THE COMPLEXIO OPPOSITORUM IN ANTIQUITY – THE INDIVIDUATION OF SPIRIT IN MATTER REFLECTIONS ON ZARATHUSHTRA DURING AT LEAST 3500 YEARS OF CIVILIZATIONS

PENNY NORRIS

From one perspective, the article that follows appears to have nothing to do with Jungian Psychology. But, if one stretches the perspective a bit it may have, because the historical, imaginal and symbolic inhabit the story of events. The life and times of the Ancient Middle East veer between opposing forces, making their history a vast 'complexio oppositorum' – battles between antagonistic opposites.

In this history, archetypes of conflict and resolution are repeated throughout millennia. These are historically experienced in actual wars and conquests seeking power and territory, alternating between war and peace, settlement, growth and stability. There is implicit (in the subtexts of history) the conflict between different forms of worship – deva worship and a multiplicity of gods versus devotional paths dedicated to monotheism.

From a holistic viewpoint, the extraordinary history of growth in culture and civilization between 5000 BCE to 630 CE, is due perhaps to the archetypal antagonism of war and peace, spirit and matter, love and hate in the nature of the collective unconscious. To digest this as a symbol is a challenge in its totality of at least ten millennia but, with the help of one's imagination and interest it could be experienced.

If only humankind could learn deeply and consciously from its experiences. Transformation of any kind requires difficulties, differences in intensity and a capacity to imagine. Imagination is the means through which fixed and unchanging attitudes may be loosened. Jung writes, "After violent oscillations at the beginning the opposites equalize one another, and gradually a new attitude develops, the final stability of which is the greater proportion to the magnitude of the initial differences. The greater the tension between the pairs of opposites, the greater will be the energy that comes from them … the less chance is there of subsequent disturbances which might arise from friction with material not previously constellated." (CW8 #9)

The aim of analysis is like the aim of the diplomate, not to eliminate the confrontation and tension in the opposition, but to understand the role it plays in the critical self- regulation that is taking place in the objective and subjective worlds. The complexio oppositorum is the gold dust of individuation. This probably applies to all levels of such constellations – individual or collective, internal or external.

PG. 1 PENNY NORRIS©

THE COMPLEXIO OPPOSITORUM – UK 2020 (A coincidence between Humankind and Nature)

During the lockdown and restrictions caused by the Covid-19 virus, I watched the death rate rise and rise every week. I found myself concerned for families who had lost their loved one. I wondered whether there was sufficient compassion, empathy and kindness in the world, whether government, religion and above all, whether belief in something more than the human ego was in place – to help those who were so ill and those who had lost their dearest. As the virus claimed and did not claim its victims, it became clear that many were doing everything they could to mitigate the consequences of this illness. People were offering service and love and taking up responsibilities. People recognised the courage and stamina of those who worked in the NHS, Care Homes and individual carers. As the virus increased its victims, people found love – given by grandchildren, young people, adults, schools, universities, organizations and all those in the front line and behind the scenes who continued to work, help and assist – to maintain a status quo that benefited all. It seemed to me that throughout the United Kingdom the majority of people had the imagination to see what needed to be done and did it, others did not. People had the imagination to create solutions to problems. People had the imagination to see how others struggled and offered their help. Some people discovered and created vaccines. It felt like a wondrous spirit was flowing through the nation. It was like a strong river that did its best to wash away despair, resistance, fear, anger, judgment. As the year trundled toward the New Year, at many levels significant changes were made to steady the status quo. Community matters. Despite all the things that were not ok (and many were not) to those who watched and listened in villages, town and cities, it seemed communities were working towards what to do for communal wellbeing at every level. That we have to do this, to make this stand, challenges each one of us to rethink our lives, our attitudes, our actions and our beliefs. It seems that in responding to the pandemic we are responding to imagining a new way of being and creating a new way of living. The spirit of Nature and the spirit of humanity calls us to wake up to our world's reality – "You live in a new era, treat it well, make it beautiful, give it life, use your imagination!"

When one thinks about it, it's quite a shock to realize that the capacity to imagine, has been around for millennia, even before the great apes had the imagination to pick up a honeyed stick to stir ants from the anthill, or early humankind imagined how to shape stones into utensils.

These thoughts move me to post this long article on the journey of individuation and the growth of spirit through consciousness – implicit in the confrontation of opposites such as war and peace, order and chaos – a battle from the earliest stages of human evolution to this day to form strong civilizations.

If it were not for Imagination, how would we resolve this challenge?

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THE COMPLEXIO OPPOSITORUM A JOURNEY – THE INDIVIDUATION OF SPIRIT IN MATTER REFLECTIONS ON ZARATHUSHTRA AND 3500 YEARS OF CIVILIZATIONS

PENNY NORRIS

INTRODUCTION In the 20th century BCE, the Proto-Indo-Iranians of Aryan race lived around the Caspian Sea and later settled along the Aral Sea, north of Uzbekistan. In the 10th millennium BCE there was a Neolithic Revolution – the first agricultural revolution! This induced the change from hunter-gatherers to settlements and husbandry.1 Over millennia sedentary villages and towns were established and the nomadic life of hunters and gathers was abandoned. The natural environment was altered by agriculture, deforestation and issues of water and irrigation.

Over millennia populations developed complex forms of civilized living that related to and supported inter alia society, politics, agriculture, husbandry, religious forms of worship, magic and dogma, in which superstition, spirituality and faith played their roles. It also included war and all that comes with it.

Around the 5th millennium BCE in the Middle East, a great wave of change began as people known as the Sumerians, became one of the earliest nations to create and initiate orderly systems of social- political behaviour.

By the 4th millennium BCE, Iran became home to one of the world's oldest civilizations, which began with the formation of the Proto-Elamite and Elamite kingdoms in 3200 – 2800 BCE.i In the same era, around 3150 BCE, the Egyptian people agreed to unite Upper and Lower Egypt, creating a powerful civilization that endured for millennia. Egypt initiated the first pharaoh, public laws and duties etc., and created complex, social, political and religious systems. Over millennia the Middle East established a number of nations and civilizations.

By the 3rd millennia BCE, around 2700 BCE, the increasing number of populations established diverse forms of worship, many were polytheistic. By 2000 BCE the Proto-Indo-Iranians of Aryan race, living around the Caspian Sea, also settled along the Aral Sea, north of Uzbekistan.2 The Zoroastrian 'Book of Laws' called the Vendidaad,3 records the original home of the Aryans as 'Airyana Vaeja' or Iranvej, meaning Aryan Settlement. Ancient Iranvej included the Central Asian countries where Aryans had settled long before the great division between Proto-Indo-Iranian people. This great divide in the Aryan people into Indian and Iranian, was actualised in large migrations to other lands. The Proto-Indo-Iranian division may have

1 Archaeology indicates that c. 11700 BCE the turn to plants, animals and settlements was worldwide, not exclusive to the Middle East. An interesting psychological phenomenon perhaps. 2 These regions later became Iran, Azerbaijan, Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, Tadzhikistan and Uzbekistan. 3 The writing of the Vendidaad probably began before the 8th Century BCE. It was translated into Pahlavi between c. 100s - 600s CE.

PG. 3 PENNY NORRIS© been caused by conflict for territory and by conflict of belief between monotheistic and polytheistic practices. Between 6000-1500 BCE, polytheistic worship was established among Aryans in Central Asia and certain historians maintain that monotheism was practised at the same time. Conflict between the two was inevitable. An early example of a rising spirit in making conscious choices in this coincidence of opposing forces. One which had vast consequences. One of the earliest forms of worship in the Aryan Stone Age was to Mazda. The worship of Mazda in this era is not identical to the monotheistic worship of Mazda that occurred later around 1500 BCE. The earlier Mazda worship is referred to as Mazdayasni Paoiryo-Tkaesha, literally 'primitive doctrine' and it is uncertain whether it was polytheistic or monotheistic as in this era various forms of deva worship were in existence4. The oldest Indo extant scriptures, the Rig Veda indicate that Asura Varuna was already known as the one and only supreme God. The same oldest Hindu scriptures of the Rig Veda state that monotheism, through the worship of Asura Varuna among Aryans, came before deva and polytheistic religious practices. Millennia later, the collected writings of Zarathushtra, known as the Avesta, state that Gaya Maretan had worshipped Mazda. Some scholars claim this worship was polytheistic, other scholars regarded it as a forerunner to the later monotheism of Mazda, the one Supreme Being. In the millennia between 5000 BCE to 651 CE humanity imagined, invented and expressed the means which led to nationhood and empires. In these millennia there were a number of emergent nations, which were challenged by wars for territory and forms of worship, not the least of which were issues of polytheism and monotheism. All were played out – in the theatre of the collective unconscious – within the archetype of conflict and resolution, viz., the complexio oppositorum. Jung writes: The deposit of man's whole ancestral experience – so rich in emotional imagery – of father, mother, child, husband and wife, of the magic personality, of dangers to body and soul, has exalted this group of archetypes into the supreme regulating principles of religious and even of political life, in unconscious recognition of their tremendous psychic power.5 A giant leap forward towards greater conquest and nationhood increased from 550 BCE when the reigning King Astyages was conquered by Cyrus II, who became the king of Persia from 559 – 530 BCE. The Achaemenid (Persian) Empire established by Cyrus II, the Great, ranged from the Balkans and Eastern Europe in the west to the Indus Valley in the east, and was followed later by increasingly powerful dynasties. The Persian empire became the largest the ancient world had seen, extending from Anatolia and Egypt across western Asia to Northern India and Central Asia. The empire expanded due to successive, powerful kings. In the Common Era it became a dominant cultural and political player in the saga of the Middle East.6 It ended when Darius III faced the invading Greek armies of Alexander III the Great of Macedon and was totally defeated in 330 BCE. After Darius III was murdered by one of his generals Alexander III became ruler of the Persian Empire. Alongside the Roman-Byzantine Empire, Iran was one of the leading powers in the world for centuries. In the first millennium after the birth of Christ, from 141-224 CE the Sassanian Dynasty was established. The Sassanian Empire became known as the Second Persian Empire, which lasted for around five hundred years, 141 BCE - 651 CE, when it was overthrown by Islam.

4 Deva (a Vedic term) and daeva (an Avestan term) and div (a Mid-Persian term) all meaning 'god(s)' 5 Jung, C. G. "The Structure of the Psyche," CW8, #337 (1927/1931) 6 It is known for its centralised bureaucratic administration, its multicultural approach to social-political norms and policy, for its infrastructures like roads, postal systems, and the use of official languages across states and territories. It funded an excellent army and ran and developed efficient civil services.

PG. 4 PENNY NORRIS© Until its defeat, its principle religion was based on the teachings of Zarathushtra.

THE STORY OF A SAGE – ZARATHUSHTRA THE FIRST SAGE AND PROPHET OF THE MIDDLE EAST – ANTAGONISM AND RESOLUTION

Zarathushtra was the greatest of all the pioneer prophets who showed the path of freedom to men, the freedom of moral choice, the freedom from blind obedience to unmeaning injunctions, freedom from the multiplicity of shrines which draw our worship away from the single-minded chastity of devotion. To most of us it sounds like a truism to-day when we are told that the moral goodness of a deed comes from the goodness of intention. But it is a truth which once came to a man like a revelation of light in the darkness and has not yet reached all the obscure corners of humanity. K.D. Irani

Around 1500 BCE a child was born, named Spitama Zarathushtra.7 He was born and brought up in a community of pastoral farmers sometime between 1500 to 1200 BCE - an ancient civilization.ii Zarathushtra was the third son,8 his father was known as Pourushaspa 9 and his mother as Dugdha Dohvaa. When Zarathushtra came of age, he married and had a son, Isat-vaastra and three daughters named Freni, Thriti and Pouruchisti.10 Zarathushtra was not his original name. He was named Spitama (Svetam, the Fair One), after one of his ancestors. The distinguished title of 'Zarathushtra' was given to him when he became a Ratu, which means Teacher, Sage, or Master. It is believed that Zarathushtra had a revelation from Ahura Mazda (God) and he understood that Mazda was the One Supreme Being, creator of law and order. In Zarathushtra's time, when many believed in supernatural and magical rites, his spiritual teachings became an important gift to his community and to humanity. His words nurtured those who were seeking divine truth and those who longed for a path to deepening spiritual practice. Zarathushtra revealed to his seekers a path of eternal Truth that his predecessors, earlier Saoshyantaanm11 are reputed to have advocated. In his teachings Zarathushtra said that each person had to choose between following a path of truth and order or fall into the path of chaos (Druj) and lies. People had the freedom to make their choice between good and evil.

7 Interestingly, Mr. Khojeste Mistry, a scholar of Zoroastrian Studies, gives the birthplace of Zarathushtra as somewhere around the Aral Sea in Uzbekistan, and the date of his birth between 1800 and 1500 BCE. Zarathushtra's birth is extremely contentious. Recent research speculates that he could have been born as far back the 6500 BCE. 8 Scholars of Indo-Iranian history consider Zarathushtra to be the earliest Prophet of Iran, but they differ in their opinion about when and where he was born. The era of his birth ranges between 1800 to 1000 BCE. Some scholars favour the 1500s. 9 Pourushaspa (pourush – which means ‘the owner’ and aspa which means ‘horse’) an indication of his father’s status perhaps. 10 The Divine Songs of Zarathushtra, cf., I. J. S. Taraporewala, p.909 11 Saoshyant: a spiritual teacher of mystic truths who was also referred to as the Ratu (Master or Prophet). Saoshyantaanm is the plural form.

PG. 5 PENNY NORRIS© Around the 1500s BCE, for the smooth functioning of emerging proto-Indo-Iranians of Aryan society, people were generally divided into four classes: the aathrawans or brahmins (priests); the rathaestars or kshatriyas (warriors); the vastryash or vaishyas (farmers) and the hutokshas or sudhras (laborers and artisans). The name of Athrawan people, (the professional fire-keepers of this time) comes from the word Aathra or Aatar, meaning fire. The priests' (aathrawans or brahmins) main task was to keep dry wood burning in a centralized place in every village for the benefit of the community. The Athrawans regarded the glowing fire with awe, seeing and imagining in it the presence of Mazda (God) in the form of Light. They considered the fire holy as it contained Mazda. The Athrawan tribe of Magavans was known for its spiritual attainments. The spiritual head of this Magavan Brotherhood was called a Saoshyant, Saviour and teacher of spiritual enlightenment. By the time Zarathushtra attained enlightenment, the concept of monotheism as explained by previous Ratus, was being compromised by the growing practices of deva worship, certain rituals and ceremonies. During Zarathushtra's lifetime, there were people who worshipped devas such as Indra (the god of rain), Atar or Agni (the god of fire), and Vayu (the god of wind). It is imaginable and probable that Zarathushtra reignited the flame of Mazdayasna, (the worship of Mazda) when it was on the verge of extinction, due to the growing followers of deva (daeva) worship. The daevas were regarded as ‘false gods’ or negative influences12 in the teachings spoken by Zarathushtra. iii After Zarathushtra attained enlightenment, he followed a divine injunction – to teach and to worship Ahura Mazda.13 He became renown by his name 'Zarathushtra', which is derived from the combination of two words, zarath, which means 'golden' and ushtra, which means 'giver of light'. Leaving his native province, he travelled to Bukhara, which was under the reign of King Vishtaaspa. Along with his ministers and subjects, this king accepted Zarathushtra as his Saoshyant. Through his teachings as Ratu, Zarathushtra revitalized beliefs true to an ethical, spiritual worship of a Supreme Being: Lead us to you, O Mazda, through hymns of praise, through thoughts of you alone, through grace of the good spirit and the acts of holy men whose souls are in tune with the eternal Truth.14 Yasna 34.2

As well as the following Yasna – I have little wealth and very few possessions. I know this is the reason I feel helpless, O Mazda. I appeal to you, consider it carefully, O Ahura. I aspire only for the bliss which the Beloved grants the lover. Yasna 46.2

It is believed that Zarathushtra was a Ratu for approximately thirty years and died at the age of seventy-seven. Before his death, he appointed as his successor, Jaamaaspa, who was renowned for his wisdom and was a minister to King Vishtaaspa.

12 In the Avestan language, daeva (daēuua, daāua, daēva) is a term for a sprite or incorporeal being or 'god' that is mischievous and disagreeable. 13 The one Supreme Being, formless, intangible and beyond attributes. 14 J. M. Chatterjee, The Ethical Conceptions of the Gatha, Anand Sagar Press, Navsari, 1932. This work has been used as a reference in books e.g. A Comparative Study of Religions, by Y. Masih and The History of Zoroastrianism by high priest M. N. Dhalla, Oxford University Press, NY, London, Toronto, 1938.

PG. 6 PENNY NORRIS© THE COMPLEXIO OPPOSITORUM – GOOD FIGHTS EVIL

AHURA MAZDA FIGHTING HIS ANTAGONIST ANGRA MAINYU SYMBOLISED AS AN EVIL BEAST, A SCRIPT AND THE SYMBOL OF AHURA MAZDA (TOP RIGHT CORNER)

Zarathushtra presented a spiritual practice that departed from and was in opposition to deva15 worship and magical practices. He was against sacrificial rites and warned his followers of the devilish Angra Mainyu, the entity who was known later as Ahriman.

On the very edge of humanity moving towards settlements and agrarian living, Zarathushtra spoke in the Gathic language about individual salvation, internal ethical codes and wellbeing, as he advocated good deeds, good words and good thoughts, and reputedly, a monotheistic approach of following a single Supreme Being. As the Ratu (spiritual teacher) he introduced an understanding of Ahura Mazda as both the Supreme Being and the law and principles of an ordered Creation.

These constructs were manifested through the principle of asha, which symbolized 'eternal Truth' in the material world and in the world of spirituality. In Yasna 34.12, 16 from the Gatha manuscripts, Zarathushtra prays, "Lead us into the Path of Asha, the path of self-realization through divine wisdom".17 Instead of polytheistic forms of practice, Zarathushtra taught a path of devotion to Mazda. This became known as Mazdayasni Ahura-Tkaesha, which means in English, 'the worship of Ahura Mazda according to Ahura’s Laws'. His teachings differed from early Aryan religious practices and his message was strict, devotional and pragmatic. In Yasna 50.6 he says, "The chanter of the maanthra (sacred words)18 O Mazda, becomes the friend of eternal Truth and is adored by Zarathushtra. iv Zarathushtra became a great sage, a spiritual teacher for all time. His words invited humanity to embrace a monotheistic approach in the practice of spirituality. His teachings raised consciousness as he set out a path of spiritual individuation, a path that advocated conscious spiritual awareness of God, self and community. His teachings advised a householder's path that contributed to family life and the lives of others. Through Zarathushtra's teachings, the worship of Mazda as the one and only God became dominant. While Zarathushtra adopted the path of truth and focussed on revealing the sound outcome of positive values, he was equally aware of the power of evil and warned his followers of its dangers. In the earlier forms of 'primitive' Mazda worship, Ahura Mazda's antagonist was Angra Mainyu, ruler of deva/daevas19 and the source of evil actions.

15 Refer to Endnote ii, for more detailed information on 'devas'. 16 Yasna: in the Avestan language the word yasna literally means 'oblation' or 'worship'. The word 'Yasna' describes the form of the sacred hymns reputedly written by Zarathushtra. Yasna is the Avestan name of Zoroastrianism's principal act of worship, and the name of the primal, liturgical collection of Avesta (texts) some of which are still recited in devotional worship. 17 Centuries later, asha and the five attributes and principles of Mazda were concretized into more god-like beings, by the priests and clergy running the temples and the religion. 18 The word 'maanthra', may be interpreted as sacred words and sound(s) often involving the name(s) of God and used as a form of contemplation. Maanthra also symbolizes the Holy Word or Divine Sound heard internally. (Refer to Yasna 28.7) 19 Cf., Endnotes ii, for more details

PG. 7 PENNY NORRIS© After his death, over the following 900 – 1000 years Zoroastrianism was the main form of worship, which spread with the growth and consolidation of the Persian Empire. Zarathushtra is a source of a devotional approach to spiritual practice and meditation that endured to the 21st century CE.

In later millennia, Zarathushtra's teachings, given originally by word of mouth as hymns or songs, were collated in a manuscript that became known as the Gathas. The Gathas are divided into five sections, according to the subject, metre and poetical composition of each.

1. Yasna 28 to 34: Ahunavaiti – Lord God 2. Yasna 43 to 46: Ushtavaiti – divine Light 3. Yasna 47 to 50: Spentaa Mainyu – Holy Spirit 4. Yasna 51: Vohu Khshathra – divine Power 5. Yasna 53: Vahishta eeshti – supreme Wish

These chapters are given in the Older Avestan language. In the Gathas, the deva/daevas are rejected and resisted because of their negative qualities. They were potential threats because of their powerful impact. Zarathushtra, in his spoken words (his songs and hymns) expresses his concern for his followers and urges them to choose to turn away and to resist forces of evil. The implication was that negative forces of daevas pull people into the orbit of their power and inhibit spiritual process. The hymns suggested that evil attracts followers, it is the nature of the beast so to speak.

CARVING OF AHURA MAZDA It is clear in the Gathas that each person's singular task is to choose to overcome negativity. The Yasnas (spiritual verses) warn of the dangers of falling into bad thoughts and actions that lead to evil. Imagine the transition from polytheistic to monotheistic worship. Zarathustra was called to face those who resisted his monotheistic message, as much as he was called to inspire consciousness that chose devotion to the one Supreme Being, Ahura Mazda. The Gathas, the oldest texts of Zoroastrianism accredited to Zarathushtra, speak of the daevas/daēuuas as a group, and do not mention individual daevas by name. This suggest that daevas originally, may have been abstract principles of negativity and were not yet the concretized demons they became in Zoroastrianism, nearly a thousand years after Zarathushtra's death. Sadly, daevas were more concretized and anthropomorphised in the early centuries of the common era. It is this demonized negativity, which is rejected by Zarathushtra's primal teachings, e.g. In Yasna 32.5 Zarathushtra says – taa debenaotaa masheem hujyatoish ameretaatas chaa; hyat vaao akaa mananghaa, yeng daeveng, akas chaa mainyush; akaa shyaothnem vachanghaa, yaa frachinas dregvantem khshayo.

PG. 8 PENNY NORRIS© Thus you (the false ones) have defrauded humankind of Perfect Life and Immortality. Just as, O daevas, the evil force misled you with false thoughts; through false words and deeds (the evil spirit) misled all followers of untruth by misguided promises of supremacy. Yasna 32.5 Irach J.S. Taraporewala, The Divine Songs of Zarathushtra.20

Irach Taraporewala (1991) suggests that the daevas cheated and defrauded all humankind of perfect life and immortality. Taraporewala suggests, however, that evil and negativity are within one's own mind, and deceives one with false words that lead to a false way of life and actions. Zarathushtra's teachings do not pin down the meaning of 'the false ones' in his hymns and songs but holds the duality of both the imaginal and the material. In this manner he resolves the oppositional forces inherent in the situation. One could argue that Zarathushtra understood the psychology of spiritual practice - that essentially spiritual practice relies on symbol and image to express the deeper meaning and subjective understanding of experiencing a spiritual path. This understanding has survived to the 21st century. It is expressed in the work of C. G. Jung, who writes in "A Psychological Approach to the Dogma of the Trinity" Archetypes are, by definition, factors and motifs that arrange the psychic elements into certain images, characterized as archetypal, but in such a way that they can be recognized only from the effects they produce. They exist preconsciously, and presumably they form the structural dominants of the psyche in general. They may be compared to the invisible presence of the crystal lattice in a saturated solution. As a priori conditioning factors they represent a special, psychological instance of the biological "pattern of behaviour" which gives all living organisms their specific qualities. Just as the manifestations of this biological ground plan may change in the course of development, so also can those of the archetype. Empirically considered, however, the archetype did not ever come into existence as a phenomenon of organic life but entered into the picture with life itself.21

Translators such as Kans, Mills, and Barth present their understanding of Yasna 32.5 – In the Gathas, daevas are censured as being incapable of discerning truth (asha) from falsehood (druj). They are consequently in ‘error’ (aēnah), but are never identified as drəguuaṇt, ‘people of the lie’. It is reasonable to suppose that when the Gathas were composed … the process of rejection, negation, or demonization of these [as] gods was only just beginning, but, as the evidence is full of gaps and ambiguities, this impression may be erroneous. Herrenschmidt & Kellens, 1993 p.599 The question of whom to worship and how, could have been a critical point in the history of Indo- Iranian Aryans, to such an extent that deva-worshippers may have decided to migrate to lands at all points of the compass, where they could carry on their chosen religious practices without opposition. Tolerance for differences of belief is an issue that has travelled throughout time. To this day it manifests itself in conflict and war oft times without resolution. It seems that in the conjunction of opposite beliefs, difference becomes intolerable and the possibilities of compatibility or acceptance wither. Sadly, despite the apparent growth of consciousness in the world, there is yet as little

20 Rendered from the manuscript © Hukhta Foundation, 1991, p.265-267 21 Jung, C. G. CW 11, n.2, #222, 1942/1948:

PG. 9 PENNY NORRIS© acceptance between the 21st CE and 21st BCE of another's form of religion. Humanity is yet to find ways of imagining solutions that solve these exacerbating stalemates. Zarathushtra was the Saoshyant who drew people away from deva worship and ritualistic practices and led them towards a householder's devotional path to one Supreme Being. Zarathushtra was the Ratu who gave matter and spirit an equal balance. It also could be presumed the Indo-Iranian Aryans may have parted ways long after Zarathushtra's death. Whatever is the case, Zarathushtra's teachings and the followers of Mazdayasna faith multiplied. History writes that Zarathushtra was welcomed to the court of King Vishtaaspa of the Kayani Dynasty that ruled over Bactria or Balkh/ Bukhara in Uzbekistan, north of Afghanistan.22 Fortunately, some historical facts about Zarathushtra are retained in two Zoroastrian books, the Bundahishn and Denkar, written in Pahlavi many centuries later. These books are well known for their historical details.v The two books record that King Vishtaaspa lived in Uzbekistan around 1484 BCE. He was one of a long line of noble, Kayanian kings, and he and his people accepted Zarathushtra's teachings. One of the king's ministers later became the Ratu after Zarathushtra's death. King Vishtaaspa's patronage supported Zarathushtra and helped his teachings to become widespread. Little is known of Zarathushtra's teachings between the time of his death and the rise of the Achaemenian Empire. However, it is known that over nearly a thousand years, Zoroastrianism spread to Western Iran and was a well-established religion that maintained at least nine centuries of a continuing, oral tradition. The followers of Zarathushtra were known as Mazdayasno Zarathushtrish, meaning, "he who believed in the worship of one Supreme Being, Ahura-Mazda, as taught by Zarathushtra". This devotional practice and teachings grew into a form of Zoroastrianism that was subsequently passed down through millennia. It is deeply and sincerely practised to this day, throughout the world. The event of the Zarathushtrian teachings created constructs and concepts that contributed to all world religions, world ethics and spiritual teachings. These constructs and concepts are expressed through symbols and images that enable an individual to discover a necessary condition or state of mind, without which something is not possible – sine qua non – a relationship with the spiritual essence of the unconscious, encounters with the soul and with the mysterious nature of the Self, to use psychological terms. For many, these constructs introduce consciously or unconsciously, a singular experience that enables immersion in the subjective reality of the world, with whatever lies beyond the ego, and within oneself. It enables experiences which sometimes blunder into consciousness through the impact of the symbol and image inherently expressed in an archetype. As Zarathushtra taught in his Gathas and as Jung writes: All knowledge of the psyche is itself psychic; in spite of all this, the soul is the only experient of life and existence … The symbols it creates are always grounded in the unconscious archetype, but their manifest forms are moulded by the ideas acquired by the conscious mind.

22 Evidence suggests that Zarathushtra lived at the time of King Vishtaaspa, (in Vedic, Kavi Ishtasp of the Kava Dynasty). The evidence is found in the seventeen Yasnas of the Gathas, reputed to Zarathushtra. These yasnas (hymns/songs) name his court visit to Kaye (King) Vishtaaspa (Vishtasp) and his ministers, Jaamaaspa Hvogva and Frashoshtra Hvogva. This Kayani Dynasty lasted from the twenty-sixth to the fifteenth centuries BCE, the time of Ancient Eastern Iran. It was founded by Kaye Kobad in Bactria – a region between Balkh and Bukhara. All the rulers of the Kayani Dynasty were recognized by the title Kaye for King (Sanskrit – Kavi).

PG. 10 PENNY NORRIS© The archetypes are the numinous, structural elements of the psyche and possess a certain autonomy and specific energy which enables them to attract, out of the conscious mind, those contents which are best suited to themselves. The symbols act as transformers their function being to convert libido from a 'lower' into a 'higher' form. This function is so important that feeling accords it the highest values. The symbol works by suggestion; that is to say, it carries conviction and at the same time expresses the content of that conviction. It is able to do this because of the numen, the specific energy stored up in the archetype. Experience of the archetype is not only impressive, it seizes and possesses the whole personality and is naturally productive of faith.23

STONE CARVING OF AHURA MAZDA BCE

CHANGES Inevitably, these early dynasties were interrupted by the abundant ebb and flow of strong conquering armies that brought differences in religious practices, social behaviour and social-political issues. During the centuries that flowed through innumerable lifespans, Zarathushtra's teachings survived and were orally passed down to those who continue his practice, in spite of or because of war and conquest alternating with pockets of stability. His teachings, which contributed to the awakening of spirit from the unconsciousness of matter, established an eternal search for resolution and an enduring drive towards consciousness in humankind. The centuries after Zarathushtra's death, between the Kayani Dynasty BCE and the rise of the Achaemenian Dynasty in the sixth century BCE, there is an intricate and complicated history of conquests. Around 550 BCE the reigning king Astyages was conquered by Cyrus II and the Kayani Dynasty ended. When the Achaemenian Empire came to power c. 550 BCE, Zoroastrianism was a fully established religion and it grew with the expansion of Persian influence. The Empire absorbed and ruled nations in its rise to power. The Empire was stable, unified, and excellent at governing many nations between 550-330 BCE. The Achaemenian Persian Empire grew to maximum power in the sixth century BCE.

23 Jung, C. G. "Symbols of Transformation", CW5, #344, 1912/1952

PG. 11 PENNY NORRIS©

PERSEPOLIS, HISTORICAL SITE 18. WALL CARVING

THE RELIGIOUS ZOROASTRIAN SYMBOL AND PERSIAN CUNEIFORM INSCRIPTIONS

Being the largest empire, the ancient world had seen, it extended from Anatolia and Egypt across western Asia to Northern India and Central Asia. It was established through King Cyrus II, who unified warring factors in the lands. Cyrus II remained king of Persia from 559 – 530 BCE.

The empire continued to expand through successive kings and reached its peak in the time of Darius I, who brought peace, order, roads, communication and governors to the regions.vi He also fought numerous conquering wars as he battled to maintain peace. Darius I followed confrontational balancing acts of striving towards greater power and preserving cultural and social-political achievements. Darius I symbolises a King who tried to resolve the tensions of the complexio oppositorum and sought for resolutions to his nationwide conflicts. He is seen to have tried to balance the subjective reality of spiritual growth as it became concretized in the growth of objective material achievements, tangible success and religious power. Darius I, is reputed to be a devotee of Ahura Mazda. He acknowledged his devotion to Ahura Mazda, and appears to have permitted different religions to coexist in the Empire. He is reputed to have accepted Zarathushtra's teachings and incorporated these in social-political structures and influenced other kings and leaders to do so as well. He supported major building works, temples and stone carving for all systems of faith and created an harmonious empire supported by its diverse people. The Behiston Inscription (writings in three languages carved into a rock face) records that Darius I worshipped Ahura Mazda and it appears that he put forward Zarathushtra’s teachings to those who were interested but imposed no teachings on those who followed other religious paths. This period was possibly the ideal situation in which Zarathushtra's teachings could and were disseminated far and wide. Zoroastrianism grew in numbers as did places of worship, along with the unification and expansion of Persian influence. The Persian Empire ruled many nations. Unfortunately, Persia engaged in war with Greece, which continued throughout Darius's reign. After his death, his son Xerxes continued to fight for supremacy over the Greeks.

PG. 12 PENNY NORRIS© This is the period of famous battles in which Xerxes defeated the Spartans at the battle of Thermopylae but lost his navy to the Greeks in the sea straits of Salamis. Matters political deteriorated over the centuries. Warfare continued under the reign of successive sons and kings who came and went until ultimately, Darius III faced the invading Greek armies of Alexander III the Great of Macedon. Alexander the Great totally defeated Darius III in 330 BCE. After Darius III was murdered by one of his generals, Alexander the Great became ruler of the Persian Empire. Disastrously, during Alexander's conquest of Persia in 330 BCE, existing Zoroastrian texts and artifacts were burned and the scientific sections that interested the Greeks were dispersed among themselves. Only a fraction of these texts survives today. (The lost portions are known only through references and quotations in works primarily from the Greeks, and from collections of Zoroastrianism from the 9th to 12th centuries, CE).

Alexander the Great, conquered and ended the mighty Achaemenid Persian Empire, thereby ensuring that Greece and Persia became inextricably linked. This probably led to Zarathushtra's teachings becoming known and absorbed into Greek culture, itself engaged in a Golden Age of philosophical and spiritual enlightenment.24

The end of the Achaemenid Persian Empire in 330 BCE led to further dispersion of Zarathushtra's teachings.

THE ACHAEMENID EMPIRE C. 500 BCE

24 For example, later in the first century CE, Pliny (looking back to the third century BCE) writes that Hermippus of Smyrna claimed he had read two million verses composed by Zarathushtra! How exaggerated or not is the claim, it gives some indication of the extent to which Zarathushtra’s teachings were believed to have spread.

PG. 13 PENNY NORRIS©

AHURA MAZDA TEMPLE WITH THE SYMBOLIC ICON OF THE SUPREME BEING

THE PERSIAN EMPIRE AND THE AVESTA Due to the ravages of war, almost nothing is known of the status of Zoroastrianism under the Seleucids (c. 312 BCE and Parthians c. 247 BCE) who ruled Persia after Alexander the Great's invasion of 330 BCE. A striking event that affected the growth of Zarathushtra's teachings was caused by the Parthian people of north-eastern Iran. They emerged from the ashes of conquest by Alexander the Great, and significantly by 141-224 CE established the Sassanian Dynasty. Alongside the Roman-Byzantine Empire, Iran, through the rise of the Sassanian Empire, was one of the leading powers in the Middle East for centuries. It became known as the second Persian Empire, and lasted for around five hundred years, 141 BCE - 651 CE, when it was overthrown by the invasion of Islam. In the era of the Sassanian Persian dynasty Zoroastrian teachings became the state religion of the Persian Empire. Zarathushtra's teachings were part of religious structures and organizations that included priests, temples and followers. This enabled the teachings to be written down completely and translated into Pahlavi continuously by unknown priests and scholars, particularly during 3 CE and right up to 651 CE. It is astonishing that after one and a half thousand years after his death, Zarathushtra's teachings – which had survived wars, migrations, translations, the emergence of Buddhism, of Christianity, Gnosticism, and Manicheanism – were collected, collated and expanded by priests and scholars. The surviving oral tradition and extant scriptures were translated into the Pahlavi language and were written down. Social-political, cultural history and Zarathushtra's teachings are found in these Pahlavi texts. They hold the most important writings of Zoroastrianism and are known as the Avesta. It includes the religious books of Zoroastrians – all their scriptures, including the primal Gathas – seventeen extant, original hymns. The writings collected in the Avesta look as far back as 1500 BCE to explain many events:

PG. 14 PENNY NORRIS© - How Ahura Mazda created the twenty-one nasks (books) that Zarathushtra brought to King Vishtaaspa. Two copies of the 21 nasks were made, one was put in the house of archives and the other put in the Imperial treasury. It is written in the Avesta that these were both destroyed in 330 BCE, at the battle in which Alexander the Great conquered the Achaemenian Empire. - How, in the 500s BCE, Zoroastrianism entered western, recorded history in the writings of the Greek scholar, Herodotus, whose book The Histories was completed around 440 BCE (before the rise of the Achaemenian Empire). The Histories is a primary source of information on the early period of the era, particularly the role of the Magi and the actions of kings like Cyrus II, his sons and the Darius kings. - How, during the Achaemenian Empire(following the unification of the Median and Persian empires in 550 BCE, by Cyrus the Great25) the Magi revolted in 522 BCE and set up a rival claimant to the throne. It was from this religious community, around three centuries later that three Magi made their pilgrimage to the birth of Jesus in Palestine, thus marking the beginning of the Common Era. Whether King Cyrus (or his son Cambyses II) were Mazdayasno Zarathushtrish Zoroastrians is uncertain. Although it is reported that Zarathushtra's teachings influenced the King to not impose Zoroastrianism on people of different belief systems. It is thought that Zoroastrianism may have influenced the King's decision to allow the Hebrew nation to return to Judea in 539 BCE. During this reign there was amity between various religious practices.

NAQSHE RUSTAM: FOUR HISTORICAL TOMBS OF ACHAEMEDIC KINGS, ON THE LEFT A FIRE TEMPLE

A NEW BEGINNING In the 7th century CE, Islamic armies invaded Iran in 633 CE, and conquered it by 651 CE. The Sassanian empire collapsed and disintegrated when it was invaded. It was absorbed into Islam from the 7th CE onwards. Islam brought a wealth of culture to Iran and became a powerful source for the Islamic Golden Age, producing many influential scientists, scholars, artists, and thinkers while Manichaeism and Zoroastrianism beliefs, initially respected, were gradually filtered and integrate into Islam. Many Zoroastrians migrated to other lands. An indirect resolution perhaps to the complexio oppositorum?

25 The Magi revolted again, later under the rule of his son, Cambyses II. Various coups initially successful, failed.

PG. 15 PENNY NORRIS© The Islamic Empire spread far and wide, while the written words of the Avesta preserve Middle Persian and Pahlavi works especially during the 9th and 10th centuries CE. The Avesta contains many Zoroastrian writings since most of the copyists were priests of the Zoroastrian clergy that had been established over the centuries. The Denkard and the Book of Arda Viraf, written in the 9th and 10th centuries CE, look back to c. 330 BCE - the time of Persia's great defeat. These books recall the many sacred texts lost when Alexander's troops invaded Persepolis and destroyed the royal library. The writings of the Greek scholar, Diodorus Siculus in his Bibliotheca Historica, c. 60 BCE confirm this. The preservation of the written word was another leap forward in consciousness and spirit. The most significant and important Zoroastrian books of the 9th – 19th centuries include the Denkard, and Bundahishn, among various others. There survive manuscripts dating from 1288 CE, 590 years after the fall of the Sassanian Empire. All such Middle Persian texts written on Zoroastrianism during this period are considered secondary works, because they are not part of the primal, sacred scriptures. The primal texts that remain today are the Gathas, Yasna, Visperad and the Vendidaad.vii Along with these texts is the communal household prayer book called the Khordeh Avesta, which contains the Yashts and the Siroza.

THE SAGE-ALCHEMIST AND THE PHILOSOPHER'S STONE

Taking a last backward look into the past to 800 BCE, it becomes clear how important is the collection of scriptures and texts that evolved into the Vendidaad – an ongoing 'collection' that was compiled and not completed for many centuries. It is reputed to have been written 700 years after Zarathushtra's death. The Vendidaad is important not only because it relates to events before the formation of the Median and Persian Empires, but also because it gives precious insight into the nature of a pastoral society before its conquest. Over the ensuing centuries of its compilation, it provides insight into the social-political and spiritual evolution of the people to whom Zarathushtra had brought his original spiritual message. Written as it is, long after Zarathushtra's death, it is considered a valuable work, even though it is not part of his primal, sacred teachings. The Vendidaad mentions the original home of the Aryans as Airyana Vaeja or Iranvej, which means Aryan-seed or 'Aryan settlement', and according to the Vendidaad, ancient Iranvej included all Central Asia and many, many people who ultimately received Zarathushtra's teachings. The word Iran is derived from the Avestan word Airyana, and Vaeja or Veej means seed (Sanskrit beej). The words of Zarathushtra are seeded in the religions and philosophies of the Middle East and the Western World, through the ethical guidelines he asked people to follow – the practice of good words, good actions and good thoughts; understanding the essentials of monotheism; and the necessity for an incarnated Prophet, Teacher, Saviour, Saoshyant. The land of Iranvej, gave birth to a true Ratu, who carried a seed of spirituality that gave birth to a spiritual path which survived millennia and contributed to the foundational tenets of many world religions and ethical codes of behaviour. His teachings show the arcane way in which to bring about the coincidence of opposites, how to resolve the difficulties of the complexio oppositorum through being tolerant, positive and conscious. In the length of its duration, and the way it was assimilated into merging empires, his teachings might well be the alchemical, reconciling third (the philosopher's stone) that brought about the greater consciousness and contributed to stabilizing the extraordinary growth of civilizations, during their emergence of the Middle East.

PG. 16 PENNY NORRIS©

ZARATHUSHTRA'S ORAL TEACHINGS AND THE WRITTEN WORD

Man's greatest triumph was that God himself incarnated in man in order to illumine the world; that was a tremendous increase of consciousness. But every increase of consciousness means a further separation from the original animal-like condition, and I don’t know where it will end: it is really a tragic problem. We have to discover more consciousness, to extend consciousness, and the more it is extended the more we sway from the original condition.

C. G. Jung 26

More than three thousand five hundred years ago,27 when people were largely dependent upon farming as a livelihood, Zarathushtra, the Ratu, speaking in the Gathic language gave communities his teachings about spirituality. These teachings were passed down orally and then written down centuries later in the Avestan script developed during the time of the Sassanian dynasty(CE). As far as it is known, all ancient Zoroastrian written scriptures are referred to as Avesta. Seventeen primary hymns believed to be original Zoroastrianism have survived in a collection of seventy-two Zoroastrian texts. These scriptures are called The Gathas. The word 'Gatha' meaning 'sacred hymn' is derived from the root gaa, which means 'to sing'. It is said that Zarathushtra was a prolific composer of such hymns. Unfortunately, many of Zarathushtra's works have been lost. The hymns that survived are those memorized by devout priests and were, eventually, written down and collated in liturgical books to be used for religious ceremonies and worship through the centuries. The Gathas are the only hymns attributed wholly to Zarathushtra himself. IMAGE OF ZARATHUSHTRA (UNKNOWN SOURCE)

After the death of Zarathushtra, during a period of roughly 900-1000 years, his teachings gradually spread throughout the world and he became known to the western world as 'Zoroaster'. The name was given to him in the writings of Greek philosophers and historians in the centuries between 500

26 C. G. Jung, Nietzsche's Zarathushtra: "Notes on the Seminar Given in 1934-1939", Vol II (3 June 1936) p.967 27 Current research proposes that Zarathushtra may have lived c. 6500 BCE. This is based on evidence found in the Mages Order of Magic, which places Zarathushtra alongside the time of Hermetic teachings. This era is possibly related to England's Stonehenge, Sun worship, and the science of astronomy. There are suggestions that the Mages of the period may have made connections which included Kurdistan, where there are extant similar Druid-type stone monuments. The Kurds are descendent from the Medes, who were an established nation that lasted for some 600-700 years before Cyrus II founded the Achaemenid Empire. The Medes/Kurds lived originally in upper Mesopotamia and the Zargos mountains.

PG. 17 PENNY NORRIS© BCE to 119 CE. These men included famous writers such as Xanthus of Lydia (5th century BCE), Plato (c. 427-347 BCE), Pliny the Elder (23-79 CE) and Plutarch (c. 46-119 CE).

Greek society, an emerging patriarchy, ran parallel in time with the Hebrews, the Persians and the Romans, then the later Christian Roman Empire CE. In the second century CE, there was a rise of the Mandaeans and shortly afterwards the Manichaeans' spiritual teachings that extended into the third century CE.28

Many were aware of Zoroastrian ideas through the widespread teachings of the Gathas. People, cultures and nations were either antagonistic towards these or tolerant of them. Historically Zarathushtra's teachings were accepted and tolerated up to the CE 7th century, after which there were differences and challenges from some emergent religions. Later religions, evolving over centuries attuned to certain principles of the Gathas. These principles absorbed into their scriptures, are for example: o the monotheistic belief in only one God o the necessity for an incarnated Teacher, Prophet or Saviour (Saoshyant) o guidelines and precepts for an ethical moral life o teachings on how to practically implement good words, good actions and good thoughts o behaviour that led to spiritual awareness o guidelines for spiritual practice

These concepts were well disseminated among the dominant religions of the times. Through the writings of priests, mystics and a long oral tradition, Zarathushtra's original teachings survived after his death because priests rescinded their rule to not write down the 'sacred word' and began to support the oral tradition of the teachings with a written one. Written texts accelerated in the early centuries of the Common Era and continued into the twentieth century. This was a great increase in consciousness. Language and the written word supported the development of culture, diversification, contact with, and a widespread release of ideas.

It is interesting to see in A Treasury of Mystic Terms, (12 volumes) edited by John Davidson, that in the second century CE, the Pahlavi language, originating in Iran, spread abroad in the centuries after the Persians were defeated by Alexander the Great in 330 BCE. Pahlavi is a language of the Persian Empire. The term pahlavi is an adjective describing the Parthians, who differentiated themselves from the Persians, who were called pārsīg or in modern language fārsī. The Parthians became an especially important national group in the third century BCE, and their language Pahlavi was, according to John Davidson, '... a direct evolution of the Achaemenian style of writing Aramaic, as it existed in the Persian-speaking area of Iran, in the period following the end of Achaemenian rule'.29 Over almost six centuries, Pahlavi became the official language of the Sassanian rulers of the Middle Persian era, and the literary language of the period. Pahlavi was the language in which many religious and mystic texts were written, including that of the Nestorians, Christians and the Manicheans. It was superseded only in the seventh century CE, when the modern Persian alphabet was invented, based on Arabic script.

Through these events the dissemination of the word of Zarathushtra was spread worldwide.

28 The Mandaeans emerged from the Jewish nation and, in the second century CE, left the Jordan Valley and migrated to Hanan, in Assyria, then in the third century migrated to Mesopotamia – where their teachings gave rise to the Manichaeans and the great prophet, Mani. 29 John Davidson, 1.3 'Zarathushtra and Zoroastrianism', "The Universe of Spirituality", in A Treasury of Mystic Terms, Part 1, Vol. 1, RSSB, New Delhi, 2003, p.18

PG. 18 PENNY NORRIS©

There is an important collation of Pahlavi works into eight books of Zoroastrianism. One of the most important is 'The Book of Yasna', compiled by priests in Iran, during the reign of the Sassanian King Chosroes I, from 539-579 CE. This book is still in use by modern-day priests.

As late as the seventh century CE, Zoroastrian priests composed hymns in Pazend and wrote in Avestan script, which was derived from the Aramaic/Pahlavi script.30 Scripts were preserved by Zoroastrian priests and include those Parsis who, in 936 CE had migrated from Iran to the state of Gujarat on the west coast of India, to escape religious persecution at the hands of Islamic invaders. Naturally, priests continued to add their own hymns to the collections of liturgical books. After the eleventh century CE those originating with the priests in Iran and India, were written in more modern Iranian. All these writings formed resources for translations of the Gathas, which came into focus in the western world, particularly in the nineteenth century. It was during the nineteenth century that western scholars made determined efforts to decipher and translate the Avestan scriptures of pre-Islamic Iran. This was an attempt to understand the primal teachings of Zarathushtra. Unfortunately, at this time many had not yet made the linguistic link between Sanskrit and Avesta, nor were European scholars aware of how this could have enhanced their translations. It is astonishing that according to recent scholarship Zarathushtra may have been teaching at any point after 6500 BCE, although the 2nd millennium is favoured. His teachings were central to three successive Persian Empires. When the Indo-Aryian great divide took place, migrations went to four points of the compass, to establish new nations of Aryian origin. Each subsequent empire in wars of conquest spread into the world carrying the teachings into Europe, Africa, and Asia. It is astonishing and nothing short of a miracle that the complexity of expression, the subtlety and multiplicity of meaning of the original Gathas of Zarathushtra have survived over millennia of turbulence and the hazards and difficulties of translation. It is astonishing to realize that worship, litany, texts, actions, constructs and the dynamic of one God, brought into the world through Zarathushtra's teachings so many thousands of years ago, have survived, refined and revealed a singular path to spiritual enlightenment. It is astonishing to realize the immeasurable capacity of humankind's imagination to adhere to and develop spiritual and religious beliefs that are quantified by an evolving autonomous imago of pure goodness or an autonomous imago of pure goodness and evil. It is equally astonishing to recognize that the dance between the irrational and the rational, between good and evil, between consciousness and unconsciousness, between hate and love, men and women, and the antagonism and consilience between all opposites, has been part of existence since the beginning of creation – and continues to be. Stephen Hawking once said, "It is not that the universe was created that is the question, it is why it was." This can be applied to paths of spiritual consciousness as well - why are these created and endured? There comes a time when some people feel an irresistible pull to find out if life has meaning and to understand their relationship to God-ness and to the creation. Typically asked questions are 'who am I, where do I come from, why am I born, what is the point to life and what happens after death?'

30 'Pazend' means commentary on Zend Avesta. In Pazend the Semitic words of Pahlavi (that were substituted with an Iranian equivalent written with Avestan characters) developed from the Pahlavi script. All subsequent Avestan, Pahlavi and Pazend forms of scripture associated with Zoroastrianism are commentaries and interpretations based on the Gathas. While Yashts, the prayers in praise of Yazatas (Angels Worthy of Worship), were composed in Avestan after the Gathas by various authors.

PG. 19 PENNY NORRIS© At such a point a person develops an interest in all things spiritual and an inclination to turn to books, poetry, art, religions, mystics and teachers to explore the mysteries of life and death. It could be argued that this pull to explore the meaning of life is an archetype that stretches back at least for 22 millennia. It is a desire seeded in the heart of the imagination and held in the unconscious until the time is ripe for it to grow into action. Mystics teach that this irresistible pull to spirituality is initiated by an essence, a quality, an unknowable force which is within everyone. It is often referred to as the soul and is often not known, nor is it understood. It is sensed to be held in the depths of the imagination. The soul is felt to be an essence, a quality integral to being human. It has been eternally cherished since its perceived conception at the moment of the 'big bang', when, in the creation of the universe soul and matter became one. In the journey of soul, albeit of humankind or world soul, whether it be the acorn to the oak tree, or the child to the adult, the quality of soul lies at the heart of this great mystery of existence – a mystery ever waiting to become conscious. In humankind, an awakening of soul is imagined as a dawning restlessness that culminates in a search for an inner reality and a union with Self. In the journey through life, whether we like it or not, we come to face our inevitable demise. As civilizations come into being and die, so do we as individuals. We have purpose and life tasks to do and to fulfil, as great civilizations do. Death, for the individual and the collective, is the most persistent complexio oppositorum, one which in this 21st century has overtaken the attention of the world as humanity struggles to resolve the issues that have given rise to the renown Covid-19 global pandemic. When we take action in our lives and contribute to our communities in our individual way, whatever that may be; when we listen and learn in our lifetime to establish a reasonably sound relationship with our personal and the collective unconscious; when we try to connect with our inner being, we discover something. We find out there is reason to get to know our unconscious self, because becoming familiar with it, with our subjective realities, we create a relationship with something bigger than our self. The ego loses some of its egotism as it gives way to its deeper self. If we can do this, then at the time of death, having become so familiar with this extraordinary, imaginal world that has accompanied us since birth, we feel comfortable in trusting our dying self to it, after all it has inhabited the unconscious world forever. We can do this if, in our lifetime, we have left room for the irrational factor, for the mystery, for the unknown, for the wisdom of Nature and the unconscious. Who knows if there is a beyond, and what it may hold? No one. But everyone can imagine it. Jung writes: It is only through the psyche that we can establish that God acts upon us, but we are unable to distinguish whether these actions emanate from God or from the unconscious. We cannot tell whether God and the unconscious are two different entities. Both are border-line concepts for transcendental contents. But empirically it can be established, with a sufficient degree of probability, that there is in the unconscious an archetype of wholeness which manifests itself spontaneously in dreams, etc., and a tendency, independent of the conscious will, to relate other archetypes to this centre. Consequently, it does not seem improbable that the archetype of wholeness occupies as such a central position which approximates it to the God-image.viii

PG. 20 PENNY NORRIS©

SYMBOL AND IMAGE IN THE GATHAS OF ZARATHUSTRA AMPLIFICATION OF WORDS, TERMS, IDEAS AND THEMES

The instinct of individuation is found everywhere in life, for there is no life on earth that is not individual. Each form of life is manifested in a differentiated being naturally, otherwise life could not exist. An innate urge to life is to produce an individual as complete as possible. C. G. Jung31

Zarathushtra's primal texts deliver the spiritual truth of his message through a series of hymns he composed, in which words, terms, ideas are used that are particular to his teachings, his era and the Gathic language. Many of these terms are multi-layered in content and resonate at many levels. They are derived from pastoral and everyday usage and yet are refined spiritual symbols. In any translation the aim is to approach the core meaning of the original words without limiting its resonance. In Zarathushtra's case, the original meaning of his words has been overlaid, misinterpreted or lost in translation on many occasions over millennia. In the last 100 years more resources have been discovered to bring the essential core of Zarathushtra's words to light. The scholar, Dinya Dotiwala has researched the Gathas and has brought to light a refined understanding of the texts. His translations are used in this article.

One of the most important precepts put forward by Zarathushtra is expressed in the word asha.32

THE PATH OF ASHA In his book The Religion of Zarathushtra, Irach Taraporewala writes: Asha is deep Spiritual Truth or Spiritual Law on which the government of the Universe depends. All that happens in this world is through Asha, we have only to obey Asha, and it is Asha who ultimately leads us into the presence of God. 33 The principle of Asha underlies all Zarathushtra's teachings. Asha, in the Avesta language, means 'cosmic order'. The word asha has a multiplicity of meaning, embracing constructs such as truth, righteousness, principles, laws and structure. The term Asha is derived from the Avestan root ar (meaning to move) and ta (the suffix or last syllable) to produce the word arta, r and t - are then merged to form the word asha. This word is similar to the Vedic term rita, meaning to move in the right direction. The components of 'asha' are understood through its root, as ar can mean 'movement' and 'energy'. It symbolizes a dynamic Life-force that creates, vibrates, and sustains the Creation. It represents the forceful power of the Supreme Being in action. Other terms emerge such as 'divine and eternal order' and , 'commandment or will', as well as phrases where Asha symbolizes, for example, the divine Word; the Force of cosmic principles; divine Truth and Righteousness. In the original Gathas, Asha represented many incorporeal components of the divine. The principle of 'Asha' is realised in the core concepts of many theologies, namely, the construct of a holy force that emanates from a Creator and is seen as divine Energy, Law, and Wisdom, or equally

31 Jung, C.G. The Psychology of Kundalini Yoga: Notes of the Seminar Given in 1932. 12 October, 1932, p.4 32 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asha for in depth information 33 Taraporewala, Irach The Religion of Zarathushtra, India House, Mumbai, 19, pp. 20-21.

PG. 21 PENNY NORRIS© as the active Word of God. Asha as the Word-of-God manifests in the Gathas as the divine Light, Aathra. It is also manifests as the divine Sound, Maanthra. In Zarathushtra's primal teachings, Light and Sound are needed for the soul to transcend objective reality to reach transcendental realms (cf., Yasna 34.4 & 43.4 for Aathra, and Yasna 29.7 for Maanthra.) Perhaps one might imagine Asha as a force-field of cosmic rules and principles that enable existence. In the Creation Asha is primary eternal Truth. Asha, referred to as eternal Truth, implicitly symbolises a multiplicity of nuances as this principle emerges from the primal text of the Gathas. This multiplicity of resonance applies equally to all terminology in the text representing the divine. Words, terms, ideas and themes found in the primal text are not static or fixed, rather they are vital, living images, fluid and volatile, holding this multiplicity and complexity of meaning. Through these humankind tries to find a way through life's paradoxes. As Jung said – The sad truth is that man's real life consists of a complex of inexorable opposites – day and night, birth and death, happiness and misery, good and evil. We are not even sure that one will prevail over the other, that good will overcome evil, or joy defeat pain. Life is a battleground. It always has been, and always will be; and if it were not so, existence would come to an end.34 A clear description of the function and nature of the complexio oppositorum! People ask, "Why is life so difficult?" The answer is, "Because without difficulties no one would wake up to life, no one would become conscious!" Zarathushtra's teachings realise Asha as the creative 'Word' or, to use a Greek term, the 'Logos' or, in Gnostic terminology, the 'Nous' and in Christian terms the 'Holy Ghost', in Celtic terms 'the Weird'. Scholars have pointed out that Asha symbolises divine Energy, the Way, the divine Path that makes possible a connection to the unknown, to God. This is taken up in later Zoroastrian hymns (where authorship is uncertain) for example – Through the best Asha, through the highest Asha, may we obtain a vision of you, may we come near to you, may we abide in full companionship with you. Yasna 60:12 Over millennia, mystics have spoken of divine power as God's Will manifested. In the Gatha's primal text, Asha is the incorporeal manifestation of God, Ahura Mazda. Asha is implicit in sustaining the creation, and is the Life-force, the Word of God, the eternal Truth. The scholars Irach Taraporewala and Roni Khan corroborate these reflections: Asha is the Divine Plan or the Law which rules the whole of the manifested creation ... Asha is the eternal Truth, the One reality, which is the mainspring of all evolution. It is very hard to express the concept in mere words; it has to be meditated upon and realized within ourselves.35 Roni Khan elaborates these ideas and amplifies their meaning – As the primeval principle of Ahura Mazda's creation, Asha is the foundation of the entire manifested universe. The creation is dependent upon the existence of Asha as per the Lord's will or plan. Asha regulates the balanced and orderly functioning of all natural laws and phenomena in the manifested universe. The divine power of Asha works on the soul to cleanse it of dross and make it perfect.

34 Jung, C. G. "Approaching the Unconscious", Man and His Symbols, 1964 p.85 35 Taraporewala, Irach The Religion of Zarathushtra, India House, Mumbai, 19, p.21

PG. 22 PENNY NORRIS© Asha is the master key to salvation. Only through Asha can the redemption of soul be achieved – and the purpose of creation fulfilled.36 With these insights into the Path of Asha, it becomes clear that Asha is the foundation and function of divine energy. Zarathushtra taught that the Supreme Being is formless and intangible. Zarathushtra presents Asha as an ultimate symbol of divine qualities. Irach Taraporewala wrote: This Ahura Mazda has been described several times in the Avesta as 'He who is highest in Asha, who has advanced the farthest in Asha'. In the Gathas, he is described as being 'of one accord with Asha'. In the opinion of this author, this represents the very apotheosis of the word 'asha', for here 'Asha' has been raised to the level of Ahura Mazda … just as it is mentioned in the New Testament [the Bible] that the 'Word was with God and the Word was God'. Furthermore, the supreme Lord is pictured journeying along the Path of Asha at the head of [the] entire Creation. Thus, one can only conclude that Asha is the changeless, eternal Truth of God, [the] First Plan according to which this entire universe has come into being, and in accordance with which it is progressing towards its destined fulfilment.37 In the Gatha's primal text, Asha is clearly related to Sraosha. The word 'Sraosha' is described in terms of a divine Sound, the sacred Word, as well as in terms of divine Light. Sraosha symbolises an incorporeal, radiant attribute that manifests itself in the inner path of subjective reality. The word 'Sraosh', is significantly and reverently used by Zarathushtra in the original texts of the Gathas. His emphasis is that those who follow 'the Path of Asha' are required to realize 'Sraosha'. Zarathushtra's hymns reveal that Sraosha is a spiritual manifestation of divine Sound and Light.38 Zarathushtra refers to Sraosha as Vispa-Mazishtaanm, which describes Sraosha, as the greatest of all celestial manifestations, the 'most majestic' emanation of Ahura Mazda that creates eternal life and enables consciousness to reach 'the domain of eternal, divine Wisdom where Ahura Mazda rules supreme'. Zarathushtra says: I shall appeal to Sraosha, the most majestic of all, to reach the final goal forever. Through the help of eternal Truth, we shall walk the straight path to reach the domain of eternal divine Wisdom where Ahura Mazda rules supreme. Yasna: 33.539 In his early years as Ratu, Zarathushtra's hymns reflect his vulnerability. The early Gathas reveal his pleas to Ahura Mazda for help in fulfilling his tasks as Ratu. The Gathas show his concern to guide his followers to their spiritual objective. The ultimate goal of all the effort and practice was God- realization: With hymns of praise I will turn towards Him. Now I have seen Him with my inner self through good thoughts, good words and good deeds. Through the eternal Truth I have realized Ahura Mazda Himself. In the House of Song40 let us offer our homage to Him. Yasna 45.8 A Saoshyant, Ratu, and Prophet, are regarded as an Ashawan. Having merged with Ahura Mazda they are fully conscious and, in Avestan terms, are the Tanu-Maanthra, the God-realized Teacher, who instructs others how to begin their journey towards the realization of the Lord.

36 'Jam-e-Jamshed Weekly', Mumbai, November 2, 1997 37 Taraporewala, Irach J. S. The Divine Songs of Zarathushtra, p.7 38 Zoroastrians came to believe that Sraosh was a Yazata, One-worthy-of-Worship, a divinity who approaches the soul at the time of death and accompanies it to the court of the Lord Ahura Mazda. 39 Taraporewala, Irach J. S. The Religion of Zarathushtra, India House, Mumbai, 19, pp. 20-21. 40 'The House of Song': A celestial, spiritual domain referred to as Garo Demaan

PG. 23 PENNY NORRIS© Tanu-Maanthra literally means the Incarnation of Word. The opening verse of the Ahuna-Vairya prayer makes this quite clear – Just as a monarch is all-powerful on earth, so too is the Ratu by virtue of his being one with Asha, the eternal Truth. Yasna 27.13 The Gathas of Zarathushtra suggest that human life is founded on Asha and, with the Ratu's guidance, human souls catch hold of this divine energy to return to their source. Later Avesta texts elaborate this – Through the best Asha, through the highest Asha, may we get a vision of Thee. Yasna 60.12 In much later Zoroastrian writings, Asha came to mean simply truth, goodness, purity, holiness or righteousness in the religious sense. Nevertheless, the spiritual treasure of this inner path to God made its way into various spiritual disciplines and its constructs survived into the 21st century. The Gathas bequeathed to posterity Zarathushtra's message that within the canon of spiritual traditions there is a path back to the Lord that is the inheritance of all human beings. By the grace of Asha, from among the noble offspring of Fryaana of Turan,41 there shall arise those who progress in life through one-pointed Devotion. They shall merge with divine Wisdom and receive salvation through Mazda Ahura. Yasna 46.12

FIVE SPIRITUAL ATTRIBUTES OF AHURA MAZDA Asha is not the only representation of the Ahura Mazda's Supreme Being's 'formless, intangible qualities beyond material attributes'. In the Gathas there is reference to five divine attributes. These five have been given specific terms which, through symbolic images, represent the nature of the divine and amplify the complexity and omnipotence of Ahuru Mazda. The Gathas indicate that there are five 'virtues', which are energetic qualities or forces. First of the five is Vohu Mano (divine Wisdom) The second is Vohu Khshathra (divine Power) The third is Spenta Armaiti (holy Devotion) The fourth is Haurvataat (Perfection and Completeness) The fifth is Ameretaat (Immortality). The last two, Perfection and Immortality are regarded as the spiritual fruits of life, realized when the soul attains the spiritual qualities of the path of Asha. These five ineffable, spiritual qualities, 'lie beyond material attributes and are not corporeal'.42 The first of the five is Vohu Mano (divine Wisdom).

VOHU MANO Vohu Mano is a quality of Ahura Mazda which represents divine wisdom, intelligence and divine love. In his Gathas, Zarathushtra places great emphasis on Vohu Mano. He says, "I will draw closer to

41The friendly leader of a tribe. 42 These are called the five Amesha Spentas, the Immortal Holy-ones. However, this term is not found in the Gathas, as the term was coined during the Avestan period, millennia after Zarathushtra's death. This term developed through interpretations and translations of the sacred hymns. It will not be used in this article.

PG. 24 PENNY NORRIS© you, O Ahura Mazda, through Vohu Mano" (Yasna 28.2). It is this quality of being and action, the wisdom of positive choice, i.e., discrimination represented by Vohu Mano that is a means by which the soul reaches God. Zarathushtra uses imagery that is taken up centuries later in the words of Buddhist, Jewish, Christian, Gnostic, Hindu and Islamic mystics – all of whom speak of divine wisdom, intelligence and love as emanations of the inner, eternal lover called the Beloved. Vohu Mano, the Beloved, alerts the seeker to the invaluable role played by love, when the soul yearns to return to its source. The power of discriminating, conscious love, is signified by Vohu Mano. In the Pahlavi language an individual soul is known as mano. This was synonymous with the Avestan urvan, which means 'soul'. Variations on the term 'mano' for 'soul', remained in use for millennia. The term, mano was incorporated into later Persian and Mesopotamian languages, where it is commonly translated as 'mind'. Mano, on its own, was used to symbolize the Mind of God, implying creative thought and power. Furthermore, in Mandaean texts, the individual soul is called mana, and in Mandaean and Gnostic texts43 the term mana is used with the word 'first' i.e., primal mana: this Persian term was incorporated into their Aramaic-like language. In some instances, Mana appears to be the divine Source and represents the original Power, Cause, Thought and Creative Intelligence. It suggests the essence of Being that lies within the creation: I worship, laud and praise that great, secret, First Mana, who abode for nine hundred and ninety-nine myriads of years alone in His own abode – for no companion came to Him (none existed) save that great, secret, First Mana.44 In the third-century CE, the Iranian mystic called Mani,ix who established the Manichaean spiritual path, used the Pahlavi term Vahman instead of 'mana' for the word soul. The word 'Vahman' is a contraction of 'Vohu Mano'. Mani referred to the teachings of Zarathushtra, Buddha and Jesus according to the specific background of his varied audiences. In the Manichaean scriptures, Vahman appears as the redeemer and saviour, especially in Middle Persian dialects. Like Zarathushtra, Mani as Teacher and Messenger calls on the divine to give peace and protection to his followers and he prays that Vahman may lead them to eternal life. In this context Vahman is the 'cosmic power' that is similar to Zarathushtra's Sraosha, which connects the individual to the divine and eternal life. You rose and shone like the Sun, blessed Image, Leader of Truth … May the gods give you peace, may the angels protect you and may Vahman lead you anew to eternal life.45 Likewise, a devotional psalm speaks of initiation into Vahman, a symbol of the divine Life-force. "We worship the great Vahman, whom you have planted in the hearts of the devoted".46 In Manichaean prayers initiates who receive their spiritual strength from Vahman are remembered, "May the preachers of the secret mysteries be given new power by Vahman, the Redeemer."47 During this period, the word 'soul' was imbued with the power of divine Mind and Intelligence. The word 'Vahman' is sometimes equated in Manichaean writings with the Greek and Gnostic term, Nous,

43 Texts of southern Mesopotamia, stemming from the 1st century CE and early Christian times. 44 Mandaean Prayer Book 36, CPM pp.36Ý37. Quoted by John Davidson in A Treasury of Mystic Terms. 45 Manichaean Hymns, Ein Manichaisches Bet-und Beichtbuch, W. B. Henning. 18ff.; cf. Gnosis on the Silk Road: Gnostic Texts from Central Asia, Tr. H. J Klimkeit 138:1. VIII.1Ý2 as quoted by John Davidson in A Treasury of Mystic Terms. 46 Manichaean Hymns, Ein Manichaisches Bet-und Beichtbuch, W. B. Henning. 18ff.; cf. Gnosis on the Silk Road: Gnostic Texts from Central Asia, Tr. H. J Klimkeit 18ff.; p. 137:1. VII.1, as quoted by John Davidson in A Treasury of Mystic Terms. 47 Ibid.

PG. 25 PENNY NORRIS© since both describe divine 'mind' and 'intelligence'. Nous refers to God's Intelligence, which is both internal in the individual soul and external in the order that maintains the cosmos.48 The Swedish scholar, Geo Widengren writes: The great Vahman is at the same time a universal Power and a faculty working inside the human organism. If this holds true, the great Vahman would be the higher principle in man, be it called 'spirit' or 'soul', or the like. The human spirit is thus part and parcel of the cosmic principle … this cosmic Power, which at the same time is planted in the hearts of men, is in the Manichaean system one of the most important Saviours. That Ahura Mazda is the Father of Vohu Mano is mentioned in many other passages of Zoroastrian literature, both in Avestan and in Pahlavi writings. Geo Widengren, The Great Vohu Manah49 According to the third century Iranian mystic Mani, Vohu Mano represents qualities of the divine creative power, the primal Intelligence that manifests and maintains all creation. In later Zoroastrian thought, Vohu Mano has been given the position of being the first-born of his father, Ahura Mazda. In even later centuries, Vohu Mano becomes 'embodied', so to speak, as an archangel with various functions and duties. He evolves into the guardian of wisdom and he protects creation from the attacks of the evil Spirit. He also is credited with being the guardian of the animal kingdom. Vohu Mano remains an intermediary force through whom the devout may reach Ahura Mazda. In Zoroastrian tradition, Vohu Mano was believed to be the soul's guide and companion; the one who bestows immortality once lost, the one who enables the soul to return to its divine home. This is described in a story found in late Middle Eastern mysticism, where the soul is said to be in search of a lost garment of light and glory that was discarded when it left its heavenly home. Geo Widengren writes that this story is – … related in a passage in Datastan-i Dinak (a Zoroastrian text) that the soul of the righteous man, accompanied by the Good Spirit (Vohu Mano) who is the 'companion of the soul', after death ascends to the heavenly abodes and to the garment … And having introduced the soul to Ahura Mazda, Vohu Mano shows it its throne and reward. Geo Widengren50 Vohu Mano, the inner, compassionate companion, takes the soul home to the Supreme Being, who returns to it its incorporeal garment – a robe of glorious Light, a beautiful symbol for consciousness that signifies God-realization and purity of soul. Literally, Vohu means great, pre-eminent and primal, as in original or first. Mano means mind and primal Intelligence imbued with soul. However, Vohu sometimes is translated into meaning 'good'

48 This is similar to the principle of asha. Nous in this context is imbued with the logos or rationality that it came to embrace fully in a later era. Epistemologically, however, it still retains ‘soul-qualities’ of compassion, love, and truth within divine order. It suggests (through the millennia) the same essence as Sraosha. 49 Quoted by John Davidson in 'Zarathushtra and Zoroastrians', "The Universe of Spirituality", in A Treasury of Mystic Terms, Part 1, Vol. 1 p.17: from Geo Widengren, The Great Vohu Manah and the Apostle of God, Uppsala, [universitets årsskrift, 1945] Lundequist, Leipzig. 18Quoted by John Davidson in 'Zarathushtra and Zoroastrians', "The Universe of Spirituality", in A Treasury of Mystic Terms, Part 1, Vol. 1 p.49-50: from Geo Widengren, The Great Vohu Manah and the Apostle of God, Uppsala, [universitets årsskrift, 1945] Lundequist, Leipzig.

PG. 26 PENNY NORRIS© and mano into 'mind' or 'wisdom'. The resonances and nuances of soul described in the Gatha interprets 'Vohu' as 'divine' and 'Mano' as 'wisdom' – a wisdom that embraces the soul's devotion to God, love and compassion, care and nourishment for all things. Vohu Mano represents these attributes of the Supreme Being. Zarathushtra placed great emphasis on Vohu Mano as an example of how the soul is nourished to reach union with the Supreme Being, Ahura Mazda. I will draw closer to you, O Ahura Mazda, through divine Wisdom. Grant your blessings through eternal Truth, so that the faithful are led through both the spiritual and material worlds into divine Light. Yasna 28.2 Vohu Mano symbolises intelligence, love and devotion, and guides worthy souls to a 'heavenly abode'. The Gathas indicate that divine Wisdom is a virtue a soul must embrace to achieve union with the Supreme Being.

VOHU KHSHATHRA The second of the five virtues is Vohu Khshathra. In Yasna 29.11 Zarathushtra explains how the Soul- of-all-Creation seeking liberation from incarnation in matter, asks the Supreme Being, “When will eternal Truth, divine Wisdom and your Power come to us?” The Soul-of-all-Creation refers to Vohu Khshathra (divine Power) as the mighty authority that enacts and enforces the divine Will. The term is derived from the root Khshi which means 'to rule' and it is this power that makes the might and majesty of Ahura Mazda manifest. In Yasna 28.7, Zarathushtra calls on Ahura Mazda's benevolent Power to fulfil His devotees longing for God and says, “Through your Power, let your Maanthra be heard by your devotees”. Zarathushtra is asking Ahura Mazda to reveal the Sraosha to his devotees, to empower them in their practice of listening to the Maanthra (sound) to connect to the 'Khshathra' (power) that pulls their soul towards the divine. There are many references to divine Power in all its different forms throughout the Gathas. The essential message is that without this power one will not realize God. The teachings suggest that practising the Path taught by Zarathushtra is as demanding as a warrior's path because it asks for daily effort, discipline and practice. At the same time Zarathushtra says in Yasna 30.7 that those followers who have Khshathra and Wisdom and who have realized the eternal Truth of the Lord, shall through their dedication be given eternal Life. They shall be successful in their destiny since they will find the God and live within the divine Will forever.

SPENTA ARMAITI The third of the five virtues and qualities is Spenta Armaiti who represents humility, faith and devotion. In the primal text she is symbolized as the much-loved daughter of Ahura Mazda. Zarathushtra says – I will explain the supreme goal of this life; through eternal Truth have I realized what Mazda has ordained. He is the source of active divine Wisdom and his daughter is kind Armaiti. Ahura, the All-Prevailing, is never deceived. Yasna 45.4 Zarathushtra's words resonate at different levels, from the literal to the abstract. The more reflection is given to his writings, the deeper message is revealed. For instance, in many families a daughter is recognized as being close to her father. Rajab, a mystic from Rajasthan, says –

PG. 27 PENNY NORRIS© Devotion is the daughter of God; if she enters the heart, all possessions, perfections, treasures are given as well.51 The image of Armaiti as a daughter resonates at the family level through the filial bond, and also at the divine level where it represents the sacred bond between Ahura Mazda and the disciple. Zarathushtra uses these images to show that Armaiti, as a daughter, is dearly loved by Mazda and that she is devoted to Him as if he were her father. Like all attributes of Mazda found in the primal text, Armaiti is recognized from different viewing points. Zarathushtra suggests that Armaiti may be viewed not only as a 'daughter', but as an 'abstract idea', and sometimes the word armaiti is used simply as an adjective or as a description of human virtue. She has different faces, sometimes she is kind, sometimes she is forceful or maternal. She is always devotional. Clearly, Armaiti represents an incorporeal essence of Ahura Mazda, a dynamic that Zarathushtra himself perceived as an essential principle in her kindness and devotion to the Ahura Mazda and to humanity. Zarathushtra, in Yasna 28.7, calls on Asha (as eternal Truth) and Armaiti (now cast as inspirational Devotion) to grant King Vishtaaspa and his followers their wish to actively pursue the Path of Asha. In this verse, Zarathushtra entreats the Supreme Being to bestow Grace on devotees by imbuing them with the qualities of Asha and Armaiti, to grant them the Lord's 'energy in action' and the Lord's 'devotion in action' to bring the initiates closer to God. In such contexts, Armaiti represents the divine spark, 'scintilla', to use a Gnostic term. Zarathushtra asks Ahura Mazda to place eternal Light, scintilla, in the hearts and souls of human beings – to inspire, guide and remind them of God's love and their devotion to Ahura Mazda. Since then, all people speak of their beliefs according to their heart and mind, though their beliefs are false or true, and regardless of whether they understand something or not. The ever-watchful Armaiti guides the spirit wherever one is in error. Yasna 31.12 In Yasna 47.6 she appears, again, as divine Light. In the words of Zarathushtra – Grant us, through your Holy Spirit, O Ahura Mazda, your divine Light which decides the destinies of all persons. Seekers are only convinced when Devotion and oneness with eternal Truth increase within. Yasna 47.6 She is called on to be merciful, together with Asha and the other mainyus – … Armaiti, the life-giving Asha, Vohu Mano and divine Khshathra – please listen to my plea. Have mercy on me when judgment is meted out to all. Yasna 33.11 She is the one who grants understanding and reveals the truth in Yasna 33.13 – With the blessings of divine Wisdom, O Armaiti, make me realize the teachings of eternal Truth. She and Asha lead the individual soul to Ahura's divine shelter. Yasna 49.5 – The one who attaches the inner self to divine Wisdom through zeal and self-sacrifice, becomes wise through eternal Truth and values Devotion. These take shelter in your Power, O Ahura. She inspires devotion for the precious task of spiritual growth. Zarathushtra asks –

51 Rahajab, 84.23 in Winand Callewaert, The Sarvangi of the Dadupanthi Rajab, Belgium: Department Orientalistick Katholieke Universiteit, Leuven, 1978

PG. 28 PENNY NORRIS© This I ask you, tell me, O Ahura, who created Armaiti, the precious one, along with Khshathra. Who made the child dutiful to the Father? In the same way, I strive to regard your Holy Spirit, O Mazda, as the creator of all Life. Yasna 44.7 In later translations Armaiti is preceded by the term Spenta, which means 'increasing' or 'growing'52 and amplifications of her include the qualities of, 'kindness, goodness, holiness and benevolence' leading to the phrases such as 'increasing or growing devotion' and thence to 'goodness and righteousness'. Scholars have translated the word 'armaiti' from various viewpoints that describe divine wisdom – devotion, piety, benevolence, loving kindness, right-mindedness, humility, peace and love. The word Armaiti is derived from two roots: one ar to move (in the right direction) and other mana or mata – 'to think'. Therefore, armaiti literally means right-thinking or right-mindedness. The cognate word in Sanskrit is also 'aramati'. In whichever way the term is translated, Armaiti is present and active in Zarathushtra's message. There are many references to her in the Gathas and the multiplicity of her many layers of meaning seem to reflect the indefinable nature of devotional Love. It follows that whomsoever 'through zeal and self-sacrifice' is attached to God, they learn to understand the infinite value of Devotion. To choose to embrace Armaiti is to be in the wisdom of Ahura Mazda, walking the Path of Asha. Zarathushtra explains this gift of Ahura Mazda in His revealing words – “I have chosen for you holy Devotion, the close companion to eternal Truth, to be yours”. According to H.M. G. Shapero, the Avestan text is clear that Armaiti is a feminine construct. 53 It is suggested that Zarathushtra, from the beginning, recognized masculine and feminine principles as equal qualities of divinity that contributed to Ahura Mazda's attributes. As far as it can be researched, and as much as this supposition is linguistically and grammatically supported, Zarathushtra did not fall into genderism. Certain scholars recognise their interpretation of Ahura Mazda that the Supreme Being embraces oppositional principles e. g. in the words of the Tao, the yang that is a masculine principle and yin, the principle of the feminine. In this integration, duality moves beyond gender into a union of oppositional forces. This is seen in the nature of the incorporeal energy symbolised by the five, which manifest a particular quality but remains united with and an integral part of the Supreme Being. Other scholars see the principles linguistically in the occurrence, as well as the absence in particular languages of grammatical gender endings.x Though Zoroastrian culture eventually became as patriarchal as other ancient cultures, its spirituality did recognize the power of divine feminine constructs.54 These had been long acknowledged in the earlier matriarchal societies of the millennia that preceded the emerging patriarchal world into which Zarathushtra was born. In later Zoroastrian personifications, Armaiti became the patron of the Earth – of fertile land, and of sacred space.55 In his book The Zoroastrian Tradition, Mehr56 writes that Armaiti, "implies love without expectation of reciprocity and dutifulness without contemplation of reward". While Asha is seen as the greatest symbol of divine qualities, Armaiti is the beloved 'daughter' who is imbued with, and who imbues, the Supreme Being with the divine feminine. She is the 'daughter'

52 As described by H.M. G. Shapero and Behram Pithawala, both eminent scholars of Zoroastrianism. 53 https://www.pyracantha.com/Z (cf., under scriptures; The Mysticism of the Gathas; Vendnet.html) 54 In the form of the later female Amesha Spentas, or the re-adapted female yazatas, such as Ardvi Sura Anahita or Ashi Vanguhi, the spirit of piety and prosperity. 55 In contemporary ceremonies, she is symbolized by a white sheet that underlies all the other sacred objects, including the fire vessel and so she designates sacred space. 56 Farhang Mehr, Zoroastrian Tradition, an Introduction to the Ancient Wisdom of Zarathusthra, Vol. 1 and 2

PG. 29 PENNY NORRIS© who balances and compliments the 'son'. The two symbolize divine equilibrium or balance that is potentially mirrored in the material world. These two symbols – son and daughter – and all the attributes of Ahura Mazda, mirror opposing principles which, when in balance, both enhance and ameliorate each other and are destructive when not. In the positive balance the symbols create an expansive sense of the omnipotence of the nature of the Supreme Being. Zarathushtra asks – When, O Mazda, shall Asha, the eternal Truth, along with Armaiti, growing Devotion and Khshathra, divine Power, give us shelter in the realm of peace? Who shall bring us peace from the tyranny of followers of falsehood? Who shall receive the understanding of divine Wisdom? Yasna 48.11 These questions are answered in the Gathas' hymns. Zarathushtra says it is the one who follows the insights of divine Wisdom, whose actions are inspired by eternal Truth and who practises steadfastly the light of Devotion to the Lord – this one will receive the blessings of the Supreme Being and join those who are 'the ones chosen to conquer hatred' (Yasna 48.12) and 'bring peace from the tyranny of followers of falsehood'.

HAURVATAAT AND AMERETAAT The fourth attribute is called haurvataat meaning 'perfection' and, in the original meaning of the word, 'completion', as in 'wholeness'. The fifth attribute is ameretaat meaning 'immortality'. They are the last two of the five incorporeal virtues amplifying and symbolizing qualities of Ahura Mazda. 'Perfection' and 'Immortality' are usually found together in the hymns and are regarded as the spiritual fruits of life, realized when the soul absorbs and practises the qualities of the Path of Asha.57 In the following verse Yasna 31.21, Zarathushtra promises Wholeness, as in Oneness (representing perfection/completion) and Immortality, together with other virtues, as God's gifts to the loyal practitioner – To the one who is loyal to him in thought and action, Ahura Mazda shall bestow Perfection and Immortality, oneness with eternal Truth, his inspiring Power and everlasting divine Wisdom. Haurvataat (Perfection) and Ameretaat (Immortality) may be regarded as a human birthright. In other words, everyone has been gifted with the potential to realize their connection to God, to become whole and to find union with the divine, through God's grace and love. Etymologically, 'haurvataat' stems from an Indo-Iranian root and is linguistically related to the Vedic Sanskrit sarvatāt, which means completeness and perfection.58 The Avestan noun 'haurvataat' is grammatically feminine and in the Gathas she is one of three feminine principles.59 She is closely allied with 'ameretaat', also feminine, which means 'immortality'. The third feminine principle or quality is Armaiti representing devotional love.

57 In the very early writings of Zoroastrianism, known as the Young Avesta (which is not considered to be Zarathushtra’s actual words) Ameretaat and Haurvatāt represent the rewards given to the righteous after death. This is a later amplification of Zarathushtra's original teachings. 58 'The idea of Haurvataat and Ameretaat is influenced by how the Gathic verses are translated. In the Avestan language the meanings of words change according to the word-endings. 'Theological concepts depend on how different translators use the Avestan text.' Hannah M. G. Shapero, www.pyracantha.com/Z/ 59 Centuries later, Haurvataat appears in Middle Persian texts as Hordaad, and eventually in new Persian writings as Khordaad, which is still in use to date. However, traditionally, in new Persian writings, Hordaad is considered masculine, a development that may be attributed to translation errors in Middle Persian scripts, or other issues of gender.

PG. 30 PENNY NORRIS© Using Haurvataat, the Avestan word for 'wholeness' or 'perfection', Zarathushtra speaks to Ahura Mazda directly in Yasna 34.11, saying that wholeness and immortality lead to Light and 'shall assure renewed strength for the soul', with the help of power, wisdom, devotion and eternal Truth. The two, Perfection and Immortality, lead onwards to Light. Your Power and divine Wisdom along with Devotion and eternal Truth, shall assure renewed strength for the soul.Through these powers, O Mazda, you enable it to conquer its (inner) enemies. Haurvataat offers self-realization through wholeness and this leads to Ameretaat – immortality. In Yasna 45.10 Ameretaat and Haurvataat, once again stand as the final objective of a journey made with the devotion, truth and wisdom. In this way the individual soul is provided with the strength to fulfil the journey towards Mazda. By being dedicated to Devotion, I will praise He who is known as the Lord of the Creation and the Lord of Life. Through eternal Truth and divine Wisdom, He has promised us Perfection and Immortality in his Kingdom. May He give us continuous strength and eternal life. Yasna 45.10 One of Haurvataat's tasks is to enable humankind to find wholeness, strength and health, both physical and spiritual, which is so necessary to be able to withstand the negativity in existence. In an article, Hannah M. G. Shapero quotes the Zoroastrian philosopher, K. D. Irani's interpretation of Haurvataat – Haurvataat, translated as Integrity, represents the undivided self, 'freedom from guilt, resentment, and regret,' a state of 'peaceful and prosperous harmony with the world ...' '…Haurvataat is the state of the self where the mind has grasped the Truth and acted accordingly'. Attaining Haurvataat means rejecting irrational thoughts and motives, rising above fanaticism, self-righteousness, and delusion, transcending self-interest in order to attain Integrity.60

It is reasonable to equate 'integrity' as it is used in this context with wholeness and perfection.

AMERETAAT Ameretaat, as immortality, symbolizes eternity and in this sense she is unchanging and timeless. As a part of the Supreme Being she cannot die. Being eternal and immortal she has no beginning and no end. Through her, a dynamic principle of God, the Creation continues 'world without end'. In the late Zoroastrian tradition, each of the five attributes has guardianship over a sector of Creation, thus representing the presence of God in the natural, physical world. 61 In this doctrine Haurvataat represents 'waters', and Ameretaat represents 'plants'.xi In the writings (of the Young Avesta) the pairing of Haurvataat and Ameretaat as 'waters' and 'plants' (as in vegetation), come from pastoral, agrarian imagesxii. These agrarian images form an allegory which makes the spiritual point that Haurvataat and Ameretaat symbolize the manna or food of the spiritual world, which is earned by the follower's spiritual husbandry and labour, granted by God to the dedicated ones.

60 Dr. Kaikhosrov D. Irani: from an article published in An Introduction to the Gathas Of Zarathushtra, March 1990. Also quoted by Hanna M. G. Shapero in https://en.wikipedia.ord/wiki https://www.pyracantha.com/Z/vendnet.html 61 In the Zoroastrian cosmological model, centuries after Zarathushtra lived, each of the five forces (mainyus) became identified with one aspect of creation – again following the devolution of Zarathushtra’s original meanings. In later translations of post-Gathic Zoroastrianism, for example, Haurvataat becames associated with water (apo) prosperity and health.

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THREE OF FIVE ASHA, VOHU MANO, VOHU KHSHATHRA Struggling towards the integrity of perfection and immortality, is the 'food' that enables the inner journey to God- realization. Hannah M. G. Shapero Ushtavaiti writes that – …whether Haurvataat and Ameretaat are considered abstract qualities, ritual offerings, guardians of nature, heavenly food, or all of the above, they have a place in Zoroastrian spiritual life as divine goals, attainments at the higher level of one's spiritual path; they are virtues at the end of time, leading into Paradise.62

Zarathushtra, in his hymns, speaks of Haurvataat and Ameretaat as gifts attained and offered, and sometimes he speaks of them as givers of gifts.

The Zoroastrian spiritual way teaches that anyone is able to realize these virtues within themselves, if committed to following the guidelines of Zarathushtra's path.

Gathas, Yasna 22. Translation and comment by I. Taraporewala

That man, indeed, who makes his every act An act of worship, led by Asa's Law, Is deemed as best by Mazda Ahura; Each one of these, who have been and who are, With reverence will I recall by name, And strive to emulate his holy deeds.

This verse is the original of the Yer/he-hatam verse. The main difference between the two is that in the Ga#a verse the holy men both past and present are spoken of, while in the later verse the Righteous ones both men and women have been mentioned. The idea of bringing in both men and women is a decided improvement. The adoration of the Holy Ones by name has developed continuously in Zoroastrianism.

62 https://www.pyracantha.com/Z/vendnet.html refer also to https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avesta (cf., Historiography)

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CONCLUSION To summarise, Zarathushtra's path engages with:

o Asha, symbolizing the fire of truth and righteousness, the dynamics of creation o Vohu Mano, providing intelligence, compassion and wisdom o Vohu Khshathra, giving benign strength and mighty power o Armaiti, engendering the light sparks of love and devotion in the human heart o Haurvataat leading to wholeness and health of both body, mind and soul o Ameretaat, who holds the gift of merging with the divine and bestowing immortality, the end goal of spiritual practice o Armaiti, Ameretaat and Haurvataat appearing as a divine Trinity in the Bundahishn – a creation story and revelation based on the Avestan Dāmdāt Naska.63

The construct of a nurturing, feminine trinity continued through the millennia of Zoroastrianism,64 emerging in the 12th century CE writings of the Bundahishn and a couple of centuries later, in the writings of the Neoplatonist philosophers, artists and writers of the European Renaissance. Among the Neoplatonists a particular philosophical approach emerged from the writings of Greek antiquity, which (to simplify) reflected on a path that embraced cleansing the soul, overcoming the fear of death and awakening to a spiritual world lying beyond the material. Looking back to Alexander's conquest of the Persian empire in the 4th century and the filtration of Zarathushtra's teachings into Greek culture and philosophy, it is quite possible that these same teachings lie at the heart of the Neoplatonic revival. The latter's effect on the Renaissance of Europe, was substantial and merged into western culture, impacting certain areas of the European approach to spirituality. Neoplatonic philosophy and practice is symbolized in the image of a feminine trinity, called in more contemporary times, the three Graces. In the original meaning of the Neoplatonic vision, the Graces were known (among other appellations) as Renunciation, Rapture and Returning. Each grace symbolized a specific aspect of the secret mysteries of an inner path and were understood to mean respectively – Renunciation – detachment from the world through reflection and meditation Rapture – devotional ecstasy and bliss through the practice of the work or path Returning – which enabled reconnection to spirituality, ecstasy and to a Supreme Being.65 This path, taken from ancient Greek writings66 was expressed in a pantheon of works of the scholars and artists of Renaissance Europe – from Pico della Mirandola to Botticelli, who immortalized this path in his works of art, particularly La Primavera and The Birth of Venus. It was also represented in the works of the great artists, Michelangelo and Rafael, and through these modes have become ingrained in aspects of Europe's common culture.

63 Bundahishn 26.8: is the Zoroastrian account of creation completed in the 12th century CE. 64 Throughout the later Zoroastrian scriptures and traditions, the three principles of Armaiti, Haurvatāt and Ameretaat are consistently identified with aspects of the creation they came to signify – earth, plants (vegetation) and water. In Arda Viraf 35.13 the three daughters of Zoroaster are described to be in the image of Armaiti, Ameretaat, and Haurvataat. 65 The names of the Graces have been subjected to numerous changes and interpretations over the centuries 66 Including Plato and the Stoic school, especially Seneca (4-65AD)

PG. 33 PENNY NORRIS© Over centuries the concepts of The Gathas were concretized and devolved from original meanings, yet their message survives in good deeds, good thoughts and good words, now represented in European culture as the trinity of Faith, Hope and Charity. The pre-patriarchal idea of the godhead as a trinity was subsumed into Greek culture of antiquity and emerged in Christianity as a masculine trinity and, centuries later in Neoplatonism as mainly a feminine trinity. Jung writes - Every advance of culture is, psychologically, an extension of consciousness, a coming to consciousness that can take place only through discrimination. Therefore an advance way begins with individuation, that is to say with the individual, conscious of his isolation, cutting a new path through hitherto untrodden territory.67 How mysterious it is, to see, in this time of the twenty-first century, through the arcane Greek and Persian lineage, the echoes of Zarathushtra's teachings, over three and a half thousand years old, cutting a new path through and emerging in the Italian Renaissance of the 15th and 16th centuries CE from which, like a storm born river it flows into the multiplicity of cultural and religious seas in the twenty-first century.

MODERN WINDOW REPRESENTING AHURA MAZDA AND HIS ATTRIBUTES

67 Jung, C. G. "Our Psychic Energy", CW 8, #111, 1928

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RECOMMENDED YOUTUBE VIDEOS ARE: ▪ New Thinking Allowed: Zarathushtra's Indo-European Legacy. Jeffrey Mishlove's interview with the brilliant scholar, Jason Reza (Jorjani), up to date research that blows preconceived ideas away! ▪ Face to Face 2015 Personality Lecture 06, Depth Psychology with Jordan B Peterson ▪ Podcast: This Jungian Life

10:22 Ancient Persia (video) Khan Academy · Khan Academy

PREVIEW 3:54 The Persian Empire: The First Superpower - Ancient History ... YouTube · See U in History / Mythology 22 Nov 2017

PREVIEW 29:53 The Median Empire, Cyrus the Great and Ancient Israel YouTube

END NOTES 1 LINGUISTICS, TRANSLATIONS, Gathic, Pahlavi languages and Avestan terms are attributed to Dinya Dotiwala.

i If interested in the Elamite history from around 2600-330BC, there are fascinating videos online, on YouTube e.g. 'Who were the Elamites', and the 'History of Ancient Elam' etc. As one of the earliest civilizations of the Middle East, it went through a saga of war and conquest. The last written records of its civilization were found during the conquest of the Achaemenid Empire by Alexander the Great. Some of the Elamites' writings/scripts have yet to be deciphered. The Elamites are of the earliest roots of civilization. They provide a fascinating introduction to the origins of the cultures that emerged so long ago.

PG. 35 PENNY NORRIS© ii SCHOLARS' ERROR RE ZARATHUSHTRA'S BIRTH: Western scholars of the last two centuries, who depended on Pahlavi writings, made a mistake when they deduced the time of the birth of Zarathushtra to be between 600 BCE - 500 BCE, or about 1000 years before Christ. They considered Histasp, the father of King Darius of the Achaemenian Dynasty (600s - 330 BCE) at Persepolis in Iran, to be the same King Vishtasp of Bactria (Uzbekistan), who gave shelter to Zarathushtra in his kingdom. From the historical facts about the royal dynasties of Bactria and Iran, it is clear that the King Darius of Iran was quite different from Dara-ye-Dara of Bactria, the last king of the Kayani Dynasty, to which king Vishtasp belonged. Besides, the inscription of Darius the Great at Naksh-I-Rustam in Iran, only mentions him as Parsa, the son of a Parsa, an Arya of Aryan lineage; there is no reference to his being the follower of Zarathushtra. This is because Zarathushtra was not a contemporary of his time. iii AVESTAN TERMS: Linguistic derivations: Daēuua or daēva derive from Old Iranian daiva, which comes from Indo- Iranian daivá – implying ‘sprites/gods,’ and reflects Proto-Indo-European deiu̯ó with the same meaning. The Vedic Sanskrit companion form of Avestan daēuua is devá – continues into later Indo-Aryan languages as dev. From the 5th century BCE, daeva appears in ancient Persian as daiva. All cognates of Iranian daiva have a positive connotation, but 'no known Iranian dialect clearly supports the survival of a positive sense for the Old Iranian daiva'. (Herrenschmidt & Kellens 1993, p.601) Dev cognate Daeva (daēuua, daāua, daēva) is, in the Avestan language, a term for a disagreeable, incorporeal being. o In the Gathas, the daeva are ‘false gods’ or negative influences. o In the Avesta, they are tricksters and spiteful energies that create muddles, chaos or disorder. o In the later Middle Period of tradition and folklore, the dēws personify evil. o Daeva evolve into the ancient Persian term daiva during the 5th century BCE. The words for Indian Vedic spirits and the Avestan daevas are etymologically related, but they are quite different in their role and function. Equivalents for Avestan daeva in Iranian languages include Pashto, Balochi; and a Kurdish equivalent is dêw, while in Persian it is dīv/deev, all of which apply to demons, monsters, and other negative forces. The Iranian word passed into Old Armenian as dew, into Georgian as devi, and into Urdu as deo, with the same negative associations in those languages. Avesta – is the ancient Aryan language of Asia Minor in which primary sacred texts of Zoroastrianism are written – and Pahlavi, which is the script used in Middle Iranian languages. It is Semitic in origin and logo-grammatic in script. The language is derived from the old Persian word Parthava, from the ancient province of Parthia in north eastern Iran. The Avestan language of the Gathas was a pure, ancient Aryan language. Therefore, knowledge of Sanskrit (the language of the Rig Veda, an equally ancient text) enables a closer understanding of the original Gatha's textual meaning. Sadly, this link was not initially recognized by translators, and many translations of Pahlavi texts do not make use of this linguistic resource. Western scholars who depended entirely upon Pahlavi versions consequently struggled overall to bring out the direct spiritual teachings which Zarathushtra imparted to his disciples. Fortunately, findings from more recent research have revealed linguistic similarity between Avesta and Sanskrit. The scholars whose research helped to establish this are: Professor Jackson, Reverend Mills and Parsi scholars, Dr Ardeshir Khabardar and Dr Irach Taraporewala, who were well conversant with both the Sanskrit language and Zoroastrian culture. Their insights enabled more accurate translations of the Gathas than those based on only Pahlavi renderings.

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TRADITION AND FOLKLORE IN EARLY ZOROASTRIAN TRADITION (THE BATTLE OF OPPOSING FORCES OF GOOD AND EVIL, THE COMPLEXIO OPPOSITORUM) [In the Middle Persian texts of Zoroastrian tradition, the dews are invariably rendered with the Aramaic ideogram ŠDYA or the more common plural ŠDYAʼn that signified ‘demons’ even in the singular]. Dews play a crucial role in the cosmogonic drama of the Bundahishn, a Zoroastrian view of creation completed in the 12th century CE. This 12th century CE dogma was not part of the original teachings of Zarathushtra, who concentrated on the positivity of individual salvation, and on one's contribution to and engagement with community. In the Bundahishn, the evil spirit Ahriman (a Persian equivalent of Avestan Angra Mainyu) creates his hordes of dews to counter the creation of Ormuzd (Avestan Ahura Mazda). This notion is already alluded to in the Vendidaad (see Younger Avestan texts), but is only properly developed in the Bundahishn. In particular, Ahriman is seen to create six dews that in Zoroastrian tradition are the antitheses of the Amahraspands (Avestan Amesha Spenta, the attributes of Ahura Mazda). Mirroring the task of the Amesha Spentas through which Ahura Mazda realized creation, the six antitheses are the instrument through which Angra Mainyu creates all the horrors in the world. Further, the arch-daevas of Vendidaad 10.9 and 19.43 are identified as the antithetical counterparts of the Amesha Spentas. The six arch-demons are listed in the Epistles of Zadspram (WZ 35.37) and the Greater Bundahishn (GBd. 34.27):[15] • Akoman of ‘evil thought’ opposing Wahman/Bahman of ‘good thought’ (Av. Aka Manah versus Vohu Manah) • Indar that freezes the minds of the righteous opposing Ardawahisht of ‘best truth’ (Av. Indar versus Asha Vahishta). • Nanghait of discontent opposing Spendarmad of ‘holy devotion’ (Av. Naonhaithya/Naonghaithya versus Spenta Armaiti) • Sawar/Sarvar of oppression opposing Shahrewar of ‘desirable dominion’ (Av. Saurva versus Kshathra Vairya) • Tauriz/Tawrich of destruction opposing Hordad of ‘wholeness’ (Av. Taurvi versus Haurvatat) • Zariz/Zarich who poisons plants opposing Amurdad of ‘immortality’ (Av. Zauri versus Ameretat) These oppositions differ from those found in scripture, where the moral principles (that each Amesha Spenta represents) are opposed by immoral principles. This is not however a complete breach, as in the Gathas, asha – the principle – is the diametric opposite of the abstract druj, in Zoroastrian tradition, it is Ardawahisht, the Amesha Spenta that is the hypostasis of asha, that is opposed to by Indar, who freezes the minds of creatures from practicing ‘righteousness’ (asha). Greater Bundahishn 34.27 adds two more arch-demons, which are not, however, in opposition to Amesha Spentas:[15] • Xeshm of ‘wrath’ opposing Srosh of ‘obedience’ (Av. Aeshma versus Sraosha) • Gannag menog, the ‘stinking spirit’ opposing Hormazd (Gannag menog is unknown in the Avesta. Hormazd represents Ahura Mazda. Also mirroring Ormuzd's act of creation (the realization of the Amesha Spentas by ‘thought’) is Ahriman's creation of the dews, made through his ‘demonic essence'! Other texts describe this event as being to Ahriman's detriment for his act of ‘creation’ is actually an act of destruction.

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Ahriman is the very epitome (and hypostasis) of destruction, and hence he did not ‘create’ the demons, he made them real by imagining destruction, and they then became that destruction. The consequence is, that as Ahriman and the dews can only destruct, they will ultimately destroy themselves (Denkard 3). The medieval texts CE, question whether the dews exist at all. Since ‘existence’ is the domain of Ormuzd, and Ahriman and his dews are anti-existence, it followed that Ahriman and his dews could not possibly exist. One interpretation of the Denkard proposes that the dews were perceived to be non-existent physically (that is, they were considered non-ontological) but present psychologically. For a different set of texts, such as the Shayest ne shayest and the Book of Arda Wiraz, Ahriman and the dews were utterly real, and are described as being potentially catastrophic. In such less philosophical representations, the dews are hordes of devils with a range of individual powers ranging from the almost benign to the most malign. They collectively rush out at nightfall to do their worst, which includes every possible form of corruption at every possible level of human existence. Their destructiveness is evident not only in disease, pain, and grief but also in cosmic events such as falling stars and climatic events such as droughts, cyclones and earthquakes. They are sometimes described as having anthropomorphic properties such as faces and feet or are given animal-like properties such as claws and body hair. They may produce semen and may even mate with humans as in the tale of Jam and Jamag (Bundahishn 14B.1) But with the exception of the Book of Arda Wiraz, the dews are not generally described as a force to be feared. With fundamental optimism, the texts describe how the dews may be kept in check – ranging from cursing them to an active participation in life through good thoughts, words and deeds. Many of the medieval texts develop ideas already expressed in the Vendidaad (‘given against the demons’). A fire (cf. Adur) is an effective weapon against the dews and keeping a hearth fire burning is a means to protect the home. The dews are ‘particularly attracted by the organic productions of human beings, from excretion, reproduction, sex, and death.’ Prayer and other recitations of the liturgy, in particular the recitation of Yasht 1 (so Sad-dar 57), is effective in keeping the demons at bay. Demons are attracted by chatter at mealtimes and when silence is broken a demon takes the place of the angel at one's side. According to Shayest-ne-Shayest 9.8, eating at all after nightfall is not advisable since the night is the time of demons. In the 9th century CE Rivayats (65.14), the demons are described as issuing out at night to wreak mayhem, but forced back into the underworld by the divine glory (khvarenah) at sunrise. The Zoroastrianism of the medieval texts is unambiguous with respect to which force is the superior. Evil cannot create and is hence has a lower priority in the cosmic order (asha). According to Denkard 5.24.21a, the protection of the yazatas is ultimately greater than the power of the demons. The dews are agents (‘procurers–vashikano–of success’) of Ahriman (Avestan Angra Mainyu) in the contests that will continue until the end of time, at which time the fiend will become invisible and (God's) creatures will become pure. (Dadestan-i Denig 59) But until the final renovation of the world, mankind ‘stands between the yazads and the dēws; the [yazads] are immortal in essence and inseparable from their bodies (mēnōg), men are immortal in essence but separable from their bodies (moving from gētīg tomēnōg condition), but dēws are mortal in essence and inseparable from their bodies, which may be destroyed.’

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In addition to the six arch-demons that oppose the six Amesha Spentas, numerous other figures appear in scripture and tradition. According to Bundahishn XXVII.12, the six arch-demons have co-operators (hamkars), arranged in a hierarchy (not further specified) similar to that of the yazatas. The following list describes the ‘dews …created by the sins that creatures commit.’ (Bundahishn XXVII.51) • Akatash perversion (e.g., Gbd XXVII) • Anashtih strife (e.g., Chidag Andarz i Poryotkeshan 38) • Anast that utters falsehood (e.g., Gbd XXVII) • Apaush and Spenjaghra who cause drought (e.g., Gbd XXVII) • Araska vengeance (e.g., Gbd XXVII) • Ashmogh apostasy (Avestan Ashemaogha) • Az avarice and greed (e.g., Gbd XXVII) • Buht idolatry (e.g., Gbd XXVII) • Bushasp sloth (Avestan Bushyasta) (e.g., Gbd XXVII) • Diwzhat (Av. Daebaaman), the deceiver, the hypocrite • Eshm wrath (Avestan Aeshma) (e.g., Gbd XXVII) • Freptar of distraction and deception (e.g., Gbd XXVII) • Jeh the whore (Avestan Jahi) (e.g., Gbd III) • Mitokht (also Mithaokhta) scepticism and falsehood (e.g. Gbd XXVII) • Nang disgrace and dishonor (e.g., Dadestan-i Denig 53) • Nas or Nasa (Avestan Nasu) pollution and contamination (e.g., GBd XXVII) • Niyaz causes want (e.g., Gbd XXVII) • Pinih stinginess and who hoards but does not enjoy its hoard (e.g., Gbd XXVII) • Rashk (Avestan Areshko) ‘envy’ (e.g. Denkard 9.30.4) • Sij who causes destruction (e.g., Gbd XXVII) • Sitoj that denies doctrine (e.g., Dadestan-i Denig 53) • Spazg slander (e.g., Gbd XXVII) • Spuzgar, the negligent (e.g., Andarz-i Khosru-i-Kavatan) • Taromaiti scorn (e.g., Gbd XXVII) • Varun of unnatural lust (e.g., Gbd XXVII) Other entities include: • Aghash the evil eye (e.g., Gbd XXVII) • Astwihad death (Avestan Asto-widhatu or Asto-vidatu) (e.g., Gbd XXVII) • [Azi-/Az-]Dahak (Avestan Azi Dahaka), a serpent-like monster king. (e.g., J 4) • Cheshma who opposes the clouds and causes earthquakes and whirlwinds (e.g., Gbd XXVII) • Kunda, the steed that carries sorcerers (e.g., Gbd XXVII)

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• Uta who brings about sickness through food and water (e.g., Gbd XXVII) • Vizaresh that fights for the souls of the dead (e.g., Gbd XXVII) The most destructive of these are Astiwihad, the demon of death that casts the noose of mortality around men's necks at birth, and Az, who is most capable of destroying the ‘innate wisdom’ of man. Az is thus the cause of heresy and blinds the righteous man from being able to discern the truth and falsehood.

iv MAANTHRA: The Maanthra is the Holy Word or Sound that spiritually kindles the soul. Disciples were taught to listen to the divine Maanthra (Word/Sound), internally vibrating at an inner point of focus. Zarathushtra prays to the Lord to bless his disciples so that they may be able to hear this Maanthra. He explains that anyone who desires to attain the states of Perfection (Haurvataat) and Immortality (Ameretaat) can do so only through the practice of listening to the Holy Word – 'The Holy Word leadeth to Perfection and to Immortality'. (Yasna 31.6) Zarathushtra says: … when will it be realized that the path to Ahura Mazda is only through listening? Through the great Maanthra, may I be able to guide back all those who have gone astray. (Yasna 28.5) v The Bundahishn and Denkard books record that after the Kayani Dynasty, Bactria was ruled in succession by three other dynasties – the Hvafrita Dynasty, the Kudaravan Dynasty and the Median Dynasty that lasted till c.600 BCE. If it is presumed that the total period covered by these three dynasties is plus/minus one thousand years, then Zarathushtra must have been in the world between the 1800s and 1500s BCE. vi THE END OF THE ACHAEMENIAN EMPIRE (C. 550-330 BCE): The empire came to power in 550 BCE when Cyrus II defeated King Astyages of Media and took control of much of Iran and eastern Anatolia (Turkey). Cyrus the Great, as he was known, became king of Persia from 559-530 BCE. His dominance over surrounding nations upset the balance of power in the Near East. For example, under King Croesus, after the defeat of Media, the Lydians went east and clashed with Cyrus and the Persian forces. When they withdrew for the winter, the Persians advanced to Sardis, the capital of Anatolia and conquered it. This meant that King Cyrus had to confront the Babylonians and the Egyptians (who had been allies of the Lydians). The Babylonian empire ruled Mesopotamia and the eastern Mediterranean, but in 539 BCE Cyrus defeated them at Opis, east of the Tigris and became a benign conqueror restoring temples and releasing political prisoners. Egypt, however, remained unconquered in spite of Cyrus’ attacks. His son, Cambyses defeated the Egyptians only in 525 BCE when Memphis surrendered. After his son’s death, Darius I the Great, reigned from 521-486 BCE. Darius I was a good king, he stabilized the empire, built roads for communication and established a system of governors. At Persepolis he constructed royal buildings decorated with stone reliefs and carvings, which described his political power, social harmony and history. Darius ruled over many nations and consolidated Persia’s western conquests in the Aegean.

In 498 BCE, the eastern Greek, Ionian cities, partially supported by Athens, revolted. For four years Persia fought to defeat the revolt. The Greeks famously repulsed the Persians at the battle of Marathon in 490 BCE. Darius’ son, Xerxes continued the attacks on mainland Greece, but Sparta and Athens withstood him. In 480 BCE Xerxes led land and sea forces against Greece and defeated the Spartans

PG. 40 PENNY NORRIS© at the renowned battle of Thermopylae: then he sacked Athens. The Greeks retaliated and defeated the Persian navy at Salamis in 479 BCE. At this point the Babylonians revolted and Xerxes had to rush from Greece to the province in Babylonia to quell the uprising. The Persian army he left behind in Greece was defeated at the battle of Plataea in 479 BCE. Xerxes was assassinated by his one of his sons and there followed various wars and political upheavals until the empire stabilized under Darius II (423-405 BCE). After four Artaxerxes kings, Darius III took the throne (336-330 BCE) and political history and religion came to a head. Darius III faced the invading Greek armies of Alexander III the Great of Macedon, by whom he was totally defeated in 330 BCE. After Darius III was murdered by one of his generals, Alexander became ruler of the Persian Empire. During Alexander’s conquest Zoroastrian writings were lost and scattered and the remnants remaining were collected. Some were included in Greek writings through which Zarathushtra's message was absorbed into early western civilization. THIS FOOTNOTE IS RENDERED FROM AN ONLINE ARTICLE FROM THE DEPARTMENT OF ANCIENT NEAR EASTERN ART, THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART. OCTOBER 2004. vii THE VENDIDAAD: The writing of the Vendidaad probably began before the rise of the Median and Persian Empires and probably before the 8th century BCE. Currently there is controversy over the historical development of the Vendidaad. Some people see the Vendidaad as an artificial, Young Avestan text (although its language resembles Old Avestan). Others say the Vendidaad is a Magi-influenced composition. Many consider the Vendidaad a link to early oral traditions that over years were written as a book of laws for the Zoroastrian community. The Vendidaad is reputed to having been translated from the original Avestan book of liturgy into Pahlavi, during the centuries of Sassanian rule (c.100s-600s CE). These Sassanian translations and transcriptions may well be one of the earliest scripting of Zarathushtra’s teachings. The Vendidaad was translated into Pahlavi from the original Avestan book of liturgy, the Vi-daevo-daata, which means 'Laws-against-daeva', (here daeva means negative, evil spirits or gods). According to the divisions of the Avesta, as they are described in the Denkard, which is a 9th-century text, the Vendidaad includes all 19 nask (books) and is the only collection that has survived in its entirety. The Vendidaad is mainly about social laws, mores, customs and culture. It is both a book of the laws of conduct of the Zoroastrians and it is the term for a sacred ritual. "There is also a certain degree of moral relativism in the Vendidaad, and the many rules and codes of conduct are not always expressed as being mystical, universal or mandatory". ( H. M.G. SHAPERO: WIKIPEDIA/VENDIDAAD) The Vendidaad’s different sections vary greatly in character and age. Certain sections are relatively recent in origin but the subject matter of most of the book is very old. To date, many Zoroastrians still use the Vendidaad as an ethical and moral guide, viewing it as essential to Zoroastrian tradition and seeing it as part of Zoroastrianism's original perspectives about the truth of spiritual existence. The well-known scholar and artist, Hannah M.G. Shapero observed that the emergent reformist Zoroastrian movement reject Middle Persian writings of the Avesta as being corruptions of Zarathushtra's original teachings. They do not consider the Vendidaad as original writings. They argue that it was written nearly 800-700 years after the death of Zarathushtra and interpret the writing as different from the other parts of the Avesta. In an article she sums up the reformists’ perspectives: Those who follow the Gathas as their prime guide, judge the Vendidaad as deviation from the non-prescriptive, abstract teachings of the Gathas. For them, few if any of the laws or practices in the Vendidaad are either in the spirit or the letter of the Gathas. These reformists regard the Vendidaad as a

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document which is of historic or anthropological interest. Many Zoroastrians, in Iran, India, and the world Diaspora, inspired by reformists, have chosen to dispense with the Vendidaad codes and laws entirely, or only to follow those which they believe are not against the original spirit of the Gathas.

RENDERED FROM AN ARTICLE FROM FREE WIKIPEDIA, Cf., HANNAH M. G. SHAPERO viiI C. G. Jung, "Answer to Job", CW 11 #757,trans. R. F. C. Hull, Routledge. 1969

END NOTES 2 ix MANICHAEISM RESOURCES: Until the 20th century, no reliable information on Mani's biography was known. There are the accounts in Fihrist by Ibn al-Nadim, reputed to be by al-Biruni, or those which were anti-Manichaean polemics, such as the 4th century Acta Archelai. Among these medieval accounts, Ibn al-Nadim's account of Mani's life and teachings is, generally speaking, the most responsible …. In 1969 in Upper Egypt, a Greek parchment codex dating to c. 400 CE was discovered. It is now designated Codex Manichaicus Coloniensi because it is conserved at the University of Cologne. It combines a hagiographic account of Mani's career and spiritual development, with information about Mani's religious teachings, and contains fragments of his writings. RENDERED FROM GNOSIS LIBRARY, HTTP://GNOSIS.ORG/LIBRARY/MANIS.HTM

x GRAMMAR AND GENDER: It is interesting to learn that while Spenta Mainyu (the Holy Spirit of Ahura) is beyond gender, in the primal text there are three so-called feminine principles and the three so-called ‘male’ forces or principles, which were later personified as male. These however, were linguistically given neuter gender endings in the Avestan-Pahlavi language. RENDERED FROM HANNAH M. G. SHAPERO WWW.PYRACANTHA.COM/Z/ xi Through their association with plants and water, Armaiti, Ameretaat and Haurvataat are symbolically identified with the healing nourishment of food and drink (cf. the 'food' of spiritual nourishment in the Gathas) and traditionally it was out of respect for Ameretaat and Haurvataat that meals were taken in silence.

BIBLIOGRAPHY REFERENCES 1 1. Herrenschmidt & Kellens 1993, p.601. 2. Herrenschmidt & Kellens 1993, p.599. 3. Williams 1996 4. Gershevitch 1975, pp.79–80. 5. Lommel 1930, pp.88 ff. 6. Boyce 1975, p. 85. 7. Nyberg 1938, p.96.

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8. Duchesne-Guillemin 1953, pp.27–28. 9. Widengren 1954, p.15,29. 10. Dhalla 1938, p.21. 11. Herrenschmidt & Kellens 1993, pp.599–600. 12. Duchesne-Guillemin 1982, p.672 13. Kent 1937, p.297. 14. Herrenschmidt & Kellens 1993, p.600. 15. Stausberg 2002, p.324. 16. Shaked 1967, p.264. 17. Stausberg 2004, p.77 18. Stausberg 2004, p.16. 19. Stausberg 2004, p.19. 20. Omidsalar 1996.

BIBLIOGRAPHY 1

• Dhalla, Maneckji Nusservanji (1938),History of Zoroastrianism, New York: OUP. Duchesne-Guillemin, Jacques (1982), ‘Ahriman’ Encyclopaedia Iranica 1, New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul, PP.670–673. • Gnoli, Gherardo (1993), ‘Daivadana’, Encyclopaedia Iranica p.6, Costa Mesa: Mazda, pp.602–603. • Gershevitch, Ilya (1975), ‘Die Sonne das Beste’, in Hinnels, John R.,Mithraic Studies. Proceedings of the First International Congress of Mithraic Studies 1, Lantham: Manchester UP/Rowman and Littlefield, pp.68–89. • Herrenschmidt, Clarisse; Kellens, Jean (1993),‘*Daiva’, Encyclopaedia Iranica6, Costa Mesa: Mazda, pp. 599–602. • Kent, Roland G (1937), ‘The Daiva-Inscription of Xerxes’, Language 13 (4): 292–30 doi:10.2307/409334. • Lommel, Hermann (1930), Die Religion Zarathushtras nach dem Awesta dargestellt, Tübingen: JC Mohr. • Omidsalar, Mahmoud (1996),‘Dīv’, Encyclopedia Iranica 7, Costa Mesa: Mazda. • Shaked, Saul (1967), ‘Notes on Ahreman, the Evil Spirit and His Creation’, Studies in Mysticism and Religion, Jerusalem: Magnes, pp. 227–234. • Stausberg, Michael (2002), Die Religion Zarathushtras, Vol. 1, Stuttgart: Kohlhammer. • Stausberg, Michael (2004), Die Religion Zarathushtras, Vol. 3, Stuttgart: Kohlhammer.

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• Widengren, Geo (1965), Die Religionen Irans, Die Religion der Menschheit, Vol. 14, Stuttgart: Kohlhammer. • Williams, Alan V (1989), ‘The Body and the Boundaries of Zoroastrian Spirituality’ Religion 19 (3): 227–239, doi:10.1016/0048-721X (89)90022-5. • Williams, Alan V (1996), ‘Dēw’, Encyclopaedia Iranica 7, Costa Mesa: Mazda.

BIBLIOGRAPHY 2

Chatterjee, J. M. The Ethical Conceptions of the Gatha, Anand Saar Press, Navsari, 1932 Davidson, John A Treasury of Mystical Terms, Vol. l-VI, New Delhi, Science of the Soul Research Centre, RSSB. India. 1986 Dhalla, M. N. The History of Zoroastrianism, Oxford University Press, NY, London, Toronto. 1938 Greenlees, Duncan & Hastings, James, Eds. Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, Volume 1, New York, Charles Scribner's Sons. 1908 p.795. Jung, C. G. Collected Works of C. G. Jung, Volumes 1 -20, Eds Sir Herbert Reed, Michael Fordham, Gerhard Adler, Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd, London, 1966, 1976, 1983, 1993 Masih, Y. A Comparative Study of Religions. (no details available)

Mehr, Dr. Farhang The Zoroastrian Tradition. (no details available)

Kurkjian, Vahan M. A History of Armenia. Los Angeles, California: Indo-European Publishing. 2008 p.249 (ISBN 9781604440126) West, M. L. The Hymns of Zoroaster (no details available)

BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR FURTHER READING 3 cf., https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/

• Babbitt, Frank Cole (ed., trans.) (1936), Plutarch: Moralia: Volume V. Isis and Osiris, Cambridge: Harvard UP (Loeb Classical Library) p. 115. • Bartholomae, Christian (1904), Altiranisches Wörterbuch, Strassburg: Trübner (fasc., 1979, Berlin: de Gruyter) • Boyce, Mary (1970), "Zoroaster the Priest", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, 33 (1): 22–38, doi:10.1017/S0041977X00145100 • Boyce, Mary (1975), A History of Zoroastrianism, Vol. I, Leiden/Köln: Brill • Boyce, Mary (1987), "Ardwashišt", Encyclopedia Iranica, 2, New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul: 389-390 • Boyce, Mary (1989), "Ātaš", Encyclopedia Iranica, 3, New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul: 1-5 • Dhalla, Maneckji Nusservanji (1938), History of Zoroastrianism, New York: OUP

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• Duchesne-Guillemin, Jacques (1963), "Heraclitus and Iran", History of Religions, 3 (1): 34– 49, doi:10.1086/462470 • Geldner, Karl (1908), Religionsgeschichtliches Lesebuch – die Zoroastrische Religion, Tübingen: JC Mohr • Gershevitch, Ilya (1955), "Word and Spirit in Ossetic", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, 17 (3): 478–489, doi:10.1017/S0041977X0011239X • Gershevitch, Ilya (1964), "Zoroaster's Own Contribution", Journal of Near Eastern Studies, 23 (1): 12–38, doi:10.1086/371754 • Gnoli, Gerardo (1987), "Ašavan", Encyclopaedia Iranica, 2, New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul: 705-706 • Gray, Louis H. (1904), "The Origin of the Names of the Avesta Months", The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, 20 (3): 194–201, doi:10.1086/369511 • Gray, Louis H. (1926), "List of the Divine and Demonic Epithets in the Avesta", Journal of the American Oriental Society, 46: 97–153, doi:10.2307/593793, JSTOR 593793 • Gray, Louis H. (1941), "On Avesta Š = ÁRT, Ṛ́ T, ŌI = AI, and Å̄ = Ā(H)", Journal of the American Oriental Society, 61 (2): 101–104, doi:10.2307/594254, JSTOR 594254 • Kent, Roland G. (1945), "Old Persian artācā brazmaniya", Language, 21 (4): 223– 229, doi:10.2307/409690, JSTOR 409690 • Lommel, Hermann (1930), Die Religion Zarathushtras nach dem Avesta dargestellt, Tübingen: JC Mohr • Miller, Gary D. (1968), "rt-Clusters in Avestan", Language, 44 (2.1): 274– 283, doi:10.2307/411623, JSTOR 411623 • Schlerath, Bernfried (1968), Awesta Wörterbuch, Vorarbeiten II: Konkordanz, Wiesbaden: O. Harrassowitz • Schlerath, Bernfried (1987), "Aša: Avestan Aša", Encyclopaedia Iranica, 2, New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul: 694-696 • Skjærvø, Prods Oktor (1987), "Aša: Old Persian Ạrta", Encyclopaedia Iranica, 2, New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul: 696 • Williams Jackson, A. V. (1913), "The Ancient Persian Conception of Salvation according to the Avesta, or Bible of Zoroaster", The American Journal of Theology, 17 (2): 195– 205, doi:10.1086/479172 • Zaehner, Richard Charles (1961), The Dawn and Twilight of Zoroastrianism, New York: Putnam • The story of The Game of Asha, as adapted from several tales in Firdausi's Shahnameh. • Kuiper, Franciscus B. J. (1964), "The Bliss of Aša", Indo-Iranian Journal, 8 (2): 96– 129, doi:10.1007/BF00156211. • Schmidt, Hans-Peter (April 1979), "Old and new perspectives in the study of the Gathas of Zarathustra", Indo-Iranian Journal, 21 (2): 83, doi:10.1007/BF02350330.

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THE GREAT KINGS OF THE EMPIRE

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

My deepest thanks to those whose writings introduced me to the teachings of Zarathushtra, I. J. S Taraporewala, A. F. Khabardar and particularly to Dinya Dotiwala, whose scholarship© and kind spirit led me to the Gathas of Zarathushtra and to feeling their essence. I am grateful to those scholars who helped with the research into the past. Without English translations the exquisite poetry and wisdom of the Gathas could not be have been appreciated by many. I recommend too, I. J. S. Taraporewala's translation of, and commentaries on, the Gathas.

This article is a private reflection on the idea of the complexio oppositorum, as expressed in the wisdom, spirituality, war and peace of the times and in the life and teachings of Zarathushtra. All errors are my own.

This article is unpublished, but under copyright to D. Dotiwala and P. Norris Please note it is not available for copying, quotation or public distribution.

Penny Norris © 19 December 2020

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