ueDavis June cieyrpitdi ayprso h ibre notelt wnit etr (Blundell century were twentieth and late Morwood years the 2000 into 2005; Kimberley last Woolagoodja the the of in & parts appear many first in Wanjinas repainted as actively known images painted classic The Introduction O’Connor Sue Australia Kimberley, of southern art the rock recent the in continuity and Change resistance? Marking 5 4 3 mouth, of lack and 2 The eyes life. prominent all pose, Wanjinas of frontal regeneration sacred full the the their 1 and hunting, with monsoon Wanjinas communal the of undertake of numbers impact to coming large visual the and When ensure grass to renewal. the retouched landscape burn were to of met context men the of within place taking traditionally Keywords: ANTIQUITY  C niut ulctosLtd. Publications Antiquity ib omnt,P o 5 izo rsig A66,Australia 6765, WA Crossing, Fitzroy Australia 75, 6765, Box WA PO Crossing, Community, Fitzroy Mimbi [email protected]) 322, (Email: Box Australia PO 6765, Community, WA Muludja Crossing, Crawley, Fitzroy Highway, Stirling 43, 35 Box Australia, [email protected]) PO Western [email protected]; of (Email: University Australia Sciences, 6009, ACT Social WA University, of National School Australian M405, The Pacific, Archaeology the [email protected]) and (Email: Asia Australia of 0200, College History, Natural and Archaeology 7(03:5954http://antiquity.ac.uk/ant/087/ant0870539.htm 539–554 (2013): 87 utai,Kmely otc eid okart rock period, Contact Kimberley, Australia, 4 ee Malo Helen , 1 0km aeBalme Jane , Canberra 4 oeayNuggett Rosemary , tal et 2 ,JaneFyfe 2000 00.Budl 17)dsrbsrpitn as repainting describes (1974) Blundell 2010). . N 539 rmerirtimes. themes earlier traditional from restating and land-taking recalling European the by to of to response artists belong the Indigenous represent to and shown period Contact are These dresses. head- elaborate featuring with figures images anthropomorphic scratch-work Australia—black and Western pigment in and Lennard rivers the along Fitzroy art rock of kinds define new authors the survey, recent by Enhanced 2 ,JuneOscar 5 ooh Surprise Dorothy & 3 oaOscar Mona , 3 5 ,

Research Marking resistance? and the highly decorative quality of Wanjina-associated imagery, has led to the impression of stylistic unity in the recent art tradition of the Kimberley region of northern Australia (Rosenfeld 1997). This impression is, however, somewhat misleading and has resulted in other styles being overlooked. This paper presents a preliminary description of two other forms of art from the south-central Kimberley that have not been previously recorded: black dry pigment and fine scratch-work images and markings. Both styles were recorded in the traditional lands of the Bunuba and , some of whom are co-authors of this paper and have provided local knowledge about the art. While not directly dated, many of the drawn charcoal and scratched graphics appear, on the basis of superimposition and oral tradition, to be synchronous with, or to post-date, Wanjina imagery. Although the drawn charcoal and scratched graphics we describe here do not occur in all shelters or caves with art, both styles are sufficiently common across a region spanning more than 20 000km2 to suggest that they can be viewed as regionally important. The drawn black pigment art has strong parallels with the dry pigment Contact art described by Smith & Rosenfeld (1992: 12) and Frederick (1999) for the Watarrka National Park region of central Australia. Similar scratch-work has been recorded in the West Baines region of the Victoria River District of the , where McNickle (1991) suggests (on the basis of the motifs including horses, people on horse-back and a helicopter) that they relate to the period after European contact. In the Keep River region, also to the north-east, Tac¸on et al. (2003) have recorded scratch-work art as the most recent art. Scratch-work and charcoal motifs have also recently been identified on the survey (Veth pers. comm.). In the Kimberley region these two rock art styles may well have gone unrecorded because they do not have the stylistic unity commanded by the Wanjinas and do not depict Europeans—so are not instantly recognisable as Contact-themed art. We suggest that they nevertheless belong to the Contact period and that the concentration on themes of ceremony and continuity in traditional motifs may have been influenced by the particularly violent history of this region.

Rock art research in the Kimberley Devonian Reef region The Devonian Reef complex discussed in this paper is represented by a number of ranges including the Oscar and Napier Ranges in the west and the Mueller and Sparke Ranges in the east (Figure 1). The boundary between Bunuba lands to the west and Gooniyandi lands to the east is close to the Fitzroy River. The rock art of the Kimberley region is best known for the diminutive and beautifully crafted Gwion Gwion figures (previously known as Bradshaw figures) (see McNiven 2011 for an overview of the history of Gwion Gwion research), and the visually powerful Wanjinas (Crawford 1968). The Gwion Gwions are spatially restricted to the northern Kimberley (Crawford 1968: 82; Layton 1992: 235–36; Welch 1993; Morwood et al. 2010). None has been reported from the southern Kimberley region between Derby and Fitzroy Crossing where Wanjinas and associated graphics are the dominant rock art tradition (Crawford 1968). C Antiquity Publications Ltd.

540 odhmta n a ravr iie ubro e eecoe opitec ie In site. each paint to art”. chosen this were made men ancestors “our of said number people 29) limited (2007: Aboriginal Woolagoodja very paintings, that Wanjina a to records or reference man example, one for 471; that 37–38, 49), him 33, (1968: 21, told that 1992: Crawford acknowledging (Layton 29). people people by 1992: of painted Watchman records even or also retouched are regularly There were they perspective). Indigenous an for 1988 ohv encetdb uasbtrte ohv u hmevso h ok(Capell rock the Mowaljarlai on in themselves Mowaljarlai put and 304 have 1972: to Crawford rather 8–9; but 1956: humans Saddlers Schulz at 390; believed by Akerman not 1939: created are by paintings been recorded Wanjina those tradition, have 141), as oral to 2007: to such According shoulders, (Playford 2b). full-bodied (Tangalma) and (Figure large head Iminji 1 both Springs, or Gap as head Carpenter’s occur simple They at as mouth. Waliarri and a the lack as which but such faces and nose and individuals, powerful infill, a line visually and radiating eyes are with include often country 2a), that (Figure Bunuba heads in haloed having those Akerman figures, 2009), & distinctive Ryan not O’Connor 1968; do & (Crawford Kimberley Frederick but the Waliarri), 1993; in as Owners. elsewhere Traditional recorded Gooniyandi them Wanjinas current the to to Like according refer country (who Gooniyandi into Bunuba east and extend with associated lands iue1 h ot-eta ibre,cvrn uuaadGoiad country. Gooniyandi and Bunuba covering Kimberley, south-central The 1. Figure ajnsocri hlesadcvsi h sa n airRne hogotthe throughout Ranges Napier and Oscar the in caves and shelters in occur Wanjinas u O’Connor Sue 541 tal. et  C niut ulctosLtd. Publications Antiquity tal et .

Research Marking resistance?

Figure 2. (a) Wanjina with black cockatoo feathers painted in Otilyiyalyangngarri Cave, Mount Barnett (photo by Kim Akerman, 13 April 1985); (b) detail of small Wanjina faces at Saddlers Springs, Iminji (photo by Kim Akerman, November 1973).

Other motifs associated with Wanjinas include a variety of animals and plants, particularly yams (see images in Crawford 1968). Although little has been recorded about the tradition in Bunuba country, in other regions the animals and plants that occur alongside a Wanjina are known to feature in the particular mythic creation events and exploits associated with the individual Wanjina in the shelter (Crawford 1968; Akerman 2009). In Bunuba country, animals that commonly occur in Wanjina caves include crocodiles, lizards including monitors, long neck turtles, dogs, birds, fish and eels. Several sites with Wanjina art include C Antiquity Publications Ltd.

542 prt’woaercn riasfo ij onr ntenrh ntecus ftheir of course the In north. the in country ‘cheeky as Gidja Owners from Traditional the arrivals by recent described are are who Djuari 3b). spirits’ (Figure Djuari as anthropomorphic at Owners large as depicting regarded cline be stylistic may east figures to Such west feathers 2a). a Figure in cockatoo forms. (see 1948: continuum black 15) the (Elkin and 2009: of lightning end Akerman red with one 11, the associated & and to 10 head-dress, figs. similar Wanjina 14; very the look in Waliarri shown that this commonly adornments lines, radiating old-style head with “typical head-dress two a prominent a a as has as as it Playford well identify As authors by Gooniyandi figure. described our dancing Waliarri and was 8.35), type fig. 147–148, this 2007: figures country, Wanjina (Playford Wandjina” Kimberley Bunuba western in are with those similarities which fewer than of share they both Although Ungud, 3a). (Figure and Wanjina of concept the monsoon. Akerman the of 103). with 1968: associated fluidity (Crawford Ungud) the as discusses to referred (2009) (usually serpents rainbow or snakes using enhanced Images country. Gooniyandi in Rock Painted at figure Djuari (b) and J/DStretch. figure Image dancing Waliarri (a) 3. Figure h airifiueocr lnsd te ag nhooopsietfidb Traditional by identified anthropomorphs large other alongside occurs figure Waliarri The occur also head-dresses rayed with anthropomorphs large country Gooniyandi In u O’Connor Sue 543 tal. et  C niut ulctosLtd. Publications Antiquity

Research Marking resistance?

travels the Djuari created a wide ‘pathway like an orchard’ as they walked. These malicious looking beings are characterised by having two long ears/horns/head- dress/feathers on their heads. The relation- ship between these and the depictions of dangerous ghosts in the western Kimberley that Crawford (1968: 93) was told were also called Djuari is unclear. Contact art featuring European subjects, such as people wearing clothing or introduced animals and objects, does occur in the region but is rare compared to Figure 4. Painted art showing European motifs and Arnhem Land in the north (May et al. introduced animals at Mimbi in Gooniyandi country. 2010) and parts of the Pilbara to the south (Paterson & Wilson 2009). Playford (2007: 150, fig. 8.40) records one of the few examples in Gooniyandi country near Mimbi Caves. It includes images of a camel, a horse, a carriage, car or tram, a man wearing a hat, the initials CPLE and a ship, which may be a screw steamer as it has what appears to be a trail of steam or smoke emerging from a central funnel (Figure 4). The hat in question could be a top hat but it is also very like a tall, probably felt, hat similar to that worn by an Aboriginal man in a photograph taken between 1920 and 1936 and labelled ‘southern Kimberley’ in the Charles Edward Flinders collection of Kimberley photographs held in the Battye Library (Album BA1459). Together the steamer, the hat and carriage/car types suggest a late nineteenth to early twentieth century date for the art.

Black dry pigment art We recorded possible images of Europeans in Contact art executed in dry black pigment at Darrananna, a cave site in Bunuba country. Amongst drawings in dry black pigment is an image of a person wearing what appears to be a brimmed hat but may be a head decoration. The drawings are mostly diminutive, contrasting markedly with the large, bold Wanjina-style graphics that are executed in wet pigment and applied onto a matte white background. In many cases the drawn black pigment motifs are indistinct and where multiple motifs occur on a single panel they often seem to lack overall compositional structure. Black drawn motifs include scored lines and meanders (Figure 5a), amorphous shapes and anthropomorphs, some with head-dresses (Figure 5b). Hand stencils are common in the painted art but in the black drawn pigment art they are replaced with hand outlines (Figure 5c). Another feature of this art is that it often appears to have been used in re-marking existing motifs by outlining the painted figures or highlighting or refreshing certain features of painted figures. Some Wanjinas, such as the one at Carpenter’s Gap 1, have been outlined or re-marked in charcoal (Figures 6a & b). Other painted motifs have been augmented with the later addition of new features in black pigment. Figures 6c & d show varying degrees of C Antiquity Publications Ltd.

544 iue5 r lc imn r:()aopossae;()atrpmrh c adsecl mgs()ad()enhanced (c) and (a) Images stencil. hand J/DStretch. (c) Image anthropomorph; using (b) (b) shapes; and amorphous tools, (a) Photoshop art: Adobe pigment using black Dry 5. Figure Fgr b.Asre flnsetnigvrial rmtetpo h edde o appear not does head the body of the top of the from parts existing an vertically outline of extending country, to lines and top Bunuba of features on series facial in applied A the site 7b). refresh pigment (Figure or another black highlight drawn At to pigment has Spring. painted pigment Elimberrie orange at in example anthropomorph such one shapes shows and lines drawn with Spring. one Elimberrie existing as an known refresh shelter or the image at new a create either to addition h diino eddessi lc imn oodrpitnsi omn iue7a Figure common. is paintings older to pigment black in head-dresses of addition The u O’Connor Sue 545 tal. et  C niut ulctosLtd. Publications Antiquity

Research Marking resistance?

Figure 6. Dry black pigment art added to older art: (a & b) Wanjina from Carpenter’s Gap 1 remarked and outlined; (c) anthropomorph with additions and highlights in black pigment; and (d) with internal features on the body added, outline and rayed head-dress drawn in narrow lines of black pigment on figures at Elimberrie Spring. Images b, c & d are enhanced, and drawn black lines highlighted, using Adobe Photoshop layers and tools. to superimpose any previous such lines and suggest the later addition of a head-dress similar to the rayed head-dresses of Wanjinas. The arrangement of the facial features of this figure also suggests similarity to the Wanjina-style figures found in Bunuba country, with two large solid-fill circle variants joined by an upward opening arc. A few of the dry pigment anthropomorphs have heads haloed with rayed head-dresses which also seem to reference those depicted on the wet pigment Wanjinas in this region. Figure 7c, for example, shows a small full-frontal black drawn anthropomorph with head-dress. In Figure 7d, a Wanjina-style figure has been drawn in charcoal over an existing red pigment lizard/crocodile. While the scratched and black pigment art seems to be the most recent art of the area, in some places it is evident that painting using ochres is either contemporary with, or more recent than, the black drawn figures. For example at Elimberrie Spring, a 22cm high anthropomorph has been drawn with a small hat, or head-dress, to the left of two arced lines and indeterminate black drawn shapes that may at one time have formed another C Antiquity Publications Ltd.

546 iue7 r lc imn r sdt d eddesst le r:()atrpmrha lmereSpring; Elimberrie at Creek; anthropomorph Tunnel to (a) close art: rockshelter using a older enhanced images at All to Creek. anthropomorph Tunnel Photoshop. of head-dresses (c) Adobe south-west crocodile in country; add ochre tools red Bunuba and large to layers on in superimposed Wanjina used site drawn of unnamed art detail (d) an pigment at anthropomorph black (b) Dry 7. Figure u O’Connor Sue 547 tal. et  C niut ulctosLtd. Publications Antiquity

Research Marking resistance?

Figure 8. Painted art superimposed on black pigment drawn art at (a) Elimberrie Spring and (b) . Both images enhanced using layers and tools in Adobe Photoshop.

figure (Figure 8a). The indeterminate markings are drawn over remnants of a red pigment motif that shows through the gaps in the drawing. These markings are representative of a number of drawings at this site where red, white and orange figures are interspersed with and superimposed on one another and on black drawn figures. Figure 8b shows a black drawn anthropomorph superimposed by a red figure.

Fine scratch-work art Scratch-work art has been created by incising the limestone surfaces, but the incisions are fine and the depth minimal, suggesting that they were created by scratching the surface with a hard sharp object. Although the incisions are shallow, by removing the dark grey weathered surface of the limestone to expose the underlying white stone, the artists have managed to create contrast without depth. Because many of the scratches are narrow with sharp acute angles at their edges with the parent rock, it is likely that they were made with metal tools such as screwdrivers, fencing wire or knife blades. As discussed below, this is consistent with information given to one of the authors (S.O.) in 1993 by senior Traditional Owners (now deceased) of this country, who had been employed as stockmen. Examples of scratch-work art identified during the 2011 survey include the small cave designated as Stumpy’s Soak 1. This site contains many scratched motifs including three anthropomorphs (Figures 9a & b) with conical head-dresses (or dressed hair arrangements) shown holding implements or weapons, birds that resemble emus, and other motifs that may be plants or ceremonial regalia. About 0.2m to the right of these are some scratch- work figures that superimpose an ochre painting of an anthropomorph. Close examination suggests that they resemble grass trees (Xanthorrhoea) or a stylised boab (Adansonia gregorii); C Antiquity Publications Ltd.

548 fpitdWnia.Tefiuei atal ueipsdb ht cr anthropomorph, ochre white a by torso superimposed the partially on is seen figure those to The and Wanjinas. similar torso, painted feather division wide of chest-like rounded cockatoo a figure a creating the forming a line of lines discontinuous be vertical base deeper with one The to anthropomorph 2a. Wanjina-style the appears Figure of a in what body shown possibly the shows forms those figure, referencing 10b head-dress, a Figure the form from in to emerging image combine enhanced the that The of lines figure. heat century. scratched the nineteenth narrow in late down and the cool from light to station pastoral came the people system. on where work’ symbolic place ‘cattle a in and engaged but stylistic that while site suggested day habitation same visited a was the not cave reference this was when it but present Owners art Traditional they the indicates painted that from anthropomorphs but Information the fact painted figures the after The of painted created posture art. red and were painted over subject scratch- the the superimposed reproduce and over clearly to motifs appear executed painted are where are anthropomorphs cases scratch-work images all In the scratch-work 9c). the (Figure area overlap, the work in prolific are latter the & b or Images head-dresses anthropomorph. an conical Photoshop. of with Adobe painting in anthropomorphs ochre tools b) an and superimpose & layers that (a using shapes country: enhanced infilled Bunuba c and rays 1, (c) Soak Stumpy’s arrangements; hair from dressed art Scratch-work 9. Figure lmeresetras a ag oyo ih cac-okat iue1asosmany shows 10a Figure art. scratch-work light of body large a has also shelter Elimberrie u O’Connor Sue 549 tal. et  C niut ulctosLtd. Publications Antiquity

Research Marking resistance?

Figure 10. Scratch-work art from Elimberrie Spring: (a) Wanjina-style anthropomorph; (b) scratch-work in 10a highlighted using magic wand and infill tools in Adobe Photoshop; (c) white painted anthropomorph partially superimposed over scratch-work anthropomorph with head-dress. with vertical extensions that may be interpreted as a head-dress (Figure 10c). The ochre anthropomorph is inverted, which may indicate a deceased person or spirit according to Bunuba Traditional Owners.

Context The superimposition of the black pigment and scratch-work art indicates that it is some of the most recent art of the region, and contemporary information suggests that at least some, if not all, may relate to the Contact period. The Contact period in the Kimberley, especially the southern Kimberley, was particularly violent. The first British expedition into the Kimberley was led by George Grey and began in 1837, some 10 years after the first British settlement in at King George Sound. He describes poor relations with the Aboriginal people, and on February 11 reported a skirmish in which he was wounded and an Aboriginal man killed (Grey 1841)—violence that was to mark early European expansion into the Kimberley. European expansion into the south-central part of the Kimberley began after Alexander Forrest’s favourable reports following his 1879 expedition south of the Leopold Range and adjacent to the Fitzroy River. Large tracts of land were taken up very quickly after land was released for settlement in 1881. Durack and Emanuel claimed a holding of a million acres on the Fitzroy River in 1882 (Taylor 1984: 160). In Bunuba country, William Forrester established Lillimooloora, a one million acre property stocked with 60 000 sheep, in 1884. In the space of a few short years the Aboriginal people of this area lost control of their land and resources. The period of European contact from first settlement to about 1920 is often referred to by Kimberley Aboriginal people as the “killing times” (Kimberley Language Resource Centre 1996), and the first recorded casualty of the south-central region occurred in 1882, almost immediately after settlement (Pedersen & Woorunmurra 1995). Despite the difficulty of C Antiquity Publications Ltd.

550 hroldaig aigbe aeb e w aiymmeswe hyto holidays took they site. when the members visited family and black own work recalled senior her station similarly as by from Oscar roles made Mona been their Darrananna, having cave and drawings the country Traditional visiting charcoal the by when to 2011, undertaken obligations In were men. ritual they to law their unable that fulfilling were stated were and He who droving sources. cattle Owners had in ochre rayed images engaged traditional the these were their that they referenced while access noted that men Oscar Bunuba Billy head-dresses by Wanjinas. have created painted been of to heads seemed and the figures pigment surrounding halos scratched dry themes, black small similar of portrayed some images number and these a dualistic, visually noted senior While the S.O. anthropomorphs. of one scratched author with Oscar, 1993 in Billy Station Downs Owners, Leopold Traditional on survey a as During until art. scratch-work 1987) (Rowse 1996). ‘outsiders’ Centre as Resource Indigenous Language remained Many (Kimberley and 1950s 85). stations the 1987: the as (Rowse of late attractive draw labour their the more white with resisted made labour there 1890s people work Aboriginal camped the this of stations and rush for the scarcer gold Payment on Kalgoorlie even 1954). worked The working. who (Bolton were people east they the while the families worked and to they rations stockmen in where and largely 1980) west was Pedersen the & to (Bolton shepherds stations Valley as Fitzroy the & in (Pedersen Island incorporated Rottnest at hanged with and interfering sexually in for trial 25). public 1882 1995: a in Woorunmurra to manager Nyikina subjected station A was law. Anderson wife the by Mt his severely report the with to dealt speared not were who police they pastoralists the man by for people reprisals Aboriginal tendency in When a killed 21). 1977: not was (Gill were there people hit century accidently the shots warning of when turn incidents the at nine and 109) of 2003: shootings the Clement record in cited which 1808/1895, 1895, 430, 13). Acc for 2010: Department Department Police Police AN5/1, (SROWA, the individuals of Records State fpol nGoiad onr nteMrae ie eini elkonstory well-known a is region River Margaret Nuggett (Rosemary the murder today the in people example, Gooniyandi country For by Gooniyandi records. told government in by killing people for substantiated of women. reprisals often Aboriginal as with are involved were were traditions who killings men Oral European these killing for of or Most stock, or Centre 2005). Europeans Resource Woolagoodja Language & Kimberley Blundell 1995; traditions Woorunmurra 1996; oral & in remain Pedersen stories 1989; the (Ross and recorded today been have many killings, of records keeping h aarabakpgetati o oiae yeoi ritoue objects/subjects, introduced or Although exotic 140). by (1999: dominated production” not of is frequency art changes the Frederick corresponding pigment in and black assemblage, and Watarrka production NP the graphics art Watarrka of of the technique structuring in and the art “media in in pigment shift dry formal black a the notes of discussion her In Discussion otmoayifrainidctsacniun urnyfrtedypgetand pigment dry the for currency continuing a indicates information Contemporary becoming also were people Aboriginal conflict, of years the during violence the Despite (Owen lesson” a them “giving as sanctioned were people Aboriginal against acts Violent u O’Connor Sue 551 tal. et es comm pers. ) ti upre ythe by supported is It .).  C niut ulctosLtd. Publications Antiquity

Research Marking resistance?

Figure 11. Aboriginal people of the ‘southern Kimberley’ dressed for ceremony with conical head-dresses. Photograph taken between 1920 and 1936; from the Charles Edward Flinders collection of Kimberley photographs held in the Battye Library (Album BA1459).

Frederick argues that they were produced in the Contact period and therefore record a general process of change associated with the arrival of Europeans. She suggests that the change in graphic systems may have resulted from a number of causes such as change in the use of landscape due to changing access to resources caused by the impingement of colonial forces or other constraints imposed by contact (1999: 141). She notes that this change in the graphic system may not be unique to the Watarrka region but may occur throughout central Australia. Our preliminary survey extends this observation and suggests that these changes may be even more widespread. In the south-central Kimberley a shift in media and technique associated with the Contact period seems to be towards a greater use of black pigment and scratch-work instead of ochres. However, rather than new motifs representing European objects or people, artists here emphasised traditions of older art, as indicated by animals, a range of plants and anthropomorphs, often with geometric markings and head-dresses. The head-dresses are of the same conical style documented for this area at Contact (Figure 11). In Arnhem Land, where hundreds of images marking contact between Indigenous people and Southeast Asian boat crews occur (Tac¸on et al. 2010), there is good historical documentation to show that this relationship was one where Indigenous people benefited through the provision of Asian and European goods in exchange for access to trepang and other resources which held no value for them. Additionally, while the settlers of the central Kimberley plains came to stay and usurped the land, the Macassans camped only for a part of the year and brought many of their own staples to exchange. In contrast, it seems likely that the Bunuba were less attracted by the Europeans and by the objects that were the instruments of their control, perhaps associating these symbols with raids, death, theft of land and the despoilment of their sacred sites. Both those in hiding and those living and working on pastoral stations would have had only limited access C Antiquity Publications Ltd.

552 B A B B B References Linkage the submitting KFA. before the Owners Traditional by to Gooniyandi funded 2010 and were and Bunuba application 2009 with in proposal fieldtrips research Department earlier the Two the discuss (SEWPAC). and Linkage Communities (KFA) Council and Australia Research Populations Foundation Australian Water, the Sustainability, Kimberley by of the funded from was and contributions 2011 with in LP100200415 out Grant carried was paper this for fieldwork The Acknowledgements further require graphic clearly recorded that newly art The of bodies change. coherent violent identity form and documentation. Kimberley and dramatic southern pre- cohesion the of of social of time maintenance systems that this on suggests at emphasis the people’s dress, important to context, was ceremonial this led including In have motifs, techniques pigment. and may European require charcoal that case not this resources did materials—in accessible that to and abundant some access more of least reduced use at greater probably that movement appears free it art. people’s Wanjina certain, post-date, or be with, to contemporary needed are that graphics is and these dating graffiti, of motifs. found examples and for scratch-work and are work mistaken overlooked pigment or black they further been dry graphics Although sites, more have Wanjina-style many systems all uncover of will graphic in dominance survey these comprehensive visual found that the not believe to We are due region. scratch-work broad and a art throughout drawn black Although Conclusion the and production, curtailed. artistic been have and would ritual painting for in needed out materials played other responsibilities ceremonial and ochre of supplies to OLTON OLTON LUNDELL LUNDELL KERMAN h atclryvoetstlmn n ai aduupto htafce Aboriginal affected that usurpation land rapid and settlement violent particularly The otws Australia. northwest splmn:fsshitisei oo fCetrS. Chester 213–23. of Chard): honor in issue festschrift (supplement: nvriySuisi itr n Economics 7–53. and History in Studies University 5–21. Society Historical Australian Western Royal GoGo. and Nookanbah of ibre onaino Australia. of Foundation the Kimberley for report Unpublished paper. Foundation scoping Kimberley A date. to knowledge adia fresh Wandjinas ,G.C.&H.P industry. pastoral Kimberley The 1954. G.C. , .20.Wnjnsasnpi of synopsis Wandjinas—a 2009. K. , ,V.&D.W of paintings cave Wandjina The 1974. V. , rmnl:FeatePress. Fremantle Fremantle: . EDERSEN OOLAGOODJA rtcAnthropology Arctic al as ora fthe of Journal Days: Early 90 h Emanuels The 1980. . 2005. . epn the Keeping 11 8(4): 2(2): u O’Connor Sue 553 C C E art, rock Aboriginal in change and Function 1972. – F C REDERICK LKIN RAWFORD LEMENT APELL tal. et Clement.pdf file0015/2409/Dr at www.nma.gov.au/data/assets/pdf Available Canberra. Australia, of National Museum the for prepared Report programs submission. public and exhibitions of review etr Australia. Western Oxford. Melbourne: ot-etAustralia. north-west rhelg nOceania in Archaeology Australia. central of Park, National art Watarrka rock the through contact constructing aepitnsre-found. cave-paintings ..14.Ge’ otenKimberley northern Grey’s 1948. A.P. , .13.Mtooyi otenKimberley, northern in Mythology 1939. A. , .21.Ntoa uemo Australia of Museum National 2010. C. , .19.A h eteo tall: it of centre the At 1999. U. , ..1968. I.M. , ol Archaeology World  h r fteWandjina the of art The C Oceania niut ulctosLtd. Publications Antiquity 4 132–44. 34: Oceania () 382–404. 9(4): 91:1–15. 19(1): () 301–12. 3(3): .

Research Marking resistance?

FREDERICK, U. & S. O’CONNOR. 2009. Wandjina, ROSENFELD, A. 1997. Archaeological signatures of the graffiti and heritage: the power and politics of social production of rock art, in M. Conkey, O. enduring imagery. Humanities Research 15(2): Soffer, D. Stratmann & N.G. Jablonski (ed.) 153–83. Beyond art: Pleistocene image and symbol: 289–300. GILL, A. 1977. Aborigines, settlers and the police San Francisco: University of California Press. 1887–1905. Studies in Western Australian History 1: ROSS, H. (ed.). 1989. Impact stories of the east 1–28. Kimberley (East Kimberley Working Paper No. GREY, G. 1841. Journals of two expeditions of discovery in 28). Canberra: CRES, ANU. north-west and western Australia during the years ROWSE, T. 1987. ‘Were you ever savages?’: Aboriginal 1837, 1838 and 1839. London: T. & W. Boone. insiders and pastoralists’ patronage. Oceania 58(2): Kimberley Language Resource Centre. 1996. Moola 81–99. Bulla, in the shadow of the mountain: oral histories RYAN,J.&K.AKERMAN (ed.). 1993. Images of power, from the people of the East Kimberley. Broome: Aboriginal art of the Kimberley. Melbourne: Magabala. National Gallery of Victoria. LAYTON, R. 1992. Australian rock art: a new synthesis. SCHULZ, A.S. 1956. North-west Australian rock Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. paintings. Memoirs of the National Museum of MAY, S.K., P.S.C. TAC¸ON,D.WESLEY &M.TRAVERS. Victoria 20: 7–57. 2010. Painting history: indigenous observations and SMITH, M.A. & A. ROSENFELD 1992. Archaeological depictions of the ‘other’ in northwestern Arnhem sites in Watarrka National Park: the northern sector Land, Australia. Australian Archaeology 71: 57–65. of the plateau. Report prepared for the MCNICKLE, H.P. 1991. A survey of rock art in the Conservation Commission of the Northern Victoria River district, Northern Territory. Rock Art Territory, Darwin. Research 8: 36–46. TAC¸ON,P.,K.MULVANEY,S.OUZMAN,R.FULLAGAR, MCNIVEN, I. 2011. The Bradshaw debate: lessons L.M HEAD &P.CARLTON. 2003. Changing learned from critiquing colonialist interpretations ecological concerns in rock-art subject matter of of Gwion Gwion rock paintings of the Kimberley, north Australia’s Keep River region. Before Farming Western Australia. Australian Archaeology 72: 3(4): 1–14. 35–44. TAC¸ON,P.,S.MAY,S.J.FALLON,M.TRAVERS,D. MORWOOD, M.J., G.L. WALSH & A.L. WATCHMAN. WESLEY &R.LAMILAMI. 2010. A minimum age for 2010. AMS radiocarbon ages for beeswax and early depictions of southeast Asian praus in the rock charcoal pigments in north Kimberley rock art. art of Arnhem Land, Northern Territory. Australian Rock Art Research 27(1): 3–8. Archaeology 71: 1–10. MOWALJARLAI,D.,P.VINNICOMBE,G.K.WARD &C. TAYLOR, P. 1984. Pastoral properties of Australia.Sydney: CHIPPINDALE. 1988. Repainting of images on rock George, Allen & Unwin. in Australia and the maintenance of Aboriginal WATCHMAN, A. 1992. Repainting or periodic-painting culture. Antiquity 62: 690–96. at Australian Aboriginal sites: evidence from rock OWEN, C. 2003. ‘The police appear to be a useless lot surface crusts, in G. Ward (ed.) Retouch: up there’: law and order in the east Kimberley. maintenance of Aboriginal rock imagery. Proceedings Aboriginal History 27: 105–30. of Symposium O—Retouch. First Congress of the Australian Rock Art Research Association, Darwin PATERSON,A.&A.WILSON. 2009. Indigenous 1988 (Occasional AURA Publication 5): 26–30. perceptions of contact at Inthanoona, northwest Melbourne: Australian Rock Art Research Western Australia. Archaeology in Oceania 44 Association. (supplement): 99–111. WELCH, D. 1993. Stylistic change in Kimberley rock PEDERSEN,H.&B.WOORUNMURRA. 1995. art, Australia, in P.G. Bahn & M. Lorblanchet (ed.) and the Bunuba resistance. Broome: Magabala. Rock art studies: the post-stylistic era or where do we go PLAYFORD, P.E. 2007. Aboriginal rock art in the from here?: 99–113. Oxford: Oxbow. limestone ranges of the west Kimberley, in M.J. WOOLAGOODJA, D. 2007. Rock art as inspiration for Donaldson & K.F. Kenneally (ed.) Rock art of the contemporary Aboriginal painting, in M.J. Kimberley: 127–58. Perth: Kimberley Society. Donaldson & K.F. Kenneally (ed.) Rock art of the Kimberley: 25–38. Perth: Kimberley Society.

Received: 23 May 2012; Accepted: 8 August 2012; Revised: 5 September 2012

C Antiquity Publications Ltd.

554