NOTES

1 The Rise of through an Electoral Lens: An Introduction 1. 1993 (Carlos Andrés Perez), 2002 (Hugo Chávez), Ecuador 1997 (Abdalá Bucaram), 2000 (Jamil Mahuad), 2004 (Lucio Gutiérrez), 2003 (Sánchez de Lozada), 2005 (). 2. This claim is relevant to the Bolivian case since a group of scholars, following Gamarra (1997a), have pointed to the hybrid nature of its presidential system, contained in Article 90 of the Constitution, as the major determinant of its relative success. 3. Comparativists have consistently affirmed that the primary role of leg- islatures has been either “neglect and acquiescence or obstructionism” (Morgenstern and Nacif 2002: 7). Moreover, according to the latest Latinobarómetro (2007), the general population in Latin America regards legislatures as one of the most ineffective and one of the least trusted institutions. 4. In light of Article 90 of the Political Constitution of the State, which grants authority to Congress to elect the president in case no candidate receives a majority, Gamarra (1997a; 1997b) called the system “hybrid presidentialism.” Shugart and Carey (1992) followed Gamarra’s concep- tualization while Jones (1995) identified it as a “majority congressional system.” Mayorga (1999) called it “presidencialismo parlamentarizado” (parliamentarized presidentialism). Regardless of the variations in the labels assigned to the Bolivian political system, these scholars agree that it exhibits features of both presidential and parliamentary systems. 5. The double quotient formula was calculated in the following manner: the first quotient, the participation quotient, would be obtained by dividing the total valid votes in a department by the number of seats to be distributed. Then, the votes of all parties that participated in the dis- tribution of seats were added, and this total was divided by the number of seats to be distributed in a department. With this quotient, seats were distributed only amongst the parties that qualified for the distribution. 210 NOTES

6. In a closed-list system, the political party leaders decide on the list of candidates before the election, and the voter, rather than voting for a particular candidate, just exercises his or her vote for the party. The main criticism associated with this system is that it tends to concentrate power in the hands of party leaders and not its members who may be directly linked to the constituencies. 7. Article 134. 8. General Asbun (July–November 1978); General Arancibia (November 1978–August 1979). 9. Article 161. 10. Article 162. 11. In 1985, municipal elections were also held for the first time since the 1952 Revolution. These municipal elections took place jointly with the general elections, according to the Organic Law of Municipalities enacted by Hernan Siles Zuazo on February 13, 1952. Elections for mayors and municipal councils were institutionalized then. Two years later, in December 6, 1987, with the Law of 1980 and the amendments of May 20, 1986, new municipal elections were held, but now indepen- dent of the presidential electoral process. This is still the case for Bolivia. 12. In June 1988, after the TV and radio owner Carlos Palenque allowed one of the most wanted narcotraffickers to speak to the nation through his radio network, Paz Estenssoro forced a congressional session to close down Palenque’s radio and TV network (Paz Ballivián and Cevallos 2001: 183). The MNR became Palenque’s greatest enemy for many years until UCS’ Max Fernández, CONDEPA’s nemesis, entered the political game. 13. Romero Ballivián, Salvador. Interview by author. November 2004. , Bolivia. 14. Regarding this, Article 163 of the current Electoral Code states: “The results of the ballot, i.e., the counting of vote by vote, and the counting at the suffrage table, or addition of results, are exclusively done by the electoral jury [at the voting table] when they are elaborating and signing the final electoral record, by this no electoral organism can repeat or review the act.” 15. In Bolivia, under the D’Hondt formula, the cumulative votes obtained by each party, front, or alliance are divided by natural divisor series (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, etc.) in a correlative, continuous and obliged manner accord- ing to what is needed in each department. 16. With the Saint-Laguë formula, once all votes are counted, quotients are calculated for each party. The quotients are calculated by dividing the total number of votes that the party received by the number of seats the party is allocated starting with 0. The list with the highest quotient gets the next seat allocated, and their quotient is recalculated with their new seat total. The process is repeated until all seats have been allocated. NOTES 211

17. Evo Morales webpage (http://www.evomorales.net/). 18. Article 4, Law for the Electoral Reform: Application of Article 60 of the Political Constitution of the State. 19. That code suffered its first modification on September 7, 1999, to clar- ify some articles for the next municipal elections. Later, other changes were approved through Law 2232 on July 25, 2001; Law 2282 on December 4, 2001; and Law 2346 on April 30, 2002, among others.

2 Bolivia’s Founding Pacts: The Pact for Democracy and the Patriotic Accord through an Electoral Lens 1. Carey, John. “Interview with Guillermo Bedegral,” MNR deputy. La Paz, Bolivia, May 2001. 2. Leaders such as Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada, Gustavo Fernández Saavedra, Carlos Börth, Guillermo Bedegral, Hugo Carvajal Donoso, Ricardo Paz Ballivián, among others. 3. Siles Zuazo shifted ministers more times than any other democratically elected president in Bolivia, i.e., about 143 times. 4. Presencia, 1/1/1989. 5. El Diario, 11/27/1984. 6. Fernández Saavedra, Gustavo. Interview by author. November 2004. La Paz, Bolivia. 7. This term was coined by Siles Zuazo to refer to political parties composed of a small group of people, friends, and families that could actually fit into a taxi cab. The normative framework for the registration of political par- ties before 1985 was rather flexible, the CNE recognized parties by a nominal declaration. In other words, by appearing in the CNE and declaring their existence and their interest in participating in the election, the CNE granted them juridical recognition to participate. Currently there are more requirements for parties to receive recognition: parties are recognized if their membership is equal to 2 percent or more of the total valid votes in the immediately preceding presidential elections (Political Parties Code, Art. 6), or if they can secure a minimum amount of citi- zens’ signatures in case they have never run in an election. 8. Ferrufino, Alfonso. Interview by author. November 2004. La Paz, Bolivia. 9. Presencia, 7/16/1989. 10. Börth, Carlos. Interview by author. November 2004. La Paz, Bolivia. 11. Fernández Saavedra, Gustavo. Interview by author. November 2004. La Paz, Bolivia. 12. For an analysis of the economic crisis faced by the UDP, see Machicado 1995: 69–99. 13. Börth, Carlos. Interview by author. November 2004. La Paz, Bolivia. 212 NOTES

14. An MNR National Convention was called on March 29, 1985 with the purpose of electing a new party candidate for the July 14, 1985 elections. 15. Soon after the launching of the NPE, Guillermo Bedegral participated and won the Central Bank 1986 Annual Contest on Economic Essays with an essay entitled “New Economic Policy,” where he explained the reasons for the policy, its philosophy and ideology. 16. Presencia, 9/8/1989. 17. Presencia, 9/15/1988. 18. For an analysis of the role of Congress in this period, see Gamarra 1987. 19. Presencia, 8/28/1986. The march started in Oruro and was supposed to arrive to La Paz. Through the state of siege, the military was instructed to stop the mobilization and was able to dissolve it before reaching La Paz. 20. On the state of siege and deportation of union leaders, see Morales, Juan A. 1991. “Democracia y Política Económica en Bolivia.” In Síntesis, vol. 14, May–August 1991. 21. The existing constitutional disposition then did not force the censured minister to present his resignation. Nowadays, a censured minister must present his resignation and the president has the last word on whether to accept it or deny it. 22. Sánchez de Lozada, Gonzalo. Interview by author. November 2004. Washington, DC. 23. Presencia, 10/25/1988. 24. Presencia, 10/28/1988. 25. Presencia, 1988. 26. Presencia, 8/5/1988. 27. Presencia, 8/14/1988. 28. Presencia, 8/16/1988. 29. Presencia, 10/20/1988. 30. Paz Ballivián, Ricardo. Interview by author. November 2004. La Paz, Bolivia. 31. For a thorough assessment of this aspect of Bolivian politics, see Gamarra, Eduardo A. and James M. Malloy. 1995. “The Patrimonial Dynamics of Party Politics in Bolivia.” In Scott Mainwaring and Timothy Scully. 1995. Eds. Building Democratic Institutions: Party Systems in Latin America. Stanford: Stanford University Press. 32. Presencia, 8/10/1988. 33. Presencia, 8/11/1988. 34. Presencia, 9/21/1988. 35. Grindle (2000) documents that between 1985 and 1986, public sector employment dropped by 24,600 people; by 1987, a further 8,550 people had been dismissed, and by 1988, public sector employment had dropped by 17 percent. 36. Presencia, AQUI, 7/9/1988; 2. NOTES 213

37. Última Hora, 1/26/1989. 38. Agencia de Noticias FIDES, 5/24/1988. 39. Presencia, 8/15/1988; Agencia de Noticias FIDES, 5/24/1988. 40. Agencia de Noticias FIDES, 7/5/1988. 41. Agencia de Noticias FIDES, 7/5/1988. 42. Presencia, 9/5/1988. 43. Agencia de Noticias FIDES, 5/27/1988. 44. Presencia, 1/28/1989. 45. Presencia, 1/26/1989. 46. Political Declaration of the MNR. La Paz, February 9, 1989 (Presencia). 47. Sánchez de Lozada, Gonzalo. Interview by author. November 2004. Washington, DC. 48. Presencia, 9/8/1988, October, November, December 1988. 49. Presencia, 9/8/1988, October, November, December 1988; 1989. 50. For more information on this, see Müller & Asociados 1989. 51. Presencia, 4/16/1989. 52. Presencia, 5/7/1989. 53. Agencia de Noticias FIDES, 7/5/1988. 54. Presencia, 8/28/1988. 55. Presencia, 4/20/1989. 56. Presencia, 4/7/1989. 57. Börth, Carlos. Interview by author. November 2004. La Paz, Bolivia. 58. Paz Ballivián, Ricardo. Interview by author. November 2004. La Paz, Bolivia; Börth, Carlos. Interview by author. November 2004. La Paz, Bolivia. 59. Börth, Carlos. Interview by author. November 2004. La Paz, Bolivia. 60. Presencia, 6/1/1989. 61. Presencia, 7/12/1989. 62. Presencia, 5/29/1989. 63. Presencia, 6/1/1989. 64. Presencia, 3/28/1989. 65. Presencia, 8/13/1989. 66. Presencia, 6/14/1989. 67. Presencia, 7/13/1989. 68. Presencia, 7/13/1989. 69. Presencia, 6/10/1989. 70. Presencia, 6/10/1989. 71. Presencia, 7/27/1989. 72. Presencia, 8/2/1989. 73. Rojas, Gonzalo. November 2004. La Paz. Bolivia. 74. Interview with Ossio Sanjinés in Baptista Gumucio, Cordero Carraffa, Mesa Gisbert 2003: 227–229. 75. Börth, Carlos. Interview by author. November 2004. La Paz, Bolivia. 76. Sánchez de Lozada, Gonzalo. Interview by author. November 2004. Washington, DC. 214 NOTES

77. Eid Franco, Oscar. Interview by author. November 2004. La Paz, Bolivia. 78. Presencia, 6/17/1989. 79. Presencia, 8/4/1989. 80. Presencia, 8/3/1989. 81. Presencia, 8/1989. 82. Presencia, 8/11/1989. 83. Presencia, 1/10/1991. 84. “1989–2000 Economic Development Strategy Defined,” Foreign Broadcast Information Service-LAT, June 19, 1989, pp. 51–53. 85. Presencia, 1/16/1990. 86. Presencia, 12/3/1989. 87. Eid Franco, Oscar. Interview by author. November 2004. La Paz, Bolivia. 88. Presencia, 4/5/1989. 89. Presencia, 4/5/1989. 90. Presencia, 8/17/1988. 91. Fernández Saavedra, Gustavo. Interview by author. November 2004. La Paz, Bolivia. 92. Presencia, 8/30/1989. 93. Presencia, 1/16/1990. 94. Presencia, 11/23/1990. 95. Presencia, 11/24/1990. 96. Presencia, 10/21/1990. 97. Nuevo Herald, 10/28/1990. 98. Presencia, 9/13/1990. 99. Presencia, 4/20/1991. 100. Presencia, 11/16/1989. 101. Presencia, 11/23/1989. 102. Presencia, 11/22/1989. 103. Presencia, 9/21/1988. 104. Presencia, 11/29/1989. 105. For more on this, see Morales 1994: 131. 106. Arrien Sandoval, Oscar. Interview by author. November 2004. La Paz, Bolivia.

3 Paving the Way for the Transformation of Bolivian Politics: Electoral Reforms and Coalition Building 1. Arrien Sandoval, Oscar. Interview by author. November 2004. La Paz, Bolivia. 2. Arrien Sandoval, Oscar. Interview by author. November 2004. La Paz, Bolivia. NOTES 215

3. The Aymara movement called Katarismo emerged in the 1960s seeking the promotion and restoration of Inca culture and communal social organization among the Andean peasantry following the abuses and discrimination suffered throughout history, and especially during the Banzer and Garcia Meza dictatorships (Soria Saravia 2002: 76). After a series of splits and name changing, the MRTKL (Movimiento Revolucionario Tupac Katari de Liberación) led by Victor Hugo Cardenas came ahead and won a seat in the 1985–1989 legislature. Cardenas was then chosen as Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada’s running mate in the 1993 elections. 4. The phrase read in Spanish: “Victor Hugo no sabe robar y yo no neces- ito robar.” 5. Some of them included Sánchez de Lozada, Carlos Börth, Alfonso Ferrufino, Ricardo Paz Ballivián, among others. 6. Laserna, Roberto. Interview by author. November 2004. La Paz, Bolivia. 7. Currently, the Electoral Code establishes that seats in the Chamber of Deputies are assigned by the proportional representation system using the system of natural divisors. 8. Börth, Carlos. Interview by author. November 2004. La Paz, Bolivia. 9. Sánchez de Lozada. Interview by author. Washington, DC, November 2004. 10. Paz Ballivián, Ricardo. Interview by author. November 2004. La Paz, Bolivia. 11. Arrien Sandoval, Oscar. Interview by author. November 2004. La Paz, Bolivia. 12. Ferrufino, Alfonso. Interview by author. November 2004. La Paz, Bolivia. 13. Ferrufino, Alfonso. Interview by author. November 2004. La Paz, Bolivia. 14. A term used to describe those that favor strengthening municipalities as a viable option for the decentralization of a country. 15. Rojas-Ortuste, Gonzalo. Interview by author. November 2004. La Paz, Bolivia. 16. Sánchez de Lozada, Gonzalo. Interview by author. November 2005. Washington, DC. 17. Indigenous social and political authorities. 18. This was deepened through the subsequent Administrative Decentrali- zation Law of July 28, 1995. 19. Laserna, Roberto. Interview by author. November 2004. La Paz, Bolivia. 20. Ferrufino, Alfonso; Börth, Carlos; Suarez, Manuel; Arrien Sandoval; Oscar. Interviews by author. November 2004. La Paz, Bolivia. 21. For more on this, see Gamarra (1997a: 107), and Baldivia Urdininea (1998: 85). 216 NOTES

22. Sánchez de Lozada, Gonzalo. Interview by author. November 2004. Washington, DC. 23. Later that year, on October 1994, associated legislation was passed, i.e., the Sectoral Regulation System (SIRESE) Law, establishing a regula- tory and oversight framework for each sector that was to be capitalized. The basic objective of the SIRESE Law was to establish a new arbiter for the Bolivian economy. 24. Sánchez de Lozada, Gonzalo. Interview by author. November 2005. Washington, DC. 25. This occurred twice in Bolivia’s democratic history, a constitutional amendment was initially approved by the 1989–1993 legislature and confirmed by the 1993–1997 legislature; another was approved by the 1997–2002 legislature and confirmed by the 2002–2005 legislature. The president and Congress called for a Constituent Assembly to revamp the Bolivian Constitution in its entirety in 2006. 26. Börth, Carlos. Interview by author. November 2004. La Paz, Bolivia. 27. Paz Ballivián, Ricardo. Interview by author. November 2004. La Paz, Bolivia. 28. Eid Franco, Oscar. Interview by author. November 2004. La Paz, Bolivia. 29. Roberto Laserna (Interview by author. La Paz, Bolivia, November 2004) asserted that without popular participation, the 1998–1999 eco- nomic crisis would have been worse. The deterioration of basic social services would have been felt stronger and the incapacity of the govern- ment to provide them would have been more obvious. 30. Ferrufino, Alfonso. Interview by author. November 2004. La Paz, Bolivia. 31. Article 82 of the 1997 Debate Rules changed this limiting the discus- sion by a deputy in a congressional session to 15 minutes. 32. Sánchez de Lozada, Gonzalo. Interview by author. November 2004. Washington, DC. 33. Aparicio, Jaime. Interview by author. February 2004. Washington, DC. 34. La Prensa. La Paz, 2000. 35. Aparicio, Jaime. Interview by author. November 2004. Washington, DC. 36. Based on National Electoral Court data. 37. Rojas-Ortuste, Gonzalo. Interview by author. November 2004. La Paz, Bolivia. 38. El Diario, 5/6/1197; Hoy, 5/5/1997; Última Hora, 5/6/1997; Presencia (ERBOL Agency), 4/25/1997. 39. La Razón, 8/15/2000. 40. Carey, John. “Interview with Carlos Sánchez Berzaín,” MNR deputy. La Paz, Bolivia, May 2001. 41. Luna, Luis. Interview by author. November 2004. La Paz, Bolivia. 42. Evo Morales webpage (http://www.evomorales.net/). NOTES 217

43. La Prensa, 7/27/2001. 44. La Prensa, 4/18/2000. 45. Pulso, 1/27/2000. 46. For a more detailed analysis on the roles of the vice president and inter- views to all vice presidents since the democratic transition in Bolivia, see Baptista Gumucio et al. (2003). 47. La Razón, 29/10/1999. 48. For more information, see Gamarra 2002: 7. 49. Börth, Carlos. Interview by author. November 2004. La Paz, Bolivia. 50. La Prensa, 9/8/2001. 51. La Prensa, September 2001. 52. La Prensa, 9/9/2001. 53. La Razón, 10/20/2001. 54. La Prensa, 7/25/2000. 55. These events will be analyzed in detail in the following sections. 56. Luna, Luis. Interview by author. November 2004. La Paz, Bolivia. 57. La Prensa, 7/27/2000. 58. La Prensa, 9/9/2001. 59. La Razón, 10/20/2000. 60. La Prensa, 8/3/2001. 61. La Razón, 8/17/2001. 62. Los Tiempos, 6/10/1999. 63. La Razón, 11/30/2000. 64. La Prensa, 4/11/2000. 65. Los Tiempos de Cochabamba, 7/14/2001. 66. Opinión, 2/11/1999. 67. Los Tiempos, 3/2/2000. 68. Opinión, 28/3/2000. 69. Los Tiempos, 4/5/2000. 70. La Razón, April 2000. 71. Section 2, Article 111. Also, Article 62 and Article 66, Section 9 grant the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate respectively, the responsibility of considering a declaration of a state of siege made by the president, having the option to either approve it or question it. 72. La Razón, 4/12/2000. 73. La Razón, 4/13/2000. 74. La Razón, 4/20/2000. 75. Los Tiempos, 11/1/1999. 76. El Deber, 18/1/2000. 77. El Deber, 11/1/2000. 78. Rafael Puente, El Deber, 9/2/2000. 79. Aparicio, Jaime. Interview by author. February 2004. Washington, DC. 80. La Razón, 7/21/2001. 81. La Razón, 1/23/2002. 82. La Razón, 1/24/2002. 218 NOTES

83. Carey, John. “Interview with Ericka Brockman,” Chief of the MIR’s party caucus. La Paz, Bolivia, May 2001. 84. Carey, John. “Interview with Ericka Brockman,” Chief of the MIR’s party caucus. La Paz, Bolivia, May 2001. 85. La Prensa, 11/8/2000. 86. La Prensa, 7/3/2001. 87. La Razón, 13/1/2000. 88. La Razón, 7/18/2000. 89. La Razón, 7/5/2001. 90. Los Tiempos, 10/4/2001. 91. La Razón, 6/13/2000. 92. La Prensa, 8/20/2000. 93. La Razón, 8/24/2000. 94. La Razón, 8/25/2000. 95. An article on the newspaper Los Tiempos covered declarations made by the minister of information stating “The Government ratifies the State of Siege as a result of a parliamentary session. Military officials were mobilized to respond to the mandate for a state of siege. Also, a commission to analyze the situation with Tunari Waters was created, but the Coordinating Group was not allowed to participate because of its intransigent position “ (Los Tiempos 8/4/2000). 96. La Razón, 2/20/2001; Carey, John. “Interview with Ericka Brockman,” Chief of the MIR’s party caucus. La Paz, Bolivia, May 2001. 97. La Razón, 8/20/2001. 98. The law requires a minimum amount of women to be included in the party lists. In this area of the country, the MIR registered men under female names. Thus, they were called the “cross-dresser” candidates. 99. Börth, Carlos. Interview by author. November 2004. La Paz, Bolivia; John Carey. “Interview with Victor Hugo Cardenas,” former vice . 100. Carey, John. “Interview with Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada,” ex-president of Bolivia. May 15, 2001. La Paz, Bolivia. 101. Carey, John. “Interview with Guillermo Bedegral,” MNR deputy. La Paz, Bolivia, May 2001. 102. Carey, John. “Interview with Hugo Carvajal Donoso,” MIR minister of agriculture. La Paz, Bolivia, May 2001. 103. Carey, John. “Interview with Carlos Sánchez Berzaín,” MNR deputy. La Paz, Bolivia, May 2001. 104. Luna, Luis. Interview by author. November 2004. La Paz, Bolivia. 105. Börth, Carlos. Interview by author. November 2004. La Paz, Bolivia. 106. La Razón, 10/25/2001. 107. La Razón, 10/27/2001. 108. La Razón, 11/16/2001; 11/19/2001. NOTES 219

4 Crumbling Coalitions? Assessing the Transformation of Bolivian Politics 1. La Razón, 3/16/2002. 2. Ferrufino, Alfonso. Interview by the author. November 2004. La Paz, Bolivia. 3. A headline in El Nuevo Día (3/31/2002) read “ and a small group of people prepare the MIR strategies” (Jaime Paz Zamora y un reducido grupo hacen las estrategias del MIR). 4. La Razón, 5/4/2002 Recta Final Poll. 5. La Razón, 11/7/2002. 6. La Razón, 11/16/2001. 7. La Razón, 6/1/2002. 8. La Razón, 7/22/2001. 9. Los Tiempos de Cochabamba, 4/23/2002. 10. El Diario, La Razón, BBC News, June 2002. 11. Sánchez de Lozada, Gonzalo. Interview by author. November 2004. Washington, DC. 12. La Razón, 6/26/2002. 13. BBC, 6/27/2002. 14. La Razón, 7/5/2002. 15. La Razón, 7/8/2002. 16. La Razón, 7/30/2002. 17. La Razón, 7/11/2002. 18. La Razón, 7/6/2002. 19. “Manfred would even support Evo before supporting Goni,” La Razón, 7/6/2002. 20. Pressure: La Razón, 7/10/2002: MNR negotiates with the MIR and the pressure for a pact grows. La Razón, 7/11/2002: Jaime asks the MNR and the MAS to join and offers to be the mediator. La Razón, 7/23/2002: the private sector asks for a political pact, the Catholic Church raises its hands. 21. Eid Franco, Oscar. Interview by author. November 2004. La Paz, Bolivia. 22. “The MNR and MIR have the pact ready to govern,” (La Razón, 7/25/2002). “Sánchez de Lozada and Paz Zamora signed an agreement with 12 points that will be the basis of the so-called ‘Government of Social Responsibility’—Gobierno de Responsabilidad Nacional” (La Razón, 7/26/2002). 23. Eid Franco, Oscar. Interview by author. November 2004. La Paz, Bolivia. 24. LA TERCERA: CL, 2002 Election. 25. La Razón, 1/24/2003—“Chicote en mano, la oposición impide una sesión en el congreso.” 220 NOTES

26. “Goni threatened with governing through decrees,” La Prensa, 6/6/2003. 27. Bolivia is now the second largest country in the region, after Venezuela, in terms of available gas reserves. 28. “Sánchez de Lozada announced a trust shock (un shock de confianza) and asks for 3 months to resolve the economic crisis: Five projects will be produced in 90 days” (La Razón, 8/5/2002). 29. La Razón, 2/12/2003; 2/13/2003 and 2/14/2003. 30. El Deber, 4/6/2003; La Prensa, 4/8/2003. 31. Sánchez de Lozada reorganized his cabinet—anticonflict ministers were nominated, Sánchez Berzain left, and nine new ministers were sworn in (La Razón, 2/20/2003). 32. La Razón, 8/18–25/2003. 33. La Razón, 8/6/2003. 34. La Razón, September 2003. 35. Pliego Único Nacional 2004. Central Obrera Boliviana (COB). November 2004. 36. Juarez, Jesus-Monsignor. Interview by author. March 2004. Lima, Peru. 37. El Diario, 10/2/2003. 38. El Diario, 10/2/ 2003. 39. La Razón, 10/12/2003, Interview with El Alto residents. 40. La Prensa, 10/13/2003. 41. EFE. La Paz, 10/14/2003. 42. El Tiempo, 10/14/2003. 43. Juarez, Jesus-Monsignor. Interview by author. March 2004. Lima, Peru. 44. Eid Franco, Oscar. Interview by author. November 2004. La Paz, Bolivia. 45. Sánchez de Lozada, Gonzalo. Interview by author. November 2004. Washington, DC. 46. La Razón, 10/20/2003, the president puts together a cabinet according to the political crisis. 47. La Razón, 10/17/2003. 48. La Razón, 11/3/2003. 49. La Razón, 12/18/2003. 50. The Bolivian pension plan or Bonosol was a popular yearly payment of 1,800 (about $250) to senior citizens over the age of 65. It was approved via the legislature during the 1993–1997 Sánchez de Lozada administration and repealed by the Banzer government. 51. La Razón, 12/18/2003. 52. EFE. La Paz, 1/5/2004. 53. La Razón, 6/26/2002. 54. La Razón, 10/20/2003. 55. Johnny Antezana, leader of the NFR block in Congress. 56. La Prensa, 11/3/2003. 57. On May 9, 2002, the Chamber of Deputies approved the Law of Necessity of Constitutional Reform (La Razón, 5/10/2002: A7). NOTES 221

58. La Prensa, 11/3/2003. 59. La Razón, 2/29/2004. 60. Aparicio, Jaime. Interview by author. February 2004. Washington, DC. 61. Parties approved the reform to comply with demands of citizens who had voiced for the need of the reforms through politics from the streets in October 2003. Eid Franco (2004) asserts that the MIR supported the reform “to end the phenomenon once in for all and so that the system would turn to political parties again.” 62. La Prensa, 2/29/2004. 63. “MNR, NFR and MIR parliamentarians asked the executive to jointly design an agenda for the country” (La Razón, 3/7/2005). 64. in EFE. La Paz, 11/5/2003.

5 Explaining Evo Morales’s Rise to Power: The Unintended [or Intended?] Political Consequences of Electoral Laws 1. Börth, Carlos. Interview by author. November 2004. La Paz, Bolivia; Ferrufino, Alfonso. Interview by author. November 2004. La Paz, Bolivia. 2. It is important to mention, though, that beyond the stability of government coalitions, there have been important inconsistencies and cohesion problems within them, precisely due to the political frictions between the member parties and because the coalitions are not established based on a common project for the country. 3. La Razón, survey by Apoyo, Opinión y Mercado, March 2007. The highest percentage of popularity for Morales was in May 2006, after he nationalized the hydrocarbons industry. BIBLIOGRAPHY

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El Deber El Diario OAS News Bulletin El Tiempo La Tercera: CL La Prensa El Clarin EFE Última Hora Los Tiempos de Cochambamba

Web Sites BBC News Morales’s Website

Interviews Betilde Muñoz-Pogossian (in November 2004 in La Paz, Bolivia; unless stated otherwise) in conversation with

Aparicio, Jaime—ambassador of the Republic of Bolivia to the United States, Washington, DC, February 26. Arrien Sandoval, Oscar—MNR plurinominal deputy, and former president of the Chamber of Deputies 2001–2002. Börth, Carlos—researcher, and former senator and deputy (MIR/ADN). Eid Franco, Oscar—political strategist of the MIR. Fernández Saavedra, Gustavo—former minister of foreign affairs. Ferrufino, Alfonso—MBL militant, and former plurinominal deputy, former director of FUNDAPACC. Laserna, Roberto—professor, and director of the Conflict Research Institute, Cochabamba. Lazarte, Jorge—professor and former member of the National Electoral Court. Loayza, Rafael—advisor to former president Jorge Quiroga, November. Luna, Luis—director SUNY Bolivia. Müller, Herbert—former minister of finance. Pacheco, Napoleon—executive director of Fundación Milenio. Paz Ballivián, Ricardo—advisor to President Mesa for constitutional affairs, and former executive director of CONDEPA. Rojas-Ortuste, Gonzalo—professor and former member of the Secretariat for Popular Participation, 1993–1997. Romero Ballivian, Salvador—member of the National Electoral Court. Sánchez de Lozada, Gonzalo—former president of Bolivia, Washington, DC. 236 BIBLIOGR A PHY

Suarez, Manuel—advisor to former president Sánchez de Lozada, and plurinominal deputy 1997–2002. Toranzo, Carlos—professor, and director of the Latin American Institution for Social Research (ILDIS), November 2004, February 2005. Torrez, Andres—professor, Universidad Catolica de Bolivia.

Speech Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada. “Bolivia: Turning Point for Democracy?” October 17, 2003, Kay Spiritual Life Center. Event sponsored by the Office of International Affairs, the Center for Democracy and Election Management, and the School of International Service, American University. INDEX

1985 elections, 35–37 Asamblea Permanente de Derechos 1989 elections, 55–63 Humanos, 58 and the Chamber of Deputies, 37 Assembly for the Sovereignty of the campaign, 55–56 People (ASP), 24 main issues, 57 political marketing, 57 Ballot stuffing, 19 1993 elections, 81 Banzer-Quiroga administration, 15, characteristics of, 81 108, 109, 117, 120–121 composition of Congress, 87 and the Plan of the Four Pillars, participating parties, 111 117 results of, 82, 114 Black October, 1, 157 1994 constitutional reform, 24–25, Bolivian Communist Party, 24, 33 109 Bolivian Mining Corporation, 33, 2002 elections 45, 77 and Plan Bolivia, 154 Bolivian Revolution, 17–18, 28 and the campaign, 144 Bolivian Worker’s Union (Central and the composition of Congress, Obrera Boliviana-COB), 151–154 18, 33 electoral results, 149–150 and the Gas War, 171 2005 elections and street and strike politics, 76, characteristics of, 176–177 101 Congress, 180 BonoSol, 95, 169 parties participating, 176 results of, 178–181 Capitalization Law, 14 description of, 95–97 Agreements of February 5, Carlos Mesa, 1, 167, 168, 171, 172 1991, 22 cabinets, 168, 170 characteristics of, 85 resignation of, 175 Antonio Araníbar Quiroga, 19, Carlos Palenque “El Compadre,” 21, 55, 90 89, 90 Article 90 of the Constitution, 27, 28, and the 1989 elections, 58 84, 180, 196 Catholic Church, 22, 128 238 INDEX

Center for Peasant Research and Free Bolivia Movement party (MBL), Promotion (CIPCA), 91 22, 88–89 Central de Empresarios Bolivianos formation of, 34 (CEPB), 102, 104 Chaco War, 16, 17 Gas War, 15, 158, 164–167, 203 Chapare, 101, 121–122, 141 Coalitions, 13 Hernan Siles Zuazo, 16, 20, 31, 33 Conscience of the Motherland Historic Ratification of the Pact for (Consciencia de Patria- Democracy, 55 CONDEPA), 89, 90, 99, 100 breaking of, 56 formation of, 21 Suarez, 18, 20, 21, 31, and the 1989 elections, 58 34, 82 and the 1993 elections, 81–82 and the 1989 elections, 56 and coalition building, 87 election of, 26 and the Patriotic Accord, 65, 75 and the Pact for Democracy, 38 Constituent Assembly, 182, 205 and the Patriotic Accord, 66 approval of, 184 Hybrid presidentialism, 10 and the Special Law for the Call of a Hydrocarbons Law, 15, 100, 171–173, Constituent Assembly, 182–183 203 parties elected to, 182 Jaime Paz Zamora, 19, 21, 31, 99 “Damned laws,” 92 and the 1989 elections, 56 Decentralization Law, 97, 98, 101 Jefaturismo, 85 D’Hondt formula, 23, 25, 36, 48, 59, Juan Lechín, 16, 33, 76 86, 110, 151, 195, 197 and the odd divisor formula, 86 Law 1008 on Controlled Substances, 54 Dignity Plan, 15, 117, 120–126 Law for drinking water and sanitary Double-quotient formula, 48, 63 systems, 15, 118 formulation of, 119 Electoral dilemma (representativeness Tunari Waters, 119 vs. efficiency), 12–13, 194–195 and the Water War, 126–132 and the 2002 elections, 145 Law for the Application of Article 60, and the Bolivian electoral system, 25 187–188 , 16 and the Patriotic Accord, 75 Evo Morales, 1, 101, 120 Majoritarianism, 4, 13 election as president, 175 March for Life, 44, 76 election to Congress, 25 Max Fernández Rojas, 21, 22, 88, 90, and the Tropic Federation, 105, 107 54–55 and Max obras, 88 as uninominal deputy, 191 Megacoalition, 115, 121–126 Executive-legislative relations, 4, 6–7 characteristics, 122 and the Commitment for Bolivia, 116 Falange Socialista Boliviana, 36 negotiations for, 116 I NDEX 239

opposition to, 132–137 Organizaciones Territoriales de Base payoffs, 123 (OTBs), 93 Movement Toward Socialist Oscar Eid Franco, 19, 56, 72, 99 (Movimiento al Socialismo- MAS), 2 Pact for Change, 88–90 and the 2002 elections, 144, Pact for Democracy, 37–44 146 bargaining strategies, 48–49 and the 2005 campaign, 176–177 formation of, 38 and the Constituent Assembly, incentives for, 39–40 182–183 interpellation to, 45 election to Congress, 25 legislative leadership, 49 formation of, 24–25 Pact for Governance, 88–90 Parliamentarized presidentialism, 9 National Agreement for the Partido Demócrata Cristiano Modernization of the State, 24, (PDC), 36 109 Partido Obrero Revolucionario, 76 National Civic Union (UCN), 21 Patriotic Accord, 63 National Democratic Action party and the CONEPLAN (Consejo (Acción Democrática Nacional de Economía y Nacional-ADN), 11 Planificación), 70 formation of, 19 government sharing, 67 National Electoral Court negotiations for, 64–65 (CNE), 22 and the Political Council of the and the 1985 elections, 34 Patriotic Accord, 67–68, 72 and the 1989 elections, 61 positional payoffs, 72 and the 1993 elections, 81 Paz Estenssoro administration, 34 and the Band of the Four, cabinet formation, 50–54 60–63 main outcomes, 44 institutionalization of, 23, Paz Zamora administration, 55 28, 86 cabinets, 73 National Revolutionary Movement congressional results, 62 (Movimiento Nacional opposition to, 75 Revolucionario-MNR), 11 Plan for All (Plan de Todos), formation of, 16–17 111 New Economic Policy (Nueva Plan Nuevo (New Plan), 83 Política Económica-NPE), 14, Popular Democratic Unity 38, 41, 95 government (UDP), 31, 33, 38, formulation of, 41–44 41, 81 main objectives, 42 Popular Participation Law, 15 New Republican Force (Nueva description of, 91–95 Fuerza Republicana-NFR), 24, purpose of, 24 191 Presidentialism vs. parliamentarism, and the 2002 elections, 145 4–6, 12 and the Megacoalition, 124 and “the difficult combination,” 8 240 I N DEX

Privatization Law, 14 experience of uninominal deputies, main tenets, 70–72 140 and the state of siege, 69–70 uninominal circumscriptions, 26 and Supreme Decree 22407, 69 Solidarity Civic Union (UCS), 82, and the Paz Zamora administration, 89, 90, 105, 107 68 and the 2002 elections, 146 and coalition building, 87 Revolutionary Left Movement, 11 doctrine of, 22 and the 2002 elections, 145 formation of, 21 formation of, 18 Split vote (voto cruzado), 26, 140, 193 and the Megacoalition, 124 Tupac Katari Revolutionary Saint Lague formula, 23, 192, 195, Liberation Movement, 36, 197 46, 83 Sánchez de Lozada, 2, 15, 21, 27, 82, 99, 101 United Left (Izquierda Unida), 24, 58 and the 1989 elections, 55 and the 1993 elections, 113–115 Victor Hugo Cárdenas, 46, 83 cabinets, 103–106 Victor Paz Estenssoro, 16, 20, 31, 33 and the Pact for Democracy, 45 Vigilance Committees (VCs), 91 and the Plan for All, 84 Single Member District (SMD), 2 Walter Guevara Arce, 16, 20, 31, 33 and the 1997 elections, 113–115 , 16 and the 2005 elections, 185–192 Washington Consensus, 44, 70 description of, 26 Water War, 126