhere® The dominant temper of the Sorbonne was conservative,

little adapted to the eager acceptance of the Humanism of the

'lensdssance.e: : 1 -' . '

, The Humanists thus found the, University, with its narrow and intolerant spirit, inimical to the new learning® The intellectual

and spiritual domination of France lay in the hands of the University= Noel Beda, the head of the Sorbonne, was the incarnation of opposition to the Humanists, the symbol of reaction and obscurantism®. Thus the opposition of the Sorbonne made the position of French Humanists par

ticularly difficult® Humanism in France was destined to triumph only after a bitter and prolonged struggle with the Sorbonne when, to para-' phrase John Milton, all the Sorbormes's passion had been spent® ' . ■ ‘ Po6tm®tes» Chapter III

, ' . .. . . ^Sir. Paul-. Hanrey and J. E* Heseltine^ The Oxford, to French Iiterature3 p, 6

. ' , p 0 . . . ., Bomet-Ma'ury, Schaff-Herzog Bgicyelopedia of Relxgiotis Ifoowledge, first editionXI» p« 6.0 ■> , ; ^Harvey and. Heseltine» op0 cito, pc 680»

:. . . . .^iO.'bert ;Gusrard8 French Givilization from Its Origins to the Close of the Micid,le Ages, 201» . . .

;Preserved. Smithy Erasmus^ a Study o f his Iife\ Ideals and Place in History^ Po 2Qa *7" / - 1 . ; Giierardt, on° cit., p= ; . .; John. Joseph Mang@n„ . Mf e ,, Character and. Influence of -: Beslderlias Erasmus of Rotterdam* H s p. 2§ST .,. . ; Harvey and Heseltinei op. cit„, p. 727. ■" " " : m . ; ; . : . . .. . - . ... ■- • W o clt,., iso 259a : ' '' i i v " "V • •

Dnrant, The Reformation, pp0 2 1 1 - 1 % * Louis Delamelle, Gnillawie Bude, ppo 54-55« h ' .IS--'"' " : - -■ ' ' ■ .. ■ , ' - . , • . • . Durant $ tfio cito, p 0 : . ■ ^^EaotJ. More ay. La Renaissance a 11, 16L. i"'""

• ■; - John E d m n SandySj, A History of Classical Scholarship, lip.'

.,'?•»!£«> Saulnieri La Mtteratnre francaise de la Renaissance, p « 22. .. .. ,: . - . , ; ' ' ’ - . V'. ^%illiam. Harrison Woodwardg Studies -im EddGatioa dnrimg the of - the. Renaissance, p. 129. f : ' - : - -

■ ■■;. i^Delaraelleg op« eita<, 55» - ' Po 55« : P> :p,i. ; - ■ . r * ; -p v ;; 21 Joham Huigingas Erasmus, p 0 27«

^^2' ' - ' ^ f > - ■ - ..... - - t i ...... Louis DelaruelLe s Repertoire de la Gorrespondane® de Guillaume Budes p, 105 o

^ifeldo, p, 6 .

' ^Francois Rabelais„ ies Cinq iivres de Franoois Rabelais, I„ PP. 69-70,.; ' ^ .

2 5Xbido, npo 56-58.

■ 2^Fqr. an. aeqeunt. ©f. ilie life of Ho el Bedas see Be Ho VoHetp ^Beda,^ La ..Grande Encyelopedie, ¥, Po 1121« . " . eHSHEB I?

THE STRDGQEE BETWEEM THE NEW HUMfflISM M ® THE SORBOOTE

The attitude of the Wniversity ■ of Paris towards Hmanism was

met at first hostile® Instead the University displayed a qualified.

, tolerationj, tempered by occasional sympathy» The theologians of the

University of Paris did not declare war tinconditionally against Humanism tmtil the Re'uehlj.n Affair® Ey that time ^ howeverthey had ■ ■ ■: v ' ' ' ■■ ' : " -'V" • ’ \ ■ ' become aware of its potential threat to their authority0

From the begimings: neverthelesss Humanism had to -wage an.up

hill struggle in a University dominated by tradition and suspicions of : innovation: : ' " ' ,:y. >;' ' ; y'Vyt.; ' . • : / ' y,:'

o © o the new studies -were under the disadvantage of being outside the University curriculum for the Irts degree® Grammar and rhetoric 9 under ■which names were comprised every branch of humanistic study# had no place in the Arts course „ That course consisted entirely ©f logic# natural philosophy# and moral philosophy®:. "When therefore" the Italian humanists# Balbi# Andrelimi# and Cornelio ?itel!Li# petitioned the U®i« versity in l4S8 that they might be allowed to give public lec tures. it. was not very surprising that the required permission# which was extended to all the poets (i©©©, lecturers on latin poetry and rhetoric) without distinction# was granted on.the condition that they,,, should lecture for one hour only after , dinner (when all f?exfcraordinajy$$ lectures were given) # ■ and on lines' laid down by deputies of the University© It was also a -y ■ natural corollary from the nature of the studies; of the Uni- ■ versity that Masters of Arts who taught grammar and rhetoric were not admitted at Regents# and that a proposal to admit them# idxieh was made in the German Hation in 149©# was not ■ carried©^ .

38 ■ . ' ■ .-.v 39 The University of Paris9 therefores did not display am ex cessive enthusiasm for tte first generation of "French Humanists® Yet Humanism was tolerated anti made important gains» Its development has

been sketched in detail in Chapter II of this thesis® Humanisa made

greater progress in the Colieges than at the University® The attitude of the . Colleges,, as distinguished from that 'of the.Universitys -was more fltddo It varied according to the sympathies of their Principals

and "Professors®" Humanism often - found friends in unexpected places® The important College of lavarre,. rightly considered a bastion of orthodoxy rivalling the Sbrbonae„ nevertheless contained many dis- . tinguished Humanists® Mong its professors >jere; . - ^

»: :o = Geoffrey Boussard and Jaeques Merlin# editors of Eusebius and Origen respectively $ Olivier of lyons, the Ifester of the Grammarians^ Jean Tissier of ..lavisi9 better k n o w as Eavisius Text or 5, author, of the Gffieina (152©) s Josse Cliehtove9 wh© took his Boetor?s degree there in,15©S and lectured there for a few years s and Jueuis Pinella2 wh© iras Principal from 1497 to 1505 and to whom Sadius dedicated " Eeroaldos ■Commentaries'on Lucan® 3 : " .. ■ . . . •' . .: '

Humanism ■was fortunate in being able to benefit from the tra ditional jealousy that existed between the Faculty of Arts and that of

Theologr® Thus those Colleges with few or no theological professors ■were inclined to be more receptive to Humanism® ^" There were s for .

example/ the Greek lectures of Le foyer in the College of Burgundy5,

and of Cherdame in that of Lisieux® The latter College was under. the

enlightened direction of Jean de Tartas (1525-1533)$ a friend of Humanism® In the College of Cardinal Leraoines "Francois Fat able was the Hebrew lecturer while. Jean ■ Bonchamp (Evagrius) served as the Greek lecturer®^" ■■ . ■ ' ... ■'. .. The maim center of Hwanism at the University of Paris was*

" • . .. ' ' • . ■ ' ■ . , , , . ; , ■ .however-, the College of Saimte-Barfoe = Here the Portuguese Hrmanist .

Jacques de Gouvea, called approvingly by Mntaigne Mle plus grand

principal de Trance,^ and Ms. nephew indre were successively Princi- ’ pals. "Fr^m 1525 te 152S the College was so fortunate as. to have as a lecturer the distinguished Humanist Haturin Cordier. He taught rhetoric and Xatin to the younger students at the University of. Paris from 1514 to 153©. Mattirin Cordier is best known, of course, if or M s • • v ' ; . 7 " ■ ■ v: work as head of the College de Guienne = 1 let at the Sorbonne itself the attitude towards Humanism, ■

originally tolerant, began to harden'. Humanism, with its critical examination of the sacred texts, was viewed as being potentially harmful to religion, ' as' a sort of' Lutheran eat® s paw, as it were t

. . : § Bepuis longtemps les theologiens de Paris sur- , veillaient aveg mefiance les humamistes. Sans doute, l^humanism® n®:etait pas essentiellement hostile a la . religion. Mans'll restrsignait le,domaine de la ■ theolOgie en elargissant eelui des belles-lettres % il tendait a affaiblir 1*esprit chretien en pronant la sagesse antique| il pratiquait le libre examen des textesi 11 risquait done de porter attaints.a le interpretation traditionnelle des textes sacres, partant d? ebranler l^Sglise; enfin, c?etait un fait que les humamistes ruinaient lemr enseigmement.^

In June, 1511, Erasmus published his Ibriae Encomium, and immediately aroused the suspicions of the professors of theology. They began to look with suspicion on the Humanists, and the breach thus begun widened: La publication de 1?Encomium. Horiae est en effet le point de depart des resistances que vont opposer les partisans de la theologie, telle qu?on l^entend jusqu^alors, aux temtatives des novateurs. Les poursiutes eontre Golet, centre Eemehlin, . ' \ ^ ^ .u .0 a eomtre Erasme liii-meme datent de, ee livre celefer® et :. sTexpliquent,par lui.9 . ; . The: doctors of the Sorbonne w r e ^jell-advised to be suspicious

of Eraanns ? as the latter® s stormy eoatroTersies >ri.th the Sorbonne subsequently proved» Moreovers: some Frenefa Humanistss such as Bade, eounted on Erasmus to put the doctors in their place? $?a«, = Les humanlstes bomptent suT Erasme pour introduire en France la saine

theologies; 11 reduira .au silence les derniers defenseurs d@ la ■ ■

■ ■■■ • m theologie scolastique, «»0W In 1511.the quarrel between Eeuehlin and the Dominie ans broke

out at Cologne« The next years: 1512, Isfevre d1?Staples published his

Sanci (sic) Pauli Splstolae, and although it caused no outburst of criticism., it was duly observed by the theologians« Ifith this work ., , Jacques Lefevre : d®.Staples established, himself as one of the leaders of

the 18SvaBgelim©,^ a moveiaent which (stimulated by the revival of Greek and Latin) sought religious truth in the critical examination

of the sacred texts;: v : ' V ' ■" ‘ v : ; ' . ,1 .. , De Is etude. du texts de Saint Paul', - II avait tire ees con- ,elusions: que les dogmes sent l« oeuvre des horanes, qxie. l^Eeriture .doit■etre le seul, fondement de la doctrine dn : ■ Christ et- quS'xme, settle chose ic^orte, le ret our a l»Brangil@« De la Iq nom., da;Evangelisme donne a cet ensemble d8 aspirations et #ide eS 6 - _ ' .< The essence of the great Eeuehlin controversy, which finally

set the Sorbonne against Humanism, was whether all branches' of learn ing and science "were to be subordinate to theolo^r, Johann Eeuehlin

(1455-1522), >dao had studied at the University of Paris, fought the • claim of theology to dominate all the other sciences = The Dominican obscurantists were affronted by the attempt of a man untrained in theology to ' comment on the Holy Scripture s» Two years later/in 1514 ? '

the Theological Faculty of the University a t Farist condemned Eeuehlin^s ' ' " ■ ' ^ ; 1 - ■ ' ' ' / ' 2.2 book a the Speculum oculare, the cause of the whole controvert®

Thus, on the eve of the reign of Francis I, the Theological Faculty shocked the French Humanists by repealing, strong obseiirantist

and reactionary tendencies® The leader of the Paris obscurantists was Hoel Bedas Principal of the College of Montaigu, Syndic of the

Theological Faculty as well as being one of its doctors® He demon strated an opposition both to Humanists and lutherans - so zealous that

it shoeked even : his -conservative eoUeaguSs® , ; '1 ’

Guillaume Bade recognized the Obscurantists of the University of

Paris as the greatest enemies in France of his beloved Humanism® In his work Be lyinstitution du vprince (15161 s dedicated to the young

Fraacis 1 , ■ he -attempted to' demolish the. criticism of the study of ■ •

Greek and of classical Latin by the obscurantists® Bade declared that

the classical languages were not tainted with heresy, that no basic antagonism, really existed between antiquity and religion® He cited

biblical figures as well as the Church Fathers as proof of his asser- ■" ' ''14-. ' - . ■■ ■ -.. .•■' . -. '/'••' . "• . ■ ■ " • ■ tion. Other Humanists;felt likewise® Rodolphe Agricola, for example,

believed that $?Lretude des classiqu.es doit surtout servir a nous donner une elaire intelligence des saiates Ecritures®^ Jean Tritheme be

lieved that the classics could not but help religious studies® He. de clared that one ought to be following the example of the Church Fathers ■''XL ' ■ ;:'y ,■ C-::: '. " ^-. in using U® ® ®.: des, fruits murs pour 1* amelioration d© la science chretienne®^^ : ■ . ■■ '■ v ^ ; > 3 Yet Bude ail'd the other Htrniaiiists were mot completely smcoess-

fml ia their attempts t© mimimise the differences between Hamaaiaa and

■ :: ' ■ ■■ - ■ , Christianity« The SGrbomne3 of coarses was completely meonvincedo . ' ■ " ■ ' ' / ’ , - Woodward remarks thus; *s« « » Bade does mot apparently realise the .deep ethical-religious problems which a comparison of the Creeks with 1 >tr' the Christian temper suggests to the student of moral ideals.® Humanism thus met with rebuff and. repudiation from the very body to which it thought it had the most right to look for encouragement-”->the University of Paris- It was inevitable^ therefores that the

hard-pressed French Humanists should look wistfully at the rapid

strides being made by the mew learning in. neighbouring Italy» Shocked

by the comparison$ they denounced the obscurantist attitude that their own University manifested to the mew learning. Thus theVlumanists same

to realize that support for the cause of. Humanism had to come princi pally from outside the University of Paris, , Such was the intellectual, pre-eminence of the Sorbonne in highly-centralized France that the Humanists were left .with mo choice but to turn to the King himself to realise their ambitions, They were - „■ ; ’ . / / ' aware of this, as the following letter of Guillaume Bade attests: . ,,, On disait que des hommes dûne ignorance incurable avaient voulp:, en exploitant les haines populairess ehasser , 'de - Kranee les iettres grecques, : Cela fit beaucpup rire le : . . prince et les grands seigneurs. On en vint a deplorer que certains predieateurs, au.lieu dêispliquer lÊeriture, se laissassemt guider par des passions mesquines dans le choix de leur sujeto Soutenus quails seat par'la faveur des gens de Mens les hmanistes peuyent dedalgner les insultes de ees mechants, Mais sans doute les boas theologiens se lamentent». ' du tort

hopes whieh the1 Humanists placed om. Mm. suffered initial disappoint ment but -were ultimately fulfilled m t h the establishment of the .

College de France * In the meantime s hoimver, the already difficult situati©H of French Humanism was further imperiled by the advent of: the Refomation to France« Many French Humanists empromised them selves by the initial enthusiasm which they showed towards it* i luring the decade after the outbreak of the lutheran diffiy eultys Hmanism.. at the University of Faris had to wage a fierce ^ up hill straggle against the prevailing hatred and opposition of the

Sorbonne. Its enemies were successful in linking it with the hated Lutheranism and thus compounded its difficulties* Greek was in fact considered by; the more ignorant of the.: orthodox as the language of '

- IP 1 V - ' ■ :.v ’ vl'" V " . :: , - heresy* Thus lawyer Gonrad of Heresbaeh declared that he once heard a monk speak thus from the pulpits . . . ' = * e they have recently discovered , a language called . Greek, against: which we must be on our guard* It is the -. parent of all heresies® . I observe in the hands, of many ; persons a work written in. that language called the lew Testament* It is a work teeming with brambles and vipers* As for Hebrew, all who learn it immediately become Jews*^®

It was not until the year 1529 that the cause of Humanism tri umphed definitively in France* ■ In that year-Francis^ I, on the advice

Of his librarian Guillaume Bude, established the $sleeteurs royaux,* the nucleus of the future $sGollege de France*” . This was the king^s greatest service to Humanism in France* ...Frdm the begizming of his reign, Francis 1 had in mind the establishment, of that institution = His interest m s stimulated by the success of the flourishing University of Alcala, founded by the great

Spanish Humanist Cardinal Xitneneso Francis I visited this school in

1525, Triiile a prisoner in Madrid,,, and was greatly Impressed. However, -

the military disaster at Pavia and his captivity in Spain, along with

recurrent financial difficulties, made him postpone the project re- .

peatedly0 v- ; , : - ...... , The Humanists, for their part, worked incessantly for the es tablishment of the Gollege de 'France e They considered the contemporary University of Paris hopelessly obscurantist and reactionary» They felt they had no recourse other than to found a new University ho spit able to Humanisms ‘ 'i ■ ■ Fuissante citadelle des idees et des methodes du moyem ■ age,, il n8etait guere probable que la Sorbonne s8inelinerait de bon gre devant le drapeau des novateurs® «•«; G®est pour- quoi^de home heure, des le debut du regne de Francois I®r, 1%'idee se' fit jour, dans les milieux humanistes, que I9 unique ■ : mdyen de faire triompher leur ideal etait de decider le roi a creer uiie institution qui serait le symbole et le foyer ' . de l^esprit mouveau, ^ _ . ' .. ■ . . . . ,

., . ■ . : ■ : : ' ■ ' .■ ■ ' . ' ' . ' ;; . Guillaume Bade, together with such Humanists as Guillaume Petit and Etienne Poneher— the Archbishop of Paris— never ceased

. lobbying for the proposed College, In 1517 the king had toyed with

the idea of establishing the Gollege, and wished Erasmus as its head®

"■ / ' -> . ■ ■" , . . ; Accordingly, Bade wrote the following letter to Erasmus telling the

latter about the king^s decisiom: 0.0 Gelui-ci [Guillaume Petit] lulrapporte les paroles : ^ par lesquelles Francois Ier a declare sa volonte d® etablir -‘ 46 .. 1 ■ ' : ' / , ' \ p : : ■ ■ ■ en Fraace xm n seminaire13 de savaats« Petit ayant repondu . qu®il fallait _ d$ abord faire venir Erasme et qu>on powait 5, p©mr eelaj, sâdêsserâ G-0 B® «> le r©i a repliqme qme, #. B= • pewrait • tz^seettre a Braam.© ies propositioBs suivsBites:, s?il 'veBt bien se transporter en France, on lux doxmera un bîefiee dâu. moin^ 1,000 liwes® „ Go Bo, dans cette affaire, nêst qatun intermediare % digression sur lêloignement qu®il a-vtoujeurs montre pour la vie de coartisan.*' H eonseilleâ Erasme d'faeeepter les propositions si honorables qui lui , sont faifeso23 ' ' , ■ .

Erasmns pondered the offer, itech to M m bad its appeal* ' The chance to head a Hxamanistic Bniversity disapproved of by the Sorbonne was one that he would not put eagerly aside» Yet, fearing to jeopar dize the handsome pension awarded to him by Charles V and doubtful per-

■ haps of the devotion of Francis 1 to the cause of Humanism, Erasmus de clined to head the proposed College, ' ■ In September1529«. in the preface to his CoHimentarii linguae

Graecae, Guillaume Bade reminded the king of the latter^s as yet un fulfilled premise to establish the new College

f »o« Fous nous avez proBis <.00 que vous fondriez ume ■ ,, ecole 0,0» une pepiniere en qtielque sorte, de savants, dêrudits renommes. Fous noms âvez dit que vous ^ orneriez votre capital de cet etablissement, qui doit etre ; pour .toute la France une sorte i@ & s e e 0:: B|apres yos ' ; \ promesses«, un magnifique batiment devalt stelever, ou les deux langues seraient enseignêso »=,«, Or, a l^heure qu®il est, on dit que vous n^'avez pas tenu vos promesses et , eomme je m>‘en suis porfe eamtion, on s2en prend a moi de ce retardo,. On se moque de moi et on me traite de parjure.%

Guillaume Bude6s'■ . / anguished words shortly bore fruit« In 1529 ■ - : - ' ■ \ ■ ■ - Francis I finally decided to establish the College which,, in the words of Raoul Jfercay, marked Kvraiment ehez nous le triomphe de

. liHumanismeo® • . The College, initially called ®?le College des lecteurs royaux,56 became known in the seventeenth century as ?5ls College royal de

France5,39 assuming after the French devolution its present-day title of sile College de France The $3lecteurs royauxF were to be instituted

in ©reek^ latin, Hebrew, and raatheBiatieSj, with the object of counter- acting the conservative teaching of the Sdrbonne» It was a corporate body appointed by the king.

Owing to the opposition ©f the Sorborme, no “lecteur royal® in Xatim was founded at first. The Sorbonne feared Xatin in particular because it was the language of the Holy Scriptures, Furthermore$, because of severe financial difficulties, it was decided to postpond . indefinitely the planned construction of a well-endowed College, '

Having no quarters of its own,.thevGollege used these of the College de la Montaigne Sainte-Genevieve» It was not until many years later

that the College had its permanent buildings. The first stone was laid in l6l0. The structure of the College de France was completed

even later, however, about l?^. In front of the present buildings of \ - t 2 B the College de;'France broods the statue of Guillaume Bade, ■

• The lectures of the ®lecteurs royaux® were originally given

either in the College of Cambrai, on the east side of the Hue Saint-

.Jacques'and opposite to the Sorbonne, or in the College of Trequier,

which was separated from it by the narrow Euelle de Gambrai, or in the

' College of les Trois-Bve<|aes>. ' / :, The , king boasted^ that:,;he. had' wbati le College non pas en ' ; pierres, mais en hommes,®^^ As a result of financial difficulties,

the lecturers werepaid irregularly, k Greek teacher, one Pierre A ; ' ■ "• . - ■ .■ ; * ■, ; . ' lanes, found himself forced to suspend lectures in order to receive . payment of his back salary = Tet all these financial difficulties did hot limit the academic successof the first lecturerss who agreeably

: 'found themselves surroimded b y : a large and enthusiastic' throng of stu-. ' dents. - \ "

The first r,Lecteurs r oy a W 8 were Francois Tatable and Agathe G-uidacerio for Hebrew,, Pierre Danes and Jacques Toussain (both pupils ■ f * - • of Bu.de) for Greeks and Oranee Fine for Mathematics® Their annual ■ •' - . ■ . ' 3i.: - — : : ' ■ - ■"f’- ’ " salary was 200 crowns» . Only in 1534 did the Humanists dare to brave the wrath of the Sorbome by establishing a chair in Xatin® In

153S Guillaume Postel was appointed to the chair of Oriental languages3 in 1542 the Italian Francesco Vicomarcato was appointed to that of

phiiosophy.^^ ' ■

. For the Humanists^ thus, the establishment of the College de v::::' : v V ■ ■ ; France was their greatest triumph to date* The College underlined the

importance of the,new learning, now finally studied for; its own sake. Poets and scholars celebrated the restoration of letters, but none did

it better than Francois Rabelais: . ' ■ " ’ ' , ■; ' v ' ' ;; _ ■ ■ '' . ; - ■, v f-. ■ - o=o Maintenant toutss disciplines sent restituees, les . langues instauries, Greeque, sans laquelle cêst Monte que ‘ une personne sedie scavant, Hebraxcque, Caldaieque, latinej les. impressions tant elegantes et correctes en usance, qui ' ©nt este inventees de mon eage par inspiration divine, comme a eontrefil l9artillerie par suggestion diabolieque,. Tout le monde est plein de gens savans, de preeepteurs tresdoctes, de ' , . librairies tresamples, qu«'il mêst advis que ny au temps de Platon, ziy de Cicer©B.$ ny...de Papinian, nêstoit telle commo- dite d^'estude quôn y veoit maintenant, „Et n@ se fauldra plus doresmavant tr-ouver en place ny. en eompaignie qui me; sera M e n expoly en lôffieine de ffinerve, Je voy les brigans, les boureaulx, les avanturiers, les palefrenders de maintenant plus doetes que les doeteurs et preseheurs de mom temps, Que diray-je? Les femmes et filles pnt aspire a ceste louange et manne celeste de bonne doctrine = 49 % / ' Taut a G[ues en Ifceage ou je suis# j%ay este contrainct - de apprendre les lettres grecques, lesquelles je nâvois con- temnees corame Gatons mais je nâvoys eu loysir de comprendre : en mom j e m e eage» Et voluntiers me deleote a lire les ' Moratalx de Plutarche^ les beatdx Dialogues de Slaton# les’:'; Monomens de. Sansanias et Antiquites de Atheneus# attendant l^henre qu®il plaira a DieUj, mon Createur, me appeller et coiwaander yssir de ceste t@2*re«53

Da the meantime the Sorbonne had become alarmed over the new

College, which now felt the wrath of the Sorbonnei , Des leetears royaux ne relevaient point de l^Universite - * , de Saris i l^enseignement des langaes anciennes j' du latin, du gree, _ de l»:hebreu, se trouvait done soustrait a la tu- telle des.theologiense G®est ce dont la Sorbonne <. s®;alarmap34 ■' ■_ ■- :

The foundation of the College de France had from the very first been strongly opposed by the obscurantist party ©f the University of Paris.o The poet Clement Harot caught their mood in his poem, written in 1535■» Epistre an roy dm temps de son exilia Ferraras

intant comme enlx, sans cause qni soit bonne. Me veult de mal lîgnorante Sorbonne s , -Vy::êh:i^©rîe; e3ie' -est. dêstye-^shenye ; -y’; :;l)e la,trilihgue:ret noble.:acadwiie V -.: . Que"as:erigee0, Il est tout manifest©, : > ■ Quo la dedans contre ton vneil celeste Est deffendn qn®on ne voyse allegant" . Hebrieu ny Grec, ni Latin elegant, Disant que; e?'est langage d? heretiqne

The Faculty of TheOlogr of the University of Paris developed a new plan; to deal with the. "n e # languages, while at the same time s till retaining an awareness of the ham which ihe languages and their teachers might cause; : ' ,. . '

0 »» or;perhaps, finding it impossible to resist their introduction, they determined to submit them to a wholesale supervision;::for -.in th,® year 1530, just after the first royal i professorships had'been founded, we find a printer, Gerard Morrhuis, a native? of , Gampen in Holland, established in the 50 . Sorboiihe itself9 and issuing from his press no less than - eleven Greek books« But the university professors not un- naturally looked >;ith, a jealous eye on the new professors^ who, from the superiority of their teaching and from the fact that no fees were charged for their lectures, drew enormous classes<,2°

The hostility of the Sorbonne towards Humanism soon took a more' active fena* however, with the tireless and redoubtable Noel Beda leading a frontal attack against it. in January, 1534# Beda ;handed to the Parlement de Baris, on behalf of the Faculty of Theology,,a formal complaint against the delivery of public lectures on the Holy Scriptures by **simple grammarians or rhetoricians who had not studied in any faculty5*^ This w-as obviously directed against the College de France»

’ ■ . . ; • ? . : , - . - ^ . / ■ ' - ' ' Beda attempted to have the College de France suppressed, while declaring hypoc ritic ally that he did not object to the Humanists

.personally but only to theological incompetences .

A day having been fixed by the parliament for hearing the: contending parties, Hoel Beda, who appeared in person,’, said in the course pf his speech that it was very far from his intention to object to the study of Greek or Hebrew, ; . ; but that it was to be feared that the new. professors, though ; ; excellent humanists, were not sufficiently versed in theology to interpret.: the Holy Scriptures, and criticise, as they did, the Vulgate5 and that even if they were, there might be a danger of their inducing their hearens to doubt its fidelity.

Beda attempted to strengthen his case by making a strong appeal to the prejudices and emotions of the members of the Parlements

» 0 o the greater part of the Greek and Hebrew editions which they use as texb-books have been made, in Germany, a country infected with heresy, either by Jews or by Catholics who have turned, lather ans,. who, are .therefore quite capable of tampering with the original text The lulling of . .the Parletoeni de Baris is not knovm« It was presmably in favor of : the College de France 5 as its professors con tinued to deliver lectures. Indeed, before the end of the year 1534s a latin professorship was established at the College de France. This had been particularly opposed by the orthodox group at the University of Paris as likely to result in criticism, of the Vulgate» It was indicative of the growing strength of Humanism that it managed to survive the massive onslaught of its enemies.

The first professor of Latin was the Ciceronian scholar

Barthelemy Masson (Latonomoeus), a friend of the great Humanist

Erasmus. This was an especially critical moment in the history of French Humanism. J® the iff air of the Placards had recently oc curred, Humanism was regarded with even greater suspicion than usual.

B y his religious orthodoxy and by lecturing almost entirely.on

Cicero rather than on the Holy Scriptures, Masson undoubtedly helped to allay the fears.of the Sorbohne. Indeed, intransigence oh MassonW part might well have wrecked the chances of Humanism in France.^ . The Affair of .the Placards had occurred on October; IS, 1534®

A startled Paris awoke to find the city placarded with denunciations of the Mass. Indeed on; the door of the King1:s chamber was placed the following violent pamphlet: Articles veritables sur les horribles, grands et insupportables abus de la messe papale, inventee di re ctement eontre la Sainte Gene de Hotre-Seigneur, seul sauveur Jesus-Christ. 41 The brazen, seemingly blasphemous tone of the pamphlet gave . ' : , : ::/ - - . : . ■. ■ . ; 52

rise to general itidignationo Many Protestants -were arrested and ■ ■ ■ ’ ' . ' : , : - ' ' ' ' executed while others, such as Clement Marot and Jean Calvin, were

obliged to flee from Paris» The King, initially friendly to the ■ i ' " ' ideas of the wEvangeliques,t? now turned against them. Thus the flir

tation between Humanism and the Reformation was at an end, with the

Humanists compelled to choose sides. A few, like Etienne Dolet and

Bonaventure des Periers, left Catholicism; but most retained it and

broke with the Reformation.

Humanism survived the crisis. In a moment of panic

(January 13, 1535) the king ordered the suppression of the printing

presses. He soon recovered his senses, however. His adherance to

Humanism remained unchanged, as the founding of the ^lecteur royal”

in Xatin over the opposition of the Sorbohne indicated.

. .. : : The solid aOhievements of Brench Humanism during the era of

T'rancis I were threefold. First, there was the establishment of the

free Humanist University, the College de France, over the strong

opposition of the Sorbonne. Secondly, there was the systematic col

lection and augmentation of Greek manuscripts and the publishing of

Greek texts and, finally, the publication of Bude«s Commentarii ...... " ' - - . ■ ’ . ''' . ' 43 linguae Graecae (1529), so valuable to Greek scholars of the time.

Thus before the end of Francis Its reign. Humanism had

triumphed in France. Humanist education was now a fixture in almost

every University and College in France—with the very notable excep-

. tion of the Sorbonne. The Sorbonne continued to be cool to Humanism

but its views did not prevail. Humanism now became the proper ' ... 53 education for the young„ Montaigne, for example, born in 1533? was to receive a Humanistic educationo The great age of Humanism oc curred later in the sixteenth century. It was in the earlier period, however, under discussion in this thesis, that Humanism triumphed over many obstacles, chief among these, the Sorbonne. ; . ' ' ' v ' , ■ 54

Footnotes, Chapter IV

Arthur Tilley, The B a m of the French Renaissance, p, 212= 2Ibid», pp<, 212-13 /' O 1 • ■ ' ' ' • ^Ibid,, p. 319o

Arthur Tilley? The literature of the French Renaissance, 1 , ■p. 17= Arthur Tilley, Studies in the French Renaissance, p=> 133» Harrison Woodward; Studies in Education during the Age of the Renaissance, pp, 139-40=. Tilley, The literature of the French Renaissance, I, p, 17,

Jean Plattard, La Renaissance des lettres en France, p 6 14®

Tilley, The Dawn of the French Renaissance, p< 321=. ...i ^%ouis Helaruelle, Reoertoire de la Correspondance de Guillaume. Bude, p. 206= . ■ -

riattard, op, cite., p. 14» Tilley, The Dawn of the French Renaissance, p> 321= ' _ 3L3' ' - ^ • > - . • - • Arthur Tilleys MHumanism under Francis I /8 English Historical Review, X? 1900)9 ( p . 461.= \ , U op, clt,, p, 137 2,5 \ ^...... • ■ - - * ■ • ■ ■ : : 15V,-i= Saulnier,,Sc La litterature francaise de la Renaissance, p, 22

16 - Ibid,j p , 22, < - . I?,; 4 /i ' Woodward> op, cit,, p» 137<> IB ' ' ' • ■ , ' ' • ' ' Delaruelle, op, cit,, pp, 231-32= ^Tilley, The Dawn of the French Renaissance, pp. 322-23. John Edwin Sandys, A History of Olassical Scholarship, II, p, 181 , ■ Ol " .' ”, - -'. .• ■- ' ■■ ; ; . Eaoxil lorca3rs: La [email protected] Ilg p» 164® : ; : V - : ^ . : 22Ibido, p. 162o ' • ■ , . * ; . '

2%elaruelle 0 opo cii» «, ppa 14-15»

2^Horgaya op. cit., p e 16?°

• 25Ibid.a p. 169-. • ■ 26" ' ^ - . . :. Plattarda opo. oit«». p. 12» 2^TiHey» mHumanism under Franeis ISK English Historical Review a Xf (19@G) @ p« k & k ° 1 • -

. 2%andjSa op. clt»a ppe l?2-f3/' -

' 7fill@7 j Studies in the French Renaissance, p, 133» vV-'vt. :>::v "/'v'; '■'vvv : t : ': /1 Plattard ^ op * cit»« p« 12,. . /

- - Tilley^ The literature of the French Renaissancea I s p, 16

pp0 260-61 Vlattard« opo clt., p, 13. ^Tilley$ 8?Hymasiism under Fraacis ls$8 English Historical Review^- XF. (1900).. p. &65. ■ . -

- 36Ibid0 a p. 465. ' ;

' ' A" : 3% i d . a P . 465. ' ' . ' : ''' - Tilley <, The Mteratwe of the ^remek Remaissan&e, 1^, 16

' , t '^ ^ Ibld.a p.. 16. . : v \ . ' Tilleyp Studies in the French Remaissancea pp. 137*36.

^•Plattarda op. cit.a p. 15,. ^2Saulnier„ op. cit»a p 0 38. . ^Tilleyp 53Humanism under Francis i,8* English Historical Reviewa Xf (1900), p. 478. _ . - - SM H EB f

• - / . ; : E E S ra a S -H l QSEGlBSEOiS

. In;the years that followed the expedition of Charles T ill to .

Italys the Renal ssanee burst upon Franee-» Much of its intellectual

energy was channeled into the revival of classical learning that is

known as Humanism» ’ C lassical learning was.rediscovered* translated*

and elucidatedo This receptivity temprds the 'Renaissance was not

shared by the 1 entire French, nation* however,, Rather* it was the

passion of -m all hut elite groups at the Universities and the Royal

C ou rt. ;' -

These Humanists had as their first task the mastering of the

classical Greek and Satin languages. Robert Gaguin pioneered in

tablishment of the mechanics of /classical scholarship followed.

Greek 'and. Latin presses were , estahlishei: ,by Josse Badius Ascensius*

Guillaume Fichet* and the Bstienme family. Dictionaries were pre pared and better translations were written by* among others* Guillaume

Bude and Jacques lefevre d9Etaples. The emphasis was placed on the works themselves* which were studied in their original fora rather than by means of comentarie s.

Humanism was fortunate in attracting men of first-rate ability to its banner. Among these was Jacques Lefevre Staple s.

: ' ■■ V >' : 56 ' - ■ ; ■ - '■ t His greatest contribution was' to theology-> which lie s outside the

scope of this thesis=' His contributions to Humanism, however9 i n - :

eluded the refom of the Quadrivium and the translations of several

of the works of A ristotle» Another important Humanist was Robert

Gaguimg who was an early advocate of -Latin studies at the University

of PariSo Girolamo Aleandro, an Italian Humanist, gave successful

lectures at Paris and was responsible, in part, for Guillaume Bude? s mastery of Xatim 0

Mention must be made of Erasmus who, despite his Butch

nationality, was a European scholars Preach Humanism was greatly in—

flueneed by Erasmus, who had studied at the University of Pariso He

understood the special problems of French Humanism and was sympathetic

to its Erasmus,; with his great erudition and mordant m t, was re

garded a s th e v e r y sym bol o f Humanismo

Francois Rabelais was an equally great name in Humanism<> His

greatest work occurred:after the period under discussion in this

thesis» Rabelais typified the thirst for learning of the early French

, Humanists, however, and articulated, their rage against the obstruction

of the Sorbohneo- , ;

Another great name in Humanism was that of Guillaume Bude» A man of immense learning, he enjoyed the favour of "Francis lo Bude

was unquestionably the greatest French Humanist of his age« His

chief passion in life was Greek learning, to whose success in France

he contributed more than anyone else« His vblumimous correspondence

with the great men of his day (Rabelais, Erasmus, More, et ale) ; ; m attests to M s ineessant advoeaey ©f lmaaiSEii«. His greatest achieve ment oceurred in 1529» In that years the king estahlished the '^Lecteurs royamcSi in Hebrew, Greek# and Mathematics» This marked a signal victory for Gmillamie Bu.de anti French 'Humanism,

The eventual triumph of Humanism in France# howver# occurred on3y after a lengthy and embittered quarrel m t h its most formidable enemys,the conservative and Scholastic Sorbonne,, the Faculty of

This thesis has attmipted to discuss the reasons for the. ©pp©-^ sition of the Sorbonne to Humanism« One reason was the view of the Eefomation that a man could, communicate directly with God without benefit of the Church« To this end man had to have the Bible in. his © m languageo The Sorbonne believed that there was a parallel here between the Reformation and Humanism (Mth its emphasis on studying all works in their original language and its like rejection .of mediaeval authorities)^ Hence the Sorbonne^s'opposition to Humanism,

The attitude of the Sorbome towards Humanism was rooted in the structure of the Sorbonne, This was shown by an examination of the

Sorbonne at the sixteenth century. The sixteenth century found the Sorbome essentially a mediaeval institution * with its elan vital much diminished# however i o o but the great theological school# the University of Paris# the fountain head of Christian philosophy 9 had lost its vitality beyond hopes of recovery. The task of formulating the data of revelation in the terms of .Aristotelian logie had been performed once for alio Hence- forth scholasticising could go no fathers it could only lose itself in the intricate mass of its own subtle ab surdity, And from such a fate there was no appeals the ■■■■ ■ ' v ■ ■ ■' 5 9 Masters of Snr©ason. were entrenched, in their double in=- as theologians asd as loglelaBSo So the beacoia set on Mount Stv SenevleTe diffused palpable dark- . ness; all the efforts of the Doctors I’iere bent on dis~ covering even the most timid ray of light5 in order to ■ eztingnish it The Sorbonne was decadent and reactionary= It was decidedly unsympathetic to the new learnings so joyously greeted by Guillaume Bade and many others =. The doctors ©f the Sorbonne quickly detected

the scent of heresy in studies itieh might threaten their authority«

Their distrust mounted as. they noticed the seeming alliance between Humanism., On the one hand; and the Reform movement within the Church;

on the other« The humanists recognised in the Sdholastie Sorbonne

their most powerful opponent» Its intellectual vitality had declined; but its power remained formidable» The Sorbonne dominated the. University of Paris» Its implacable opposition eom/inced the

Humanists that the University of Paris was hopeless5 where Humanism was eoneernedo For Humanism to triumph; a substitute Humanistic University would have to be-created.' ' .

The luffianists wereffortunate in-the •.succession of'Francis I. in 1515. 'Receptive to the spirit Of the Renaissance5 he sided with

the Humanists in their quarrel with the Sorbonne<. As early as 1520 he promised Guillaume Bude, the unofficial leader of French Humanism.; that he would found a new University to be devoted principally to the three classical languages; Latins Greek; and' Hebrew, It was not

until 1529; however; that the plan was finally implemented; and then ■

on3y in a vexy incomplete;fashion, ■ - . ■The Sorbonne was especially fearful of the establishment of a lectureship in Xatdn, fearing lest it undermine the Scriptures= The opposition thus prevented the initial establishment of a lecturer in latino The matter was taken, to the P'arlement where, in spite of a vitriolic attack by Moel Beda against it, a ruling in favour of the latin lectureship, ensuedo The Affair of the Placards, in 1534, while causing Francis I to proscribe the Reform in France, did not lessen bis enthusiasm for the new learning <> The Sorbonne remained cool to Humanism throughout the six teenth centuryo nevertheless, the establishment of what was eventually to be the College de France marked the triumph of Humanism in Franeeo The new learning had emancipated itself from the dead hand of Scholastieism0 The spirit of Guillaxme Bade had triumphed over that of Hoel Bedae • In ■retrospect , the triumph of Humanism over the Sorbonne was inevitable. A dying, sterile Scholasticism could not hope to. stem the rapidly advancing tide. of the new Humanism of ..the Benaissanee.

The University of Paris, extremely traditional-minded and heavy in reputation, was ill-suited to accept the new ideas',: which it identi fied with here^r. Beset on. all sides by critics, and lacking the sup port of the monarch, Franeis I, this strong citadel of mediaevaHsm proved unable to smother Humaaisaa. '■ 1 :'-Y ' ‘. In conclusion, it msy be said that Humanism had a direct ef fect On literature in the sense that the triumph of Humanism was the prerequisite for the subsequent rich flowering of the French Benaissanee, Babelais and Montaigne— indeed all of the great writers of the Freneh EenaisscOiee-~~>iere nourished on the classic So Humanism (the rediscovery of the Greek and latin classics) was the: soil from which sprang the ideas and style of the great French . writers that were to /come later in the sixteenth century« ■ 62

, , . Albert Qmerard, The "Life arid Death of an Idealg France in the Slasslcai k m « \2#0, . - : ^ BIBELOGRIPHI

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