Beatriz González Crespo

Matrikelnummer: 61800331

Music by Brueghel: Abstract, conceptual and allegorical musical iconography, and context in singing before and Proserpina, by Jan Brueghel

KMA Wissenschaftliche Arbeit

zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades

Master of Arts

des Masterstudiums Violoncello

Studienkennzahl: RA 066 718

an der

Anton Bruckner Privatuniversität

Betreut durch: Laubhold, Lars-Edvard Univ.Prof. Dr. Zweitleser: Körber, Till Alexander Ao.Univ.Prof. Mag.

Linz, 8. April 2021

ANTON BRUCKNER PRIVATUNIVERSITÄT für Musik, Schauspiel und Tanz Hagenstraße 57 I 4040 Linz, Österreich I W www.bruckneruni.at 2 INDEX

1. Index ………… 3

2. Introduction ………… 5 3. Prologue ………… 8

PART 1:

4. Biography: Life and trajectory ………… 16 5. Historical and Musical Chronology ………… 18 6. His work ………… 20

PART 2:

7. Music and allegories ………… 24 8. Brueghel & Music ………… 29 9. Clarifications for the reader ………… 30 10. Orpheus singing before Pluto and Proserpina ………… 31

11. Conclusions ………… 50

APPENDIX:

12. Full painting ………… 52 13. Bibliography ………… 53

3

4 INTRODUCTION In this work we have as a reference the painting of "Orpheus singing before Pluto and Proserpine" by Jan Brueghel and we talk about the use by the painter of abstract and/or conceptual musical iconography. As it is in the cases that are treated: - The creatures with a musical aspect/allegory that appear, and - The , a musical instrument placed and represented in a different way and with different purposes. The context of the work of art is also dealt with, in terms of the theme and also in musical terms, in this case the Greek myth of Orpheus in Hell, necessary to see the repercussions that this has on its musical content. So, as we just said, one of the reasons for this paper is to see the possible relation between figure and context; to see the influence of the allegories or objects represented (related to the music in this case) with the context or main theme that is represented (the myth). To what extent the theme influences or is taken into account, resorting to truthfulness and accuracy or if they are treated as simple complements, with a certain laxity in their representation. Brueghel is known for his detail, being an expert miniaturist, but there are many details that escape us and that sometimes are not simple to see or that need to be explained, since a work of art, not only serves as an aesthetic recreation for the public, but also possesses a meaning. What are the meanings of the formulations found in Orpheus' painting, from a musical point of view? To what extent is attention to detail offered by a painter? The painting depicts a harp, an instrument that does not directly allude to Greek myth and is anachronistic in the context of the painting. However, the visualisation of a harp instead of a brings us closer to what is known about our time and creates in the painting the capacity for empathy with the public. This work is divided into four blocks. The first one is an initial presentation and includes the prologue, where it is analysed what iconography and iconology are and what functions they have in art. Here we can find the reason for the choice of the painting of Orpheus: A way of bringing together musical inconcretions and mysteries found in art. The second block of the paper (called Part 1) deals directly with Brueghel, his life and his work. In his pictorial works one can find both rural and aristocratic influences, as he ended up working for the Archdukes Alberto and Clara Eugenia. This makes it possible to find musical instruments typical of the street public, such as

5 bagpipes or classic troubadour and court instruments, such as the lute and viola da gamba. The third block (called Part 2) focuses on the painting of Orpheus. We explain how the allegory related to music and the ear is used, that is, the ways of representing music in a painting, either obviously (a violin) or indirectly (a deer). In the analysis of our painting, the musical and/or sound elements that can be appreciated are explained one by one: A harp, a demon singing while reading a score and two characters with a trumpet-shaped snout. There are no specific published analyses of this painting, so I have turned to sources relating to symbolism, abstraction, iconography, religious art in the 15th and 16th centuries, Flemish painting, Greek philosophy and mythology, among others. Since we are talking about sound aspects in a painting, some musical suggestions directly related to the subject of the painting have been included as a complement, which help us to put ourselves even more in context. In the conclusions, we value the subjectivity of symbolism and iconography. Does it mean to us the same thing that a specific icon has meant to Brueghel? It depends on our social, political, religious context... Do we overanalyse and overinterpret the works that are placed before our eyes? This is one of the problems that iconology poses to us and which we have to take into account when analysing or enjoying a painting. That is why, for example, as in the case of the harp in this painting, we cannot be completely rigorous or extreme in our interpretations. We must also take into account, as in this work, that there may be unresolved questions, as in the case of the meaning of the demon-shaped character that appears singing. This may lead to a dead end, something I am opposed to thinking about, but it may also mean that, by asking ourselves these questions and raising them here, we fan the flames so that another line of investigation can be opened on the basis of them. These all are reasons for analysing works of art, among other things, to approach them, to see their relation with us and with the context of when they were created, and to understand what we see from the point of view of our time, thanks to the sources and methods of analysis and of understanding that have been developed and that we have today. In the last block we can find the appendices, with a complete view of Brueghel's painting.

6 PROLOGUE The written literature that compiles and analyses specifically the musical iconography through painting is extensive, although more frequent are to be found the texts about religious iconography and symbology,1 that, in this paper, concern us just in part. With ‘music iconography’ we are referring us to all possible visual representations of the music, such as: sheet music, instruments, etc.; but also allegories, abstract expressions, where an object expresses an indirect relation with music. And I would also include dance as an icon related with music and sound. The dance is also a very important part in the musical context of a scene, that helps us for a bigger comprehension of it and, in the case of Brueghel’s paintings, for an understanding of the popular folklore. The information that the iconography can give us is relevant, if not necessary, in the field of the Classical Music: for organologic research and for the historical interpretation;2 and, in a profound aspect, combining both of them: for the possible design, recreation and construction of instruments faithful to their epoch. This last point is, of course, relative, because we have to keep in mind the possibility of inaccuracy by the painter depending on his own knowledge or on the quality of the help that he could have had, such as: close look to instruments, transcriptions of notes or sheet music made by an amateur or a professional musician, etc.; or even the possible minimal intention of realism that he wanted to express intentionally. But there is a deeper understanding of the objects and scenes that we see. Although the ‘iconography’ has taken almost all prominence in the theoretic analysis of pictorial works, there is another term that we should introduce: the iconology. While the iconography describes the object directly in their physical and visual aspects, what is obvious to our sight, the iconology, sometimes essential in the description and analysis of paintings, looks for the references and the meanings of that object for being where it is. Like we expressed with the allegories, an object can have a reference or a symbology to something that it is not directly related with. In simpler words, iconography is the classification: It could be a “What” and a “How”; iconology is the interpretation: a “Why” and a “What for”.3

1 See Bibliography, page 63. / Kopp-Schmidt, Gabriele: Ikonographie und Ikonologie. Eine Einführung. Deubner Verlag für Kunst, Theorie & Praxis, Köln, 2004, pp. 10-11, 13-14. 2 Ausoni, Alberto, Music in Art: A guide to Imaginery (for the German translation: Die Musik Symbolik und Allegorien, 2006), Paul Getty Museum, Santa Monica CA - United States, 2005. p. 6. 3 Kopp-Schmidt 2004, pp. 59-60. 7 Iconology could be an aspect within the iconography, but, with the separations of the terms, we are also separating the subjectivity that the iconology could show,4 because this aspect can be a personal opinion, based or not in research or experience or comparison,5 or even in oral tradition and culture,6 and the same object can have different meanings in its iconology, depending on the context where we find it; getting, in this way, many differentiated theories and presumptions. It is another subjective aspect when we don’t have a title or a description by the own painter. Before the studies of the iconology, the theories of the symbolism exist for a long time with different thinkers like Georg Hegel7 and Ernst Cassirer.8 The discipline of the iconology was founded by Aby Warburg9, based on Florentine Art.10 His idea was to get closer to the mentality of the men who produced the paintings. Later, Erwin Panofsky,11 as disciple of Warburg, establishes the ideas of the discipline in a more precise way, creating a method for the description of a picture. These two authors were studying whether art was a manifestation of their time or genius talent, and Warburg will investigate the psychological role of symbolism.12 He showed a special insistence on understanding the idea of art and the artist's mind, which is the one that must use its creativity to modify and adorn the static human passions that run through the history of civilization,13 and took the areas around society (such as science, language, etc.) as conditions for a cultural exchange between people and also periods. In these moments of the second decade of the 20th Century, many scholars’ fields were focus in answering how the human perceives, interacts and reacts before and in society,14 and there was already a study of the empathy from a

4 Panofsky, Erwin: Ikonographie und Ikonologie. Bildinterpretation nach dem Dreistufenmodell. DuMont, Köln, 2006, p. 56. 5 Panofsky 2006, pp. 34, 43-44. 6 Panofsky 2006, pp. 48-49. 7 Hegel, G.W.F. (1770-1831): German philosopher, studies the philosophy of Art and aesthetics. 8 Cassirer, Ernst (1874-1945): German philosopher, studies the relation of men with symbolism. 9 Warburg, Aby Moritz (1866-1929): German historian. 10 Kopp-Schmidt 2004, p. 48. 11 Panofsky, Erwin (1892-1968): German art-historian. 12 Levine, Emily J., “A Hamburg Friendship. Erwin Panofsky’s obituary on Aby Warburg”, Key Documents of German-Jewish History, 2017. https://dx.doi.org/10.23691/jgo:article-25.en.v1 (January 2021). 13 Panofsky, Erwin, “Obituary for Aby Warburg in the Hamburger Fremdenblatt, October 28, 1929” (translated by Insa Kummer), Key Documents of German-Jewish History, https://dx.doi.org/10.23691/jgo:source-24.en.v1 (January 2021). 14 Stauer, Martina, Panofsky - Warburg - Cassirer. From Iconology to Image Science. 2020. Page 159. Online version: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/344594364_Panofsky_-_Warburg_- _Cassirer_From_Iconology_to_Image_Science (01.2021). 8 scientific point of view.15 As Warburg and Cassirer explained, the world is based on feelings.16 Panofsky uses this idea in art, considering the work as a symbolical expression of the artist’s aesthetical and philosophical attitude to life,17 and that is why the work will require an analysis afterwards.18 He redefines the ideas and takes the name of “iconology” from Cesare Ripa (1593) and Warburg to analyse the contents and meanings of a work of art, that “world of symbolic values” of Cassirer, to be able to see a light in the intricate making of a painting and understand the artist’s brain.19 Works of art become intellectual elaborations and are no longer mere forms. In Panofsky's own words, the work of art is a product of the mind which, culturally crystallised, gave rise to form.20 The idea of the analysis is to differentiate the proper item or object from its expression.21 He distinguishes between three different analysis within a work, that we explain here with some examples: 1) Pre-iconographic description:22 It is based on the natural perception capacity of the observer. Identify what is observed and list the objects represented. Example 1: Man raising his hat: Identification of the form of the hat as a hat, within the natural meaning of the hat. Example 2: The Birth of Venus:23 Description of what we see: de lo que aparece: nude figures, seascape, etc. 2) Iconographic analysis, for the identification of the objects, images and allegories, in a descriptive non interpretative way. Analysis of the thematic content related to the objects represented; Example 1: Man raising his hat: Covering the head customarily as a courtesy’s gesture in this time. Example 2: The Birth of Venus: Influential themes, in this case is based on classic sources that are the inspiration for the figures like the spring and the winds.

15 Losiggio, Daniela, “Aby Warburg y el pathos superviviente. De la psicología a la memoria social”. Aisthesis, ( 6 7 ) , 1 0 3 - 1 2 1 , 2 0 2 0 . p . 1 0 5 . O n l i n e v e r s i o n : https://scielo.conicyt.cl/scielo.php? script=sci_arttext&pid=S0718-71812020000100103&lng=es&tlng=es (01.2021). 16 Stauer, 2020, p. 160. 17 Stauer, 2020, p. 161. 18 Stauer, 2020, p. 162. 19 Aa.Vv., “Erwin Panofsky”, in: 6- Esthetique et science de l’art, Trivium Revue franco-allemande de sciences humaines et sociales, 2010, http://journals.openedition.org/trivium/3672 (01.2021). 20 Rodríguez López, María Isabel, Introducción general a los estudios iconográficos y a su metodología. Universidad Complitense de Madrid, 2005, page 4-5. Online version: https://www.ucm.es/data/cont/docs/ 1888-2019-12-01-INTRODUCCION_GENERAL_A_LOS_ESTUDIOS_ICON.pdf 21 Stauer, 2020, p. 162. 22 Panofsky 2006, 34-40. Kopp-Schmidt 2004, pp. 52-60. 23 Rodríguez López, 2005, p. 7-8. 9 3) Iconologic analysis, with the intention of decipher the internal meaning. Explanation of the meaning and ideas behind the representation of the objects. Example 1: Man raising his hat: The hat and action can be seen as a convention of an upper-class man who lifted it for courtesy to greet others. Example 2: The Birth of Venus: Ideas detrás de esa representación: The possibility of comparison with Christian baptism, for instance. While the iconologic ideas come from outside the artwork, the iconography is much more graphic, staying literally and visually inside the artwork. In any case, there is always the possibility of not finding a clear meaning of every object or scene in a painting,24 or, on the contrary, overinterpretating more than what is possible to;25 so it remains interesting to know or look for the level of importance that they actually have in the picture, in order to describe it or not.26 As with any other work of art, this analysis helps us to better understand both the visual part and the background of the painting we are going to study in this work. Since we cannot have a direct commentary or interpretation dictated by the author of the work himself, we must rely on the investigation of all its elements to be able to draw up a detailed statement about it and thus understand more about the context and circumstances of its realization, and approach the author both professionally and personally. To this effect, the studies on iconography and symbolism of the authors cited above, plus many others that will be commented on during the work, help us to approach this end in the pictorial work that we unravel in this paper. In particular, it has to be mentioned Panofsky's organization and structure with its three levels of analysis as a basis. Warburg and Panofsky's methods are an essential element in being able to approach a work in a friendly way, constructing an analysis from the most evident to the most subjective. In this regard, even the iconological aspect is important in this painting, since we are talking purely about symbolism and we are also in a mythological piece, where we need external references and allusions, which could even be related to conventions of the time, or not. But the meaning of the work is what we will address later in its own chapter.

24 Kopp-Schmidt 2004, pp. 9-10. 25 Möseneder, Karl: Kulturgeschichte und Kulturwissenschaft, from Kulturbegriff und Methode: der stille Paradigmenwechsel in den Geisteswissentschaften. Gunter Narr Verlag, 1993, p. 78. 26 Panofsky 2006, pp. 48-49. 10 WHY THIS WORK This research paper encompasses only an approach to the subject of the musical iconography in Brueghel. In the more than 300 known works by Jan Brueghel, I could find, until now, 23 autographic pieces that include music iconography. Here I am not counting the attributions and some collaborative works, that could enlarge the number to more than 40 (and the total for the author to more than 500).27 This is a very big amount of pieces to work with and that it would increase in an excessive way the number of pages of this paper; that is why I selected only one, from one of the main subjects that Jan Brueghel uses in his paintings: Mythology. As I could have chosen a more famous painting from the author, I rather occupy my research on something more abstract that we could no notice at first. If we could talk about symbology from items that we already know when we see them, such as instruments, as a very simple example, here I will talk about symbology of symbols from creatures or items that are not what they would look like at first. But could we say that these images are abstract? Abstraction is an area that is treated as a proper style already in the 20th Century, with the idea of removing what is not necessary,28 but that doesn’t mean that we can not find proper abstraction before that time. The attempt of creating something that is strange to our realistic perception comes from a very long time ago, especially if we relate it to religion. And talking of Brueghel and talking of the 16th Century means also talking of religion,29 because of the big influence that this has upon this artist. But of course we are not talking here about the abstraction as it is explained in the 20th Century, rejecting the figure, but of the literally abstraction of an already figurative art: what we know and see, creating new things that do not exist per se in nature.30 And if the abstraction is the seen representation, the idea and meaning of it could be named as conceptual, although “conceptual art” is also used as a term for modern art, by eliminating the subjectivity of the artwork.31 But, as we see, “concept”

27 For an approach to the Paintings Catalogue, see: Brueghel Family: ." The Brueghel Family Database. University of California, Berkeley. https://www.janbrueghel.net/ 28 Zimmer, Robert: Abstraction in art with implications for perception. Philosophical Transactions, The Royal Society - Biological Sciences (358), 2003, p. 1286. 29 Kolb, Arianne Faber: Jan Brueghel the Elder: The Entry of the Animals into Noah’s Ark. Getty Museum Studies on Art, Los Angeles, 2005, pp. 44-45. 30 Gortais, Bernard: Abstraction in Art. Philosophical Transactions, The Royal Society - Biological Sciences (358), 2003, p. 1243. 31 Alberro, Alexander [Alexander Alberro and Blake Stimson, Editors], “Reconsidering Conceptual Art”, in: Conceptual Art: A Critical Anthology, 1999, The MIT [Massachusetts Institute of Technology] Press, Cambridge - Massachusetts, pp. XVI-XXXVII, p. XX. 11 is only the modern way of talking about an idea, an allegory, and therefor, symbolism. “Allegory” is a form of abstraction of ideas whose term is used in any era and pictorial period,32 that is why we have focused more on it.33 Religion and mythology, if they can be differentiated, are two areas that permit very well the exemplification of conceptuality, abstraction, symbology and allegory, since, from the described stories, moral ideas and concepts are created,34 that will be expressed through more stories orally, acts, or art such as painting, and that is why creativity means an important aspect for the (re)creation of faith. Further on, an introduction of allegories is made, what they are and how are treated in painting, in the subject that concerns us: music. Anyways, the allegories on this matter are very visible and evident when it is the portrait of musical instruments. However, here we are going to analise the allegory related sometimes with a very abstract context. There are many symbols (or abstractions in the figures) that can escape our sight and that also allegorise our suggested theme. In this paper we present one of the most conceptual paintings of Jan Brueghel I in that sense.

32 Crisp, Peter, “Allegory and Symbol - A fundamental opposition?”, Language and Literature, vol. 14, pp. 323-338, SAGE Publishing, 2005, pp. 323-324. 33 See “Introduction: Music and allegories”, p. 29. 34 Landow, George P.: The Aesthetic and Critical Theories of John Ruskin. Princeton Legacy Library, Princeton University Press, 1971, pp. 319-321. 12 PART 1

13 BIOGRAPHY: Life and trajectory

Family Tree35

Born in Brussels in 1568, son of Pieter Brueghel the Elder. Father, in turn, of Jan Brueghel II, the Younger (1601-1678) and Ambrosius Brueghel (1617-75), who collaborated with him. He was grandson of and his wife the famous painter-miniaturist Mayken Verhulst Bessemers.36 He is dubbed “the Elder” in order to be distinguished from his son, and also named as Velvet (“de Velours”), Flower or Paradise Brueghel, because of his pictorial technique and the themes of his works.37 After the death of their parents, Brueghel, his brother Pieter the Young and his sister Marie, went to live with their grandmother Mayken Verhulst. Then, the family moved to Antwerp after 1578. Verhulst took care of the Art education for Brueghel and his brother.38 After this, he studied at the workshop of Pieter Goetkint and with .39 It is clear that his father’s style influenced his way of painting, but not only by copying it, as it can be seen by his brother Pieter. To make progress in his learning, appreciating the works of Italian painters like Michelangelo, Rafaello and da Vinci, Brueghel moved to Italy, where he stayed from

35 Based on Nancy Durrant’s article Bruegel and Sons: The family who changed art. The Times, 2017. 36 Welzel, Barbara, “Wettstreit zwishcen Kunst und Natur. Die Blumenstilleben von Jan Brueghel d.Ä. als Triumph des Bildes”, Zeitschrift für Kunstgeschichte, 2002, 65, pp. 325-342, Deutscher Kunstverlag GmbH, p. 325. 37 Royo-Villanova, Mercedes, Jan Brueghel el Viejo. Museo del Prado. https://www.museodelprado.es/aprende/ enciclopedia/voz/brueghel-el-viejo-jan/aec98c0f-9a14-4519-9f33-f4d85774f5b9 38 Karel van Mander: Het schilder-boeck, Haerlem, 1604, p. 234r. 39 Gillis van Coninxloo (1544-1607). It is considered the founder of a new approach to forests’ landscapes’ painting, not focusing the picture on persons. Boutsen, Elise, “The Connoisseurs’ Tribune A new attribution to Gillis van Coninxloo II 1544–1606/07”, The Rubenianum Quarterly, 2018 - no. 1, p. 1, Antwerpen, 2018, p. 3. 14 1589 to 1596. In Naples Francesco Caracciolo was his protector. After, in Rome (1592 to 1594), he worked for different cardinals, as Borromeo,40 following him to Milano.41 In the summer of 1596 Brueghel went back to Flanders and lived in Antwerp, establishing an important workshop where artists like Rubens or Sebastian Vranx participated, collaborating in series as The Five Senses or Attack on a Convoy. Later, in 1601, he was chairman of the Guild of Saint Luke42. The rest of his life would be in Antwerp, with small trips to Prague (1604) and to the Netherlands. In 160943 became Court’s painter after starting working in 160644 for the Archdukes Albert and Isabel Clara Eugenia.45 Jan Brueghel died of cholera in Antwerp, on the 13th of January of 1625.46

40 Carlo Borromeo (1538-1584). Archbishop of Milan. Van de Velde, Hildegard, Jan Brueghel the Elder: A Magnificent Draughtsman, guide of the exhibition, 2019, Snijders & Rockox Huis, Antwerp, p. 10. 41 Matías Díaz Padrón, Mercedes Royo-Villanova: David Teniers, Jan Brueghel y los gabinetes de pinturas. Museo del Prado, Madrid, 1992, p. 257. 42 Sint-Lucasgilde: Antwerp was the first city in creating an own organization for painters. It is already mentioned in 1382. 43 Díaz Padrón, 1992, p. 257. 44 Kolb 2005, p. 1. 45 Albert VII: son of the Emperor Maximilian II (Habsburg) and María of Spain. Isabel Clara Eugenia: daughter of Felipe II of Spain. 46 Woollett , Anne: Rubens & Brueghel: A working friendship. Getty Publications, Los Angeles, 2006, p. 17. 15 Historical and Musical Chronology

YEAR HISTORY BRUEGHEL’s LIFE

1543 TIelman Susato starts the business of publishing music in Antwerp

1551 Tielman Susato: Het derde musyck boexken: alderhande danserye

1556 Felipe II of Spain succeeded to the throne

1567-1573 Persecution of the Protestantism in the Netherlands by Felipe II of Spain.

1568 Jan Brueghel borns

1568 - 1578 Brueghel in Brussels

1569 Pierter Bruegel I dies (Brussels)

1571 Michael Praetorius borns

1577 Rubens borns

1578 - 1589 Brueghel in Antwerp

1579-1581 North Netherland breaks from Spain and set up the Dutch Republic

1585 Brussels becomes capital of the Spanish Netherlands

1589 - 1596 Brueghel in Italy (Naples, Rome and Milan)

1591 - 1613 John Bull becomes organist of the Chapel Royal (England). Rubens would have heard him played.

1592-1594 Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck: Chansons (three volumes)

1596 Archduke Alberto starts governing the Spanish Netherlands

1596 - 1625 Brueghel in Antwerp

1597 Giovanni Gabrieli: Sacrae Symphoniae

1598 Felipe II of Spain dies. Felipe III succeeded to the throne. For the ceremony of the death of Felipe II is written and sung Versa est in luctum, of Alonso Lobo (1555-1617).

1598 John Downland: becomes court lutenist to the King of Denmark. He travelled and his music got famous not only in England, but also in the continent. He writes dances as instrumental pieces, not made for dancing.

1598 Jacopo Peri: La Dafne [libretto: Ottavio Rinuccini] Seen as the first opera.

16 YEAR HISTORY BRUEGHEL’s LIFE

1599/1600 Mayken Verhulst dies (Mechelen, Antwerp)

1599 Susanne van Soldt: Manuscript of Susanne van Soldt

1600 Jacopo Peri: L’Euridice [libretto: Ottavio Rinuccini Guilio Caccini: Euridice

1600 - 1608 Rubens in Mantua

1604 Trip to Prague

1605 Gibbons becomes senior organist of the Chapel Royal

1607 Monteverdi: Premiere L’Orfeo [libretto by Striggio]

1608 Rubens comes back to Antwerp

1609 Twelve Years’ Truce signed

c. 1612 Parthenia is published. First printed collection of keyboard music in England. Pieces by Byrd, Bull and Gibbons.

1625 Jan Brueghel dies

17 His work Jan Brueghel achieved to transmit the spirit of Flanders through his works. His first paintings in Italy had as principal themes landscapes and historical paintings, including biblical narrations and scenes of the mythology and ancient History;47 wooded scenes in particular, showing the influence of his master van Coninxloo.48 Later developed to pure landscape painting or urban views, and to still life at the end of his career. He possesses meticulous drawing49 and clear colouring that can be appreciated in landscapes and flower vases, prolific subjects that gave him reputation when he came back to Antwerp,50 where he owned a study. It had so much success, that many imitated his style and this makes difficult to identify the works. Brueghel, at his beginnings, follows the tradition of the 16th Century, influenced by big landscapes’ painters like Joachim Patinir51, Henri de Bles52 and Cornelius van Dalem53, and his own father .54 Copying his father’s work was one of the ways for his sons Pieter and Jan of learning technics and style: They were still really young when he died and, also, afterwards, they even didn’t have access to the most of the original paintings, but to sketches.55 Pieter the Younger dedicated a big part of his life to these copies, while Jan started a new own path, going from daily-life scenes to allegories and landscapes.56 During the firsts years of the 17th Century, his innovative spirit is visible, and this kind of scenes, panoramic, mountainous and with dense forests, develop into less picturesque and more realistic, more plain, less imaginary and distant, where in the composition predominate the horizontal lines. In the first decade of the century fundamental changes are perceptible and he gets a varied repertoire that it will inspire him until his last years. He practised different painting styles, but he his

47 Kolb, 2005, p. 5. 48 Gillis van Coninxloo, Paul Getty Museum: http://www.getty.edu/art/collection/artists/874/gillis-van-coninxloo- flemish-1544-1607/ 49 Kolb, 2005, pp. 7-8. 50 Woollett, 2006, p. 2. 51 Joachim Patinir (1480 - 1524). Flemish painter of landscapes and religious themes. He is considered the precursos of landscape painting as independent genre. 52 Henri met de Bles (1500/10 – 1555/60). Flemish painter of landscapes. His style is Renaissance’s and he is one of the contributors to Mannerism. 53 Cornelis van Dalem (1530/35 – 1573/76). Flemish painter. 54 Royo-Villanova. 55 Bruegel’s Legacy. From the collaboration of the Royal Museums of Fine Arts of Belgium with Google Arts&Culture. https://artsandculture.google.com/exhibit/bruegel-s-legacy-royal-museums-of-fine-arts-of-belgium/ rwJynXInsx0LIg?hl=en 56 Genocchio, Benjamin, Brueghels so beloved they were painted two times. Art review. The New York Times, 2007; https://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/23/nyregion/nyregionspecial2/23artsli.html 18 famous for his beautiful landscapes and still lifes: with fruits, garlands and flower vases. He was one of the creators of the genre Cabinet painting57 and he touched religious, mythological, allegorical and costumbrist themes. A big amount of paintings are collaborations with other artists,58 as Rubens, de Clerk,59 Francken the Young,60 Brill,61 van Balen,62 and Vrancx.63 In some occasions, Brueghel painted the landscapes and his collaborators the figures, as it happens in Abundance and the Four Elements (around 1606) with the allegorical figures made by Hendrick de Clerk. It is remarkable the friendship with Rubens, that it was close and their collaboration fruitful.64 An example of the open collaboration of Brueghel with other painters was due to the visit of the archdukes to Antwerp,65 when it was decided to give them a sample of the best painters of the city. Brueghel was chosen as conductor of the project, which result was two big canvas with the theme of the Senses’ allegory. Twelve artists collaborated. In one canvas the Sight and the Smell66 were represented, and in the other one the Taste, the Hearing and the Touch. The originals were lost in the fire of the Coudenberg Palace of Brussels in 1731.67 These paintings are related to the series of The Five Senses of 1618, painted with Rubens. He reached a big professional and social success in life and had a followers pleiad during the 17th and 18th Centuries,68 but no other achieved the perfection of his technique.

57 This genre appears specially during the 17th Century in the southern Netherlands, to represent private collections of paintings. The scene is basically a room with the walls full of paintings. 58 Woollett, 2006, pp. 3-4. 59 Hendrick de Clerk (1570/27-1630): Brussels. Esthetically he corresponds into Mannerism. 60 Frans Francken the Younger (1581-1642): Flemish baroque painter from an artists’ family. 61 Paul Brill (1554–1626). Flemish painter. Landscapist and mixer of styles, from mannerism to classic landscape. 62 Hendrik van Balen (Antwerp 1575-Antwerp 1632): Flemish Baroque painter. With Brueghel: The four elements (around 1625-32). (Wikipedia, Steve Art Gallery) 63 Sebastian Vranckx (1573 - 1647). Flemish baroque painter, specialised in the representation of battles. 64 as in Vertumnus and Pomona (source: Woollett, 2006, Note 2), The garden of Eden with the Fall of man (1617) 65 Woollett, 2006, p. 5. 66 See next page. 67 Woollett, 2006, p. 94. 68 We can find many copies of his works and his style. 19

Sight and Smell (circa 1620)

20 PART 2

21 INTRODUCTION: Music and allegories Apart from the implicit musical iconography that it can be found in Art through History, there is a big amount of non figurative themes during the 17th Century that, indirectly, bring us to music. This is the case of the allegory. The allegory is the interpretation of an abstract idea, with attributes, symbols and figures; a tale explained by elements, masked expressions and messages, personifying the untouchable, to create an extended and large metaphor.69 That is why Allegory comes frequently by the hand of mythology and religion, as we can see in Brueghel’s paintings. The meaning of the symbolism of some elements can escape our understanding because it changes through time, and it requires study and references.70 In our case, the most appealing concept for representing musical iconography (besides the direct interpretation of the allegory of music itself) is the sense of the hearing.71 The picturing of the Hearing comes as individual works and

Detail from The peasant dance (c.1569). Bruegel the Elder also in series of several paintings. As we have named the hearing, the series where we can find it are normally dedicated to the human senses, like the taste, the touch, etc.

69 Crisp, 2005, p. 327. 70 Reid, Louis Arnaud: Symbolism in Art, The British Journal of Aesthetics, Volume 1, Issue 3, 1961, p. 109 71 Leppert, Richard D.: Concert in a house: Musical Iconography and Musical Thought. From Early Music, vol. 7 Oxford University Press, 1979, p. 3. 22 Detail from Summer or the five senses (1633), Stoskoppf

The theme of the senses was used by many authors to offer a symbolic and moralizing representation of the fugacity of human life and the inconsistency of pleasure, all inside the genre of the vanitas,72 and also a way for the Church to represent sins.73 This kind of painting answers clearly to the ascetic spirit of the baroque mentality, and it can be found specially in the Netherlands.74 Not away from this subject, one of the important series of Brueghel, that can be nowadays found in the Museo del Prado in Madrid, is referred to the

Detail from Allegory of hearing (1650). Hecke

72 Kitisakon, Kitsirin, The Five Senses in Genre Painting of the Dutch , Journal of Urban Culture and Research, vol. 16, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, 2018, p. 130. 73 Nordenfalk, Carl: The Five Senses in Late Medieval and Renaissance Art. Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, vol. 48, 1985, p. 3-4 74 Sánchez Luque, María: La vanitas en Los cinco sentidos de Brueghel: Olfato y Tacto. Revista de Filología Románica, Anejo V, 2007, p. 296. 23 senses, where we can watch a piece dedicated to the sense of hearing, with numerous musical objects.75 He is not the only painter that represents this sense in his works, and we will illustrate here some examples in paintings during the 17th Century. For the sense of hearing, different emitting objects can be seen: fountains, birds, firearms, or sound receivers, as animals with the fame of a good hearing, like dogs and deers.76 Although the most common resource is music: musical instruments and sheet music, creation of men.

Detail from The five senses and the four elements (1627), Jacques Linard

Sometimes appearing alone positioned elements, or participant in a scene, with the direct action of producing sound, as in performances, dance and singing.

75 Los Cinco Sentidos. Museo del Prado: https://www.museodelprado.es/en/aprende/enciclopedia/voz/cinco- sentidos-los-brueghel-el-viejo/c5488af2-c67a-4bbd-a6ba-29440c3213d9 76 Pliego de Andrés, Víctor: Música y retórica en La Alegoría del Oído, CSIC, Archivo Español de Arte, number 279 (Vol.70), 1997, pp. 320, 325. 24

Detail from Allegory of the five senses (1632), Theodoor Rombouts

Detail from Allegory of the five senses (1640) Simon de Vos

As last example, his own son, Jan the Younger, has a piece called the Allegory of Music, from 1645. Although it could seem that that brings us to another style and context in Art, his work is close to his father’s, copying the most of the elements of the painting.

25 Allegory of Music (1645). Jan Brueghel II the Younger

Allegory of music (year unknown). Jan Brueghel I the Elder

26 BRUEGHEL AND MUSIC The music iconography through the pictorial life of Jan Brueghel has an interesting importance, and that is that the evolution of the musical objects through his work goes directly connected to the evolution of his artistic style and the context of music History. In this way, we can observe the rural atmosphere of his first period reflected in the musical scenes.77 Popular dances and bagpipes are the common additive, so habitual, before, in the works of his father. From the first decade of the 17th Century, we can appreciate the introduction of more representative instruments of the baroque epoch, such as lutes, violas da gamba and instruments from the family of the violin.78 We can imagine that not only the evolution in the music scene affected Brueghel’s pieces, but also the start of living much more often around the aristocratic ambient. The Brueghel’s were not peasants themselves,79 but catholic city residents80 who often have communication with merchants.81 In any case, now, frequenting the Archdukes’ palace and events, Jan Brueghel would be directly in contact with the last trends in art and culture, and may heard some of the court music present in this time. In the matter of the mythological paintings by Brueghel, we are going to find them during his whole pictorial life, and in them are going to predominate wind and percussion instruments, more related with ancient times and outdoors activities.

77 See, for example: The Wedding Dance (1600) and A Flemish Fair (1600). 78 Allegory of Hearing (1617), The Archdukes Albert and Isabella visiting a Collector’s cabinet (1621), among others. 79 Kolb 2005, p. 1. 80 He was admired by catholic figures and also was given a Catholic Funeral. Edwards, Jamie Lee, Still looking for Pieter Bruegel the Elder, Thesis, School of Languages, Cultures, Art History and Music, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston - Birmingham, 2013, pp. 8-9. 81 Edwards, 2013, pp. 22, 29. 27 CLARIFICATIONS for the reader The painting here included, has a confirmed authorship. Nevertheless, there is a large amount of works that were originated in Jan Brueghel’s Workshop and it is unknown if he took direct part on them. Being the director of the workshop, the paintings from it would have been under his sight, review and responsibility. In our case, Orpheus’ painting has three different versions, but we will see about them later, in the analysis of the painting. In this paper, we are going to talk about the work and to expose the details of the musical objects, adding the possible musical context. For the painting, musical suggestions have been also chosen. As this paper is about abstraction, with the try of giving some explanations to what, for us, is, at first, unknown or imprecise, I wanted to add some reality and colour directed related to music itself. The provided examples are an approximation to the music of this Epoch, and it has to be kept in mind that the musics could be performed with a great variety of instrumentation (specially if, in the terms of music iconography in Brueghel, we were talking about his paintings with a popular music theme, because we already know that in the folkloric context the instrumentation is not so precise and we use the instruments that we have on hand). So, the recordings that we can find in this paper are also a reference and sometimes they don’t respond with complete accuracy to the instrumentation shown in Brueghel’s paintings. Here it depends on the context of the painting and not on the literal precision. In the same way, it is not about the historical accuracy of the context of the painting -something of difficult interpretation in the mythological works, but the display of the performed music in the period of the 16th and 17th Centuries, that have references to these subjects and that, therefore, was in the head and the atmosphere of the artists and of the public of this time. For this reason, it is sometimes not possible to choose a piece of music that shares painting’s year and painting’s context/subject. As an example, the mythological themes like our Orpheus’, don’t have in this moment significant musical repercussion. It will be some years later, when the opera will strike deeply on that.

28 02. Orpheus Singing before Pluto and Proserpina 1594 Oil on copper, 27x36 cm. Florence, Palazzo Pitti, Galleria Palatina, inv. 1298

This painting shows a moment from the Orpheus’ Myth: Orpheus has come to Hell, to, through his music, convince Pluto to let his love Eurydice, who died by the bite of a serpent, leave this place. Orpheus plays his lyre, moving him and Proserpina, who is also in the scene. The ends of this story depends on the source, and that is why we can find different pictorial representations of it. There is another painting, a bit later in time, with forty years of difference, by his friend Rubens, where we find ourselves in the same context. It is Orpheus and Eurydice, from 1636-1638, where he recreates the moment when, in front of the eyes of Pluto and Proserpina, Orpheus obtains again the company of her beloved Eurydice.82 The painting that concerns us, have two other known copies: one in Rome and one in America.83 These both have brighter colours and, despite the second one because of the small dimensions of the photograph by the source, we can pay attention to some specific details. In any case, there are also some differences in relation to ours.84 Although this painting is currently in Florence and, although the biographical notes say that Brueghel has been in Milan since 1595, I found a Brueghel’s drawing of Rome in “circa 1595 shortly before he travelled to Milan with Borromeo”.85 That makes Orpheus’ piece closer to being painted in Rome. The mythological theme was recurring during this period and another painting, “Aeneas and Sibyl” is known to be in Rome in 1594, when it was painted.86 Also, from another source, it is said that this particular Orpheus singing could have probably been owned by the Cardinal Francesco Maria del Monte,87 who was in Rome, and, as he lived near Cardinal Borromeo, and

82 See Peter Rubens: Orpheus and Eurydice, Room 079, Museo del Prado (Madrid). 83 In the Jan Brueghel online Gallery (https://www.janbrueghel.net/object/orpheus-sings-for-pluto-and-proserpina- london) we can find that this painting was sold by Christies in 1988 to the Van Haeften Gallery, but the own Johnny van Heften informed me that they sold the painting to a private collection in America (I am guessing he is referring to the USA) 13 years ago. And on his own words: “There was no specific scientific analysis done on the painting at the time other than straight forward cleaning and reframing.” 84 Rome: This is a good copy, very careful in details, but also the author or authors made some modifications, adding more beasts or changing the disposition of the clothes of Proserpina. Also the technique is clearly a bit different, specially if we take a closer look to the humans’ faces. This painting is not sign. America: This copy, that has as principal reference the work from Florence, has also some changes from the copy of Florence, as the clothes of Proserpina. This work is sign with what it looks the name of Brueghel. In any case, the general technique of the is not so refined and it is not possible to take a proper look to it. That is why I wouldn’t say this is an original from him until I could properly observe and study it closer. 85 van de Velde, 2019, p. 10. 86 https://www.janbrueghel.net/object/aeneas-and-sibyl-in-the-underworld-rome 87 https://www.janbrueghel.net/object/orpheus-sings-for-pluto-and-proserpina 29 Brueghel got invited to his residence, it is possible that Borromeo presented some paintings to María del Monte.88

The character of Orpheus appears in ancient Greek Art and Literature at least in the first half of the 4th Century b.C., although it is very possible it would have appeared before.89 We can find his myth mentioned by the tragedy writer Aeschylus90 and Euripides,91 in order to emphasise the powers of Orpheus and, also, of the love. Here we can read the scene taken from one of the most important references for this myth, the Book X from the Ovid’s Metamorphoses:

While he sang all his heart said to the sound of his sweet lyre, the bloodless ghosts themselves were weeping, and the anxious Tantalus stopped clutching at return-flow of the wave, Ixion's twisting wheel stood wonder-bound; and Tityus' liver for a while escaped the vultures, and the listening Belides forgot their sieve-like bowls and even you, O Sisyphus! sat idly on your rock! Then Fame declared that conquered by the song of Orpheus, for the first and only time the hard cheeks of the fierce Eumenides were wet with tears: nor could the royal queen, nor he who rules the lower world deny the prayer of Orpheus; so they called to them Eurydice, who still was held among the new-arriving shades, and she obeyed the call by walking to them with slow steps, yet halting from her wound. So Orpheus then received his wife; and Pluto told him he

88 Göttler, Christine, “Fire, smoke and vapour. Jan Brueghel’s ‘Poetic Hells’: ‘Ghespoock’ in the early modern European Art”, Spirits Unseen: The Representation of Subtle Bodies in Early Modern European Culture, 2008. BRILL, Universität Münster, Münster, p. 41. Online version: https://www.uni-muenster.de/imperia/md/content/ mittellatein/forschung/intersections/09christine_g__ttler_-_fire__smoke_and_vapour.pdf 89 González Delgado, Ramiro: El Mito de Orfeo y Eurídice en la Literatura Grecolatina hasta la Época Medieval. Universidad de Oviedo, 2001, p. 46. 90 Aeschylus: Agamemnon, from the trilogy Oresteia. 91 Euripides: Alcestis. 30 might now ascend from these Avernian vales up to the light, with his Eurydice; but, if he turned his eyes to look at her, the gift of her delivery would be lost.92

In Brueghel’s painting we can find almost all characters from the literary passage93 and also more, contemplating the extraordinary fact of a musical scene in the . The eloquence of Orpheus and his music defeat the beasts94 as well as the death.95 Aeschylus says that his talent can appease men and change their character.96 The possible noise of the hells,97 according to Ovid, stops, and so in this scene only the far yelling could be heard, from those who couldn’t hear Orpheus’ music or from those who keep being tortured; the weeping of Eumenides, the voice of Pluto and Orpheus’ harp. Even the closest beasts, flying ones and crawling ones, pay attention to his melodic discourse.

92 Naso, Ovidius: Metamorphoses. Brookes More, Cornhill Publishing Co., Boston, 1992, Book X. Nasón, Publio Ovidio: Metamorfosis. Translation by Ana Pérez Vega. Cervantes Digital, Alicante, 2002, Libro décimo, pp. 40-52 93 The figures sometimes are not defined enough, specially because of the actual state of the painting’s surface. Tantalus could be, direct in the center of the picture, that head and arm that appear from the water, looking in the direction of the tree. Ixius stays upside down in the front of the wheel (left side of the painting). Tityus on the right side of the painting lying on the grass is very obvious because of his size. From the Belides or Danaïdes, four are seen in the middle of the picture at the bank of the river, carrying water. Sisyphus is behind Tytus. 94 See Roelandt Savery: Orpheus, Room 17, The National Gallery (London). 95 Revilla, Federico: Diccionario de iconología y simbología, Cátedra, Madrid, 1995, pp. 126, 306. 96 González Delgado, 2001, p. 52, addressing to Aeschylus’ Agamemnon. 97 In the , we have different places for the worst eternity: In the Hades were the dead and at the the mortals (like the Danaïds) were hold and torture forever. 31 Musical iconography: Lyre:98 What it should be the representation of a lyre, since we are in the ancient mythological Greek story context, is in this case mixed, confused or, being more precise, exchanged by the painter, with another instrument: the harp. For this reason, one of the first doubts we have when we see the painting, is why he represents a harp instead of an original instrument to the scene. A representation by the own Brueghel of Orpheus playing an authentic lyre appears in one of the paintings hanged in the chamber of his work The Sense of Hearing.99 Curiously it is a representation of Orpheus playing for the animals, while, in Brueghel’s separately paintings about this same theme, the character is playing a harp. Having the opportunity of exposing a harp in The Sense of Hearing, in concordance with the rest of the “modern” instruments in the chamber around the Venus, Brueghel decides to do a contrast with the ancient musical instrument to show the original idea of the mythological Orpheus. This painting inside the painting is a clear mixture between his two earlier works Orpheus playing for the animals, one of 1600 (where Orpheus plays the harp) and the other of 1604 (attributed. Where Orpheus plays the viola), because of the staging, including the animals that there appear. Another occasion where we can find Orpheus represented with a harp is Orpheus in Paradise.100 And not a few paintings represent Orpheus with a viola, but, either way, it is uncommon to see him with a harp instead of a lyre or a kithara. We will try to explain what kind of instrument we are facing or should be facing when looking at this painting of Orpheus. The harp existed in Greece, as well as the lyre, and many more similar string instruments, of greater or lesser complexity. There are, in this time, an enormous number of plucked chordophones. As examples, and to get a general view, we can find, among others: lyre, kithara (a much more complex lyre used by the professional players), (kithara closest relative)101, (kind of kithara102 or bass

98 See picture 1, page 42. 99 The Sense of Hearing (1617-1618): On the wall, on the right and top. And in the painting in the highest point of the chamber, on the left side, we can find again a renaissance harp on the ground, being part of a musical scene with a fine selection of instruments of Brueghel’s period, in a mythological context, with as principal character. The Sense of Hearing, Touch and Taste (1618): The same scene with another staging, top-left side of the wall of the chamber. The Sense of the Sight (1617) again: Left side, chiffonier, left open door. In every of these paintings, there is no detail and the design of the instrument is very simple. 100 This work has no attribution and the author might be a follower of Brueghel because of the staging. 101 Kurfürst, Pavel: The ancient Greek Kithara. Brnenske Univerzity, 1992, p. 9. 102 Otero Pedrayo, Ramón: Una historia del arte universal. Galaxia, 2004, p. 226. 32 lyre)103, (harp-lyre. It has different interpretations depending on the source and the epoch, but it is used to be mentioned as a harp);104 Athenaeus also mentions other instruments explained by Aristoxenus, like the enneachord,105 possibly as reference to the Orphic nine-string; ,106 and psalterion107 like the epigonion108 and the pektis.109

103 Müller, Karl Otfried: History of the Literature of Ancient Greece, Volume 1. Baldwin and Cradock, London, 1840, p. 153. 104 Encyclopedia Britannica: Sambuca. https://theodora.com/encyclopedia/s/sambuca.html (04.2020) 105 Athenaeus of Naucratis: Deipnosophists (3rd Century AD), 182f: “Ἀριστόξενος δ´ ἔκφυλα ὄργανα καλεῖ φοίνικας καὶ πηκτίδας καὶ µαγάδιδας σαµβύκας τε καὶ τρίγωνα καὶ κλεψιάµβους καὶ σκινδαψοὺς καὶ τὸ ἐννεάχορδον καλούµενον. Πλάτων δ´ ἐν τρίτῳ Πολιτείας φησίν”. Aristoxenus of Tarentum names all these instruments as “foreigns”. From the online transcription by Aa.Vv., L’antiquité grecque et latine: Athenaeus of Naucratis: Deipnosophists, transcription: de Villebrune, M. Lefebure, 1789, http://remacle.org/bloodwolf/erudits/athenee (04.2020) 106 Athenaeus: Deipnosophists, Book 4, 182f. Magadis has two references here, as wind instrument and as . In this second case, the term magadis could be a synonim of pektis, an instrument of the family of the harp, with double strings. (Ateneo: Banquete de los Eruditos. Libros III-V. Traducción y notas de Lucía Rodríguez-Noriega Guillén. Editorial Gredos, Madrid, 1998. P. 265, footnote 302.) 107 Greek term for the instruments of the harp family. (Ateneo, 1998, p. 267, footnote 306) One of the major differences with the lyre family is (apart from the shape) that the instruments of this last one have normally a bridge. 108 Triangular harp, with forty string in pairs, like the mágadis. (Ateneo, 1998, p. 267, footnote 307) 109 Here an explanatory note has to be made. Athenaeus (Deipnosophists) mentions this Inventions by Ephorus of Cyme, at the end of the paragraphs talking about wind musical instruments. In this text about flutes or pipes, there are some contradictions and errors, or just not enough clarity, in different translations from the original Athenaeus’ work in Greek, the Deipnosophists. In this case I am talking only about on word: about on word: κιθαριστηρίων. This footnote will work as reference for those readers who only can use the English or French translation that nowadays exist, in order to not make the assumption that a different kind of kithara is mentioned.

Original Greek text: “Οἶδα δὲ καὶ ἄλλα γένη αὐλῶν τραγικῶν τε καὶ λυσιῳδικῶν καὶ κιθαριστηρίων, ὧν µνηµονεύουσιν Ἔφορός τ´ ἐν τοῖς εὑρήµασι καὶ Εὐφράνωρ ὁ Πυθαγορικὸς ἐν τῷ περὶ αὐλῶν, ἔτι δὲ καὶ Ἄλεξις ὧν καὶ αὐτὸς ἐν τῷ περὶ αὐλῶν.” (Athenaeus: Deipnosophists, Book 4, 182c)

French translation: “Je connais encore d'autres espèces de flûtes, telles que les tragiques, lysiodes, citharisleries, […]” (de Villebrune, M. Lefebure: Banquet des Savans, par Athénée. Tome Second. Chez Lamy, Paris, 1789. P. 183. The term in Greek is not translated. For online consult of a transcription from the original book: http://remacle.org/ bloodwolf/erudits/athenee/)

English translation: “I am acquainted, too, with other kinds of flutes, the tragic flute, and the lysiodic 1 flute, and the harplike flute ; […]” (Yonge, C.D.: The Deipnosophists or Banquet of the learned of Athenaeus; Literally translated. Henry G. Bohn, London, 1854, p. 283. For an online consult of the original edition: https://archive.org/details/ deipnosophistsor01atheuoft/)

Second English translation: “I know of other kinds of pipes as well — the 'tragic,' the pipes used by women impersonating men, and the pipes used for accompanying a harp, […]” (The Deipnosophists, vol. 2: Books 3.106e–5. Greek texts and facing English translation translated by Charles Burton Gulick. Series: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press, vol.2, 1928; from 7 volumes (1927-1941). And thanks to the online transcription from this book by Bill Thayer. For the consult, see: https:// penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Athenaeus/4E*.html)

Spanish translation: “Conozco así mismo otros tipos de flautas: las trágicas, las lisiódicas y las que acompañan a la cítara, […]” (Ateneo, 1998, p. 264)

(footnote 109 continues in the next page) 33 In any case, although in the ancient Greece we can find the triangular harp,110 it wouldn’t have had the same modern curved aesthetical beautiful shape of the painting. What we see in the painting is definitively a contemporary harp from Brueghel’s time, but with mixed characteristics. Medieval had a shorter register than the human voice; they were also small, appropriate for the traveling musicians; their resonator is made from a single piece of wood and that became a standard for their creation up to the 18th Century.111 This, by its shape and the curved column, is a 15th Century high-headed harp,112 similar to the early Celtic harp when this still didn’t have a sound box during the 14th Century.113 This is a harp of an extremely narrow register. In the Florence’s painting it is not possible to see how many strings the harp has, but in the Rome’s painting around 15 strings could be seen, something not common in Renaissance harps, that have many more.114 115 This type of harp would have been tuned diatonically and semitones could only be produced by re-tuning the instrument, which meant that the possibilities of playing were quite limited. In the 16th century, double and triple harps

(footnote 109 continues here) Having said this, and consulting other qualified persons from the Classical Studies’ field about the literally translations from Greek, and having in mind the existing published translations, we can say that the newest Spanish (1998) and English (1928) versions are the most accurate and appropriate. Then, we are not talking here about a kithara, but of a flute that used to be playing as accompaniment of the kithara. Was it a type of flute that had a contrast with the sound of the kithara? Would it have a lower register to leave space for the string instrument to be soloist? Those are questions I can’t respond to.

110 Loei, Yi-Yun: The use of Harp in Early Seventeenth-Century Italy. Indiana University, 2017, p. 6: “Greeks introduced a straight forepillar to form a triangular shape that afterwards emerged in medieval western Europe.” 111 Loei, 2017, p. 6. 112 Loei, 2017, p. 8. 113 Loei, 2017, p. 6. 114 Vienna Symphonic Library: https://www.vsl.co.at/en/Harp/History_02 115 In any case, apart from the possible differences of register, and the physical similitude with some harps’ Renaissance iconography, I didn’t find any closest reference that Brueghel could have been used for the representation of this particularly instrument, for example, based on the exact shape or its ornamentation.

For iconographic references, see a 26-strings harp in: Agricola, Martin, Musica Instrumentalis Deudsch, Wittenberg: Georg Rhaw, 1529, https://imslp.org/wiki/Musica_instrumentalis_deudsch_(Agricola%2C_Martin), fol. liiiir (12.2020)

Anyway, although we do not have a direct example of the harp used as inspiration by Brueghel for the painting of Orpheus, we can theorise that it is a generalisation of the type of Gothic or Celtic harp known at the time. The harp played by Orpheus in the painting Orpheus playing for the animals,* although it cannot be seen in detail, is very similar. In reality, it is a very simple design compared to the fantasy with which other painters represent Orpheus' instruments,** and this simplicity has also been used by other authors.***

* Signed as "Brueghel 1600”, this piece is in an exact unknown location, possibly in a private collection. There is a black and white photo on: https://www.janbrueghel.net/object/orpheus-playing-for-the-animals.

** For example, Orpheus playing the Animals by Roelandt Jacobsz Savery (to see on: https://fineartamerica.com/ featured/orpheus-playing-to-the-animals-roelandt-jacobsz-savery.html) or the anonymous one from the Utrecht school (on: https://www.wikigallery.org/wiki/painting_361466/Utrecht-School/Orpheus-Charming-The-Animals).

*** Orpheus enchanting the animals by Adriaen van Stalbemt (http://www.artnet.com/artists/adriaen-van-stalbemt/ orpheus-enchanting-the-animals-yScL6biBiTA6iH8GW-lwQg2) 34 were already widespread in Europe, and semitones were always available on the second strings row of the instrument; this, of course, resulted in many more harmonic possibilities.116 Something else that we have to consider, it is the staging that the painter sets for our performer. First of all, Orpheus pluck the strings with his fingers. That was the norm for psalterion, like the big , as we can see in the Greek iconography, while and kitharas were normally played with a plektron.117 Another matter about the performing staging is the posture: While some kitharas or lyres could have been played standing, the dimensions and form of this harp makes it more difficult to play with both hands if the player (Orpheus) doesn’t wear a harness. These instruments, like the harps commonly used today, were already standing on the floor and were played sitting down. The hand position is also something questionable, with the fingers pointing up and the thumb so low,118 so it is quite possible that the finger position shown here was not used for playing and the raised fingers are just more visually appealing and also easier to paint.119 I didn’t find evidence of a direct iconographic reference that Brueghel could have used for the harp of the painting, but, in any way, the Renaissance harps in this time are all very similar, with fine differences in ornamentation or shape. It is possible that the specific

116 Thank you to Professor Werner Karlinger (Harp teacher, String Instruments Department, Anton Bruckner Universität, Linz) for these comments. (09.2020) 117 This can be seen in iconography from archeological findings and also said or even educationally discussed in the Greek Literature: “Erídano […] dulcificaba sus penas con el plectro aonio.” (Itálico, Silio: La Guerra Púnica. Traducción de Joaquín Villalba Álvarez. Akal, Madrid, 2005. Libro XII, p. 447)

About how to play the lyres: “El mas ordinario, i mas facil, era con el Plectro, cuio uso era proprio a la mano derecha. Su materia cuerno, segun enseña Platon; […] La primera Musica de el Plectro llamaban Tañer fuera; i la segunda de la mano Tañer dentro. […]El tercero modo que io hallo, de ninguno le he visto hasta ahora advertido. Era puncteando con los dedos de ambas manos la Lyra, de la propria suerte que hoi vemos se tañe el harpa.” (Gonzalez de Salas, Iusepe Antonio: Nueva idea de la tragedia antigua o ilustración última al libro singular de poética de Aristóteles Stagirita. Franc Martínez, Madrid, 1633. From the facsímil by Antonio de Sancha, Madrid, 1778. Chapter De la Mvsica de Instrumentos, seccion VII, pp. 158-162)

“[…] [Pseudo-Asconius] says that while the right hand uses the plectron, the fingers of the left hand pluck the dtrings (chordas carpunt).” I haven’t found the original source for this Asnonius’ reference. (Sachs, Curt: History of Musical Instruments. Dover Publications, New York, 1940, p. 133) 118 Lawrence-King, Andrew: Harp Method, 06.2020, online: https://andrewlawrenceking.com/tag/harp-method/ 119 Karlinger, Werner, 2020. 35 form, shape and decoration of Brueghel’s harp is just part of the author’s imagination or creation.120 121 Coming back to our question of why the use of a harp instead of a lyre in the painting: In this time there was also a convention of the aesthetic importance of the harp, reflecting beauty, novelty, and antiquity.122 Also, it could be about trying to take closer to the modern spectator the mythological theme, using a better known version of the ancient lyre; or even taking the meanings of this myth (the achievement of Orpheus thanks to his talent, the power of the music and eloquence, the unexpected win before the unbreakable, etc., as we talked before) and making them contemporary. The lyre would be also referred to for the simple fact that it is smaller than a harp and is carried in the hand. In any case, talking about the attributes, as similar string instruments, they both have the same meanings.123 The lyre is one the most commented instrument in the History of Greece, and very important in Classic literature, theater and mythology, as a producer of calm melodies and accompaniments.124 The first appearance of the word lyre as lure

120 Brueghel, in 1554, is in Italy, Rome and Milano, what would give him plenty of sources for musical painting. Here there are some iconographic references of the 16th Century with similarities: · Cranach the Elder, Lucas: A Silver Statuette of an Angel Playing the Harp, from the Large Series of Wittenberg Reliquaries. Woodcut, Weimar, 1509. https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/ · Virdung: Musica getutscht und außgezogen, 1511, fol. Biiv. · Agricola: Musica Jnstrumentalis Deudsch, 1529. · Bockstorfer, Christoph: David playing the harp before King Saul, Etching on paper. Nuremberg, 1531. (From: British Museum, Museum registration number 1845,0809.1534 https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/ P_1845-0809-1534. Consulted on May 2020) · Divinarum nuptiarum conventa et acta. Third edition, 1580 (Production date: 1573). Engraved plates 16, 25 and 26. Associated illustration to Arnold Freytag. (From: British Museum. Museum registration numbers 2AA+,a.20.17, 2AA+,a.20.26, 2AA+,a.20.27 https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/P_2AA-a-20-27. Consulted on May 2020) · Bernardo Buontalenti: Composer Jacopo Peri in his performance costume of Arion in the 5. intermedio of La Pellegrina. 1589. (From: Bernardo Buontalenti; Gli intermezzi fiorentini del 1589 https://www.facebook.com/pg/ Bernardo-Buontalenti-495813307145879/photos/?tab=album&album_id=495815140479029. Consulted on May 2020 · Rubens: King David playing the harp. 17th Century. Tapestry. (Monasterio de las Descalzas Reales, Madrid) · Rubens: King David playing the harp. 17th Century. Oil on panel. (From: Lote 154 Auctions House Bonhams, London https://www.bonhams.com/auctions/25230/lot/154/#/! Consulted on May 2020) 121 See footnote 115. 122 Loei, 2017, p. 45-46. The author also point out: “In his treatise Musica Scenica (1635), Giovanni Battitsta Doni (1593 – 1647) suggested keeping the harpsichords hidden in opera performances but placing the harp where it can be seen, due to its splendid portrayal of simplicity and regality as well as its exquisite beauty.” (Loei, 2017, p. 45. I couldn’t find the exact reference in Doni’s treatise.) 123 In literature we can also find deliberated exchanges or literary anachronisms: Grubbs, John Whitfield: Current Thought in Musicology. University of Texas Press, Austin, 1976, p. 210: “[Clément Marot (1496-1544) in the poem Le second chant d'amour fugitive] imagined that Venus […] spoke to him “in a voice more sweetly resonant than Orpheus singing to his harp”. By placing a harp, instead of a lyre or lute, in the hands of Orpheus, Marot shows the interchangeability of these instruments as supports of antique monody.” 124 In any period in History: “Ora se [Aristotile] egli affermò questo della Lira, che era di pochissime corde, ma di suono mezzane tra l'Arpa, e il Liuto, e moto suave, e simile alla voce umana molto più averebbe ciò asserito di questi altri nostri instrumenti di suono più strano, e di corde più numerosi.” (Doni, Giovanni Battista: Trattato della musica scenica (1635). Neoclassica, Roma, 2018, p. 202) 36 would be, as far as we know, by Archilochus during the 7th Century b.C.,125 a poet that, according to his biography,126 received a lyre in exchange for a cow127; although, according to a Homeric hymn, would be the inventor of the lyre.128 It is used as instrument, as metaphor, it is personified and also talked to: […] tu potes tigris comitesque silvas ducere et rivos celeres morari; cessit immanis tibi blandienti ianitor aulae.129 We can find representations from at least three strings,130 but there is a big variety. In the Ancient Greek, it is mostly represented with seven strings, and the stories say that Orpheus’ lyre had nine, as the number of the .131 The naming of the lyre might seem confusing in the texts, because it is used as a general term for this kind of instruments. So, this way, the kithara is usually also called a lyre. In texts about Orpheus, Plato and Hermesianacte,132 for example, talk about him accompanied with a kithara. Others name it “lyre” and others with both terms. Thus, in the primitive culture, Orpheus could hold a lyre, even being a

125 Aa.Vv., “Lyra”, in: The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2001. 126 Rotstein, Andrea: The Parian Marble and the Mnesiepes Inscription. Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik. V.190, 2014. 3: According to his biography in the Mnesiepes inscription of the 3rd Century b.C. 127 Horace and Greek Lyric Poetry. Ed. Michael Paschalis. Rethymnon Classical Studies, v.1, University of Crete, 2002. 43. Although Archilochus is not considered later as a lyricist, it was said that he had once to perform when the kitharode was missing, “singing” his poem (doing the sound of the missing kithara) (Michael Paschalis, 2002. 44). 128 For a closer approach to this text, see: Mistretta, Marco Romani: Hermes the Craftsman: The Invention of the Lyre. : revue intercisciplinaire sur la Grèce Archaïque, No. 20, 2017. 129 Horace: Carmina III 11, 13-16: You are able to lead tigers and trees in your train, / and you can make the swift rivers stand still; / to your persuasive strains the huge gatekeeper of hell yielded. (Translation: Comager, Steele, The Odes of Horace: A Critical Study, OU [University of Oklahoma] Press, Oklahoma, 1995, p. 340). This is a clear reference to Orpheus myth. 130 Like the krater from Tyrins. Circa 1.200 c.C. Nafplion Archaelogical Museum (14 376). Cartwright, Mark: Lyre. Ancient History Encyclopedia. Canada, UK, 2012. From https://www.ancient.eu/Lyre/. (04.2020) Castro, Emiliano Li; Scardina, Placido, “The Double Curve Enigma”, in: Music in Art XXXVI/1-2, Research Center for Music Iconography, The Graduate Center, City University of New York, 2011, pp. 204, 206, 215. 131 Aratus, Solensis: Phainomena kai Diosēmeia; Theōnos scholia. Oxonii : E Theatro Sheldoniano, 1672. Bilingual edition -Greek from several works of Eratosthenes and from Hymns of Dionysius. Page 9, from the Eratosthenes’ Catasterismi: Αὕτη ἐνάτη κεῖται ἐν τοῖς ἄστροις, ἔστι δὲ Μουσῶν· κατεσκευάσθη δὲ τὸ µὲν πρῶτον ὑπὸ Ἑρµοῦ ἐκ τῆς χελώνης καὶ τῶν Ἀπόλλωνος βοῶν, ἔσχε δὲ χορδὰς ἑπτὰ ἀπὸ τῶν Ἀτλαντίδων. µετέλαβε δὲ αὐτὴν Ἀπόλλων καὶ συναρµοσάµενος ᾠδὴν Ὀρφεῖ ἔδωκεν, ὃς Καλλιόπης υἱὸς ὤν, µιᾶς τῶν Μουσῶν, ἐποίησε τὰς χορδὰς ἐννέα ἀπὸ τοῦ τῶν Μουσῶν ἀριθµοῦ καὶ προήγαγεν ἐπὶ πλέον ἐν τοῖς ἀνθρώποις δοξαζόµενος οὕτως ὥστε καὶ ὑπόληψιν ἔχειν περὶ αὐτοῦ τοιαύτην ὅτι τὰ δένδρα καὶ τὰς πέτρας καὶ τὰ θηρία ἐκήλει διὰ τῆς ᾠδῆς Thanks to the transcription in Greek from the Portal for the and language education: http:// www.greek-language.gr/digitalResources/ancient_greek/mythology/lexicon/metamorfoseis/page_165.html (04.2020) Spanish translation consulted from: Esquilo: Fragmentos / Testimonios. Editorial Gredos, Madrid, 2008, footnote 305. My translation to English from the Spanish text: “This constellation has the ninth place between the stars, and it is the lyre of the Muses. It was built first by Hermes […] and then it was given to who, after composing a song, gave it to Orpheus. He, son of Calliope, one of the Muses, added strings, being nine, as tribute for the number of the Muses […], It was thought that his singing captivated the trees, the stones and the beasts.” 132 Hermesianacte (aprox. 300 a.C.): elegía Leontion: Ateneo XIII 597b (See footnote 71). 37 professional and an expert of the instrument, and therefore being properer to refer to it as a kithara. About the kithara itself, as it happens in stories and myths, sources don’t agree about its inventor: While some say Hermes,133 other say Apollo (possible father of Orpheus) invented it, and other, like Plato, name Orpheus as the creator.134 And even the kithara was sometimes a simple reference to a large lyre with no differentiation or specification of type.135 The characters of the extremes and the vices, the demons and beasts, like the companions of or the creatures of the Hades, they are usually represented with wind and percussion instruments; while Apollo and others, in the opposite peaceful and virtuous place, use string instruments like the lyre.136 Orpheus’ singing:137 This scene is reflecting the moment of our principal character singing accompanied with his lyre. His lyrics are prepared or improvised, and therefor we must go to the sources that literary created the text of Orpheus. Ovid says what follows: And then began to strike his tuneful lyre, to which he sang:—"O deities of this dark world beneath the earth! this shadowy underworld, to which all mortals must descend! […] I have come, because my darling wife stepped on a viper that sent through her veins poison, cutting off her coming years. If able, I would bear it, I do not deny my effort: but the god of Love has conquered me. A god so kindly known in all the upper world. […] By this Place of Fear this huge void and these vast and silent realms, renew the life-thread of Eurydice. All things are due to you, and though on earth it happens we may tarry a short while, slowly or swiftly we must go to one abode; and it will be our final home. Long and tenaciously you will possess unquestioned mastery

133 Eratostenes: Catasterismi (See footnote 71). And for an edition of the work, the facsimile edition: Eratostenes: Catasterismi cvm interpretatione latina et commentario. Epistola C. G. Heyne, Gottingae, 1795. 134 Plato: Ión, 533c. 135 Grove Dictionary, “kithara”, And this from: Duchesne-Guillemin, Marcelle, “L’animal sur la cithare: nouvelle lumière sur l’origine sumérienne de la cithare grecque”, Acta Iranica, XXIII, pp. 129-141, Brill, Leiden, 1984, pp. 129–41. 136 Pliego de Andrés, 1997, p. 325. 137 See picture 1, p. 42. 38 of the human race. She also shall be yours to rule, when full of age she shall have lived the days of her allotted years. So I ask of you possession of her few days as a boon. But if the fates deny to me this prayer for my true wife, my constant mind must hold me always so that I can not return. And you may triumph in the death of two.138

Music and word are two elements that have been always united in every field: religious, philosophical, popular. Plato observes that the representation of reality is made through arts that “serve the Muses”, that is every “musical” art. For Plato, poetry and music go together: Music is included in poetry (in the Symposium) and poetry is included in music (in the Republic).139 And, although through music and poetry it was possible to tame the tough men,140 also thank to them the wise could recover the lost divinity during the corporal bonds that connect us to the earth.141 He will even make Socrates compose music and verses with the purpose of purifying himself.142 But it is also in these times of Plato that the sages were trying to leave their thoughts and knowledge written, in contrast to the general rule of memorising the information, typical of the culture of oral transmission until Hellenistic period.143 Orpheus himself is named as kitharedo, meaning in Greek “who sings accompanied with a kithara”.144 Creature’s singing:145 In this detail we can find a demon, part of the scenario of the antechamber of hell. It has not been possible to find concrete references to what

138 Naso, Ovidius: Metamorphoses. Brookes More, Cornhill Publishing Co., Boston, 1992, Book X, 15. Nasón: Metamorfosis. Translation by Ana Pérez Vega, 2002, Libro décimo, p. 15-39. I recreated the lines jumps taking as source the latin version, although it is not completely accurate because the English translation is not literal, so the order of the sentences doesn’t coincide. 139 Tatarkiewicz, Wladyslaw: Historia de la estética I: La estética antigua. Akal, 1991, pp. 127-128. 140 Dïaz Rengifo, Juan: Arte poética española. Madrid, 1759, p. 11. 141 Valdés, Enrique: Música y poesía: El mito de Orfeo en la poética del Renacimiento español. Alpha, 2010, p. 197. 142 Soares, Lucas: Esbozo de una discrepancia. Platón y la poesía tradicional. Kléos Revista de Filosofía Antigua, V. 7-8, N. 7-8, Buenos Aires, 2003/4, p. 82. It has to be explained here that for Plato’s Socrates to make music meant also to continue doing Philosophy because for him Philosophy was the sublimest music (Soares, p. 89, from Platón: Fedón, 60e7-61b1). 143 González Delgado, 2001, pp. 75-76, 85. 144 κιθαρÂδός (κιθάρα, ï οιδός): one who plays and sings to the (Aa.Vv., Greek-English Lexicon, H. G. Liddell & R. Scott, Oxford, 1996). 145 See Picture 2, p. 42. Detail located on the top right side of the painting. 39 this image means, both in artistic and religious sources.146 Here we observe a figure that could be reading or singing. The book that is perched in his hands shows the detail that the lines of “text” on the pages are grouped as if they were staves, so we can presume that his activity is lyrical. Now, what kind of chant he might be reciting is beyond our knowledge. The same representation of this character appears in Christus in het Voorgeborchte, in the same corner, but, in this case, the demon that hugs the light with its body is not reading but observing and laughing maliciously to those who are in front of it/him. Buisines:147 I added this case, although we are not in front of a trumpet per se. We observe, not very clearly, a distant character in the shadows playing a straight trumpet.148 It conducts a group of tormented people. However, because of the shapes of this body’s character (with what they seem as horns and wings) and the observation of those that lead the tortures (in the case of this painting they are all monsters or demons), we could say that, what it looks like an external instrument, it is actually its snout in the form of the heraldic tube. In the same painting we can see closer something similar: A bit lower from the center of the scene, a green coloured being holds with his hands his own long and a bit curved upwards nose.149 We could call it a trunk, although it looks too firm for it. In any case, they all would mean the same representation, because a trunk is like the bellowing (even, as worth repeating, “trumpeting”) trumpet of an animal. In both cases, the beasts lead a group of persons, playing in the context of a judgement. For further comparisons, we can see the same being in other paintings by Brueghel.150 It has been very difficult to find this kind of creature in other contexts, to study the possible symbology in them. It is much more common to find monsters with a long duck beak, or with other animal attributes. From several tens of paintings observed, related with religion and Hell, existing from the Middle Ages to the Baroque period, I could only find two images that can not even be equated, but have

146 Unfortunately, until now, I have not found the meaning of this creature and no one has been able to give me any clues about it nor have we found references to a similar creature or pictorial representation in any other painting or book from the checked works from and since the Middle Ages onwards. 147 See picture 3 and 4, p. 43. 148 See picture 3, p. 43. 149 See picture 4, p. 43. 150 See: Aeneas and the Sibyl in the Underworld (1594, Rome), on the right side. Jan Brueghel Complete Catalogue online. See also: Scene in Hell (no date), oil on copper, 26.5 x 36 cm, framed, sold at Dorotheum in 2018 https:// www.dorotheum.com/en/l/6002892/ It has no date but there is a replica by own Brueghel from 1594-1596 https:// www.janbrueghel.net/object/hell-scene 40 similarities with each other, possibly merely coincidental: The drawing on the margin of a 13th Century’s Bible, where it appears a zoomorphic character, similar to a bird without wings, biped and with an elephant trunk,151 and therefor probably without such a direct musical concept as in Brueghel (only probably, because a big number of this Bible’s pictures are characters playing instruments); and, the second one, in a painting about Hell152 by Peeter Huys, where we can see an anthropomorphic character with a long nose with the shape of a trumpet just like in Brueghel’s works, but without the same attitude nor posture of using it to play. Other possible similarity of the snout of Brueghel’s character would be near to another musical instrument: the bagpipe. This is a recurrent element that it is in many scenes because of its linkage with the male genitals and, thus, with lascivious behaviors.153 But, because of the curve and the impossibility of checking if the tubes have holes, on account of the miniaturist of the detail, I wouldn’t relay on that theory. Now we can come back to the subject of the wind instruments on demons’ hands. Percussion and winds can be louder, so they are closer to primitive and irrational forces with bigger dynamics and rhythmical impetus, showing lead, strength and power.154 In this painting there are no visible percussion instruments or related elements, although it is common to find drums155 and bells on Brueghel’s works that are related with Hell.156

151 Latin vulgate Bible, second volume. Inventory number Ms. 0005, Saint-Omer (France), 1270-1290. Link to the online public source where we can find a scan of this Bible: https://bibliotheque-numerique.bibliotheque-agglo- stomer.fr/idurl/1/1882 152 Huys, Peeter: Hell. Oil on panel, 1570. Catalogue number P002095, Museo del Prado, Madrid, Spain. This painting is based on a painting from 1555-1560 (The Last Judgement. Walters Art Museum, Maryland, United States) by the same author, where the snout of the creature looks more like a flute, but the condition of the painting does not permit check more details. 153 Proyecto Iconografía Musical, Universidad Complutense de Madrid. http://www.imagenesmusica.es/ 154 Pliego de Andrés, 1997, p. 322. 155 See: The triumph of Death (1610), Aeneas and the Cumean Sybil in the Underworld (1604). 156 See: Juno in the underworld (1596-1598), The triumph of Death (1610), Aeneas and the Cumean Sybil in the Underworld (1604). 41 Fig. 1: Harp

Fig.2: Creature singing

42

Fig. 3: Buicine

Fig. 4: Buicine

43 Musical context: The myth in the opera: Orpheus, beside Apolo (his teacher), is one of the important musical figures in the Mythology of the Ancient Greece. His melodies were divine, and had the power of moving humans and nature, and, in the case of these paintings, even the god of the Underworld, altering the sentence of the dead. His chance of succeeding, although risky, was big and worthy. The character of Orpheus is always found surrounded by animals,157 like dogs, dears, monkeys and horses,158 and also exotic animals, like ostriches and camels, also represented in the ancient Greece and Rome.159 In the case of our painting these same animals are transformed to beasts and monstrosities, getting even very difficult to guess which animals are they originally based on. In other contexts, and as we explained before, his figure can be found in literature and poetry in almost any Epoch, but his presence in the Classical music is well known from the 17th Century, specially being part of operas, as a character of his own stories or as an idea/allegory of perfection in music and in interpretation, for example. Some of the operas that we can find with the theme of the Orpheus’ myth, starting in 1600 and during the first half of the Century are the following: · 1600, Jacopo Peri and Giulio Caccini / Ottavio Rinuccini: Euridice · 1602, Giulio Caccini: Euridice (where the story ends happily) · 1607, Claudio Monteverdi / Alessandro Striggio: L’Orfeo · 1616 (performed), Domenico Belli / Gabriello Chiabrera: Orfeo Dolente. · 1638, Heinrich Schütz / August Buchner: Orpheus und Eurydice (music lost) · 1647 (performed), Luigi Rossi / Francesco Buti: Orfeo I chose two of the earliest operas, closest to our painter and that were performed when he was still alive. In the examples, we can find a exposition of the concerns of Orpheus and the approval by Pluto to open the gates of the Hades.

157 Enenkel, Karl and Smith, Paul, Zoology in Early Modern Culture: Intersections of Science, Theology, Philology and Political and Religious Education, Koninklijke Brill, Leiden, 2014, 402. 158 We can find Orpheus in many paintings in the same way, accompanied by animals. For examples related to Brueghel, see: attribution: Orpheus playing for the animals (ca. 1605, Paris). Brueghel: Orpheus playing for the Animals (1600, France, private collection). These information from Jan Brueghel Complete Catalogue online. Brueghel family attribution: Orpheus and the Beasts (ca.1594. Roma, Galleria Borghese). galleriaborghese.beniculturali.it 159 For example, the Orpheus mosaic from Sicily. Museo archeologico regionale di Palermo. Online: https:// upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/0355_-_Palermo%2C_Museo_archeologico_- _Mosaico_di_Orfeo_-_Foto_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto%2C_23-Oct-2006.jpg 44 1. Composer: Jacopo Peri Work: Oh, se la Bella Diva From: L’Euridice, Act 2, Scene 4 Date: 1600 Recommended recording: I version: CD: Jacopo Peri: l’Euridice Ensemble: I Solisti di Milano, A. Ephrikia Recorded: 1997, Rivoalto Recommended recording: II version: CD: Iacopo Peri: Euridice Ensemble: Les Arts Baroques, Mireille Podeur Recorded: Live, 1993, Maguelone Music

ORFEO: Deh se la bella diva / che per l'acceso monte / mosse a fuggirti invan ritrosa, e schiva / sempre ti scopra, e giri / sereni i rai della celeste fronte, / vagliami il dolce canto / di questa nobil cetra / ch’io ricovri da te la donna mia, / l’alma deh rendi a questo sen dolente, / rendi a quest'occhi il desiato sole, / a queste orecchie il suono / rendi delle dolcissime parole, / o me raccogli ancora / tra l'ombre spente, ov'il mio ben dimora.

English: ORPHEUS: If the beautiful diva / that for the access upstream / moves to flee in vain, reluctant, and shy / always discover you, and turn the heavenly forehead, / sift the sweet song / of this noble cithara / I recover my woman from you, / give your soul to this sorrowful sin, / renders to these eyes the desolate sun, / to these ears the sound / make the sweetest words, / or gather me again / between shadows extinguished, where my well dwelling is.

45 2. Composer: Monteverdi Work: Udite, udite From: Il Ballo delle Ingrate Date: 1608 Recommended recording: CD: Monteverdi Ensemble: Les Arts Florissants, William Christie Recorded: 1992, Mundi France

PLUTONE: Udite! Udite! Udite! / O dell'infernal corte / Fere ministre, udite! OMBRE D’INFERNO: Che vuoi? Ch’imperi? PLUTONE: Aprite aprite aprite / Le tenebrose porte / De la prigion caliginosa e nera! / E de l'Anime Ingrate / Trahete qui la condannata schiera!

English: PLUTO: Hear! Hear! Hear! / O of the infernal court / Fierce ministers, hear! HADES’ SHADOWS: What do you want? What do you request? PLUTO: Open, open, open / The tenebrous doors / Of the imprisoned and black prison! / And of the ungrateful soul / bring here the condemned host!

46 CONCLUSIONS Symbology is a complex section whose interpretation varies over time and also depends on the personal vision of the own author of the symbol. Therefore, there will always be an element of subjectivity in the formulations of interpretations. The variety of possibilities is what makes the theorisation of a theme rich, since, in spite of the research process, in a certain way we must assume that not everything will be able to be given as a conclusion, especially in the face of our lack of knowledge of the author’s thoughts. The fact that Brueghel inserts a kind of harp in the painting is totally intentional. As we have already seen, the painter himself already paints lyres in other representations of the character on display, Orpheus. If he had wanted to paint a lyre or a kithara, being historically or mythologically adequate and accurate, he would have done so without any doubt. Therefore, the important thing about these recreations is to approach the scene, using representations that help us to understand it or to get into it. Aesthetics is essential, applying beauty in different ways, especially in the figure, the expression and, literally, in this case, in any form given to the instrument. It is thus obvious to us that Bruegel could and would like, without any remorse, to opt for a harp of a more modern character, although still old- fashioned for the painter's time, but close enough in time to him and to the audience. Orpheus singing before Pluto and Proserpina is not, of course, the only painting by Jan Brueghel that gives the capacity of analysing symbolism, concepts and allegories, although in other cases the iconology and iconography is found in much clearer contexts, for example when it is a representation of a fable.160 In any case, the complexity of the interpretation is not at all incompatible with the ability to convey the theme or emotions or a certain meaning and beauty to the audience, which was and still is one of the important facets of art.

160 Brueghel, J.: The Blind leading the Blind, c. 1590, Musée du Louvre, Paris. 47 APPENDIX

48 Orpheus Singing before Pluto and Proserpina (1594)

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58 Other resources (institutions, groups, etc., for general consult of information and archives): Jan Brueghel Complete Catalog: https://www.janbrueghel.net/ Museo del Prado, Madrid: www.museodelprado.es Encyclopedia Britannica: https://theodora.com/encyclopedia/s/ Vienna Symphonic Library, Vienna: https://www.vsl.co.at/en/Harp/History_02 Dorotheum Action house, Vienna: https://www.dorotheum.com/en/l/6002892/ Proyecto Iconografía Musical, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid: http:// www.imagenesmusica.es/ Museum Galleria Borghese, Roma: galleriaborghese.beniculturali.it Paul Getty Museum, California: http://www.getty.edu/art/

Locations: · Museo del Prado. Madrid, Spain [Visited on 07.2019] · Biblioteca del Casón del Buen Retiro. Madrid, Spain [Visited on 07.2019] · Museum Joanneum: Schloss Eggenberg: Alte Galerie. Graz, Austria [Visited on 05.2019]

Notes: The image of the painting Orpheus singing before Pluto and Proserpina is downloaded from the Art-Gallery website Gallerix, where it can be found in a high quality resolution. Nevertheless, I haven’t be able to reach the authors, in order to know where exactly the photo of the picture comes from, or who the author is. For the consult of the image, see https://gallerix.org/storeroom/1253397642/N/ 1219774672/ (04.2020)

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