DOCUMENT RESUME
ED 260 000 SO 016 725
AUTHOR Albert, Renaud S., Comp. TITLE A Franco-American Overview. Volume 1. INSTiTUTION Natipnal Assessment and Dissemination Center for Bilingual Education, .Cambridge, Mass.; National, Materials Development eenter for French and Portuguese, Bedford, N.H. SPONS AGENCY Department of Education, Washington, DC. .REPORT NO ISBN-0-89857-107-3 PUB DATE 79 NOTE 308p.; For the other volumes in this series. see SO 016 726-730. PUB TYPE Viewpoints (120) Historical Materials (060) Collected W5rks General (020)
EDRS PRICE MF01/PC13 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS *Acculturation; Biculturalism; *Cross Cultural Studies; *Cultural Education; *Cultural Influences; Cultural Pluralism; Culture; Ethnic Groups; Migration; Social History; Social Studies; Subcultures; United States History IDENTIFIERS AcOians; *Franco Americans; French (Cajun); French (Haitian); French Creole; *French Culture; Huguenots; Louisiana; Maine; New Hampshire; Vermont
ABSTRACT Infended to help readers develop an appreciation of the contributions of Franco-Americans to thecultural heritage of the United States, tipis book, the first of six volumes, presents14 readings representing many perspectives--f om thehibtorical to the sociological -- illustrating the thinking an feelings of those in the forefront of Franco-American studies. Thi olume includes the/ following articles: "What is an American?" (MadeleineGiguere); "One-s, Piece in the Great American Mosaic" (Robert Perreault);"Louisiana's French Heritage" (Truman Stacey); "Haiti"(Thomas E. Weil); "The Huguenots" (Marie-Reine Mikesell); ."The Acadians ofMaine" (Julie Rapid 7 Albert); "The French in Vermont" (Peter Woolfson); "The Assimilation of Canadian French in Northern Vermont"(Peter Woolfson); "The Franco-American Heritage in Manchester, New jHampshire" (Thaddeus M. Piotrowski); "A History ofFranco-American ournalism" (Paul Pari); "Bilingual Living" (Normand C.Dube); "Cajun French and French Creole: Their Speakers and theQuestions of Identities" (Dorice Tentchoff); "La Cuisine Chez-Nous"("Our Cuisine", Sr. Marguerite Cyr); and "Louisiana'sCreole-Acadian Cuisine" (Ernest Gueymard). (LH)
****************************x***************************************** Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best thatt can be made from the original document. ********************************************************************** .
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1. .1- ' .4. A FRANCO-AMERICAN OVERVIEW
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Published by National Assessment and Dissemination Center, ESEA Title VII Lesley College, 49 Washington Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02140 Developed by National Materials Development Center for French 168 South River Road. Bedford, New liempshire 03102 International Standard Book Number 0-89857-107-3 44 Published May 1979 \-N Printed in the United States of America 'ne activity which is the subject of this publication was supported in whole or Owl by the Office of Education U S Department of Health Education and Welfare However the opinions expressed hPrein.do not necessarily reflect the Position of policy of the Office of Education. and no official endorsement by the Office of Education should be inferred The National Assessment and Dissemination Culler for Bilinguallducation is a special ESEA Title kni project unded by the U S Office of Education through esley College Cambridge Mass. and the Fall River Public School System this publication was developed and printed with funds provided by Title VII of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act 01 1965 as amended 04
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INTRODUCTION
This guide is intended for the use of those who wish to find out abgut 6r to extend their awareness of le fait franco-americain in sthe United States today. The selections chosen for this guide represent many perspectivesfrom the historical through the cultural to the sociological T and illustrate the thinking and the feelings of those who are in the forefront of Franco-American studies. We hope that through is guide the reader will develop an appreciation of the contributipns of the Frafice- Americans to the cultural heritage ofour United States.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS 4 I Chapter t. Page
Introduction Lu
I What is an American? Madeleine Giguere 1
One Piece in the Great American Mosaic / Robert ferreault 7 4. . III' Louisiana's French Heritage Truman Stacey 58
IV Haiti Thomas E Well 124 z V The Huguenots Marie-Reine Mikesell 146
VI The Acadians of Maine Julie Albert 151
VII The French ir. VermOnt Peter Woolfson 207 VIII The Rapid As..:milatiatt of Canadian French in Northern termont Peter Woolfson 211.
IX fite Franc6-Ainerican Heritagein - Manchester, New Hampshire Thaddeus M. Piotrowski 217
X A History of Fkanco-American Journalism Paul Path 237
. XI Eplingual Living Normand C. Dube 261 XII Cajun French and French Creole: Their Speakers and the Questions of Identities Do'rice Tentchoff 273
XIII La Cuisine Chez-Nous Sr. Marguerite Cyr 289
XIV Louisiana's Creole-Acadian Cuisine Ernest Gueymard 292 WHAT IS AN AMERICAN? *
'by NA.
-14%ladeleine Giguere 1. Professor of Sociology University of Maine atrortland-Gorham
The answer to this question is in part de deprivation takes a long time to eradicate.The termined from whence the .response comes - a pre-American Revglution stock has dominated geographic location, a site in a social topography American society down through the years. The or a place in a mltural base. To take the easier first American President riot of pre- revolution- distinction first, the European may or may not ary slock was a very popular General in cone of man the. United States when he srs America, our Major and successful wars, Dwight David ceitainly the South Am 'can will say, we too Eisenhower. One hundred and seventy-five are Americans, South Ainerican if yott wish, but years were needed to make true the Peclaration Americans nevertheless;the Mexican will say of Independence'cringing state .ent of equality that he too is an American, a North American, as between pre and post-revolutionary stock. In as are his neighbors to the north. Canadians also 1960 the election of John F. Kennedy -to the will say that they are American, North Ameri- Presidency proclaimed the equality of Catholics cans calling themselves Canadians and reserving within the American Republic. But we have not the simple Whit American for their neighbors to yet had a President whose ancestors were incor- the south.And, of co. irse, the Canadian usage porated into the U.S. after iheCivil War, nor a is also the common American meaning: an Amer- Jewish .President, nor a Black President, nor ; ican is a person of the United States of America. Native American President, nor a Hispanic Pres- My talk will deal with the internal usage and ident, nor a Franco-American President. We are meanings of «what is an American?» This is not all Americans, but some are more equal than only important to the United States but also to othc:s», to quote George Orwell in Animal Farm. a large extent determines the definition of us Ancestry still plays a larger role in determining made by other peoples. degrees of possible participation in the American system than we would like to think.The 0/. If one is a full participant in our society production of Roots has had the positive func- one assumes that everyone elseis. In my course tion of bringing ancestry to the fore of the Amer- in Social Change, I use a Simulated Society ex- ican consciousness where we can confront it ercise in which there is a deprived region; it is for blacks, whites, and by analogy for all the ra- a very depressing experience for middle class stu- cial and ethnic groups in the United States.It dents not to be able to participate fully in the has made us aware of the diversity of our back- society because of the lack of resources. They grounds, not only the Mayflower, but also the have to scramble so hard just to keep alive that slave ships. And for t, 3, as Franco-Americans, ;t they exercise little or no influence in this soci- has brought visions of the slips coming first to ety, often trading their votes for food.It is a St. Croix Island in Maine in 1605 and thcir to most worthwhile learning experience for these Port Royal in 1606 - the first of the Acadian students to see what deprivation can do to you settlements, and then of the ships taking Cham- psychologically and socially.Similarly, it is dif- plain to found the trading post that was to be- ficult for us to understand the effects of the dep- come the City of Quebec in 1608. Our French- rivation which «new Americans» felt with re- Canadian and Acadian ancestors are with us eas- lation to the people who were already here or ily, because of the excellent recording of bap- whQ, were taking them over.Some of that tisms,marriages, and burials, by the priests
Address to the Tri-State Conference on the Education of Limited English-Speaking Children at Shelburne, New Hampshire, May 6, 1977. X '4 I
2
who officiated at them. For instance,in dOing being first to discover, explore orcolonize areas homework for a genealogical now within theUnited States boundaries, nor some preliminary early settler in Ninth tripq Normandy,Perche, and Brittany this does it mean being an corn' g summer, I found that one ,f my ances- America.Being first and being early mayhave crucia' de- tralmily circle married Abraham Martin,who some significance, but they are not was the owner of somefarm land known as the terminants. plainsof Abraham, on which theFrench' and English fought. the crucial battle for thecontrol Does 'ieing an Americans mean .L- ..--a" of North America.I am sure that I share the ing in American institutions? The first formif relationship with several tens of thousand...other participation for all capable adults,especially persons since the persons,coming to New France males, coming to the territoryof the United 'force. For adult were limited innumber, not more than 10,000 in States is entry into the labor all,and most of these came before1700. All of males without other means of supportiMs is a the more than 10,000,000 NorthAmerican necessary, but not asufficient condition for French can trace their ancestry to those10,000, being considered an American.Otherwise, there The French are old settlers inNorth America, would not be the question, currently,of what to sharing the honors with the Spanish,the English, do about illegal working aliens inthe U.S. today. largely con- 'T and thel Scotch-Irish.But these claims of old For the females, if their work was settler status are not validated inthe United fill to their homes in theseventeenth and .? t States culture for the French or for theSpanish. eighteenth century, the developmentof the tex- And sve see that length of settlement onthis tile industr,x in the nineteenthcentury gave wom- continent is not a major criterion forwhat is an en an alternative tomarriage, lerVanthood, or Amefican in the United States.Perhaps it is for Catholics, the religious life,and so we find the lengthit, of residence in what is nowUnited States that from the mid-nineteenth century on, territory? But looking at the Lou' ianaPurchase single immigrant women in textile centers were But this paid of 1803 and the Florida Puree of 1819, the erected to .work for a living. Amer- Webspr-Ashburfign Trea 1842, the Texas labor no more guaranteed her status as an Annexation of 1845 and the MexicaqCession of ican than it Iliad for the males: 1848 and knowing that Santa Fe wasfounded in 1608 and that the Acadians were onthe Ameri- Is participation in the political arena a can side of the St.Join. River in Maine by the criterion for being considered anAmerican?, length of residence This uiay be crucial.Thenaturalization process 1780's, we know that from place to within the contempolAry boundariesof the U.S. varying from time tb time and the determination of wha. is place gave an official stamp to one'sclaim to be are not crucial to Franco-Americans from 18",4 on an American. an American. opted inincrekng numbers to naturalize. The indicate that peaks Certainly itis noCdiscovery, since the data for Brunswick, Maine, French mapped out not Onlycontemporary may haveoccurred in election years when polit- Canada but also much of thecontemporary ical interest was highest andpl-obably voters The Brunswick data shows the U.S. territory. The French eitherdiscovered, ex- were solicited. the U.S. bound- largest number of naturalizationsin the period) plored or colonized the areas of World York, Pennsylvania, 1916-1920.2Is this the by-product of ed by Maine, Vermont, New Suffrage Move- South Carolina, Florida, Alabama, ssissippi, War I patriotism or the Women's Kansa4Wyoming, ment?(Jnfortunately, the data is not broken Louisiana, Texas, Oklahoma, eC It is ,Iso true Montana, North Dakota,Wisconsin, Michigan, Il- down by sex, so we don't know. Oregon.'So we that until 1922, women couldbecome/ citizens linois. and Ohio as well as they did not have to know that being an Americandoes not mean by marrying citizens and so
'1 dem ( 3
g./ go through the naturalization process. But they 'high fertility created a tremendous pressureon did have to go .through the voting registration 'the Ft-elicit to migrate. The opportunities for process which in. the twentieth Century until the work in New England drew a-large proportion of late 1960's, required a modicum of ability to those who did emigrate. from Quebec. By 1850 read English. migration to New Englaro developed a perma- nent character rather than the Seasonal character is We will come back W this point' of lan- it had,had before. TextileS .ra,ther:than lumber- guage but First let me describe briefly the immi- ing and the brickyard becarnettle ingjor employ- gration of French-Canadians and Acadians tothe ment. a' United States. The first were the Aca- dians who were 'deported by the English (Ie During the Civil War, immigratiorr slack- grand derangement) froin their cenary -and-a- ened somewhat. However, some 20,000 to half old homelands on the Bay of Fundy to the 40,003 French-Canadians Iere enlisted in the English colonies of North America, to Frazee, to Northern armies:, many bytmeaus of bounties, the French Antilles. 'Many of the displaced Aca- ..--- some as paid substitutes for the U.S. draftees. dians found their way to Louisiana to be the an- After the Civil War a rapid :development of A cestors of today's «Cajuns». Others drifted back markets for New England industries created em- to New Brunswick to feel again threatened by ployment opportunities that were lacking in the English soldiers and Tories settling in New Canada. Mason Wade estimates that at least Brunswick after the American Revolution.So 500,000 French-Canadians migrated to the Unit: some Acadi:n1 moved again to settle in the Mad- ed States between 1865 and 1890 and perhaps awaska territory along theupper St.John Val- Itlfa, million more came between ":1905 and Iy.An attempt to gain secure titles to lands, 115129,a period when Canadian immigration tis second «derangement» brought the Aca- again became heavy. In 1940, the United Statek dians to what is now United States territory in Census reported the number of French-Canadiaii the 1780's.3Other Filench-Acadians, partisans born or of mixed parentage as 908,000.5 This of the Atb,:rican revolutionary cause, were giVen of course,, does not take into account the de- lands in Northern New York, called the «Refu- scendants of earlier immigrants such as myself. gee Tract» after the Revolution, and in the West- My estimate of the number of French-Canadith ern Reserve. In the first part of the 19th centu- origin persons in the United States today IS ry,there were some political refugees from the around six million. We wilt know more accu- anti-French «reign of terror» of an English gov- rately' if we can persuade the Bureau of the Cen- ernor (1807 -1811) and then later refugee lead- sus to treat French-Americans on a par with the ers of the abortive revolution of 1837 in Canada, Spanish-Americans in the 1980 census. the Patriots.Both of these grotips migrated largely to Vermont.4 But with thAt exceptions What is unique about this migration to the the migration to the United States was not di- United States is that it was an overland migra- rectly the result of political pressures.In the tion. with the distances relatively small so that 19th century' the French-Canadians were-caught one could walk and many early migrants did. It in the classical Malthusian dilemma of too many might be thought that the relative ease of trans- people on t9trrittle fertile land. Farms had been portation may have encouraged French-Cana- subdivided to the point of diminishing returns. dian immigrants to repatriate more than Ameri- poor land had been drawn into cultivation, mar- 4 can immigrants as a whole: We know that in kets for farm goods wire poor as was transporta- general one third of the immigrants coming to tion to markets.Furthermore, tracts of fertile the U.S. returned to the old country. As far as land,were held by the British and inaccessible to I know this has not been studied for French- the French. All this combined with an ethic of Canadians, but Ihypothesize that in fact the I
4. 4 of Woonsock- ease of movement acrossthe frontiers actually Wessel says in K
.1D 5
the Second' World War.» 13Nonelof these limi- children. For most parents, colturt% is not tations affected the French-Canadians and the ProblematiCal. itis; we transmit what we know Acadians who, asresidents of the , Western without reflection. The work of Peter Woolfson hemisphere, had relatively free access to the of the University of Vermont is especially in- United States until 1965 and who were never ex- teresting in this regard, demonstrating the te- chided from citizenship,stigmatized as «the nacity of values by the similarities of the values enemy» or herded into concentration camps. of the Quebecois and the Vermont French .However, they did suffer from the other limita- Americans.15 For the professional educators tions. The founding fathers' theory did not re- in the parochial schools, the situation was dif- quire
Yet there was internal malaise. We didn't know how much we knew of our heritage or how much ..e were in fact transmitting to our 6
References
Landry,America's 9, Bessie Bloom Wessel,An Ethnic Survey of Woon- 1, Jacques-Donat f asanovaArmour The American Immigration Col- (Quebec: La DocumentationFranoise socket, Rhode Is /and. French Heritage lection (new York: Argo Pressand the New York and the Quhec Official Publisher,19;0) p. 121. Times, 1970) Appendix, 2. William N. Locke. «TheFrench Colony at Brunswick, Les Archives de Folklore, I 10, Andrew M. Greeley,«The Future of the Ethnic Re- Maine: A Historical Sketch» National Conference on (Montreal: Fides, 1946) p. 100. vival» (paper presented at the Ethnicity.Cleveland State University, .May12, 1972) 3.Mason Wade, «1 he Loyalists andthe Acadians» in P. 9- The French Pe New England, Acadia andQuebec,ed. by 11. Andrew M, Greeley, «AnAlternative Perspective for Edward Schriver ( Orono:New England-Atlantic Prov- Studying AmericarAthnicity»(paper on staff seminar inces-Quebec ('enter. 1973), pp. 7-22. of the Center for the Studyof American Pluralism, National Opinion ResearchCenter, the University of 4.Mason Wad, «French and FrenchCanadians in the Chicago, n,d.) p. 16. United States»New Catholic Encyclopedia,1967. p. 144. 12,Greeley, «The Futureotf the Ethnic Revival», pp. 5. Ibid.,p. 146. 3-4. 13. Ibid., p. 4. 6.Robert ti. Perreault, «One piece inthe Great American avril-tnai-juin, 1976, pp. Mosaic.»Le banado-Amdricain, II Ibid.,p, 4. 27-28, 14. the United 15, Peter Woolfson, «ItaditionalFrench Canadian 7.Wade, «French and French Canadians in Persistence among the Stiites» p. 146. Value Orientations and Their Franco-Americans of NortheasternVermont» (paper presented at the Annual Meetingof the Northeast An- 8.Paul. Cha'sse,Politics,FranCo-American Ethnic Heri- AssOciation Meetings, Burlington, tage Studies Program(Wbrcester: Assumption College thropological Vermont, April 27.29, 1973), pp. 1-30. Title IX (ESEA) Grant, 1975), p.2.
16,Anne Woolfson, presentation atTri-State Confer- ence on theEducation of,Limited English-SpeakingChil dren. Shelburne, NewHampshire, Ay 7, 1977.
44 ONE PIECE IN THE GREAT AMERICANMOSAIC THE FRANCO- AMERICANS OF NEW ENGLAND
by,
Robert B..Perreauft
The yearis1976.. The United art. These colored pieces are the nation's States of America is celebrating its200th various ethnic groups, people whomay anniversary. In recent years, from Marne trace their origins back to South America, toCalifornia and ,from Wdshingtonto Europe, Africa, or Asia, all different in Florida,theword' «Bicentennial»has language,culture,andtraditions,yet become part of the nation',.s.claily vocabd- existing together under one flag inone Lary.Cities and toWqs have' held parades nation, the United States. In the spirit of and festivals conitrytoratingone histor- the Bicentennial, the present article will is event after another.Tea haS again, recall the memories and a!devements of found its way into Boston Harbor. Paul one of New England's major peoples, Reverehas returnedto do arepeat the grandchildrenof France andthe performance of his famous midnight ride. children ofQuebec, the Franco- George Washington, accompaniedby his Americans.It is the story of those who soldiers, has braved the chilling winterair have fought long and hard to maintain to cross the Delaware Riveronce again. their cultural identit:in the midst of The entire country has plunged itself into persistentinfluen which,ifnot a very historical mood, thus.re.iving an checked, may one ci, `zstroy the ethnic interestInthedaysofy..,-;teryear. color of the Franco-Americans altogether. Americans have become avid readers of The survival of this group asa distinct local and national history. Maltyare «get- piece in the American mosaic depends ting back to their roots» by studying their upon its young members of today, who family genealogy.Others are attempting will carry on the Franco-American tradi- to recapture the past through theresto- tion.In order for them to continue the ration of old homes, city blocks, historical work of their ancestors, it is essential that landmarks, and by collecting antiques of theytakethe timeto become well- sarious sorts. In addition to this, the informed aboutthehistoryoftheir Bicentennial has causedmany citizens to people. Hopefully,thisarticle may reflect upon ttie nation's accomplishments cultivatewithin them some sense of over the last 200 years and at thesame ethnic pride which in turn will inspire time, to exam ine the presentto see if the them to preserve the language and tradi- American people areliving up to the tions which their forefathers held sacred. dreams and 'deeds of their forefathers. EARLY EXPLORATIONS The United Statesis like a large mosaic, composed of hundreds of distitict- In the year 1524, King Francois 1 ly colored pieces of all shapes andsizes, ofFianceordered the Florentine each one unlike the next,yet all fitting navigator, Giovanni da Verrazano, to lead together to formone beautiful work of a French expedition in search of a trade 8 route to the Orient.This voyage led torturing, and executing those who ad- Verrazano to the Atlantic Coast of North hered to the new faith.Likewise, angry America at the present site of the State of Protestant monarchs retaliated by perse- North Carolina. From there, he sailed as cuting all Catholics within their domain. far north as Ne"wfoundland, seeing such Francewasnoexception. French landmarks as the Hudson River, Block Protestants, called «Huguenots», suffered Island, which he named «Claudia»in and died for their religious convictions.3 honorofthe Queen ofFrance, Narrangansett Bay, and the distant peaks In1562,AdmiralGaspardde of New Hampshire's White Mountains. Coligny, a noted French military officer Verrazano s brother Hieronimo, a cartog- and Huguenotleader,calledtogether rapher, drew a map of the explored severalhundred French Protestantsto regions,baptizingthem NovaGallia, take part in the first colonization attempt hence, New Gaul or NewFrance.1 in North America. A previous endeavor in Brazil in 1555 had proven unsuccessful. The next significant discovery took Coligny ordered Jean Ribaut, a French place in 1534 when Francois I, still deter- navigator,to lead an expedition to the mined to find an Oriental trade route, New World in an effort to find a suitable sent Jacques Cartier, a sea captain from location for the Huguenot colony. Once St. Ma lo, on a new expedition across the there, the Admiral hoped that his people Atlantic. Curtier landed at Bale des would lead a pleasantlife,free from C'Italeurs on the Gaspe Peninsula, planted religiousoppression. Ribaut and the a cross there in the nameof the King of exiled Huguenots settled not far fromthe France, and discovered the great river preselit site of Jacksonville, Florida, and which he called the St. Lawrence. As the also at Port Royal, South Carolina.In cold season drew closer, Cartier decided to this new land, wild and foreign, the %first returnto France. During his second European colonists found life quite dif- voyage (1535-36), Cartier sailed upthe ficult. As a result, they fell into a state of St. Lawrence River hoping that it would discord, rendering themselves vulnerable leadto some sea to Asia.Instead, he to all potential opposing forces. landed at Hochelaga, an Iroquois village located at the present site of Montreal.2 The inevitable came in 1565 when the Spanish arrived in Florida and found- RELIGIOUS DIFFICULTIES AND ed the city of St. Augustine.Realizing FIRST COLONIZATION ATTEMPT that Florida was not spacious enough to allow Spanish Catholicism and French Whileexplorersoccupiedthem- Protestantism to coexist, the Spanish, led selveswith new discoveriesinNorth by Pedro Menendez de Aviles, proceeded America, religious reformers in Europe tocapturethe Frenchfortress,Fort worked diligently to spread the seeds of Caroline, and to murder every last person. Protestantism across the continent. This According to the Spanish, they killed the caused a great deal of strife in England, French colonists «not as enemies of the Switzerland, France, and the Holy Roman King of Spain, nor as Frenchmen, but Empire (Germany).Intolerant Catholic rather as Huguenots and heretics». The rulers ordered their soldiers to put an end French back home did not particularly tothis wave of heresy by imprisoning, relish the idea of having their people mas- 14 9
sacred abroad, not to mention the factthat explorer. 7 the Spanish had obliterated the first French attemi tat colonization.Revenge fipally In1613, Champlain publisheda came a few years later when a French noble- book in Paris which containedan accurate man, Dominique de Gourgues, leda surprise description, maps included, of the terri- attack on the Spanish fort in Florida,kill- tories explored during his voyages. Hada ing every last person «notas Spaniards, but few of the Pilgrims who latercame to this as traitors, robbers, and murderers».4 Torn Country on the Mayllower visited Parisin apart by religious struggles, including such 1613,theycould have purchasedin horrid events as the Massacreon St. Barth 3- several Parisian book shopsa copy of lornew's Day in 1572, France temporarily Voyage de la Nouvelle-France.' In it, they shifted her attentionaway from the New would have found a detailed chairedan World in order to tendto domestic prob- area which Champlain had named Port lems.5 St-Louiotherwise known a:, Plymouth, Massach setts. RESUMPTION OF EXPLORATION ) IN NORTH AMERICA BEGI NINGS OF A NEW SOCIETY
In 1598, king Henri IV proclaimedthe The seven decades which followed Edit de Nantes. Through this edict Protes- the arrival of the French at Port-Royal, tants were assured the right to practice their Nova Stotia, were marked bya small mi- religion without fear of pr!rsecution.6Dur; gration from France to Canada. In ing the first decade of the 17thcentury Quebec and Acadia, the colonists chose Henri IV sent Samuel de Champlain.a for- farming as their primary occupation. This mer Huguenot converted to Catholicism, was done for subsistence rather than for on a series of voyages abroad. Champlain commercial purposes.9As time went established the first permanentsettlement on, their small society began to take on an in Canada at Port-Royalon the Bay of Fun- identity all its own. Emigrants primarily dy, Nova Scotia, in 1605. Another tab- from Normandy, Brittany, Le Perche, Ile fished . in 1608, later ba city of de France,Poitou, and Anjou brought Quebec. In addition to this, Champlainbe- their various provincial dialects and came the first white man to explore certain customs to New France, causing a sub- portions of the New Englandarea, claiming sequent fusion of all of these.10 Thus mountains, rivers, lakes, and bays, all illthe were born the French-Canadian language, name of his motherland and her king. Along habits, traditions, and philosophy of life. the coast, he explored Cap Blanc(Cape For the most part, these peoplewere Cod Bay), saw the mouth of theRiviere du quitepeaceful, and they found satis- Guast (Merrimack River), sto41) pedat Beau- factioninmerelygoing abouttheir met (Gloucester). and visitethe Ile Soup- daily chores and activities. conneuse (Martha's Vineyare ). He alsosaw parts of Maine, Vermont, and New York COUREURS DE BOIS State. Vermont received itsname from Champlain's remarks about the magnificent In addition to the French color gists monis yens. the Green Mountains.Lake whoinhabitedtheEastern portions Champlainisbut another of the many of Canada, there existed a breed of discmeries attributedtothe renowned menunlikeany other. These men work. 10 adventyre seekers, lovers of the savage Much of the time, Jesuit mission- outdoors who made their. living primarily aries accompanied the coureurs de bois. in the fur trade. They lived in forests. on The priests went 1.....)ut winning new souls lakes and on rivers. They hunted, fished, for the Catholic Church while the trappers explorednewlandsinCentraland spent their time claiming new lands for Western portions of North America and the King of France. Many Indians did not traded with friendly Indian tribes. These care to hear the «word of God» and there- men are commonly referred to as the forethelivesof theJesuits werein coureursde boisor «trappers». A few constant danger. Their worst enemies, the of the best known coureursdebois were: Iroquois,hadanotoriousreputation fortheirunimaginablemethodsofp' - Etienne Brille, who came to Canada torture. The story of Father Isaac Jogues with Champlain as a mere boy of 16. He and his companions who suffered a count- discovered Lake Huron, Lake Superior, less number of hours being cut, stabbed, and Sault-Sainte-Marie. After he had lived dismembered, and burned by the Iroquois among the «Bear» tribe of the Hurons for is one which demonstrates the unusual severalyears,theykilled,quartered, dedication and sincerity of Canada's first boiled hild ate him. advocates orChristianity. Father Jogues finally died in 1646 at the present site of - Jean Nicolet, who discovered Lake Auriesville, New York, when an Indian Michigan in 1634. struck himontheheadwith a tomahawk.12 CountFrontenac,the Pierre Radisson and Medard Governor of New France, also had dif- Groseilliers,twobrothers-in-lawwho ficulties with the Iroquois, although he discovered the head-watersof successfully suppressed them.1 3 Mississippi River. and who were instrumentalinthefounding of the As coureurs de bois and mission- Hudson Bay Company. aries continued to push farther West, France's possessionsinNorth America - Father Jacques Marquette and Louis increasedaccordingly. By1700, the Jolliet, who explored the Mississippi and entire territory between the Appalachian Illinois Rivers. and the Rocky Mountains was definitely French.14Many of the nation's major Robert Cavelier de La Salle, who cities are the result of early settlements sailedtothe mouth of the Mississippi, established by French pioneer'' in various claiming land for France and naming the parts of the country: surrounding area «Louisiana» in honor of King Louis XIV. - Duluth. Minnesota, founded in 1679 by Daniel Greysolon Du Lhut. - Nicolas Perrot, who explored the - Detroit, Michigan, founded in 1701 Dakota and Wisconsin areas. byCaRitainedeLa Mothe Cadillac. - Mobile. Alabama, founded in 1702 Pierre Gaultier de la Verendrye, who by Le Moyne D'Iberville. explored the Souris River in North Da- - New Orleans, Louisiana, founded in kota. and whose son, also named Pierre, 1718 by Sieur de Bienville. discovered the Rocky Mountains.' I - Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, founded in 1754 by PecaudydeCon trecoeur. who arrived on the Mayflower in 1620. -St. Louie Missouri, foutided in 1764 by Pierre Laclede and Pierre - Philippe de la Noye, who arrived -Dubuque, Iowa, founded in 96by at Plymouth in1621 and who was an Julien Eiubuque. ancestor of Franklin «Delano» Roosevelt. - Chicago, Illinois, founded in 1813 by Jean-Baptiste Beaubien.' 5 -Pierre Minuit, whoin 1626 purchased the island of Manhattan from HUGUENOTS IN the Indians for the equivalent of twenty- THE ENGLISH COLONIES four dollars.
Throughoutthe17thcentury, NicolasMartiau,whowas a while French Catholics were busy settling maternal ancestor .of George Washington. inEastern Canada and exploring the Central and Western portions of North -Pierre Faneuil, a wealthy merchant America,theEnglish were colonizing from Bosto who was responsible for the theEasternseaboard from Maine to constriabti of Faneuil Hall. Georgia.Although the colony of Mary- land had a few Catholic settlements, the Protestant faith dominated elsewhere. - Paul Revere, American Revolutionary Despite conditions set forth in theEdit de patriot who descended from the French Nantes,Catholics in France under the tfamily o Rivoire de Romagneu. influence of Cardinal Richelieu continued to harass Huguenots in order to prevent -Pierre-Charles l'Enfant, who drew them from achieving political strength.16 the 'streetplan of Washington, D. C., based upon that of Paris.19 Anti-Protestant sentiment remained long after Richelieu's death in 1642so The list could go on indefinitely, thatby1685 Louis XIV decided to citing the names of many of this nation's proclaimtheRevocationdel'Edit best known politicians, authors, artists, deNantes. Consequently,100,000 scientists, men and women of nearly Huguenotsfledfrom France, seeking every imaginable occupation. The French refuge in countries where Protestantism Protestants who settled in the English had become the accepted faith.17 Many colonies inthe New World during the settled among their fellow Protestantin 17th and 18th centuries became rapidly the English colonies.' 8For the most absorbed by the predominantly Anglo- part, these Huguenots were wealthy and Saxon society,Many abandoned their educated.Th :refore, they were able to mother tongue within a few generations. contribute economically and culturally to Others went so far as to anglicize their the development of the young colonies. family name. Todayrmany «pure Yankee The following is but a small percentage of blue-bloods» who consider themselves themanyFrenchProtestantswho descendants of English or Scotch- Irish contributed to the founding of the United families may actually trace their ancestly States of America: back to France. 20
Guillaume Molines d his family,
4 12
FRENCH CANADIAN DIFFICULTIES a refuge for the Acadians and today their WITH ENGLAND descendantsarestillculturallyalive, especially in Southernparishes,the The year 1675 marks the end of oCajun countryp.In his poem Evange- French immigration to Canada.2 1From line. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow the founding of the first colony in 1605 dramatizes the tragedy that befell these up tothis time, no more than 10.000 innocent,peacefulfarmingpeople.24 colonists came to New France.22 Gradually, the French-Canadians became THE CONQUEST AND THE
TIn.1 - At n _ less dependentupontheirmother BEGINNING OF A NEW REGIME country, andthe. two nations slowly began to drift apart, both culturally and During the years which followed economically.Except for their need for the deportationofthe Acadians, the military protection, Canadians were in- British and the French fought for control dependent. In addition to their problems of the remaining parts of Canada.This with the Indians, threats to the peaceful struggle, known as the French and Indian life of these colonists came from France's War, or the Seven Years' War, ended in oldfoe, Great Britain,In 1713, the disaster for the French-Canadians. Treaty of Utrecht ended the War of the Although the French defended themselves Spanish Succession between Great Britain well, British forces succeeded in capturing and France. By this treaty, France ceded the major French strongholds. These toGreatBritain her claimsinNorth included the fortress at Louisbourg on America to the Hudson Bay territories,. Cape Breton Island, Fort Frontenac on toNewfoundland,andtoAcadia.23 Lake Ontario, Fort Duquesne atthe r. confluence of the Allegheny and Ohio Riv- The Acadians settled the present ers, and Le Carillon (Fort Ticonderoga), day Provinces of New Brunswick, Nova located between Lake Champlain and Lake Scotian Prince Edward Island, parts of George.In the fall of 1759, the British Quebec, and parts of the State of Maine. forces commanded by Major-General Wolfe Although they had French origins they defeated the French forces led by Major- wished to remain independent. They General (Marquis) de Montcalm at the claimed allegiance neither to France nor Battle, sof the Plains of Abraham in Quebec to Great Britain.The British were not City.- about to relinquish their hold on Acadia, norwouldtheytoleratetheself; By 1763, With the signing of the proclaimed independence of the Acadians. TreatyofParis,Canada belongedto After many years of struggle the British Great Britain.26 Since that time, the deported the Acadians, sending them to French-Canadians have soughttheir the colonies from New England to the independence from the British. When far South.This deportation began in theBritish regime began in1763, the 1755 and continued for several years French- Canadianpopulationnumbered afterward. The Britishpurposely a mere60,000.27Almost immediately, separated the men from their wives and emigrants from the British Isles began to children,dispersingthem everywhere. settle in the Maritime Provinces,with a Many familieswereneverreunited. smaller number establishing themselves in Within a few years Louisiana had become Quebec. Several years later,Loyalists
Is 13
from the thirteen English colonies fled to For example, at the Battle of Yorktown Canada during the American Revolution. where Cornwallis surrendered to Yankee farmers and New England soldiers Washington in 1781. French soldiers and were also attracted to Canada, especially sailors outnumbered the Americans by a in Quebec's Eastern Townships.28this ratio of nearly three to one.34 sudden flow of immigration into Canada gave that country a complete face-liftingr a. French-Canadianswerenoless The laws and the economy of the new enthusiastic in their willingness to fight Canadian government wereallgeared for American independence. Immediately toward creating a pleasant life for these after the war broke out, Henri Laurent, new residents, while the French-Canadians Benjamin Huge, and Daniel Hory were kept insubjection.29They felt organized battalions made up of recruits discriminated against, which resulted in from the province of Quebec.These their banding together in order to resist battalions fought bravely and gloriously the government's attemptsto destroy under Washington.35 Among the best their identity through assimilation. They known French-Canadians who joined the associatedonlywithotherFrench- Americanforces were Major Clement Canadians, rarely intermarried with Gosselin, Captain Philippe Dubois, spouses of other ethnic groups and, as Lieutenant-Colonel Pierre Regnier, a result. became one of the most homoge- Lieutenant-Colonel Jacob Bruyere, and neous groups ever known.30 Jacques Rouse, after whom Rouse's Point, New York was named.36Ethan Allen AMERICAN REVOLUTIONARY WAR hadanumber of French-Canadians among the ranks of his Green Mountain At the outbreak of the American Boys, including Captain Augustin Revolutionary War, soldiers from both Loiseau.37 When thewar finally ended in France and Quebec came to the aid of 1783 by virtue of the Treaty of Versailles, the colonies.3 IThey shared one common the British government refused to readmit enemy:the British.France contributed into Canada all French-Canadians who to the American cause in many ways. had fought on the side of the Americans, Pierre Caron de Beaumarchais, author of branding them as traitors., The United Le Barbier de Seville and Le MarMge de States Congress solved this problem 14 Figaro,secretly sent guns, cannons, and offering land along the shores of Lake powder to the American insurgents. 32 Champlain, known asthe«Refugees! TheMarquisdeLafayette,usinghis Tract», to any French-Canadian soldier personalfunds, equipped, armed, fed, who had aided the American rebels.'8 clothed, and paidthe entire corps of With the birth of this new nation, the soldiers who were under his command United States of America, came the birth in Virginia. In addition to sending money of a new flag.The design of the first and supplies, France lent several of her American flag is generally attributed to a most capable militaryleadersto fight woman ofFrench.descent whose besideGeneralWashington. These ancestor) came fromthe province of includedRochambeau, De Grasse and Alsace in Eastern France. Her name was D'Estaing.33 HaiFrance not become Betsy Ross.39 involved in this conflict, the Americans might not have won their independence. Up until this time, a relatively small 14
number of French-Canadians had lived in seaboard of the United States, French the English colonies in America.The political refugees sought asylum in Central French-Canadians being primarily and Western portions of the country, Catholic, the laws in this Puritan society whereCatholicFrench-Canadianshad didnotallowCatholicstoliveand previously explored the land and founded nracticivtheir religion within its several cities.Although the Jesuit mis- boundaries.4° During the years sionaries had always accompanied the immediately following the Revolutionary French-Canadians ontheirexpeditions War the American governthent, inthe to the West, there existed a minimum spirit of freedom, permitted Catholicsto of organization in the Catholic Church livein the "nited States.41However, in the United States.The newly-exiled they could not enjoyany privileges or priests from France soon recognized the rightswhichnativeAmericansand detrimentaleffectsthatthislackof Protestantsttook for granted. Theaverage religiousunity would have uponthe native New Englander was not particularly spirituallifeoftheFrench-Canadian fond of Catholics. especially those who settlers. Consequently, the French clergy- spoke little or no English.Despite all wenspentthenextseveraldecades these facts, the newborn nation .to the foundingCatholicchurches,schools, South of Quebec seemed, muchmore convents,seminaries,andorganizing appealing to the French-Canadians than dioceses in many major cities. Among the their own country, where the British had pioneers of the French Catholic Church in the upper hand. Gradually, French- the United Staes were Their Excellencies Canadians began totrickleacross the The Most Reverends: border, settling in upstate New York or in Northern Newt England.They usually -B. J. Flaget, first bishop of Kentucky remained close enough to Canadaso that (1810) they could easily travel back and forth - M. Portier, first bishop of Mobile, between the two countries.Their oc- Ala ba ntalrl 826 ) cupations in the United States and their - S. G.Brute, first bishop of Indiana places of residence changed frequently, (1834) but for the most part French-Canadians - M. Loras, first bishop of Dubuque, lived and worked on farms or found Iowa ( 1837) .)employment)employmentintheloggingindustry. - F. N.Blanchet, a French-Canadian, first bishop of Oregon (1845) ORGANIZATION OF THE M. Blanchet, brother of the above, FRENCH-CATHOLIC CHURCH firstbishopofWalla-Walla-Nesqually, IN AMERICA Washington (1846) -J. M. Odin, first bishop of Galveston, TheFrenchRevolutionwhich Texas (1847) began in 1789 prompted a new migration - A. Rappe, first bishop of Cleveland, from France to the United States.The Ohio (1847) monarchy and the Catholic Church were - J. Cretin, first bishop of St. Paul,, among the prime targets of the French Minn. (1851) rebels causing many royalists and priests -J.B.Lamy, first archbishop of New tofleetoAmerica. Realizingthat Mexico (1853) ProtestantismdominatedtheEastern O
15
- A.Verot,firstbishopofSt. Anglo-American environment. Augustine, Florida (1870) - P. Bourgade, first bishop of Tucson, One may safelji assume that ',the Arizona 1897)42 descendants of French-speaking people in the United States before 1800, both Even in New England, where the Catholics and Protestants alike, have lost French-Canadians had begun to settlezin their ethnic color over theyears.The small numbers duringthelate(8th French are no longeF strongincities century,there were enough Catholics which their ancestors foundedover 200 to warrant the gunding ofa diocese. years ago. Perhaps the only exception to This was the Diocese of Boston,a sub- this is the State of Louisiana. -There, division of ,the Diocese of Baltimore, many of the Creoles and Cajuns maintain founded in1810.The first bishop of their French cultural traits to this day. Boston was His Excellency The Most To the North, in the Province of Quebec, Reverend Jean- Lefebvre de Cheverus,a the 'French-Canadians have remainedas native of France.'"These and many culturallyaliveas they were the day other French priests and bishops aided in Champlain founded the first settlement constructing the original foundation of in Quebec. Catholicism in AmerRa. . 'RURAL LIFEIN QUEBEC THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE Life in the Province of Quebec had Napoleon I,Emperor of France, not improved since the beginning of the needed money to finance hiswar with British regime, and the French-Canadians ,Great Britain, France's old foe: In 1803, felt that the time for action had finallyar- he sold roughly 900,000 square miles of rived.. The fart that the Canadiangovern- land, the Louisiana Territory, tothe Unit- ment had.separatedUpper 1. Canada ed States for a mere fifteen million dol- (Ontario) from Lower Canada. (QuebeC) lars,thus relinquishing there- :cinder in1791, giving.the French-Canadiansa ofFrenchholdingsontheNorth certain amount of recognition, didnot American continent."In less than one alleviate tin economic difficulties of the century France had lost all of her pos- Province of Quebec.French-Canadians sessions in the United States and Canada has muchmore tb contend with than either by sale or by conquest. The simply not getting along with English- children of France now faceda situation speaking Canadians. of total independence from their, mother country.Completely on their own, the Tilling the soil was no longer done French in North America had to makea merely for subsistence. For the habitant, decision with regard to the future of their farminghadbecomea commercial culturalidentity. They' would either venture, but conditions for this way of become Ankricans, while retaining their lifewerefarfromfavorable. The native language and traditionS in order to seignorial system of landholding in Quebec contribute to or influence the datedasfar back asthetoolsand predominantlyAnglo-Americancultizre agricultural methods employed bythe around them, or they would simply allow French-Canadian farmer. Such practices as theinselves to become absorbed by the ,the rotation of crops to enrich the mineral- 16
starved soil were unheard of in Quebec. illiterate throughout their entire lifetime, Poor roads did nothing to facilitate the as their economic status did not allow transportation of goods to and from the them °bough leisuie time to learn to read marketplace. In winter, these same routes and write.Unable to read a newspaper became virtually impassable.The habitant and too poor to travel, manyhabitants often found that he could not obtain in Quebec knew little of what went.on in adequate prices for his produce.In ad- the %yorld beyond the boundaries of their .dition to this, the birth rate in Quebec ownivillage. Only those fortiihate enough suddenly began to soar, probably due to to come from a fairly prosperous family reasoning which stated that 1) Catholics received the chance to further their educa- regarded .it their duty to produce large tion in the city, where the girls attended families, forbidding all use of artificial acouventrun by nuns, and the boys .contraceptives,.anf2)largefamilies studied in aseminairerun by priests or meant more workers to till the soil and to brothers. Graduates of such schools care for the livestock, thus enabling the usually had the opportunity to enter into habitantto expand his farm and make it a profession or perhaps the religious life. more economically productive. As oneper- Religion played an important role in the sonstated it, the French-Canadian parental dailylifeof everyone,rich or poor, bed was amanufficture de monde(a fac- habitantor professional.The church, tory of people). There were two draw- generally located in the center of the vil- backs to this philosophy. The first was the lage, was the focal point of activity, with Jhigh infant mortality rate during the 19th thecure .a3the guardian of his flock. -century. Due to inadequate11...i,enic French - Canadians felt that religion kept facilitizs, women spent the better part them united, and this in turn helped them oftheirchildbearing yearsm producing topreservetheirethniciJentity .4 7 '.""bies who might not live td see their bfirst birthday. This certainly did not aid THE INSURRECTION OF 1837-1838 the farmer in his agricultural and financial pus;its.The second ditiacivantage was Takingintoaccountthe above that although a family might have had the factors, those being the habitant's hard good fortune to possess many healthy work withlittlereward,poorliving sons and daughters, the quality of the soil conditions, lack of education, inadequate and the methods of farming at that time representationinthe government, and were highly unsuitable,therefore large general dislike of the French-Canadians by numbers of workers would not necessarily English-s.Neaking Canadians, itis evident produce a good harvest." that a change was in order. Several con- cerned citizens grouped together to found A farmusually demanded long theSociete des Fils de laLibertein hours of hard labor from before driwn to MontreA, which eventuallyled to the after sunset. This left very little Ii!PC for famous Insurrectionof 1837-1838. thefamily's intellectual grov,th. Few Under the leadership of Louis-Joseph-1 children attended more than three or four Papineau,L-LudgerDuvernay,Georges- years of school,ifat all..Since their EtienneCartier, and Denis Viger, ap- parents nee( :d them at home on the proximately2,000rebels armed with farm. survival tanked first, school took clubs, pitchforks, wooden guns, and any second place.Manyhabitantsremained other available «instruments of battle»,
tit 17
rioted in severalvillages incluOing St- AsQuestey'spopulationsteadilyrose Denis, St-Charles, and St-Eustacne.Ob- each year, life in ruralareas grew harder. viously lacking in sophisticatedweaponry, ,The timeforaredistribution of the the insurgents met with spontaneous and populatiOn had finally arrived.1 The merciless defeat at the hands of 8,000 number of people in Quebec far exceeded soldierssentbySirJohnColborne, the proportionate amount of productive commander-in-chiefoftheCanadian land to feed everyone. armed forces. The government demonstratedtothe French-Canadians NEW ENGLAND MILL TOWNS that it would not give in to their demands for a better way of lifeon the farm, nor Ike final years of the 18th century would it tolerate any uprisings suchas this saw the birth of the textile industry in one. Although many rebels escaped New England.Prior to this time, most punishment by fleeingto the United natives of the six-state region had chosen States, the Canadian government managed ,farming as their major occupation. Enter- toarrest and imprison over 1,000 of prising industrialists and.capitalists, them.Many were deported to such far influenced by the Industrial Revolution in away places as Bermuda and Australia. Great. Britain, recognized the potential ir"41 Twelve insurrectionistsmet their fate at' value of New England's mighty riversas the end of a rope.To the Fren,ch- sources 'ofwater power to drive the Canadians,the word «rebel» did not machinery of large 'textile plants. During apply to any of thesemen. A more ap- the early years of the 19th century they propriate term waspatriote.48 visited various areas along the banks of such rivers as the Connecticut, the Black- A smaller number ofpatrioteswho stone, the Quinebaug, the Merrimack and had -fledto the United States settled the Saco, viewing these locationsas ideal temporarily in Northern New England and spotsforplannedindustrialcenters. inupstate New York.In Burlington, During the next several decades, these Vermont, there lived a small cluster of industrialists went about building large FrenchCanadians who had migrated from factories, constructing corporation Quebeover the years.There, Ludger housingformillworkers,layingout Duver one of the leaders of, the Insur- streets, parks, cemeteries, and trying to rectio settled and founded a French- make these new towns and citiesas at- langua e newspaper,Le Patriote,in which tractiveaspossible. Soon, Yankee he adv cated Canada's independence from farmers and their families left the country Greatritain. The newspaper lasted buta and headed for the city to take advantage few m nths since Burlington's French- of its economic opportunities. The results speakin population did riot takean active ofthemany years of planning and interest in Canadian politics. Theynow engineeringon thepartofthese livedi the United States and thatwas enterprising capitalists proved worthy of their nly concern." In 1842, the their efforts.Everywhere, former farm- Cana an government grantedamne ty to landswereblossomingintothriving the exiledpatrietes,thereforeall iwing industrial centers.5 2 many to return to their homeland.5° This,ofcourse.didnotrelievethe eepoomi woes of thehabitant.
23 lH
A POT OFGOLD Vermont: Barre, Burlington, JUST SOUTH OF THE BORDER Rt4lAnd,St.Albans,St.Johnsbury, Winooski. Word of the «streets paved with Massachusetts: Chicopee,Fall gold» in the United States soon spread River, Holyoke, Lawrence, Lowell, New throughouttheProvinceof Quebec, Bedford, Southbridge, .Springfield, bringing new hope of financial satiation Worcester. totheland-starvedFrench-Canadian Connecticut:Danielson, Moosup, habitants.The building of new cities in North Grosvenordale, Putnam, New England offered an unlimited variety Willimantic. of occupations.A person could work Rhode Island: Arctic Centre ( today inside the textile mill, performing any one West Warwick), Central Falls, Pawtucket, of many operations in the production of Warren, Woonsocket.54 cloth, or, if one preferred outside work, there was always a demand for carpenters The usual pattern of family migra- andbricklayers. Although the textile tion went as follows.After the family industry became the livelihood of the had discussed and pondd the situation, majority of French-Canadians, there were the-father,aloneoracmpanied by other employment opportunities several of the older childre ade the including work..in a paper mill, railroad long journey to New England. He usually work, or woodchopping.Women often went to a town or a city where he knew ran boarding houses or were employed as someone, a relative or former neighbor. seamstresses. The first to take advantage He generally boarded with this person of the need for laborers in New England until he could find a suitable apartment. mill towns were usually young single men 'He immediately sought work for himself from Quebec.They would spend their and also for the few children whom he summer vacation working in the factories. had brought with him. If he were lucky, In the fall, they often returned home he might secure a pcisitic the same wearing fine looking factory-made clothes company that employed his host. As and perhaps carried a gold watch or other soon as he had accumulated a sizeable piece of elegant jewelry.They always sum of money, his next task would be to seemed to have a surplus of spending find lodgings large enough to house his,, money.This often impressed relatives entire family. Once assured that he had and friends, who later fOowed suit.53 done the right thing by migrating to this Those who had previously spent the sum- country, the father would then either mer months in New England begat return to Canada to get the remaining remain there longer, sometimes all year. family members or he would send for Withinashortperiodof time, poor them.This prompted more deliberation. farmers with large families became a. are Would he sell his farm, figuring that this of the « pot of goldo which lay South of was a permanent move? On the other the Border. A few of the cities and towns hand would he keep it, hoping to return which attracted French-Canadians were: to Canada in order to revive his run-down Maine: Auburn, Biddeford, farm with money earned in the factories? Brunswick, Lewiston, Waterville. Some French-Canadians wanted to return, New Hampshire: Berlin,Man- but few actually did.55 chester, Nashua, Somersworth. 19
METHODS OF TRANSPORTATION. majority of French-Canadians, these first impressions, merely an example of culture Migrationiothe.UnitedStates shock, disappeared withina matter of from Quebec was relatively slow during months, as they became settled in their the 1840's due to a lack of adequate new jobs, new apartments, and new way transportation.Families usually traveled of life.5 8 Since conditions in thiscountry in small wagons drawn byone or two far surpassed the poverty which they had. horses. They packed only the bareneces- experience.dinCanada,thesehard- t sities. If space allowed it, family members working, industrious farmers had little could take turns riding in the back of the difficulty adjusting to urban life.They wagon.Since there was alwayssomeone possessed great manual dexterity and their walking,the journeygenerallylasted need to survive econonlically warranted several weeks.Emigrants slept wherever their rapid adjustment tolife in New they could find shelter for the night. At England.59 times, they encountered unfriendly New Englanders who took pleasure in mocking, CANADIAN GOVERNMENT harkingandevenassaultingthem SOUNDS THE ALARM because they were «foreigners». By the early 1850's, the completion of major rail- As more tales of good fortune in roadlines between Canada and New theUnit.:,1Statesspreadacrossthe England shortened and facilitatedthe long Canadianborder,migration -feverin- trip to the «promised land».57 Instead of creased and became contagious. The taking several weeks, itnow only took Canadian government suddenly realized one or two days,. eliminating the incon- that its neglect and poor treatment of the veniences of a long tiring journey. The people in Quebec was causinga gradual only real incommoditywas the fact that depletion of the province's population. trains were filled beyond capacity, making Parliament appoi4ted a committeeto the ride very numbing and uncomfortable. studythereasonsforthissudden epidemic of migration fever. The results ADJUSTMENT TO proved devastating. The committee found URBAN INDUSTRIAL LIFE that during the period from 1844 to 1849 over 10,000 French-Canadians had left The arrival in the «big city» must the Montreal area, and another 4,000.had have shocked those who,up until then, migratedto New England fromthe had seen nothing beyond the Quebec Quebec City area.6°Overall, during the countryside: massive brick factories, wide period from1840-1850, some 30,000 streets lined with incredibly large bininess poverty-strickenhabitantshad taken the blocks,and austerePuritanical-looking road to the South.6 I The Canadian people who all seemed cold andunsympa- government initiated programs whereby thetic. Many French-Canadiansmust have expatriates could obtain land grants and wonderediftheycouldsurvivethe financial aidif they would return to emotionalstress of being cast into a Canada. Some French- Canadians took culture so unlike anything they hadever advantage of the offer.Most, howeVer, known In the past. Others wondered what returned to the United States withina few would become of theirlanguage and years. religion in this «pagan» country. For the
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DIFFICULTIES BETWEEN which was as poor and as intellectually FRENCH AND IRISH CATHOLICS deprived as thatoftheFrench- i Canadians, certainly had no knowlet.ge The French-Canadians hadnot of the French language. Another way in lived in this country very long when they which the two groups differed was in the received their first taste of religious and domain of religious authority and parish ethnicconflict with theirfellow finances. Canada's first bishop, Francois Catholics, the Irish. 62 During the 17th, de Montmorency-Laval, had instituted 18th and early 19th centuries, the Irish thetrustee system duringthe I-7-411 Catholics had migrated to the United century.Under this system, the crake States in small numbers. They settled and an appointed parish council had primarilyinMgrylandandVirginia, control of allfinances. Parishioners whereCatholicswerelessopento regarded their cure as their father and religious persecution than they were in guardian who always had their best other areas.Still, they experiericed a interests at heart.Bishops and other certain degree of intolerance on the part members of the church hierarchy lived in of the native Protestants.In 1845 a Quebec'slargecities,having limited potato blight occurred in Ireland. This contact with people in rural areas. As a particular one was more serious than result, church matters in Canada were those of 1740 and 1821. Consequently, run locally.In the United States, the many peasants were dying because of Irish church hierarchy controlled parish famine, illness, and. poverty. The fundsthroughthe Corporation Sole likethe French-Canadians, had heard systenit. Underthissystem,more wild stories of wealth and riches in the emphasis was placed upon the bishop's UnitedStates. During the1840's, authority, and there existed very little thousandsuponthousandsofIrish ,/ control on the parish level. Accustomed farmersemigratedtoAmericaand to dealing directly with their pastor who settled along the Eastern seaboard.In could be approached at any given time, manyofNewEngland'sindustrial French-Canadians did not agree with the centers the -Irish far outnumbered the Irish power structureinthe Church. French-Canadians. As aresult, they Bishops, on the other hand, tended to remain remote and difficult to reach.63 soon ,dominaked the Catholic Church -sr hierarchy in t United States, originally controlled by French exiled priests after When the French-Canadians first the French Kevolution. begantosettleinNewEngland's industrial centers they had to attend Severalreasonslay behindthe MassintheIrishparishes,the only mutualdistrustbetween the French- existing Catholic churches in this region. Canadians and the Irish:First and fore- OccasionallyaFrench-Canadianmis- . I most came the language ,barrier;Since sionary 'priest might have pas"sed through many French-Canadians had comp to town, visiting and ministering to the New England only forfinancial spiritualneeds of his compatriots.64 purposes, with the intention of returning However, forthe most part, French- home inthe near future, most never CanadiansdealtwithIrishpriests. bothered to learn the English language. Unablikito understand English-language The Irish. who came from a background sermons,many French-Canadians began 21
tofeelalienated. Some stopped at- had a second parish, La Nativite de la tending Mass altogether, figuring that Sainte Vierge in Swanton.66 they could not benefit from something whichtheycouldnotcomprehend. THE KNOW-NOTHING MOVEMENT Certain memliers of the French-Canadian community, concerned with the survival Apart from the above-mentioned of their faith (faith being regardedas the difficulties within the Catholic Church, guardian of ethnic identity and language) there existed an even more seriousex- demanded separate parishes with French- ternal problem, Knownothingism.67 speaking priests.This, they felt, would This phenomenon stemmed from the solve all their problems.65 early19thcenturyNative American Movement comprised ofProtestant_s who THE FIRST PARISH: both hated and feared Catholics in the BURLINGTON,VERMONT UnitedStates. The Know-Nothings began as a secret society.They were The first French-Canadian parish labeled as such because wheneversome- in NewEnglandwasfoundedin one would question them concerning Burlington. Vermont in 1850 bya group the activi*Land goals of theirgroup, of approximately 300 French-speaking they merely iiVieori.4 don't know.» Catholics under the guidance of Messire Hostile toward allCatholicsand Mignault. M. Mignault was pastor at foreigners,theKnow-Nothings advo- Chambly, P.Q. and vicar-general of the cated denying American citizenshipto Diocese of Boston.Having obtained a both groups.They disliked Catholics plot of land and the permission to build because the latter accepted employment a separate parish, the French-Canadians in the mills, regardless of the lowwages of Burlington thought that their troubles and long hours, thus taking jobs away had finally come to an end. The great from native Americans who demanded disappointment came when theIrish morefavorableworkingconditions. began to protest the separation.The They also feared Catholics because they French-Canadians were forced to builda believedthat the. Irish,the French- church severalmiles outside the city Canadians, and other Catholic groups inorderto maintain peace between would day unite and eventually turn themselves and theIrish. This was the nati, into a Papist-controlledstate. perhaps the first major conflict between these two nationalities. It, however,was The Know - Nothings formed their minor when comparedtowhatlay own political party, who candidates ahead. The first French-Canadian parish secured key positions inthe federal, in New England adopted St. Josephas its state and local governments. They at- patronsaintandReverendJoseph temptedtointroducelawswhich Quevillon of Ste-Elisabeth, P.Q. became discriminated against Catholics. Insome the first pastor.Three years later t!)e areas Catholics had no basic rights (i.e. State of Vermont becamea separate freedom to practice their faith openly, diocese.The Most Reverend Louis de suffrage, holding public office) to begin Goesbriand, a native of the Province of with. The Know-Nothing Movement Brittany, France was its first bishop. By merely added to the already unfavorable 1856, the French-Canadians of Vermont situation.Followers of this movement went about creating riots wherein they EFFECTS OF THE CIVIL WAR assaulted and even murdered Catholics. ON FRENCH-CANADIANS In these riots, the Know-Nothings often stoned or burned the homes, churches, The secession of the Southern schools, and convents of the Catholics. states and the subsequent outbreak of By the end of the 1850's, after eight or the Civil War affected French-Canadians nine years of fighting, the Know-Nothing both in the United States and in Canada. Movement finally dwindled out of exis- As more and more men went off to join tence. However..its 4fects on the the ranks of the Union Army, New Catholic Church hawed on well into England's factories lost much of their the 20th century. work force. French-Canadians in the mills accompaniedtheir Yankee and The Irish hierarchy in the Church Irish comrades to the Southern battle- decided that the Catholics could have fields.Factory owners, recognizing the defended themselves against the Know- diligence and mechanical aptitude of the Nothings much more efficiently had French-Canadians, decided to replenish therebeen more unity between the their depleted work force by sending French-Canadians and the Irish. They agents to the Province of Quebec in concluded that in the future, these two order to recruit new help.These mill groups should merge into one powerful agentsvent fromvillagetovillage, religious body, able to' Combat all out- relating stories about the tremendous op- side forces. This meant that there would portunitiesaffordedbythetextile no longer be any separate ornational industryin New England. 69 While parishes. All Catholics, regardless of spreading their propaganda, they often national origin, must belong to the same neglected to mention the disadvantages parish,withEnglishas theofficial such as the intense noise, the cotton language, thusgivingtheCatholic dust, the long hours. the low wages, and Church a more «American» image, less the cockroaches, all «vital» elements in prone to outside attack. To thehomo- the operation of atextile mill. By geneous French-Canadians this today's standards, one might view this represented a threat to the survival of as exploitation, but when compared to their language and culture. As expected, the conditions of life in 19th century theyrefusedto become assimilated. Quebec,the New Englandindustrial They desired separate parishes, where centers offered a far superior environ- their own clergy could preach to them in ment. theirnativetongue and where their children couldlearntorespect and A few of the more skilled French- transmit their ethnic traditions to future Canadians became factory foremen when generations. They felt that their parishes mill owners realized that a French-speak- had kept them culturally alive in Quebec ing«boss»coulddirecthis French- and that they would do the same in New . Canadian workers more efficiently.70 England. Because of these feelings many This situation resembled that of the more conflicts would arisewithin the parish. Under an English-speaking pastor Catholic Church during the six or seven French-Canadians were apathetic and decade that followed. " unruly,but givena French-speaking pastor. theyimmediately became
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enthusiastic and cooperative.71 By the 20,000 may have been a bit of an exag- time of the Civil War, English, Scottish, geration.73In any case, it is certain and German immigrants had begun to that the French-Canadians made a suf- floodtheAmericanlabormarket, ficient contribution tothis particular seeking a better life.While importing war effort.This was despite the fact many thousands of immigrants from that in some states they were recognized Quebec and Europe for labor purposes, merely as second rate citizens. Among mill owners never once stopped to think the French-Canadians who served during of the effects that this massive migration the Civil War was Major Edmond Mallet, would have on both the immigrants a native of Canada who had emigrated to themselves and on American society. New York State with his family while still a child.Another famous French- In addition to bringing French- Canadian who participated in the war, Canadians to the United States to fill employing histalentsas a first-class the vacancies left by those who had gone musician, was Calixa Lavallee, author of off to fight, the Civil War also attracted theCanadiannationalanthem0 many young men from Quebec for Canada. 74 military purposes. Some came voluntarily, living up to the reputation EMIGRATION FROM QUEBEC of the French-Canadians as seekers of ad- ACCELERATES venture. Others weretrickedinto joining the Union Army, falling prey to The years following the Civil War military agents' promises of «a well- saw the migration of French-Canadians paying job,mostlyoutdoor work». totheUnited States reach alarming These agents, much like the mill agents, proportions. From 1866to1875, forgot to tell their prospectiv: recruits roughly 50,000 people left the Province exactly what they meant by «outdoor of Quebec yearly.75 works. Young men, eager to earn a few extradollars,signed Army contracts Meanwhile, the Canadian govern- which they most likely could not even mentstoodby,watching Quebec's read.72 habitantsboard the daily trains which brought the to various New England No one actually knows the precise mill towns.Nery little was done to number of French-Canadians who fought prevent this exodus. The government's in the Civil War because historians have sentiments may be summed up quite never agreed with one another when bluntly by quoting a legendary state- presenting statistical data on this subject. mentattributedtoGeorges-Etienne Immediately following the war, they Cartier, one of the leaders of the Insur- quotedthefigureof approximately rection and later a prominent Canadian 20,000.As time went on, the statistics statesman: «Let them go, it is the rabble became more impressive. Within several which is leavings 76 Priestsin Canada years the number climbed to 30,000, then denounced those who had chosen to to 40,000, and finally to 50,000.In foresake their homeland, saying that the recentyears,somehistorianshave emigrants would lose their faith. Pastors questioned the validity of these figures, warned their parishioners not to follow feeling that even the original estimate of those who carednothingfortheir
2 24 countryortheirreligion. 77,These undertaking.After the war, however, Canadian clergymen may have had good many French-Canadian professional intentions, but they most certainly erred people began to follow the wave of intheirevaluationof thereligious migration to the United States,well fidelity of the French-Canadians in New aware thattheir compatriots inthis England.Conflicts which had occurred country'sir dustrialcentersneeded in the past merely served to strengthen priests, doctors, journalists, merclunts, and unify the French-Canadians in their and businessmen. The task of founding effortstomaintaintheirfaithand French-Canadian institutions would fall cultural traditions. upon these leiders of society,for they possessedthe necessary qualities and THE BIRTH OF FRENCH-CANADIAN resouices to execute such aproject. INSTITUTIONS THE SOCIETY Since geace had returned to the UnitedStat6s,manymoreFrench- In most cities, the club or society Canadians had decided to make this emerged before any of the other insti- country their permanent home. At last tutions because it was the one endeavor the time had come to create institutions which could bring people together at which French-Canadians felt would act minimal expense. The main goal of the as the safeguards of theirheritage. These society was to preserve the language and institutions were the church, the school, culture of the French-Canadians, and to the club orsociety, and the news- resist assimilation. 79 Once organized, paper. 78Although they had lived in the thesocietycouldthenproceedto United States for several decades, the assume new responsibilities.This includ- French-Canadians had never seriously e) ed obtaining a priest fromCanada to considered ',building their own institu- found a parish or searching for a group tions since many families had come here of journalists to begin the publication of withtheintentionofreturniniNi49 a French-language newspaper.A good Canada.The only exceptions to this number of these societies called them- wereinafew/ townsinNorthern selvesLa Societe Saint-Jean-Baptiste, VermontwheretheFrench-Canadian modeled afterthatofMontreal. population had developed more rapidly Generally, these organization) remained becauseoftheirproximitytothe on a local level, havinglimited contact Canadian bordeb. with their sister societies in other cities. In addition to uniting French-Canadians PriortotheCivilWar,the inthe community, the society had majority of French-Canadians who lad various other functions. such as aiding migrated to the New England area were newly-arrived immigrants from Quebec-----'-' forme'habitantswho now labored in in establishing themselves in their new the factories and who therefore belonged environment.Some societies provided tothe working class. Although their members with a rather primitive they may have realized the need for type of life insurance plan covering the institutions of their own, they lacked the cost of burial as well as contributing a time,the finances, and the necessary few extra dollars to the grieving family leadership to initiate such a monumental of the deceased. 80 25
THE NEWSPAPER Not yet twenty years of age, Gagnon left his home town of St-Hyacinthe to French-language journalism began joinhis parents who had established at about this same time in the New themselves in Concord, New Hampshire. England area.There had been other One year later, in 1 he moved to French newspapers in the past, such as Manchester, Newampshire, where he La Gazette Francaise (Newport, Rhode founded that as first French-language Island, 1780),Le Courrier de Boston newspaper, La Voix du Peupk, which (1789), La Detroit Gazette (1817), La lasted approximately six months.He .Gazette Franfaise (Detroit, 1825), and then moved to Worcester, Massachusetts , Ludger Duvernay's Le Patriote (turfing- where, after several years of fails :e with ton, Vermont, 1838).81 However, most one newspaper after another, he founded of these newspapers lasted but a few his famous journal, Le Travailleur, in months, since they seldom treated sub- 1874.During the next several years, jects that French-Canadian working-class this newspaperenjoyedenormous immigrants could identify with. success. In 1886, Gagnon died pre- maturely, not yet 37 years of age.Le the aim of this new breed of Travailleur outlived its founder by only French-Canadianjournalistswas. to a few years as it ceased to be published create newspapers that dealt with the in 1892.83 From the time of the found- particular situations and problems of ing of these first French-Canadian news- their readers. The first such newspapers, papers up to the turn of the century, Le Pratecteur Canadien, appeared in several hundred French-language journals Burlington, Vermont in 1868.It w s were born. Some lasted only one or two founded by Reverend Zephirin Druon, issues while others went on for many pastor at St. Albans, Vermont and vicar- years. Although thebeginnings of general of the Diocese of Burlington, and French journalism in the United States hisassociateAntoineMoussette,a met with defeat, they laid the founda- merchant, also from St. Albans.This tion for an institution that flourished journal expressed a genuine interest in throughout the first half of the 20th the religious and cultural activities of century. tj theFrench-Canadiansinthe United States.It had a wide circulation, reach- THE CHURCH ing as far as the Midwest. Unfortu- nately, the owners were forced to cease The most important of all French- publication in 1871 following a fire in Canadian institutions was undoubtedly their headquartorr'Swever, its strong the church. During the late 1860's .?....influen%optiimptedthe founding of -ad early 1870's, priests from Canada miireThewspapers anditattracted a arrived in New England's major French- number of French-Canadian priests to Canadian centers to care for the spiritual come to New England to found more life of their compatriots, the life which parishes. 82 these people had known for so many years in Quebec. Today, whenever some Perhaps' the best known French- of the (told timers* in their 80'san90's Canadian journalist in the nation during recallth-ir childhood days when the the 19th century was Ferdinand Gagnon. churches nad not yet attained their 25th 26 anniversary, they will most likely tell A NEW NEIGHBORHOOD IS BORN stories about le vieux cure-fondateur and allthathe did forhisparishioners. In addition t9 aiding their pastors Depending upon the city or town, they inthe construction of churches and will mentionnameslikePrimeau, schools, the industrious French- Bedard, Millette, Chevalier, and Hevey Canadians contributed a large por.tian of allpioneerclergymenof the New theirmeager salariestoward the England French-Canadian parishes.By ti establishment of orphanages, convents, 1875, the steeple of the French - Catholic old folks' homes, hospitals, and church adorned theskyline of every cemeteries. As thisconstruction major industrial center in the six-state progressed there would soon emerge a region,assuringthesurvivalof the new neighborhood in thevarious mill spiritual life of all French-Canadians.84 towns of New England, appropriately labeled Le Petit Canada. 87 THE SCHOJL A stranger could have easily recog- Afterthechurch,theschool nizedthisneighborhood byits very ranked as the second most important distinctinwardcharacteristics. The institution. Before the existence of church was usually the nucleus of the French-Canadian parochial schools, area, reflecting the geographical parents had to send their children either structure of Quebec's rural villages.In to public schools or to IrishCatholic the immediate vicinity of the church one schools.Because of a language barrier would find the school, the rectory, and and cultural differences, many French- the convent.Not too far away, there Canadian students found it difficult to might be a grocery store, a drugstore, keep up with the rest of the class, not and perhaps a hardware store, all owned tomention the prejudice which the andoperatedbyFrench-Canadians. other children felt toward them. As a These businesses, whose customers all result,a number ofFrench-Canadian knew one another, often served as so- children left school at anearlydage to cial gathering places.There, men and help out their parents by working in women could chat about the daily occur- the mills. Because of the absence of any rences in the neighborhood.Also in legislationagainstchildlabor,and this area, one would find the French- because education laws were lax it was Canadian club, which offered a variety not uncommon to see extremely young of diVeisions.Walking a few blocks boys and girls employed asdoffers, farther away from the center, one would battery hands, and bobbin boys,working find the residential section, with its thr:e six daysd.week.85 Pastors quickly went and four-story apartment houses, where towork, trying to establish schools the majority of French-Canadian factory which wouldrelievethese problems. workers lived.Parents often occupied They usually brought religious orders of the ground floor while their married runs and brothers fromCanada and childrenboarde4 upstairs withtheir France to teach in the newly-founded families.LittleShildrenplayed in the French parochial schools.86 yards, on the sidewalk, or in the street, always speaking French amongst them- selves.Le Petit Canada was generally 27
located near the textile factories, this government, using his pen to advocate meaning that for all practical purposes these ideas.9IIn 1874, Gagnon was one one could ba to work, to school, to of the chief organizers ofan excursion church,tobuyprovisions,andto to Montreal to celebrateLa Saint-Jean- socialize, all within walking distance of Baptiste.The purpose of this excursion the home.88 was to revive a patriotic sentiment for Quebec among the expatriates. Whenever.the French-Canadians Hundreds of French-Canadians from all' chose to celebrate an occasion the entire over the United States, dressed in their neighborhood would join in, takingon a finest attire, boarded specially very festive appearance. A perfect ex- designated trains destined for Montreal. ample of this could be seenevery year Aftermuchcelebrationand many on the 24th of June, the feast day of the speeches the French-Cadadians returned French-Canadian patron saint,La Saint- to their homes in the United States. Jean-Baptiste. The day usually began They had spent a lovely holiday in their with a Mass which everyone in the parish native land and they had shown the attended, taxing the seating capacity of citizensofMontrealexactlyhow the church. The highlight of the celebra- prosperoustheywere. Insteadof tion occurred when all the peopleas- stimulatingafeelingofpatriotism sembled outside to form a large parade toward Canada among the expatriates, which went up and downevery streetin the excursion merely accelerated the Le Petit Canada.At night, a banquet emigra.:71 movement. Many citizens of was usually held for the < indulgedin the, use of tobacco and Canadians had made to the UnitedStates alcohol, they stole jobs away from over the years.In 1889, Carroll D. native Am ca by accepting lower Wright became head of theFedpral wages and Ionr hours, thus decreasing Bureau of Statistics in Washington, D.C. the standards of labor in New England. and he again publigheda report in which The only positive remark in the report he praised the' rench-Canadins.Still stated that French-Canadians were later, in 1907, at which time he heldthe odocileand indefatigableworkers». position of President of Clark University- in Worcester, Wright senta letter to These statementsmight have Alexandre Belisle,one of the Belisle contained some truth had theybeen Brotherl,publishersoftheFrench- published in 1840 or thereabouts. How- language newspaperL'Opinion Publique. ever, by 1880, it was quite apparent that In this letter, Wright told Belisle-thatin French-Canadians would remain in this his studies he had foundno other nation- country permanently.Thip report was ality which had developedmore rapidly onlyone among themany attacks or in a more satisfactory manner than directed against the French-Canadians.' the Frepeh-Canadians .97 Needless to say, these verbal assaults angered French-Canadian leaders and dis- FIRST POLITICAL ACHIEVEMENTS couraged the average French-Canadian OF THE FRENCH-CANADIANS fromtryingtoachieve political influence.No sound basis existed for During the 1880's, the political tise unwarrantedaccusations,and efforts of the French-Canadians French-Canadian leaders did not allow remained on the lo el level. Testing them to go unanswered. They wishedto their political wings i1 the. community, demonstrate to the Bureau and its chief, they chose to run for offices suchas that Carroll D. Wright, that theywere not as of alderman, city councilman, selectman, odocile»as the reporthadstated. or school board representative.For a varietyofreasons,themajority of Almost immediately the French French-Canadian voters tended to lean press and the French societies registered4v., toward the Republican Party.First of their protestsagainsttheBureau's all, this party happened to be inpower harsh comments. Inaddition,, mill duringthe' naturalizationcampaigns. owns. - who employed French-Canadians Secondly, French-Canadian leaders (i.e. voiced their opposition to the allegations professionals,businessmen, clergymen, made in the report. In due time Wright etc.) belonged to the Republican Party, realized that he and his Bureau had mis- and therefore the masses followed suit. understood the role which. the French- Finally,theDemocraticParty was Canadians had carved out for themselves dominated by the Irish, long-time foes in the American society. He proceeded of the French-Canadians.98 In some to re-examine his evaluations, resulting areas, a French-Canadian who ran for in his retraction of all previous negative politicaloffice where his compatriots statements about French-Canadians. The made up a considerable portion of the Bureau's 1882reportcontained a electorate usually had little difficulty lengthy account of themany positive getting elected.Upon seeing the name contributions whirl the .French- of One of their ownon theballot, 30 I French-Canadian voters would merely Dubuque, Iowa, Julien Dubuque.He place an «X» in the appropriate box, was alsothe son of the 1837patriote regardlessof , theperson'spolitical Moise Dubuque.The most impressive leanings.99 Fortunately, this voting pat- French-Canadianachievement of the tern did not transcend the municipal 1890's occurred in Rhode Island when level, nor diditlast very long. As AramJ.Pothier became Mayor of French-Canadians became better Woonsocket in1894 and Lieutenant- educated,theybecame much more Governor of thatstate in1897.101 sophisticated in theirchoice of candidates, basing their selection on the THE BEGINNING OF candidate's qualifications rather than his .UPWARD-MOBILITY nationality. In addition to their political. ac- Atthistime,certainFrench- complishments,theFrench-Canadians Canadian journalists became involved in underwentvarious other changes during theAmericanpoliticalscene. One the last ten years of the 19th century example was Benjamin Lenthier who, which affectedtheir basicsocial during the year 1892, owned no less metabolism as an ethnic group. Canada's than sixteen French-language newspapers economic status had somewhat improved in various French Canadian centers. As over the past few years, withindustry previously stated, most Fr nch- gradually climbing the scale of Canadians at this, date belonged to the importance.In addition to this, the Republican Party. By contrast. Lent ier building of the Canadian Pacific Railroad used his newspapers to run a vigorous caused many French-Canadian laborers campaignin favor of the Democratic to work and later settle permanently in presidential candidate, Grover Cleveland. the prairie provinces.102 As a result of After Cleveland won the election the this. French-Canadian emigration to the majority of Lenthier's newspapers went United States reached its peak by the out of existence, since most were found- 1890's. The growth of the French- ed merely for that onecampaign.100 speaking population in New England would now depend chiefly on reproduc- Inarelativelyshort period of tion rather than upon continued emigra- time, French-Canadian candidates aimed tion from Canada. This brought up the their political aspirations a bit higher. questionof whetherthenext few During the late 1880's and early 1890's, generations would have the strength and the New Hampshire State Legislature interest to maintain the language and countedasmanyastenFrench- customs of their ancestors. Canadians within its ranks. One of them was Henri T. Ledoux of Nashua, who motherchange which occurred at later became president of one of the tt'is time also dealt with emigration, that 41' largest French societies in North of new ethnic groups, from Europe. The America,L'UnionSaint-Jean-Baptiste economic situation in Russia, Poland, d'Amerique. The Massachusetts State theUkraine,Austria,Greece,Italy, Legislature had Hugo A. Dubuque as Portugal, and other European countries one of its members. He was thegrand- resembled that of Quebec during the nephew of the explorer and founder of great migration to the United States. 31 Farmers and peasants from these areas military organization, forit possessed began arriving in this country during the the qualities of a socialgroup, whose last decade of the 19th century, trying members held a spirit of friendship and to escape the poverty of their home- respect forone another .1°4 lands. In the domain of labor, they fol- lowed the same patternsas the French- Until this time, French-Canadian Canadians, the Irish, and the Germans, societies had remained small and local, that being to accept whatever jobs avail- thus rather weak, powerless, and without able, regardless of thewages and hours. influence due to a lack of unity. Every Consequently, theFrench-Canadians few years, French-Canadiansheld rose in social and economic status, since conventionsinvariouscities,where there now were new groups ofim- delegatesfromlocalsocieties would migrants who could perform the, menial gather to discuss Cle different goals and tasks. More and more Frenchnames problems. which the French-Canadians appeared on the textile industry'spay- faced.There hardly ever occurreda roll under the column foroverseers and convention during which the delegates foremen, rather than as mereweavers did not discuss the possibility of merging and spinners. Store OW11311 who had a numberpf small societies to form one previously not dared set up shop out- large and powerful organization. They sideLe Petit Canadanow proudly moved had attempted to consolidate several to Main Street, where their clientele times before, one example being the reflected all nationalities.' 03 foundingof L'Union Canadienne de Secours Mutuel in1869. However, SOCIETIES ON THE RISE membersusuallylostinterestand nothing ever tastepermanently. At the French-Canadian societies began Convention des C adieus-Franfais du to gain more prominence at this time, New Hampshireheld in Manchester in even within larger, non-French organiza- 1890, the delegates decided that the tions. An example of thiswas theGarde time had finally arrivedto stop dis- Lafayette,a companyinthe New cussing and to start organizing. By the Hampshire NationalGuard'sFirst endof November1896,theyhad Regiment, founded in 1887 and madeup completed all negotiations, thus giving Norexclusively of French-Canadians and birthtotheirlong-awaiteddream, modeled somewhat after the Sheridan L'Association Canado-Americaine, a Guard, an Irish company.In 1891, a fraternal insurance company and monument was erected to commemorate French-Canadiansocietyrolledinto the victory of the'American forcescom- one.105It was founded as a working manded byGeneral JohnStark of man's society, as evid....nced by the fact Manchester over the British and Hessian thatitsfirstpresident, Theophile G. soldiers under the command of General Biron, held the position of Overseer of Burgoyne at the Battle of Bennington, Weaving in the Amoskeag Manufacturing Vermont in 1,777. TheGlrde Lafayette Company. Four years later, the French- won the honor and privilege of attending Canadians of Woonsocket, Rhode Island the dedication ceremonies at Bennington followedsuitby foundingL 'Union as representatives of the First Regiment. Saint-Jean-Baptiste d'Amerique. Itsfirst This Company did not merely actas a presidentwas Edouard Cadieux.'" 1/4 32 Throughout the subsequent religion, and thetraditionsof their decades, these two, organizations mother country .They were truly bi- developedintolargeandimportant lingual and bicultural. From about the insurance companies while still year 19 and on, the French-Canadians remaining on a fraternal basis. Even became.inown as the Franco-Americans. today, apart from their business and social aspects, both societies possess .6 During the early years of the 20th cultural image in the form of French century, prior to the Great War, the libraries.L'Association Canado-Ameri- Franco-Americans continued to progress caine owns LInstitut Canado-Americain, --socially, economically, and politically. thetextile acollection of French books, news- Somelefttheir jobsi ,*obtainmore papers, periodicals, photographs, factoriesinordert manuscripts, and art objects, founded by profitable employment. As Franco- Ade lardLambert, a notedFrench- Americans became more prosperous, Canadian bibliophile. L'Unlon Saint- they purchased homes, and many more In Jean-Raptisteowns. asimilarlibrary went into business for themselves. 1904, Le College de l'Assomption was which goes by the name of Bibliotheque U7 Mallet, begin with the private collection founded in Worcester, Massachusetts.' ..of Major Edmond Mallet, theCivil War This institution, directed by the soldier. These societies, along with other Assumptionist Fathers, closely smaller ones, work together to help resembled the seminaire or college in the promote and preserve French lifein Province of Quebec. The only real dif- NorthAmerica. Anothersociety, ference was that it taught English as well founded in 1899 and still very active as French. The maingoal of the school today, is the Societe Historlque Franco- was to educateyounifranco-American profession or A mericaine This organization men who aspired to one encourages the study of the historyof another. Conveniently located in the the fait francais in America. heartof New England, l'Assomptlon enabled students to receive a classical A NEW IDENTITY AND course of education withouthaving to in CONTINUED PROGRESS traveltoMontrealorelsewhere Canada. By the turn of the century. the French-Canadians hadlivedin New Over the past thirty to forty years, England approximately sixty years, since the Franco-American population in the the first migration after the Insurrection variousindustrial centers ofNew of 1837-1838.Many had learned to England had steadily increased. Natural- speak English,of !h.::hadbecome ly, parishes could not function properly American citizens, and some had even when they became overcrowded.Thus, been born in the United States,having the original parishes were forced tosub- lived their entire lives in this land.They divide into smaller ones.When these had firmly established their familiesand became toopopulous,new parishes their institutions in New England.They began to emerge. By the first decadeof owed their allegiance to one country, the 20th century, many NewEngland the United States of America whilestill cities had as many as four, five, or 'six retaining the love, the language, the Franco-American parishes. Often 38 33 Franco-Americans had difficulties in ob- protectionoftheaverageFranco- taining new parishes, since Irishbishops American. Soon, every major city which vtllrconsidered talons!parishesas had a French-speaking populationpos- detrimentaltothe strengthof the sesseditsown caissepopulaire.109 Catholic Church in the UnitedStates. Franco-Americans had become suchan They frequently named Irishpriests to integral part of American life thatsome serve in the Franco-American parishes, looked upon themas always having lived or tried to limit the use of the French in this country. One example of thiswas language in the schools, thuscreating astatement pronounced by Senator conflicts within the parish. Henry Cabot Lodge of Massachusettsat a reunion of the Boston City Club in If one keeps this in mind, it isno 1908: wonder that the Franco-Americansw' New' Hampshire were delighted when « ...they (Franco-Ameri- they achieved the «impossible» in 1907: cans) are hardly to beclas- Rev.gendGeorges-AlbertGuertin,a sified as immigrantsin the native of Nashua, became the third accepted sense. Theyrep- bishop of the Diocese of Manchester. resent one of the oldest Although the Catholic Churchin the settlements of this conti- UnitedStateshadelevatedFrench nent.They have been in priests to the episcollee in thepast, the broad sense, Amer-- Bishop Guertin was the firstnative-born ''cans for generations, and Franco-American to attain this their coming to the United position.108 TheFranco-Americans States is merely amove- continued to gain political influencein ment of Americans across NewEngland,especiallyinRhode an imaginary line from one Island, where Aram J. Pothierbecame partof Ametica to an- governor in 1908. In that same year, the other.»110 Franco-Americans achieveda «first» in thefieldof finance. Alphonse By 1910, French-languagenewspapers Desjardins, a French-Canadianbanker, had made significantprogress.Apart hal devised a concept knownas a caisse from the numerous weekly and monthly populaire, the first of which he founded journals, there were alsoseven daily at Levis, P.Q. in 1900. This institution French newspapersin New England: was a sort of combination people's bank and credit union. The success of the - L'Independant, Fall River, Mass., first caisse populaire led to the founding founded by Antoine Houde, firstap- of others.Consequently, Msgr. Pierre peared as a weeklyon March 27, 1885; Hevey, pastor 'of Ste-Marie's parishin became a daily on October 13, 1893. Manchester, uponhearingofthe -L'Ctoile, Lowell, Mass., founded by enormous success of Desjardins' venture, Le Cercle Canadien, a French-Canadian invited him to Manchester to foundthe association, first appearedas a weekly on first such bank in the United States,La March 21,1886, became a dailyon Caisse Populaire Ste-Marie.It assumed March 20, 1893. the image of a «working man's bank», - L'Opinion Publique, Worcester, catering primarilytothefinancial Mass., founded by the BelisleBrothers, 39 34 first appeared as a bi-weekly on Jan. 27, LABOR DIFFICULTIES 1893, became a weekly on April 27, 0 in 1898. The cottontextileindustry -L'Avenir National,Manchester; N.H., New England began to experience some founded by Joseph E. Bernier,first ap- rather unpleasant difficulties as a result peared three times per ,week in 1894, of Southerncompetititm.112In the becameadailyinJanuary,1901. South, workers could pick the crop, it,and produce - LaTribune,Woonsocket, RI, processandrefine. 5 founded by Ade lard E. Lafond, first ap- finished cloth- all in the same location. peared as a daily on April 7, 1..95.It This eliminated shipping costs tohave was the firstFrench-language newspaper theraw fiber processedin Northern in New England to be founded as a daily. mills. In addition to this, Southern -L'Echo,New Bedford, Mass., found- laborers worked for less money than ed by J.B. Archambault; first appeared their New England, counterparts, the cost every other day» in 1901,became a of living and the taxes were lower inthe daily in 1910. South, labor. laws were less stringent, and As a result, - Le Journal,New Bedford, Mass., unionism was not strong. founded byL independantof Fall River Southern mills could sell their product at as a separate editionof the latter, first reduced rates.In order for Northern appeared as a daily in 1910.1 1 1 factories to compete with, their rivals, they often found it necessary toincrease In1911, the Franco-Americans their work week as well as to reduce added one more accomplishment to their wages. This inevitably prompted the already impressive record. That was the workers in New England mills to strike appointment of Hugo A. Dubuque as from time to time. One example of this Justice of the Superior Court in Massa- was the bitter strikewhich occurred in 1912.1 13 chusetts.With more churches, schools, Lawrence, Massachusetts in societies, newspapers, politicians, often doctors,lawyers,businessmen, home Franco-Americans, who ow ners,caissespopulaires,hospitals, comprised a high percentagebf the work orphanages, etc., the Franco-Americans force in certain areas, we'e frequently of New England continued togain forced .to travel from city to city in search prestige in the community, influencing of employment, financial aid, andmoral their environment and adopting new pat- support.Some, though not many, re- terns of living while stillremaining loyal turned to Canada hoping torim work. have, 1 to their Franco-Americanheritage. The Although millworkers might not decade prior to the start of World WarI realized it at this time, these labor trou- perhaps marked the peak of the bi- bles represented a mild foretaste ofwhat cultural state of being of the Frapco- the future held for the cottontextile in- Americans. presenting the most dustry in New England. favorable surroundings and conditions for the survival of their languageand WORLD WAR I customs. ' ., The declaration of World WarI temporarily placed the factories into a state of vigorous production,creating 4 35 more jobs for immigrants, boosting the phenomenon reflecting shades ofthe. economy, and postponing the downfall Native American Movement of the early ofthelivelihoodof many Fran, 19th century.The war with C.:el:luny Americans. Thewar inEurope had consequently caused an anti-German demanded the services of every able- sentiment to spread across the nation. bodiedsoldier,regardless of ageor The strong patriotic feelings expressed ethnic origin.As always, the Franco- by citizens during the war now began to Americans actively participated in this manifest themselves in the form of «one wareffort. Patriotismtoward the flag, one language».115 Soon, anti- United States ran highly among citizens German propaganda evolved into anti- at home. especiallythose who knew ethnic doctrine. Anyone who identified someonefightingabroad. Franco - himself or herself as Francd-American, Americahs,as well as others, placed Polish-American, or any other small American flags or small stars in «hyphenated-American» was considered their windows, representing the nuno tobe«un-American». Politicians of family members in a particular house- pointed their fingers at many World War hold who were away at war. Some took I veterans, saying that they possessed an pride in boasting that their family, their inadequate knowledge of theEnglish parish, or their society had more men language. Educators accused Catholic and women inthe Armed Forces in parochial schools, excepting Irish Europe than any...other group in town. schools, of failing to make the English language an integral part of their cur- The Garde Lafayette saw plenty riculum, thus producing a generation of of action during World War I,losing citizens who were fluent in their mother some of its ablest members. Included tongue, but desnerately lacking was Lieutenant William H. Jutras, who proficiency in thei..se of the English diednearRiaville,Francewhileat- language. temptingtosavehisplatoon from certain death.114Today, the memory TotheFranco-Americans,this of Lieutenant Jutras lives on in his home merely represented another in a series of town,Manchester,NewHampshire, battles to preserve their cultural identity. where the American Legion Post No. 43 As a group, they still had the power to bears his name as Posse Jutras.Franco- withstand any opposing forces, as their Americansoldiersfoundthattheir ancestorshadsofrequentlydone. knowledgeoftheFrenchlanguage Among certain individuals, however, this became quite useful while fighting in movementinstilledfearorshame, France. causing them to Americanize their names and marry outsidetheir own ethnic ONE FLAG, ONE LANGUAGE group.116 Jean-BaptisteArsenault simply became Jack Snow, or Joseph ThevictoryoftheAlliesin LeblancchangedhisnametoJoe Europe in 1918 brought peace and relief White.-117Naturally, those who denied in homes throughout the country. Many their ethnic identity raised their children soldiers returned home, many did not. only as Americans, with no knowledge To the nation's ethnic groups, the end of of the language and customs of their the war brought with it an unforeseen ancestors.These notions had occurred 41 36 long before the 1920's. However, they might possibly limitthe teaching of did not exist on as large a scale.This French,alt oughthemajorityof was the case in Vermont, where the students at nding them wolld come Franco-Americans had become from Fran o-American families. Led by assimilated by theturn ofthe Attorney Elphege Daignault, a resident century.118Politicians tried to intro- of WoonsocketandalsoPresident- duce bills which would have banked the General ofL'Association Canado-Ameri- teaching ofalllanguages other than cainein Manchester, New Hampshire, English in the parochial schools. For the these Franco-Americans decided to chal- most part, these politiciar.s lost their lenge Bishop Hickey's right to tax their battle, especially in cases concerning the purses, while depriving their childrenof Frenchlanguage. Franco-American their Nght to study French in school. schools adhered to the laws which stated They accused Bishop Hickey of trying to that they must follow the same cur- assimilate the Franco-Americans. riculum as the public schools with regard to English, American History, etc., al- Subsequently,theyfounded a lowing themthefreedomtoteach newspaperentitledLa Sentinellein French during the remaining portions of whichtheyvoicedtheiropposition the school day.119 toward the bishop's proposals. The Sentinellistesbelieved in the Canadian RHODE ISLAND CONTROVERSY system of palish taxation, wherein the pastor and an appointed parish council The assimilation or Amerianiza- Lave control of funds, rather than the tion movement following World War I bishop.Conditions became so heated revived some of the bitterness between that another group of Franco-Americans Franco-Americans and ::ie Irish over the led by Elie Vezina, the Secretary-General question of tea,:ning French in of L'Union Saint-Jean-Baptiste d'Ame- predominantly Franco-American rique,voiced their opposition to the schools. Many disputes had riser Daignaultforcesinthe Woonsocket during the 19th century. Yet, none ever French-language newspaperLa Tribune. attained the notoriety ofL'Affaire de la After several years of battling and name- Sentinel lein Rhode Island.] 20 This calling back and forth,La Sentinellewas lasted from 1923 to about 1924. A placed on the Catholic Church's «Index» detailed account of thiscontroversy andtheSentinellisteswere excom- would require entire book. municated by the religious courts in Therefore, a general summary of events Rome. The civil courts in Rhode Island will have to suffice.His Excellency The also ruled against them, saying that the MostReverendWilliamA.Hickey, bishophadeveryrighttotaxthe Bishop of Providence, decided that the parishioners, and that the latter had no state needed diocesan s t1.1:ipols on the say in the manner in which thediocese secondary level, much likeL'Assomption used -se funds. Not wishing to remain in Worcester.In order to pay for the outsidi theCatholicChurch,the construction of these schools, he would Sentinellisteswere forced to retract all find it necessary to tax every parish in previous statements regarding the his diocese.Certain Franco-Americans bishop's authority.Subsequently, the in the diocese learned that the schools Church pardoned and readmitted them. 42 37 Withouttakingsidesinthis work hours, decreasing salaries, and cut- conflict,several objective observations ting their work force. The situation had are wairanted. Negatively speaking, the become much more serious than that Sentinel le controversy demonstrated to prior to World War I. Whena corpora- the world that given the right issue, the tion the size ofthe Amoskeag otherwisehomogeneousandunited Manufacturing Company, the largest cot- Franco-Americanscouldinfactbe ton textile manufacturing company in divided, plotted brother against brother, the world, watched its 17,000 operatives friend against friend. Another situation go on strike for nine months in 1922, such as this could ultimately destroy all the economic outlook was not very bonds among Franco-Americans, leaving optimistic. 22 them vulnerable to forces which would succeed in assimilating them. Positively Franco-Americans,morepoliti- speaking, L'Affalre de la Sentinel lewas a cally aware than ever, slowly began to manifestation of the love which certain drift away from the Republican Party FrancoAmericans had for theirJanguage Thiparty was viewed as a wealthy anetheirwillingnesstopreserveit, man's party and it possessed some rather regardless of the consequences. The «Know-Nothing» attitudes. Observing strength and unity of the Sentinellistes that the Democratic Party seemed more went so far as to influence Irish bishops concerned with the economic situation in later years to see the value in knowing and with the plight of the working class, a sc cond language. Some of the bishops Franco-Americans ignored the fact that who had once put down the their rivals, the Irish, had dominated this Sentinelllstes later advocated the party for many years. Soon, more and conservation of the French language. more Franco-American. names appeared Their main opposition to the movement, inbetween theIrishnames on the according to many, lay not in any hatred Democratic Party's voting lists. In 1928, for the Franco-Americans, but rather in the 'majority .4 Franco-Americans stood the tactics employed by the Sentinel- firmly behind the Democratic listes.In any case, if L'Affaire de la Presidentialcandidate,GovernorAl Sentinelle possessed some rather negatiiv Smith of New York. They disregarded aspects,thereis no denying thatit his ethnic background and judged him produced some rather positive by his qualifications and his viewpoints. results) 21 Although Al Smith lost the election to Herbert Hoover, the Franco-Americans LABOR DIFFICULTIES RETURN hadsolidly planted themselves within the ranks of the Democratic Party.' 23 Another battle with which the Franco-Americans and other primarily THE GREAT DEPRESSION: labor-orientedethnic groups hadto ITS EFFECTS ON contend was the economic crisis which THE FRANCO-AMERICANS occurred during the -1920's.In New England, the textile industry faced its By autumn of 1929, the economic perpetual struggle to remain alive and crisis had turned into a full-scale depres- prosperous. Everywhere, mill owners sion,followingtheinfamous Stock began their usual tactics of increasing Market Crash.The Great Depression 38 merely created more difficulties in the who had suffered since the Crash could already troubled New England textile now perceive a bright future for them- industr,,but in this case mill operatives selves andtheirfamilies. President could not escape these difficulties by Roosevelt's numerous programs created seeking employment elsewhere. The employment for everyone. As a result, Depression had affected all walks of life. Americans developed the drive to get People lacked money, jobs, and worst of ahead, both materially and socially. This all,they had nowhere toturn. As upward mobility caused Franco- always, a few Franco-Americans Americans,aswellasother ethnic «escaped» to Canada nonetheless, the groups, to look back on the days when great majority remained in this country. they first arrived in the United States. Many alleviated their financial burdens Upon arrival they had to struggle in by moving in with relatives. They shared poverty and they worked long hours for expenses such as rent, food, and utilities. little pay.They were scoffed at by In some families as many as fifteen to native Americans because of language and twenty persons of every age and genera- cultural differences, and were forced to tion were forced to crowd into three and hide their ethnicity in order to receive four -room apartments. To those in their equaltreatmentinthecommunity. seventies and eighties, this type of living arrangement echoed the days of their Now, Franco-Americans began to arrival and establishment in the New regardtheirethnicbackgroundas England textile centers following the detrimental to their prosperity.They Civil War.Perhaps the only positive feltthat by shedding their «foreign» aspect of the Depression was thatit traits and by attempting to appear as broughtfamilies closertogether,en- «American» as possible, they would find abling younger children to hear French greater acceptance in society. spoken morefrequently,sincetheir Consciously or unconsciously, Franco- grandparents naturally favored itover Americansslowly abandonedcertain the English language. To those parents 'customs which they had observed for whoconcernedthemselvesprimarily many years.' 25 Children spoke French with the well-being of their families, only g school or in the presence of their perhaps all on relief and at the mercy of grandparents. Adultsstillusedthe a government which advocated «one flag French laiguage.They spoke itless and one language», the idea of Franco- frequentlyhowever.Many tended to Americanculturalsurvivalprobably incorporate English words into a French ranked last on their list of priorities.124 sentence,sooncausingtheFranco- American language to evolve into what RETURN TO PROSPERITY AND linguists call loofranglais.126 Tomany GRADUAL AMERICANIZATION young Franco-Americans who were born in the United States, Canada was merely With the election of Franklin- D. a foreign country.It was where their Roosevelt, the Democratic Presidential ancestors had come from, and also where candidate whom the majority of Franco- they occasionally visitedrelatives, but Americans backed during the campaign neither would one want to live there nor of 1932, the nation slowly began to could one identify with any part of that recover from its economic illness. Those culture.New England was their on!y k 4 II 39 home.127 publications remained in Fre lch. The Franco-American institutions, Infatuated by their newly-found theguardiansof the French way of ' prosperity, some Franco-Americans life in New England, began to reflect viewed Le Petit Canada, with its streets some of the changes which had occurred of closely lined rows of three and four- duringtheseyearsofprosperity. decker houses, as a reminder of their Franco-American churches found thata poor economic and social status in past good portion of their members who years.They no longer wished to live preferred to hear sermons in English had among the memories of hard work in the transferred to Irish Catholic parishes.' 28 mills and overcrowded living conditions. Teachers in the French parochial schools To them, the way of life in Le Petit observed that children were progressively Canada had become «passe». They losing their ability to communicate in looked upon the old neighborhood in the French language. Parents often the same manner as their ancestors had sent their children to Irish Catholic or perceivedtheirabandoned farmsin public schools in order to avoidany Quebec. A few of the more prosperous difficulties with the French language. Franco-Americans hadleftLe Petit Journalists stood by in utter dismayas Canada as early as the 1880's. Now, in one, French newspaper after another the 1930's many more Franco- ceased publication due toa lack of Americans hopped on to the bandwagon subscriptions. Franco-Americans, whichbrought themintosuburbia. especially the younger generation, could There they would constitute butone read English language newspapersmore among the numerous nationalities, where easily.Consequently, many cancelled English woulddominateallother their subscriptions to the local Franco- tongues, and where they would gradually Americanjournals.129 Several drift away from and lose touch with strong-willed Franco-Americanjour- Franco-Americanculturalinfluences nalists continued to publish theirnews- which had once surrounded them.'" papers at a deficit for many more years. The Franco-American reader, however, CONCERNED FRANCO-AMERICANS had no interestin them.The only AND FRENCH-CANADIANS UNITE institutionthat did not immediately surrender to this wave of assimilation In .1937, Le Deuxieme Congres de was the Franco-Americansociety. laLangue Francaisetookplacein Remaining loyal to their original purpose Quebec City. Many prominent New of preserving and promoting the French England Franco-American leaders partic- language, Franco-Americansocieties ipated in this event.Included were: resisted the forces which surrounded - Reverend Adrien Verrette, noted them. Those who belonged toa society clergyman and historian. did so voluntarily, out ofconcern for the - Adolphe Robert, author, journalist, future of French life in New England. and President-General of L 'Association Certain cultural traditions were upheld, Canado-Americaine. such asconductingmeetingsand -Wilfrid Beaulieu, journalist, publisher conventions in French.In addition, all of Le TrUvailleur. of their announcements, newsletters, and 45 40 - Henri Ledoux, President-General of industry now worked in various other L 'Union Saint-Jean-Baptiste d'A merique. fields.The average Franco-Americans - Attorney Eugene 'Jalbert,legal still belonged to the working class, yet counsel ofL'Union SaintJean-Baptiste in a more diversified manner. d 'Amerique. - JosephatT.Benoit,author, patriotism remained strong during journalist. World War IIasit had during the previouswar. As always,the war At thisconvention, 17rench- produced many heroes, Franco- Canadians and Franco-Americans met to Aniericans included. Lieutenant discuss the future of their language, their Raymond Beaudoin of Holyoke was mother tongue,hopingtofind a killed in Gernuny one month before the solution to the current dilemma which fighting had ceased.He earned the the Franco-Americans of, New England Congressional Medal of Honor.Many faced. The ultimate result of this con- won Purple Hearts, Silver Stars, Bronze vention was the founding ofLe Comite Stars, and other awards for bravery in Permanent des CongrEs de la Langue combat.Franco-American women, no Franfaise en Amerique,subsequently lesspatriotic,servedinthe WACS, changed toLe Comite Permanent de la WAVES, and also as nurses. Perhaps the Survivance Franfaise en Amerique,and most famous event in which a Franco- still in existence today under the name American participatedoccurred in ofLe Conseil de la Vie Franfaise en February *of1945, when Pfc. Rene Amerique. The primary goal of this Gagnon of Manchester, New Hampshire, organization is to preserve the French and five of his Marine companions raised heritage in North America.13 1 the American flag atqf Mt. Suribachi on the island of Iwo Jima in the Pacific.132 WORLD WAR H REVIVAL OF INTEREST IN When World W2r II broke out, FRENCH CULTURE all eyes focused on Europe and Asia. When the United States entered the World War II shed new light upon conflict in 1941, Franco-Americans once the importance of knowing a foreign againwentintobattlealongwith language for both travel and diplomatic hundredsofthousandsofother purposes. Thesentimentswhich Americans. At home in the United prevailed at this time directly contra- States the job market was favorable, as it dictedthosewhich followed World usually becomes during a time of war. War I. 133The American government The cotton textile industry had all but looked favorably toward its ally, France. completely died in New England, with Therefore, in a complete about-face only a few remaining factories here and from its previous position, the American there.Synthetics such as rayon had government advocated the teaching of replaced cotton, and the mills now French in parochial and even in public required fewer operatives due to an schools. Consequently, French Catholic increase in mechanization.As a result, schools experienced a sharp increase in Franco- Arnercans who had previously theirenrollmentafterthe war and supplied the labor force of the texile through the early 1950's.It was net 4t) 41 uncommon to see soldiers, stationed on chance to learn or to improveupon their military bases,withtheirfamilies, 'French.Societies still clung to their sending 'their children to nearby French custom of deliberating in Frenchat their parochial schools, hopingto provide meetings.In most cities, radio stations them with the opportunity to learn a carried an heure francaise,consisting of second language. Many of thesestudents both speech andsongs in the French did not come from 1./ Franco-American language.136 TheFrench-Canadians and families,which signifiedthatthe the Franco-Americansonce again met in «average» American had finallycome to Quebec Cityfor. Le Troisieme Congres realizethe value of preserving one's dela Langue Francaisein1952.137 ethnicheritagerather thanbeing This time, the conventionwas presided ashamed of it or demeaning thosewho by a Franco-American, Reverend wished to preserve theirs.134 Adrien Verrette.In short, everyole, including many non-Franco-Americans, devoteda 41IPThe United States further great deal of time and effort toward the cemented its relationship with France survivance of the French language. This and her people by sending a train filled placedanopportunityforcultural with food and clothing to aid the victims revivalwithinreachof average of that war-torn nation. Inrecognition Franco-American. forthis The fate of the generous deed, the French French language in New Englandwas government reciprocated by sendinga now inthe hands of the everyday train to the United States. Thisgift to person. the American people, entitl Train de la Reconnaissance Francaise, consisted ETHNIC SUICIDE of 49 separatecars, one destined for each state, as wellas the District of Unfortunately, although the Columbia. Itcontainednumerous resources were there, Franco-Americans, articles, including art treasures,porcelain like most other Americans, didnot take vases, medals of various sorts, bells from advantage of them. The incompre- Caen, dolls, and many other items.135 hensible fact of the matterwas that in past years, when the native Americans Potentially, the attitudes during and the Irish had attemptedto assimilate the post-war years presenteda quite the Franco-Americans, the latterunited favorable milieu with regardtothe to form an invincible defense against survival of the French language. At the theseforces,guardingtheircultural time, there still existed enough Franco- identity which they held sacred.Yet, American churches, schools, societies, whenthe government,theCatholic and even a fewnewspapers, to enable Church hierarchy, and other assimilative Franco-Americans to regain whatthey bodies finally admitted theworth and had lost. The majority of the peoplehad cultural wealth of speakingmore than not forgotten the French language and onelanguage,thepreviouslyunas- traditions. They had merely brushed similabla Franco-Americans simply them aside and ignored them. Helpwas pointed their weapons in the opposite everywhere. Many, schools still carrieda direction and committed ethnic suicide half-day of French in their curriculum. through passive self-assimilation. 13 8 offering Franco-American childrenthe 4 7 12 I This phenomenon has occurred within CHANGES IN FRENCH LANGUAGE most ethnic groups in the UnitedStates, TEACHING METHODS and probably at a much faster rate than among the Franco-Americans.The fact The problem of teaching French that the Franco-Americans settled within in the Franco-American schoolsbecame a few , hundred milesof theiruold more and more acute,since children not countryhas aided in slowing down only lacked the ability to speak'French, their assimilation. European immigrants, but many also refused to even attempt on the other hand, settled atleast 3,000 to learn it.In order to keep their en- miles away from their mother country. rollment up, Franco-Americanschools Consequently, they quickly adopted the-. had to bend with the tide. Mostschools language and customs of this country. had to change their curriculumfrom Only in large cities such as New York, half-day of French to 45 minutes per Philadelphia, and Chicago, where there day of French < modern or «standard» French. FRANCO-AMERICAN NEWSPAPERS - The standardization of teaching AND SOCIETIES methods,in otherwords,Franco- American schools would utilize the As Franco- American life same program of study as that of schools continued to dwindle during the 1960's, in Canada, France, Belgium, Switzerland, so did the number of Franco- American etc. newspapers. These journals, for the - Oralexercisesinalanguage mostpart,ranoutof funds and laboratory, designed to perfect consequently ceasedtheir operations. pronunciation. They could not follow the same trend as - The incorporation of the history and the other Franco-American institutions. folklore of the French-speaking world to They could not incorporate the English make classes more interesting to Franco- language into their articles and still call Americanchildrenthanmeredrill themselves French-language newspapers. sessionsin grammaire and epellation. Even thesocietiesfinally beganto experience difficulties.Most still main- By employing these and other tainedthetradition of utilizing the advanced methodsofinstruction, French-language, but new members of educators hoped to produce a breed of the younger generation seemed few and perfectly bilingualstudentswhose farbetween.145 Many of the clubs French would be of an impeccable merely served as places to drink, to play quality .143 Unfortunately, due to a cards, or to shoot a game of billiards. shortage of nuns, brothers, and capable Larger societies, such as L'Association layteachers,many Franco-American Canado-Americaine and L'Union Saint- schools were forced to close their doors Jean-Baptiste- d'Amerique, continued to before ever having the opportunityto use the French language in their internal try out these new language programs. In affairs, but found it necessary to become some cases, pastors who did not wish to bilingual when dealing with the public. seetheir schools close down pleaded This was the only way in which they with diocesan officials tocome to their couldattract young members, who aid. This resulted in themerger of local possessed little or no knowledge of the parochial schools of various nationalities French language. into regional diocesan schools withno particular ethnic identification .144 TRAGEDY IN VIET NAM Catholic schools in general were experiencing financial difficulties at this As Franco-American leaders time, primarily because they received no continued their fight for the survival of governmentsubsidies,thus having' to French life in the United States, many chargetuition. Parents with many young soldiers, including Franco- children, who could not always afford Americans, continuedtheirfight for these high costs, sent their offspring to mere survival in Viet Nam. In the end, public schools. over 50,000 Americans had given their liveor this controversial cause. For the Franco-Americans, the single most tragic' event occurred during the last week of August in 1969. The Third Battalion of 49 44 1931 and as a the 197thArtillery in theNew newspaper in Worcester in HampshireNational Guard was due to staunch supporter and patriot of the return home after a one-year tourof French calm, he continues to publish duty in Viet Nam. One week before his journal despite the decline of the Franco-American press in New England. their scheduled homecoming, S. Sgt. 'A Richard Raymond, Spec.'5- Richard Because of its primarily political and Genest, and Spec. 4 Roger Robichaud, literarynature, Le Travailleur appeals Gaetan Beaudoin, and Guy Blanchette, mostly to intellectuals.Consequently, all Franco-Americans from Manchester, itehas great difficulty finding its way into died when the truck in which they rode the «average» Franco-American home. went over a forty-pound land mine severalmilesoutsideof Saigon.146 Therearestillmanystrong Franco-American societies in existence, THE PRESENT AND THE FUTURE butasolder members and officers gradually die off they are replaced by Today, the future of the Franco- younger people who do notnecessarily Americans seems uncertain.With each identify with the original goals of the year, the balance ofEnglish and French societies. Thus, many of these societies Masses in the Franco-Amenca urches may soon evolve into merebusinesses, seems tohift in favor of English. One void of ethnic identity, unless people rey of hope lies inthe fact that hree suddenly become more concerned with dioceses i4 p. N,Aw England have a Franco- theirfate. One society which has American bishop. These are: The Most managedtomaintainanimpressive Reverend Louis E. Gelineau, Bishop of membership while persisting in its battle Providence, The Most Reverend Odore againstassimilationisLe Richelieu J. Gendron, Bishop of Manchester, and International. This organization, which the most recent appointment, TheMost originated in Ottawa in 1944, has local Reverend Amedee W. Proulx, Auxiliary chaptersinCanada, NewEngland, Bishop of Portland.147With the aid France, Belgium, Switzerland, and North of these three men, parishes may be Africa. Besidestryingtopreserve able to retain their ethnicity a while French life and culture, Le Richelieu International actively participates in com- longer. munity projects which are beneficial to Educators are still working society ingenera1.1 5° diligently to try to find a solution to theproblem of teaching Frenchin In many cities, Le Petit Canada is schools. In several states, they have met barely visible today. After the majority with legislators, hoping to initiate their of, its former residents had moved out to bilingual educational programs in the the suburbs, the old French-Canadian and publicschools.48 Thestateof neighborhood began to deteriorate Louisiana has done this successfully and dissolve.151 The streets in which the some New England stateswish to follow early French-Canadians had soproudly suit.149In the field of journalism, the marched every year during La Saint- only remaining major French-language Jean-Baptiste have become silent. They weather-beaten, newspaper isWilfridBeaulieu'sLe are lined with run-down, which the old Travailleur. Mr. Beaulieu founded his and vacanthomes 50 45 emigrants had once thought of as their to remain solvent, or else they could try castles.The homes which many of the toresist the tide of assimilation and first French-Canadians worked long and eventuallyperish. Inother words, hard to build and pay for have now Franco-American institutions were not simply fallen into disrepair.In some the foundations of French culture in areas,Le Petit Canadahas been literally this country, they merely reflected the crushed and eaten up by the bulldozers sentiments which prevailed atany given and the cranes of urban renewal in the time. When Franco-Americans began name of «progress*. leavingtheirparishestojoinIrish parishes in order to hear the Mass in As for the Franco-Americans, they English, Franco-American pastors had no are now simply Americans. Except for alternativebut tointroduce English- a inority of strong supporters of the language Masses. Had they not done so, F nch language and traditions in the they would have lost the majority of United States, most franco-Americans their parishioners.This same notion look, speak, act, think in thesamerman- may be applied to the other Franco- ner as everyone else.They no longer American institutions. The blame does fight with the Irish, and the Yankee not lie with them. society has admitted them within its circles. Unfortunately,inorderto Who, then, is responsible for the achieve this status, the Franco- assimilation of the Franco-Americans? Americans were forced to shed their The answer can be found no farther than most preCious possession, their identity. one's front door -the family.The foundation of every human being's life, CONCLUSION thatis,theindividual'spersonality, perceptionof reality,values,habits, A question may arise:«Who is language, and identity all originate at responsible for all of these losses?» The home with the family. This may be nar- 19th century French-Canadians believed rowed down further by stating that of that so long as they maintained their all the family members, the mother plays churches, schools,newspapers,and the most important role in the formation societies,their ethnic survival was as- of her children.Even if a mother is sured. They firmly believed that these employed, her children still manage to institutions were the foundations of spend more time with her than they French life in the United States.The spend with their father.In the home, events of the 20th century have served the responsibility rests with the mother, as evidence that they were mistaken. for it is from her that children learn their When the French-Canadians first «mothertongue» .1 5 2 Womenare establishedthemselvesinthe United usually the most faithful guardians of States,theirinstitutionstook ona their children's education.1 5 3 purely French-Canadian image. In later yearswhentheirdescendants,the If parents teach their children, Franco-Americans, slowlybeganto whilethey arestillvery young and abandon their mother tongue, their insti- impressionable, to speak their mother tutions had two choices.They could tongue and to take pride in 'heir ethnic either conform to this evolution in order heritage. the children will develop into 5I 46 adultswho valuetheiridentityas Americansarevisitingthevarious ranco-Americans. Theywillthus countries abroad. Those who have preserve their language and traditions. As already done so know the value of soon as parents begin to neglectthe knowing a second language. ethnic formation of their children, the forces of assimilation will immediately There are some who might feel take over.These forces comprise a that by speaking a foreign language and number of influences: television, radio, by identifying with one's ethnic heritage comicbooks,movies,friendsand a person is beingun-American and un- relativeswhospeakonlyEnglish. patriotic. On the contrary, the United Should parents decide to send their States is a nation which advocates the children to a Franco-American parochial freedom to be what one wishes to be. A school ( the few that are left) without person may owe allegiance tothe United firsthavingtaughtthemtospeak State,s and be proud of his or her ethnic French, they cannot blame e school heritage at the same time. If the Franco- for assimilating their children, si the Americans become successful in regain- childrenhad no language or ethnic ing the French language and in main- heritage to destroy in the first place. ining it in their homes, they will be all the more wealthy, both intellectually InthisBicentennialyear,the and culturally." If, on the other hand, citizens of the United States have sud- the Franco-Americans one day disap- denly become interested in their ethnic pear, it is because theywill have wanted heritage. Perhaps they feel that they it.154 have lost something by ignoring itall these years.Fortunately, those who The greatmosaic,theUnited seem to have the mostenthusiasm for States of America, through the studying foreign languages, reconstruc- assimilationc6Ots various ethnic groups, ting their family tree, and traveling to . isbecome dull and colorless with age. the «old country» to see where their' In this Bicentennial Year, 1976, the time ancestors once lived,arethe young has arrived to take a loo'ic at this master- people, those who will shape the society piece,this 200 year-old mosaic, and of tomorrow. Several decades ago, begin to restore it before its once bril- adultsaccusedtheyounger genera- liant colors fade away, never to return. tion of falling prey to the propaganda of assimilation. Hopefully, the younger generation of today will make up for this loss by recapturing the past and making it useful in the present. If parents take a greater interest in the ethnic formation of their children, and if the bilingual programsoftoday'seducatorscan receive full support of the government andthepeople,thefutureofall languages, including French, will remain bright.In this jet age, where Europe is but a few hours away, many more '52 trzol WHO'S WHO AND WHO WAS WHO Yvonne Le Maitre - born : . AMONG FRANCO-AMERICANS Pierreville, P.Q.; res: Paris, Lowell, Mass.; a critic as well es a journalist, she wrote The following are but «a few» of for various English and French-language the many Franco-Americans who have newspapers, includingL'Etoilein Lowell. achieved notorietyintheir respective fieldsbut who were notpreviously Musicians mentioned in 'thetext of this work. Bernard Barbeau - born: Peabody, Artists Mass.; res: Nashua, N.H., Boston; pianist, opera singer, voice instructor at the New Lorenzo De Nevers- born: Bale- England Conservatory in Boston. du-Febvre, P.Q.; res: Paris, New York, Dr.WilfridPelletier - born: Montreal,CentralFalls,R.I.;noted Montreal, P.Q.;- res: Paris, New York; painter among whose worksare orchestraconductor, NewYork numerousportraitsofwell-known Metropolitan Opera. Franco-Americans, as well as many land- scapes. Mutualists Lucien Gosselin - born: Whitefield, N.H.;res:Paris,Manchester,N.H.; Henri Goguen - born: Fitchburg, ',sculptor,,knownespeciallyforhis Mass.; Les: Leominster, Mass.; President- masterpieces which adorn the parks, Generalof LlInion Saint-Jean-Baptiste commons, and churches of many New d'Ameriquein Woonsocket, R.I. (1946- England cities. 1974). Gerald` Robert-born and res: Government Officials Manchester, N.H.; President-General of L'Association Canado-Americaine in Herve L'Heureux - born: Manchester, N.H. (1965 to date). Manchester, N.H.; res: Canada, Germany, Portugal,France,Washington,D.C.; Sports Personalities StateDepartmentofficial,American consul in various cities abroad. Louis (Lou) Boudreau-born: Emery J. San Souci - born: Saco, Harvey, Illinois; baseball player, Maine; res: Greenfield, Mass., Hartford, managed the Cleveland Indians :ind the Co n n., Providence,R.I.;politician, Boston Red Sox, and was the American becamethesecond Franco-American League's Most Valuable Player in 1948. governor of Rhode Island. Napoleon (Larry) Lajoie - born: Woonsocket,R.I.; playeflprofessional Journalists baseball during the early part of thee 20th century, and was named to the Philippe-ArmandLajoie-born: National Baseball Hall of Fame in 1937. Wottonville,P.Q.; res: Montreal,Fall River,Mass.;editorofFallRiver's Stars of Stage and Screen French-language newspaper L'Inde- pendant. Frank Fontaine - born: Cambridge,Mass.; comedian who 53 ,/ 48 , achieved national fame on the «Jackie Forces. Gleason Show». Rev. Thomas M. Landry, o.p. Mass.;res: Fall Robert Goulet - born: Lawrence, ,born: New Bedfoi 1, Mass.; singer and actor, Broadway star River, Mass.; past president ofLe Conseil (Camelot). de laVie .Francaise en Amerique and Eva Tanguay-born: Holyoke, staunch defender of the French language Mass.; singer,actress, and Vaudeville in New England. - born: star. Gen.CurtisLemay Rudolph (Rudy) Vallee-born: Columbus, Ohio; U.S. Army General, Island Pond, Vt.; res: Westbrook,Maine; Head of the Strategic AirCommand. singer, actor. Joseph (Jos) Montferrand - born LouisDantin' (pseudonymof Province of Quebec; res: Woonsocket, Eugene Seers)- born: nearMontreal; R.I., Manchester, N.H.; knownthrough- res: Cambridge,Mass.; poet,novelist, out New England andQuebec as an «strong critic. invincible French-Canadian HenriD'Arles(pseudonymof man». Rev. Henri Beaude) - born: Arthabaska, P.Q., res: primarily in Manchester, N.H.; world traveler, author, historian. Jacques Ducharme - born: Holyoke, Mass.; res: Stratford, Conn.; novelist, historian, folklorist. Will Durant - born: North Adams, Mass.; internationally famous historian and philosopher. Jean-Louis (Jack) Kerouac - born: Lowell, Mass.; famed novelist, one of the originalroponents of the Beat Genera- tio g the 1950's. saire Dion-Levesque - born and res. ashua, N.H.; author of several books of poems in the French language, among which is a translationor some of4 - the finest verses from Walt Whitman's Leaves of Grass. Alice Lemieux-Levesque, wife of the above - born: Quebec, P.Q.; res: St- Michel de Bellechasse, P.Q., Nashua, Nh; also published poems in French. Miscellaneous Jean Garand- born: St-Remi, P.Q.; res: Springfield, ass.,inirentor of the Garand Rifle, which replaced the Spring- field Rifle used by the American Armed 54 49 Footnotes 1. Francis Parkman,Pioneers of France in the New 12.Adrien Verrette.Paroisse SainteMarie Manchester, World(New York: Charles Scrihner'sSons.1915). New Hampshire,(Manchester: ImprimerieLafayette, Vol. 2 pp. 14.20; see also Arthur L. Eno.French Trails 1931) pp. 264.65; see also Fecteau. pp. 21.26. in the United States,address before the members of the Lowell Historical Society. published under the auspices 13.See Francis Parkman.Frontenac and New France oftheFranco-AmericanHistoricalSociety.1940: Under Louis XI V, (NewYork: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 3.4. 1915). Liwurd Feeteau,French Contributions of America, 14. Eno. p. 5, published under the auspices of the Fi4nco- American HistoricalSociety.(Methuen: SoucyPress.1945). 15. Benoit.Catechisme.pp. 26-33. pp. 5.7. 16. Degert, p. 533. 3 Antoine Degert, «Huguenots», inThe Catholic Encyclopedia(New York: Robert Appleton Co.. 1910). 17.Ibid.,p.534. VolVII, pp. 527.37;See also John S. C. Abbott. Henry I V (New York: Harper and Bros.. 1884). 18., See Fecteau. pp. 11-15 for a list of hundreds of Huguenots' names and their places of settlement. 4. Gilbert. (limed.Les Refugies Huguenots en Amerique(Paris:LesBellesLettres.1925). p.8-9; 19. Benoit.Catechisme,pp. 8.10.12. 15 and 22. Fecteau, pp. 7-10. 20.Ibid.,pp. 10-14. 5.On the Massacre of St. Bartholomew see Abbott. pp. 109-36. 21. Plante. p. 2. 6. Dcgert, pp. 532.33. 22.Jacques Ducharme,The Shadows of the Trees, (New York: Harper and Brothers. 1943) p. 154. 7. Fecteau. pp. 15-16. 23.W. Stewart Wallace. ed.. «Treaty of Utrecht» in p. Ih. TheEncyclopedia of Canada(Toronto:University Associates of Canada Limited. 1948) Vol VI. p. 224. 9. From correspondence which stemmed from a ,:onversation with Mr. Jacques Ducharme, January 31. 24. JosaphatBenoit.L'Ame Franco-Americaine I976. (Montreal: Cditions Albert Levesque. 1935). pp. 4243: see also Lemaire. p. 6. W. tiro. George R. Plante,The Franco-American Parish in New England,NIA dissertation. Fordham Uni- 25. See Francis Parkman.Montcalm and Wolfe,(New ersty, New York, 1940. p. 2; see also Herve B. Lemaire York: Charles Scribner's Sons. 1915) in3 volumes. The Franco-Americans of New England.an unpublished manuscript prepared for the Language Resource Project 26. Vei re t teSteMarie,p. 92. of the Department of Health. Education and Welfare. 1963, pp. 3-4. 27. Benoit.L'Ame.p. 38. 11 On rtienne Bride see J. Herbert Cranston.Etienne 28. Sr Florence NI. Chevalier,The Role of French Br,le Immortal Scoundrel( Toronto: Ryerson Press. National Societies in the Sociocultural Evolution of the 1949). on Nicolet and Perrotsee Josaphat Benoit. Franco-Americans of New England from 1860 to the Catechisme d'Histoire Franco-Americaine,public sous Present, Ph. D.dissertation (Washington: Catholic U.- athpces de la Societe Historique Franco-Americaine. 1972). p. 37. footnote no. 1. ( NIanche,terLAN.c.r National. 1939) pp. 26-28.On Rdiscon, Uroseilliel Marquette. Jolliet. La Salle. and Ducharme.Shadows,pp. 23-24. V&endr!,e see Eno. pp. 6-7 50 30. . William Henry Moore, The Clash/ A Study in 45. Ducharme, Shadows, p.62. Nationalities (Toronto: J. M. Dent and Sons. Limited. 1918) pp. 3;13. 46.For a detailed sketch of rural life in the Province of Quebec during the 19th century see Ralph Dominic 31. Fur a list of some of the French and French- Vieero.Immigration of French-Canadiansto New Canadian military men who fought aga.. qt England in England, 1840.1900: A Geographical Analysis, Ph. D. :he American evolutionary War see Fecteau. dissertation, University of Wisconsin, 1968, pp. 10-76. pp. 87-111. 47. Plante, pp. 30-31. 32. Andre 1 eveque. Histoire de la Civilisation Fran- caise (New York: Holt. Rinehart and Winston. 1966;3e 48. Alexandre Bdlisle, Histoire de la Presse Franco- ddition). p. 242. Amoricaine(Worcester:L'OpinionPublique.1911), p. 16; see also Benoit, LAme pp. 46.47. 33. Benoit. Cattschisme, p:16. 49. Basle, pp. 16-17. 34. Ibid.. p. 18. 50. Ibid.. p. 20. 35. Ibid.. F. 16. 51. See Ducharme, Shadows, p. 62. 36. Ibid.. p 18. 52. For an example of the typical «planned» mill 37 Fecteau. p. 99; see also Benoit. LAme, p. 44. town seeGeorge Waldo Browne,The Amoskeag Manuf;cruring Co. of Manchester, New Hampshire: A 38.J. L. K. Laflamme. David E. Lavigne and J. Arthur History (Manchester: Printed and bound in the Mills Favreau. «French Catholics in the United States» in of the Amoskeag Mfg. Co., 1915). The Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. VI pp. 271-72. 53. Arthur J. Moreau, Jr. French Blood in New 39. Benoit. Catechisme, p. 18. Hampshire Thesis for'Sseiology, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH, p. 3. 40. There were, of course, exceptions to this.In Maryland, which was governed by English Catholics. 54.Primarily based on a map located in the front of the Calvert family (the Lords Baltimore). freedom of Ducharme, Shadows. worship was granted by virtue of the Act of Toleration of 1649. Surrounded.by Protestants, Catholics struggled 55. See Ducharme, Shadows. pp. 58-59. for many years to maintain their freedom of worship. By the time of the American Revolution. Catholicism 56. Ibid., p. 39. was firmly planted in Maryland. Forexample. the name 11ai It'sCarroll of Carrollton. a Catholic, appears on the 57. Benoit, LAme, p. 47. DeclarationofIndependence as a delegatefrom Maryland. In1788. Pope Pius VI authorized the 58.For a look at the adjustment of a French-Canadian founding of the Diocese of Baltimore, with Rev. John family from a rural agricultural life in Quebec to an Carrollas its firstbishop. SeeA.Leo Knott. urbanindustriallifein New England seeJacques «Maryland»inThe Catholic Encyclopedia , Vol IX. Ducharme, The Delusson Family (New York: Funk and pp. 755.761. Wagnaiis Co.. 1939); see also Camille Lessard. Canuck, (Lewiston: Editions Le Messager 1936). The former is 41. Vet-re:ie. Paroisse SteMarie, p. 94. set in Ilolyoke while the latter is set inLowell. 42. llintolt.Cattschisme. pp. 36-38. 59. Ducharme, Shadows, p. 164; also. for an in depth look at how the French-Canadians actually carved out 43. Ibid .p. 36. their respective roles in a labor situation, see Tamara K. Hareven, «The Laborers of Manchester. New Hampshire. 44.Josaphat Benoit «Attitudes des Franco-Ameneains 1912-1922: The Role of Family and Ethnicity in Adjust- en Politique« in Les Conferences de I'InstitutFranco. ment to Industrial Life», a reprint from Labor History. Americain de Bowdoin College. (Brunswick. 19611. p.8. Vol. 16, No. 2. Spring 1975. 51 60.Robert Rumilly,Histoire. des Franco-Amtfricains; 77. Chevalier, pp. 40-41. sous les auspices de L'Union Saint-Jean-Baptiste d'Ame- rique (Montreal: Robert Rumilly, 1958), p. 30; see also 78. UlysseForget,Les FrancoAmoricains et le DouieMissionnairesdesTownships del'Est,Le (MeltingPotsetOnomastiqueFranco-Ameiricaine Canadian Emigrant ou Pourquoi le Canadien-Francais (Fall River: Imprimerie de l'Independant, 1949), p. 20. quitte-NI le Bas-Canada?(Quebec: Imprimerie Cote et Cie., 1851). 79. See Chevalier, p. 16. 61. LeMaire, p. 6. 80.For more on the founding & the early French- Canadian societies see Plante, pp. 97-98. 62. See Peter Condon, The Irish in the United States» in The Catholic Encyclopedia,Vol. VIII, pp. 132-145. 81.OnLa Gazette Francaise (Newport) see Benoit, Catechisme,p. 22; onLe Courrier de Bostonsee Belisle, 63. See Chevalier, pp. 30-31 pp. 355-357; on other newspapers see Belisle, p. 27. 64. See Plante, p. 39. 82. Belisle, pp. 61-67. 65. See Plante, pp. 4048; see also Chevalier,pp. 47-48. 83. Belisle, pp. 68-92. 66.For more information on the founding of the 84. Hamon,Les Canadiens-Francaiscontains much French-Catholic Church in Vermont see E. Hamon, s.j. detailed information on the founding of the French- Les Canadiens-FrancaisdelaNouvelle-Angleterre Canadian parishes before 1891. (Quebec: N.S. Hardy), 1891, pp. 183-228. 85. See Lemaire, p. 21. 67. See Peter Condon, «Knownothingism» inThe Catholic Encyclopedia,Vol.VIII,pp. 677-680. 86. For more on the French-Canadian schools and bi- lingual education see Plante, pp. 72-93. 68.Plante,pp. 47-51; see also Lemaire, pp. 11-14 and Chevalier pp. 26.28. 87. Ducharme,Shadows,pp. 63-64. 69. Ducharme,Shadows,p. 57; see also Benoit,L'Ame 88. Hamon, p. 33. p. 51. 89. Ducharme,Shadows,pp. 181-182. 70.Wilfrid Henry Paradis,French-Canadian Influence in Manchester, NY Before 1e91.MA dissertation, St. 90. Lemaire, p. 8. Mary's Seminary, Baltimore, MD., 1949, p. 34. 91. Belisle, pp. 93-107. 71. Plante, p. 41. 92. Belisle, pp. 113-115. 72. See Ducharme,Shadows,pp. 34-36. 93. Ducharme,Shadows,pp. 131-132. 73.See Robin W. Winks and Adolphe Robert, «Un point d'histo ire contrmerse»in Le Canado- Amdricain, 94. Benoit, «Attitudes», p. 14. Vol. I, No.11, fevrier-mars 1960, pp. 3343. 95. These and other reasons for the slow development 74. See VieFranco-Americaine,1943,pp. 177-184 on of the French-Canadians in American politics are listed Calixa Lavalle and pp. 191-195 on Major Edmond in Benoit, «Attitudes», pp. 13-16. Mallet; see also Fecteau, pp. 118-122 for many more names of French-Canadians who fought in the Civil War. 96. See J. Arthur Favreau, «The Chinese of the EasternStates», a reprint fromL'Avenir National, 75. Paradis, p. 14. Manchester, NH., Nov. 19, 1924. 76.Belisle, p. 14; also, see Ducharme, Shadows, p. 24. 97.For further informition see Belisle, pp. 321-330; see also Chevalier, pp. 91-97. 1 52 98. Benoit, «Attitudes» p. 17. 119. Among these billswerethe Smith-Hughes Bill, the Jackson BM, the Chamberlain Bill, the Smith-Towner 99.ibid.,p. 18. Bill and Peck Educational Bill. See Rumilly pp. 312-43. 100. Bdlisle, p. 170. 120. For various views, subjective as well as objective, see J. Albert Foisy,Histoire de L'Agitation Sentinelliste 101. Rumilly, p. 160. dans la Nouvelle-Angleterre 1925-1928(Woonsocket: La Tribune Publishing Co., 1928); Elphege J. Daignault, 102. Chevalier, p. 40. Le Vrai Mouvement Sentinelliste en Nouvelle-Angleterre 1923-1929 et L'Affaire du Rhode Island(Montreal: 103. See Plante, p. 14. Les Editions du Zodiaque, 1926); Robert,Memorial, pp.222-284;Rumilly,pp.364-503;Chevalier, 104.See Laurent Galarneau.Histoire de la Garde pp. 207-250. Lafayette ou Compagnie A du Premier Regiment de la Garde Nationalede rein du New Hampshire 121.In presenting this brief exposé onL'Affaire de la (Manchester: Imprimerie de l'Avenir National, 1937). Sentinelle,the writer is merely attempting to relate in the most objective manner possible an event which oc- 105.Adolphe Robert,Memorial des Acres de L'As- curredinthehistoryoftheFranco-Americans. sociationCanado-Americaine(Manchester:L'Avenir Although itis of a sensitive and controversial nature, National, 1946) pp. 11-13. this movement cannot simply be ignored.To do so would be to commit an injustice to history. The writer 106. Rumilly, p. 168-172. has no intention whatsoever of reopening the wounds which a great amount of time and understandk have 107. Lemaire, p. 15. healed. Since the writer did not live through the period in question, his observations and conclusions are the 108. Rumilly, pp. 218.219. result of extensive research on the subject. There is in no way any attempt to judge, butonly to inform. 109. Verrette,Ste-Marie,pp. 287.296. 122. See Valadc,The Amoskeag Strike; see also 110. Laflamme,Lavigne, andFavreau, Anonymous,History of Amoskeag Strike During the Catholics», p. 277. Year 1922(Manchester: Printed and Bound in the Mills of the Amoskeag Mfg. Co., 1924). 111. Bdlisle, pp. 216-217. 123. Benoit, «Attitudes», p.17; see also Lemaire, 112.See Edmond J. Valade,The Amoskeag Strike of p. 40. 1922,M.A. dissertation, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH 1964, pp. 13-20. 124. Lemaire, p. 26. 113.Valade, p. 4; see also Hareven, pp. 262-263. 125. Lemaire, p. 26. 114. Vie Fra)=-Amefricaino,1943, pp.195-198. 126. Elphege E. Roy,Les Causes du Dec/in de la Presse Franco-Americaine, M.A. dissertation, Rivier 115. Rumilly, p. 312 College, Nashua, NH, p. 25. 116. Lemaire, p. 41. 127. Ducharme,Shadows,p. 19. 117. For a rather exterh;ve list of mutilations, ab- 128. Lemaire, pp. 45-46. breviations, and translations of French names see Forget, pp. 21-52. 129. Roy, p. 33, 118. See Robert Grandchamp, (Pseudonym ofAdolphe 130. Chevalier, p. 279. Robert), «Les Monts Verts», a reprint of two articles which appeared inLe Progres,Nov. 14 and 28, 1930. 131. For a detailed account of thepartici ipation of the Franco-Americans in thisCongressee Adrien Verrette, La Croisade Franco-Americaine(Manchester: L'Avenir National, 1938). 5S 53 133. Chevalier, p. 25. 149. Elmo C. Authement, cRenouveau Francais en Louisiane»inVieFrancaise,Vol.30, No. 4-5.6, 134. Lemaire, pp. 48-49. ddcembre-janvier-fevrier, 1975.76, pp. 65-73. 135. Vie Franco-Americaine,1949, pp. 602-604. 150.G. Mathias Page, cLe Richelieu. International» in Vie Francaise.Vol. 30, No. 4.5-6, deceanbre-janvier- 136. Lemaire, pp. 55-56. Wrier,1975.76, pp.59.64; seealsoChevalier, pp. 158-166. 137.For a brief account of thisCongressee Gerald Robert,MEmorial II des Actes de L'Association Canado. 151. Chevalier, p. 279. Americaine1946-1971(Manchester:BallardBros., 1975) pp. 147-152. 152. Ducharme,Shadows.pp. 146-147. 138. See Roy, p. 25. 153. Reine Malouin,00 Chante laVie(Quebec: editions de L'Action Catholique, 1962), p. 70. 139. Emile Lemelin, «Mgr Ernest J. Primeau est nommd dveque de Manchester»in Le Canado-Americain, 154.Adolphe Robert «La Situation actuelle au New Vol. 1, No. 11, Wrier-mars, 1960, pp. 3-4. Hampshire»in Les Franco-Amdricains peints par eux- mimes. Publications de L'Association Canado-Amd- 140. Chevalier, p. 29. ricaine (Montreal: editions Albert Levesque, 1936), p. 230. 141. See Gerard J. Brault, «Commentdoit-on enseigner lefrancais aux jeunes Franco-Americains?» in Le Canado-Americain,Vol.2,No.6,avril-ma'1961, pp. 30-34. 142.See Thomas M. Landry, o.p. et. al.,La Crise de l'Enseignement du Francais dans nos Ecoles Paroissiales, ActesduVilleCongresdesFranco-Americains, Manchester, 1965. 143. Lemaire, p. 72. 144. Chevalier, pp. 316.318. 145. Lemaire, p. 53. 146. David S. Strickler, «Five Heroes Come Home»in The New Hampshire Sunday News,August 31, 1969, p. 1. 147.See Paul P.-Chasse «Monseigneur Louis-Edouard Gdlineau, eveque de Providence»in Le Canado-Amel ricain,Vol. 6, No. :0, avril-mai-juin 1972, pp. 29-32; see also Gerald Robert, ed.,cS.E.Mgr Odore J. Gendron le Septieme eveque de Manchester»in Le Canado- Ameiricain,nouvelle sdrie Vol. 1, No. 3, janvier-fevrier- mars 1975, pp. 3.6; also Gerald Robert, ed., «S.E. Mgr Amedde W. Proulx eveque Auxiliaire au Maine»in Le Canado- Amdricain,nouvelle serie, Vol. 1, octobre- novembre-ddcembre, 1975, p. 14. 148. See Chevalier, pp. 318-324. 5J 54 BIBLIOGRAPHY Abbott, John S.0 . Fecteau, Edward 1945 French Contributions to America. 1884 Henry IV.New York: Harper and Published under the auspices of the Franco- Brothers. American HistoricalSociety. Methuen: Anonymous Soucy Press. 1924History of Amoskeag Strike During the Foisy, J. Albert Year1922. Manchester:Printedand 1928 Histoire de L'Agitation Sentinelliste BoundintheMills of the Amoskeag laNouvelle-Angleterre1925-1928. Manufacturing Company. dans WoOnsocket:La Tribune Publishing Co. Belisle, Alexandre Galarneau, Laurent 1911Histoire de laesse Franco-Americaine Histoire de la Garde Lafayette ou Worcester:L'Opihion Publique. 1937 Compagnie A du Premier Regiment de la Garde Nationale de L'Etat du New Hamp- Benoit, Josaphat Manchester: Imprimerie de L'Avenir 1935 -LAme Franco-Americaine.Montreal: shire. Editions Albert Levesque. National. Hamon, E. Browne, George Waldo Les Canadiens-Francais de la Nouvelle- 1915The Amoskeag Manufacturing Co. of 1891 Manchester, New Hampshire: A History. Angleterre.Quebec: N.S. Hardy. Manchester:Printeci and Boundin the Mills of the Amoskeag Mfg. Co. Lessard, Camille 1936 Canuck. Lewiston:Editions Le Chinard, Gilbert Messager. 1925Les Refugies Huguenots en Amerique. Paris: Les Belles-Lettres. 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Harper and Bros. 55 Parkman, Francis Dom Missionnaires des Townships de L'Est. 1851Le Canadien Emigrant ou Pourquoi le 1915 Count Frontenac and New France Under Louis XIV.New York: Charles Canadien-Francais quitte-t-il ile BasCana- Scribner's Sons. da?Quebec: Imprimerie Coie et Cie. Montcalm and Wolfe.New York: Charles Eno, Arthur L. Scribner's Sons, in 3 volumes. 1940French Trails in the United States.Ad- Pioneers of France in the New World.New dress before the membErs of the Lowell His- York: Charles Scribner's Sons, in 2 volumes. torical Soziety.Published under the aus- pices of the Franco-American Historical Robert, Adolphe, et.al. Society. Lowell. 1936Les Franco-Americains peints per eux- memes. Publicationsdel'Association Forget, Ulysse Canado-Americaine,- Montreal: editions 1949Les Franco-Ameiricains et le (Melting Albert Levesque. Pots et Onomastique Franco-Americaine. Fall River:Imprimerie de L'Independant. Robert, Adolphe Landry, Thomas M. et.al. 1946Memorial des Actes de l'Association 1965La Crise de l'Enseignement du Francais Canado-Amiricaine.Manchester: L'Avenir. dans nos Eco /es Pariossiales.Actes du Ville Robert, Gerald Congres des Franco-AmericainsManchester. 1975Memorial I I des Actes de L'Association Canado-Ameiricaine 1946-1971.Manches- Articles in Periodicals and in Newspapers ter: Ballard Bros. Inc. Authemdnt, Elmo C. Rumilly, Robert «Renouveau francais en Louisiane.» Vie 1958Histoire des Franco-Americains.Sous Francaise. Vol. 30, Nos. 4.5-6, dec.-janv.- les auspices de L'Union Saint-Jean-Baptiste fey., 1975-76. pp. 65-73. d 'Amerique. Montreal: Robert Rumilly. Brault, Gerard J. Verret te, Adrien «Comment doit-on enseigner le francais aux 1938 La CroisadeFranco-AmdKraine. jeans Franco-Americains? » Le Canado- Manchester: L'Avenir National. Amestain.Vol.2, No. 6, avril-mai 1961. 1931Paroisse Sainte-Marie Manc!;ester,New pp. 30-34. HampshireManchester: Imprimerie La- fayette. Chasse, Paul P. «Monseigneur Louis-Edouard Gelineau, Pamphlets vtquedeProvidence.» Le Canadb- Amdricain. Vol. 6, No. 10, avril-mai-juin Benoit, Josaphat 1972. pp. 29-32. 1961 «Attitudes des Franco-Americains en Politique».Les Conferences de L'Institut Favreau, J. Arthur Franco-Amdricainde BowdoinCollege. «The Chinese of the Eastern States.» A re- Brunswick. pp. 7-19. princ fromL'Avenir National,November 1939Catechisme d'Histoire Franco-Ameri- 19, 1924. caine.Public sous les auspices de la Societe Historique Franco-Americaine. Manches- Grandchamp, Robert ter:L'Avenir National. (pseudonym of Adolphe Robert). «Les Monts Verts.» A reprint of two articles which appearedin Le Progres, November 14 and 28, 1930. 61 56 Encyclopedia Articles Harevon, Tamara K. Manchester, New The Laborers et Condon, Peter Hampshire,1912-1922: The Role of Irishinthe United States.» The Family and Ethnicityin Adjustment to «The New York: Robert Industrial Life.»'A reprint fromLabor Catholic Encyclopedia. 1910.Vol.VIII, History. Vol. 16, No. 2, Spring975. AppletonCompany, pp. 132-145. «Knownothingism.»The Catholic Ency- Lemelin, Emile «Mgr Ernest J. Primeau est nomme &Nue de clopedia.Vol. VIII, pp. 677-680. Manchester.»Le Canado-Americain.Vol.!, No 11, fevrier-mars 1960. pp. 3-4. Degert, Antoine «Huguenots.»The Catholic Enc.Vol. VII, pp. 527-537. Page,G. Mathias «Le Richelieu International.»Vie Francaise. Vol, 30, Nos. 4-5.6, dec.-janv.-fev. 1975-76. Knott, A. Leo The Catholic Encyclopedia. pp. 5Q-04. «Maryland» Vol. IX, pp. 755-761. Robert, Gerald, ed. «S. E. Mgr Odore J. Gendron, le Septieme Laflamme, J.L.K; Lavigne, David E; Favreau, J. gv6que de Manchester.»Le Caoado-Ameti- Arthur The rain.Nouvelle serie, Vol. 1, No. 3, janvier- F re n ch Catholics in the United Statet.». fevrier-mars 1975. pp. 3-6. Catholic Enc.Vol. VI, pp. 271-277. Robert, Gerald, ed. Wallace, W Stewart, ed. The Encyclopedia of «S. E. Mgr Amedee W. Proulx, gveque Auxi- «Treaty of Utrecht.» Toronto: Univ. Assoc. of Canada, liaire au Maine.» Le Canado-Americain. Canada. Ltd., 1948. Vol. VI, p. 224. Nouvelleserie,Vol.!, No.6, octobre- novembre-decembre 1975. p. 14. Disserta.,:ons and Unpublished Material Strickler, David S. «Five Heroes Come Home.»The New Hamp- Chevalier, Sr. Florence M. The Role of French National Societies inthe shire Sunday News.August 31, 1969. p. 1. Sociocultural Evolution of theFranco- Americans of New England from 1860 to Vie FrancoAmiricaine 1943, 1945, 1949. Le Comite Permanentde the Present.Ph. D, dissertation. Catholic University,' Washington, D.C. 1972. laSurvivanceFrancaiseenAmerique. Manchester: L'AvenirNational, 1944, 1946, Ballard Freres, 1950. Lemaire, Nerve B. The Franco Americans of New England.An unpublished manuscript prepared for the Winks, Robin W. and Robert, Adolphe Language Resources Project of the Dept.of "Unpointd'histoirecontroverse.» Le HEW, 1963. Canado-Americain.Vol. 1, No. 11, fevrier- mars 1960. pp. 33-43. Moreau, Arthur, J.Jr. French Blood in New Hampshire.Thesis for Sociology. Dartmouth College,1932. 62 57 aradis, Wilfrid Henry F-ench-CanadianInfluence in Manchester, N. H. Before 1891. M.A., dissertation. St. Mary's Seminary, Baltimore, Md., 1949. Plante, Bro. George R. The Franco-American Parish in New England. M. A. dissertation.Fordham University, New York, 1940. Roy, Elphege Les Causes du Dean de la Presse Franco- Americaine. M.A. dissertation. Rivier College, Nashua, N. H.,4965. Valade, EdmondJ. The Amoskeag Strike of 1922. M.A. dissertation.University of New Hampshire, Durham, N. H., 1964. Vicero, Ralph Dominic Immigration of French-Canadians to New England, 1840-1900: A Geographical Analysis.Ph. D. dissertation.University of Wisconsin, 1968. Copyright 1976. Reprinted bypermission of L'Association Canado-Americaine. 63 LOUISIANA'S FRENCH HERITAGE by Truman Stacey Introduction withLouisiana'sFrenchHeritagewhile working with the Council for the Develop- Thisisthe storyof the French ment of French inLouisiana, the state contribution to the colonization of the New agency dedicated to thepreservation of the Woi: id. It describes the settlement of the state's French language, culture and heritage. Acadian Peninsula: the discovery and ex- --Trent Angers plorationoftheMississippiRiver,the development of the first Louisiana colony, Pioneers in the New World and the perseCution and exile of theFrench- Acadian people from their homeland in the It all began late in the Fifteenth Centu- mid-Eighteenth Century,. ry, when the menof Europe were becoming better acquainted with the sea, at a time when It was the fishing business that first sailing ships were being improved andnaviga- brought the French to the New World; and tional aids were being developed. it was the fur tir.:de, coupled with adesire to convert the red man toChristianity, the The Italians, wtio had forcenturies motivated them to permanently sink their dominated the sea lanes of the Mediter- roots into the soil of theAcadian Peninsula, ranean, led the wayin develOping better known today as Nova Scotia.They were marine and navigational techniques.Italian attracted to the interior of the continentby mariners became widely sought afterby all tales of rich copper and silver fields;by courts of Western Europe. hopes of finding the Beautiful River,which the Indians sai1-.owed southward to the One such mariner, from Genoa, sailing open waters of the warm sea;and by the under the banner of Ferdinand andIsabella desire to spread the religious faithwhich of Spain, reported that he had reachedthe they themselves embraced. shores of India by sailing west into theAt- lantic Ocean. He brought back native tribes- The story was researched and written men and exotic plants to provehis claim. by veteran journalist Truman Stacey,who is editor of the Lake Charles AmericanPress Other mariners began to cast reflective and has been since 1961.He started his eyes toward the west. If onesailor could gel newspaper career in 1937 as a copyboy for to India by sailing west, why notothers? the Houston Post just afterfinishing high they reasoned. Other sovereigns,apprehen- school.He has worked for newspapers in sive that Spain might come to controlall of Beaumont, Detroit, Washington, D.C., and the trade with the Orient, began tolay their Oklahoma City. own plans for trading expeditions. Merchants of the Atlantic coastal nations Stacey wrote the story in 1972after began to awaken to the possibilities ofprof- researching the subject for the better partof itable relations with those strange climes to that summer. He says he becamefascinated the west. 58 64 59 Among these were the merchants of from France were tempted to test the fishing Bristol, on the west coast of England. They in New World waters.Records show that decided to finance an exploration and trad- the first Norman fishing vessel showed up at ing expedition, and they' had just such a man the Grand Banks in 1504, and it was not as they needed in their employ.He was long after before mariners from Dieppe, Giovanni Caboto, a Genoan like Columbus, Rouen, Le Havre, Fecamp, Harfleur and who had spent many years in Venice as a Honfleur were making annual voyages to the trading captain.With the blessings of King Grand Banks. Henry VII, Caboto (The British called him John Cabot, since that was easier to spell French mariners soon were making and to pronounce), set sail from Bristol in two trips annually to New World waters. May of 1497, in the shipMathew,manned They set out in late January or early Febru- by a crew of 18. ary, braving the North Atlantic winter, and returned as soon as their holds were full. RoundingIreland,Caboto headed Then, in April or May, they were off again, north and then west. After 52 days at sea, returning to France againin September. he made landfall at what is now Cape Breton Island. Caboto was convinced he had found In the early years, fish were taken, the northeast shore of Asia, but it was a cleaned and put in the hold between thick forbidding coast, and no rich Asians were to layers of salt.This was «wet» fishing.It be found.Small vessels of the day did not was not long, however, before mariners dis- linger long on unknown coasts, and the covered that Vie cod could be sun-dried on :'Mathew soon sailed bAtt to Bristol, ar- land.Cured cod was tastier than the salt riving home inn August. variety and easier to handle. Caboto was disappointed that he had Curing the codfish necessitatedes- not discovered the Great Khan and rich tablishing depots ashore, however, and the cities, and so were his merchant backers. French began to go ashore each summer KingHenryVIIsomewhatgrudgingly at some snug harbor or inlet on an island or presentedhim with10 pounds sterling along the coast. The French, the Portuguese (That would be about $50.00 today) for and the English established depots on New- «having found the new isle.» foundland, on the Acadian Peninsula at Canseau and La Heve, on Cape Breton Is- Caboto and his men made one discov- land, and at Tadousac, on the St. Lawrence ery, however, that was to have far-reaching River. effects upon the future history of Europe. They discovered the Grand Banks of New- Once the ships arrived at the chosen foundland and its enormous supply of cod- depot, they would be unrigged for the fish. season. The crew went ashore to cut timber and build platforms or stages which extend- When Caboto's seamen reached home ed out into the sea. and dispersed after the voyage, it was natural for them to spread tales about the shoals The actual fishing was done in small which teemed with fish. boats manned by four or fivemen. When they returned with boatloads of fish, they It was not long before fishing vessels threw their catches upon the stages. There 6 -5 60 they were cleaned, salted and dried in prep- used a wide variety of traps and snares. aration for the trip back to France. Their dogs played an important role in the hunt. WhentheFrench fishermenfirst began to venture ashore in the New World Vegetable food was generally plenti- to dry theirfish, or hunt for game, or ful, but the Micmacs seem to have utilized gather fresh berries, they came in contact vegetables only during times of meat short- with the natives.At the time if the white age. man's arrival, the Acadian Pe.sula was oc- cupied by roving bands of aborigines, called The birchbark canoe was perhaps the Micmacs by today's scholars. most efficient transportation vehicle devel- oped in North America, and all of the East- The Micmacs were of the Algonkin ern tribes used it.The craft was relatively language family and enjoyed a hunting and easy to construct, was very lightin weight food-gathering culture of the more primitive and shallow in draft, yet an ordinary canoe sort. At the time the French began to live in was capacious enough to hold ahousehold the New World, there were about 3,000 of of five or six persons, toeir dogs, sacks, these people, wandering over the Acadian skins, kettles and other baggage. The canoe Peninsula and adjoining islands. was particularlysuitedfoi. inland routes where water was shallow and portages from They had only rudimentary social a few yards to a mile or more were common. organizations, and they wandered about in small bands which were in actuality only In winter, the Micmacs traveled on largefamilies. Mostlytheysettheir snowshoes, which excited French curiosity wanderings to coincide with their food sup- from the beginning. They likened them to ply. the tennis rackets they used in France. In the spring, they left their camps With these tools, the Micmacs were along the inland lakes and streams in the able to wander where they pleased, and they forest and wandered about the seashores, astounded the French with their knowledge gathering clams, oysters, scallops and other of the topographical features of the country. seafood at low tide. Some of the more ad- When they moved through country they had venturous even ventured into deeper waters previously traversed, their memory for the to hunt seals, walrus and porpoise, and they lay of the land was uncannily accurate. always welcomed the return of the vast num- They also passed knowledge from one to an- bers of codfish. other by means of crude bark maps. In the autumn, tilt:), returned to the The conical wigwam familiar to all forests, tracking down spawning eels in the schoolchildren was the generally used shelter tidal rivers, and later in winter turning their by the Micinacs.Its array of supporting attention to moose hunting and beaver trap- poles was used to support overlapping strips ping.Caribou, otter and bear were also of bark. Sometimes, mats woven of swamp coveted game. grasses were used instead of bark.Animal skins were used as entrance flaps, and for the The bow and arrow formed the Mic- more affluent, or forthe more successful macs' chief hunting weapon, and they also hunters, might be used to cover the entire 66 61 wigwam. Other crowned heads began to con- sider the New World awaiting exploitation. Household equipment such as cups, They were intrigued by the tales of the gold dippers and boxes were made of birch bark, he Spaniards had won. They mused over the until trade with the French brought iron tiading advantages that would accrue to the utensils to the Micmacs. The Micmacs used nation that discovered the fabled Northwest furs and skins for their clothing, and there Passage to India. were almost no differences in the dress of the sexes. King Francis I of France was one of these rulers, who decided that France should The Micmacs were not warlike, and not be left out of this pursuit of riches and they set up a friendly relationship with the glory.Most of the kings of Europe at that French.Since the early settlers confined time employed Italian artists, scientists and themselves almost exclusively to the tidal navigators to add a luster of culture to their marshes and did not invade the forest, there courts. King Francis was no exception. were few occasions for clashes. He selected a Florentine shipmaster, The Micmacs were usefultothe Giovanni da Verrazanoo to spearhead the French chiefly as guides, canoemen, hunters ventures of France in the New World. Ver- and fur trappers. Their ties with the French razano sailed from Madeira in 1524 aboard were reinforced by a slow but ultimately La Dauphine, a small ship with a crew of almost universal attachment to the Roman 50 Normans. Catholic religion. Verrazano was driven off his course They were also useful in providing and arrived at the coasts of the New World, valuable lore on fishing and hunting, the probably near the mouth of the Cape Fear knowledge of local nuts, roots, berries, and River. He sailed northward along the coast, grasses, the making of clothing and footwear exploring the littoral asfar as Cape Race from skins, the making of fibers from roots before returning to Dieppe. and animal sinews, and the use of dyes from a wide variety of vegetable sources. His return was celebrated at court, but Francis found himself too .entangled!n Had there been no Micmacs in Nova European problems to do much about Ver- Scotia at the time of the French settlement, razano's discoveries. that settlement would probably have come much later, and it would ha-ie been much A decadepassedbeforeanother more difficult, and its historical significance French official took -up the task of New may well have been altereddrastically. World discovery.In 1534, Jacques Cartier sailed from St. Malo as an agent of the Ad- French fishermen who sailed to the miral of France, Philippe de Brion-Chabot, Grand Banks for their shiploads of cod ar on a voyage of reconnaissance. other fish also brought back home accounts of the forests, rivers and beaches of the new Cartier rounded Newfoundland and Ian& westward.And the courts of Europe passed through theStraits of Belle Isle, buzzed with the tales of the vast treasures erected a wooden cross at Gaspe and ascend- theSpaniardswerefindinginMexico. ed the mouth of the St. Lawrence River as 62 far as an Indian village called Anacosti. Con- the 110 men were still healthy, and 25 died vinced that he had discovered the North- before the' Indians showed the French a west Passage, he returned to France. remedy made by the bark and needles of white cedar boiled in water. This tonic re- His reports opened such glowing pos- vived thtLill. sibilities that Admiral Chabot commissioned Cartier to undertake a second voyage. King When the winter of misery ended, Francis invested 3,000 livres in the enter- Cartier and his men returned to France. prise. This time Cartier departed in the After-the king received his report, the crown spring of 1535 with three ships and 110 men. selected Jean Francois de la Roque, Sieur de Roberval,tohead the next expedition, By August 13, this expedition had which the King hoped would be able to sailed beyond the westernmost point of his plant a colony in the New World.Cartier first voyage, and, leaving the bulk of his ex- was to he his chief captain. In order to get pedition at Anacosti, Cartier and 30 men the necessary manpower for his squadron, ascended theSt. Lawrence River to the Roberval wasempoweredtoransack Indian village of Hochelaga, at the foot of France's prisons and to conscript anyone he a mountain that Cartier named Mount Royal, wished. and which is the current site of Montreal. The expedition was not prepared in The Indians told Cartier that there time, however, and Cartier sailed in 1541, was another great river to the west,and a expecting Roberval to follow. Once more land where the natives wore European cloth- Cartier reached the mouth of the St. Law- ing,lived in towns and possessedgreat rence, and there beganto prepare for the stores of copper and silver. coming colonists.Roberval did not weigh anchor until April of 1542, however, and . The next day they returned to their when his ship sailed into the harbor of what base, and there built a small fort on the site is now St. John, Newfoundland, he found '44) of present-day Quebec. This fort is about Cartier there, the latter having abandoned two degrees south of the latitude of Paris, the attempted colonization and preparing to and Cartier and his men had no way of sail for France. knowing that winters in the New World would be any different than wintersin Roberval ordered Cartier to return to France. the St. Lawrence, but the captainrslipped anchor in the night and sailed for France. The shock they received from the Roberval continued to the Sk Lawrence mid-November snows must have been over- and there constructed a barrasks for his whelming. The River froze solid, imprison- colony at the Indian village a Tadousac, ing the nips. Snowdrifts sometimes climbed where visiting fishermen and fur traders built very,. . Ice four inches thick covered .the a few shacks. .:ks and riggings. Sub-zero winds howledwithout surcease across the frozen Experience in New World living was river. absent, however, and so was wisdom. Noth- ing went right for the new colony. In 1543, As if that were not enough, scurvy the king sent Cartier out once again,this struck.By mid-November only a dozen of time to rescue Roberval and his survivors. 63 The Marquis de la Roche was the next Some of these4endezvous points were proposed colonizer, and he too was given St. John, in Newfoundland; Tadousac, near permission to make a French lodgement in the mouth of the St. Lawrence River; Can- the Nev World. In 1588, he landed a group seau, at the tip of the Nova Scotia peninsula; -!") ofcolonists,mostlyconvicts, on Sable and La Heve, farther down the peninsula. Island, off present-day Nova Scotia. During their stay ashore during the Contrary winds droveLa Roche's summer months, some of the French struck ship out to sea, and he returned to France. up a brisk but informal trade with the In- It was not until 1603 that another vessel dians.The native tribes won developed a was dispatched to look for the survivors taste for the white man's artifacts, and were of the Sable Island colony.The rescuers avid for iron knives, axes and pots, as well found 11 gaunt, bearded men, whom they as cloth and all manner of trinkets. returned to France. Each summer, the number of Indians In1600, a merchant of St. Ma lo who came tc the coast to trade increased. namedFrancoisGrave,SieurdePont French seamen began to realize that they (sometimes calledPontgrave), went into could turn a nice profit on this trade and, in partnershipwithPierreChauvin,asea fact, might clear more profit with consider- captain, in the hopes of doing some prof- ably less labor then went into the unpleasant itable trading in the New World.Chauvin chores of drying or salting fish. ttiok a small vessel up the St. Lawrence to Tadousac.Chauvin landed 16 men to Soon ships were sailing from France winter here, while he sought a shipload of bent on the fur trade alone. As a staple, furs furs.He returned to France in the fall. were superior to fish in :a number of ways. They were light in weight, and their value in When he returned to Tadousac the relation to bulk was high. They were easy followingspring, he discoveredthatthe to package, easy to transport, and there was 16 men he had left had found it impossible no danger of spoilage, as with fish. to subsist in the grim winter months. Most of them had died and the few survivors had Best of all, there was little labor in- joined the Indians. volved.The Indians trapped the animals, skinned carcasses, cured the furs and brought By now, a new king had assumed the them to the coast. French throne - Henry IV - and it fell to him to supervise the actual establishment of New The growing popularity of the broad- France.He had a number of reasons for brimmed felt hat in Europe was a boon to the doing so, one of the most important being fur trade. The fur of the beaver was tiro I.N.,st the growing profitability of the fur trade material for making felt.By tilt: sixteenth with the Indians. century, however, the beaver had become all but extinct in Western Europe, and only lim- As the fishing boats from France be- ited supplies came in from Russia and Scan- came regular visitors to the Grand Banks. dinavia. theybegan to congregate at rendezvous points along the coast, where they dried Beaver flourished in North America, their fish ashore during the winter months. and the cold Canadian winters made the 64 animals grow thicker, more luxurious fur Chastes had formed a corporation than those with which Europeans were made up of the principal merchants of famibar. Rouen to finance his New World venture. One of these was Pontgrave, who had been 1 he Indians used beaver pelts to make associated with Chauvin's earlier venture at robes to wear and to sleep in. The sweat and Tadousac. grease of their bodies and thesmoke of their lodges made the furs soft and supple, and Pontgrave was to command the ship thus easy to process in making felt. that was to take Champlain to the New World to make his survey. The little expedi- In the early days of the fur trade, a tion sailed on March 15,1603, and on May 6 knife, an axe or a'are'w trinkets worth a made first landfall at Newfoundland.On couple of dollars in France could be traded May 24, the vesselarrived at Tadousac. for a robe that would bring more than two hundred dollars in Paris. After concluding peaceful overtures with the Indians and promising them friend- With such huge profits available, the ship and aid, Pontgrave and Champlain sailed fur trade grew apace, and the Indians soon up the river to Sault St.Louis, stopping en learned not to trade with the first ship that route at Hare Island (so named by Cartier) arrived, but to wait until veral had ap- and a narrow neck of the river the Indians peared to compete with each ,,her. called Quebec. Thiskind of competition quickly During his voyage, he questioned the reduced the profits, and the fur traders be- neighboring Indian tribesmen whom he met gan to seek rules andregulations to govern andgatheredinformationaboutlakes the trade.Also, French officials began to Ontario and Erie, the Detroit River, Niagara look with covetous interest upon the trade. Falls and the rapids farther up the St. Law- rence. The crown quickly decided that if there were so much profit to be made, After a return to Tadousac, the ex- thensome enterprising merchantwould pedition sailed along the southern lip of the he willing to pay the crown a handsome sum St. Lawrence before returning to France. for a monopoly of the trade. Havre de Grace was reached on August 16, 1603, after a passage of 35 days. That was the situation when the new king, Henry IV, began to take an interest in Pontgrave and Champlain were sad- the New World. One of Henri'searly sup- dened to learn upon their return that the old porters had been Ay mar de Chastes, Com- soldier, Aymar r2 hastes, had died a few mander of the Order of St. John. The king weeks earlier.The death of de Chastes ge de Chastes a patent to settle aFrench would almost certainly have meant the end colony in the New World. of the French colonization effort had not Champlain become sointerestedinthe e Chastes chose a youngFrench project that he determined to promote it soldier, Samuel de Champlain, fresh from with the king. He was successful in keeping adventures in New Spain, to make a survey. Henri's interest alive. 65 Henridecided upon Pierrede Gua what is now Pennsylvania.The word is (also called de Guast), Sieur de Monts and probably a corruption of a Micmac Indian governor of Pons, as the man to take up the word, quoddy or caddy, meaning a place task de Chastes surrendered in death. De or a piece of land. Monts had served under Henri in the reli- gious wars, and wasa Huguenot. He was It was a long voyage, made uncom- commissioned «lieutenant general of New fortable by the fact that most of the 100 Frrnce», was given a monopoly of the fur «colonists» were recruited in the usual way, trade for ten years and was obliged to settle from prisons and from among the vagabonds a colony of 60 people in New France. of the road. De Monts was not a stranger to the The two shipsfinallyreachedthe New World. He had visited Tadousac with entrance of the Bay of Fundy and explored Chauvin in 1600, and that experience had it.They must have been awed by the 60- caused him to determine that a successful foottidesthatrageinthose restricted colony could only be settled farther south, waters.They sailed into Annapolis Basin, away from the dread muthern winters.. and all hands were struck by its harbor facilities and the green-lined shores. Itwas tofalltode Monts and Champlain, therefore, to form the actual De Monts decided, however, to plant beginnings of New France, which in time his headquarters on an island (now Dotchet was to include Louisiana and a dozen other Island)across the Bay of Fundy atthe states of the American union. mouth of a river he called the St. Croix, so that he might erect a fort there to command Pierre de Gua, the Sieur de Monts, was the entrance of the bay. a hard-headed businessman. He was deter- mined that his venture into New France It was an unfortunate choice, because would be properly backed. He formed a stock few of those on hand were really prepared company among the merchants of Rouen, for a Canadian winter untempered by the St. Malo, La Rochelle and St. Jean de Luz. warming strands of the Gulf Stream. Once more the settlers suffered from the cold. He fitted out two ships, which sailed Thehouses were small shelter against the from Le Havre in March of 1604. On board cold. Cider and wine froze in the casks were deMonts himself,l'ontgrave and and had to be served by the pound. Nearly Champlain. TherewasalsoJeande half of the colonists died of scurvy during Biencourt, Sieur de Poutrincourt, a noble- that first winter. man of Picardy and a substantial investor, who had decided to accompany the first Warned by this experience, de Monts voyage west. took advantage of the spring to move the colony back across the Bay of Fundy to the Having been rebuffed the Canadian Annapolis Basin, where he established a post winters. de Monts determined to set up his named Port RoyalDe Monts had granted quarters farther south, where the climate this area to Poutrincourt, but the latter and was known to be less severe. He chose La Pontgrave had gone back to France for more Cadie, or Acadia. a vague region then said to settlers and supplies. extend from Montreal south to the area of 7 1 66 During the summer, Pontgrave arrived de Biencourt and Jacques de Salazar.He from France with more supplies and with40 was also accompanied by a business associate, additional men.In the fall, de Monts him- Claude de la Tour de Saint-Etienne, and the self returned to France with a numberof latter's 17-year-old son, Charles, as well as workers whose contracts had expired and a chaplain, Rev. JesseFleche, and 23 other with the furs that the party had gathered. men. Pontgrave and Champlain remained through thewinter,duringwhichscurvytook Within a few months, Father Fleche another 12 men. had baptized a Micmac chief, whom the French called Memberton, and 21 of his fol- In July of 1606 Poutrincourt arrived lowers. at Port Royal aboard theJonas with more men, more supplies and somelivestock. The Later in the year, Poutrincourt sent little colony fared well enough in the winter, hisson,Charles de Biencourt, back to although another seven men met death France for more food supplies for a colony through scurvy. which had not yet learned a great deal about living off the land in the New World. The colonists by now had some home- grown wheat and vegetables tosupplement The French authorities decided to the supplies from France, and judging from send out two Jesuit missionaries to aid in Champlain's journal, not all was hardship. conversion of the Indians, but the Protestant In fact, Champlain organized a society of merchants of Dieppe who had financed Pou- gourmets from among the leaders,called trincourt's venture objected, refused to ad- «the Ordre de Bon Temps». vance any more credit andcalled in their loans to Poutrincourt. Inthespringof 1607, however, disaster struck. Word came from deMonts YoungBiencourt,caughtinthis in France that his fur monopoly had been religious-financialtangle, turned for assis- rescinded, and Poutrincourt was directed tance to Antoinette de Pons, Marquess of to abandon the Acadia enterpriseand return Guercheville, who had an influential position all hands to France. On August 11 of that aslady-in-waitingtothe French queen, year, the glum colonistsboarded ship.to re- Catherine de Medici. turn to France.Some ofthem,may have elected to remain on their own, tolive The marquess agreed t^ pay off the with the Micmacs and hunt, fish and trap Dieppe merchants and to obtain funds for furs, but if so their names are notrecorded. more supplies.In return, sheasked that two Jesuits, Rev. Ennemond Masse and Rev. Poutrincourt,onceinFrance,set Pierre Barid, be allowed to sail back to about finding new financial backers and ap- Acadia to establish Indian missions. plied in his own right for trading rights in Acadia. On Jan. 16, 1611, Biencourt and his partysetsail aboard theGrace a Dieu, Ittook Poutrincourt two years to bound for Acadia. He was accompanied by gainfinancialbackingof a groupof 36 men and his mother, Madame de Poutin- merchants of Dieppe. He returned earlyin court, who thus became one of the first 1610 with his two sons, Charles European women to visit the New World. 72 ;11 67 The voyage was a difficult one, and Virginia and set 16 others adrift atsea in a for four months the weary party was buf- small boat.The latter were rescued by a feted by storms, adverse winds and ice- fishing vessel in an unusual stroke of good bergs, before they finally dropped anchor at luck. Port Royal. Argall then turned to Port Royal and When the Marquess de Guercheville did the same Thing.Fortunately, most of agreed to provide finances for the Poutrin- the settlers were inland on a fur-trading mis- court colony in Acadia, she was motivated sion, while the others were several miles up to do so because she was interested in the the Annapolis Valley, tending fields.Argall spiritual welfare of the Indians. burned the colony's buildings and took off with the livestock and all the provisions that Before long, however, disputes broke could be found. out between Poutrincourt and his son, Bien- court, and the Jesuit missionaries sent to the Meanwhile, Poutrincourt was able to colony by the marquess. Poutrincourt was a secure more financial backingfrom businessman, interestedin gathering furs. merchants in La Rochelle and finally arrived The Jesuits, of course, were chiefly con- back in Port Royal on March 21, 1614. cerned with establishing an Indian mission. He immediatelydepartedforFrance, carrying the colony's cache of furs. Going When she heard of this dispute the back to France with him was Louis Hebert, Marquess de Guerchevilie decided to with- an apothecary who had spent four years in draw her support of the Poutrincourt colony Acadia. and establish one of her own. Poutrincourt went back to France to work out better While attempting to work out the terms, but could not dissuade the marquess. colony's salvation, Poutrincourt became in- volved in a civil war that ripped France apart. In 1613, therefore, she sent La Fleur Both he and his son, Jacques de Salazar, de May.with 50 persons on board, to settle were killed in a battle against the Prince de a colony called Saint-Sauveur, located near Conde. the present-day Penobscot, in Maine. Hebert sought out that other Acadian ' By now, the English, who had finally veteran, Samuel de Champlain, and asked his managed to establish a colony in Virg:tia in help to found a colony on the St. Lawrence 1607, learned of the French colonies to the River.This wa, later to become Quebec. north.They deemed these colonies intru- sions upon territory gained by the voyage of Jeath of Poutrincourt left his son, Cabo to. de Biencourt, in charge of Port Royal, and !Biencourt decided to stay in the Thomas Dale, the governor of Virginia, New World and concentrate upon the fur authorized an English freebooter, Samuel trade.Biencourt and his men traded with Argall,to destroythe Frenchcolonies. the Indians and established observation posts Argall. with a small fleet, in 1613 attacked along the coast. the colony at Penobscot, killed one of the Jesuits there, burned all of the buildings. When they had gathered enough furs, took some prisonersback.ISslavesto they signaled a French fishing vessel to come 73 68 in to trade for ammunition and other sup- France. When his father, Claude, came on a . plies.Biencourt's force at this time con- visit, Charles asked him to take a letter to sisted of his second in command, young the French court, asking that his trading Charles deLatour, and 20 other men. rights be recognized. TheylivedwiththeIndians,ab- Claude was captured by the English sorbedmany of their customs, and became on his return voyage and was taken to the first of the coureurs de bois. Someof Alexander, who offered him and his son themmarriedIndianwives,andtheir titles of nobility in England in return for the descendants todaystilllivein Canada's outposts they occupied in Acadia.Claude eastern :Indian reserves.As a settlement, decided to accept the English offer, but therefore, Port Royal practically ceased to Charles indignantly refused. exist. Charles' trading rights, which he sup- Biencourtdied prematurely at the posedly had inherited from Biencourt, had age of 31 and was buried at La Pree Ronde, not been recognized in France, however, and near Port Royal.Latour took over the afterthe Treaty of St. Germain-en-Laye, enterprise, claiming that this was part of Cardinal Richelieu decided to organize a Biencourt's last will and testament. company to exploit the fur trade. While the French were seeking furs, Richelieu sent his cousin, Isaac de the English decidedto found their own Razilly of Touraine, to head the colony with colony in the north.Taking advantage of the impressive title of «Lieutenant-General the civil war in France, King James I of of all New France and Governor of Acadia.» England gaveSirWilliam Alexander,a Razilly departed from France in 1632, with Scottish earl, a grant of all the lands north three ships and some 300 colonists. - of the Massachusetts colony that had been discovered by Caboto. Razilly landed his force at La Heve, on the eastern shore of the AcadianPenin- In 1629, Alexander sent 100 Scottish sula, and thensailed-i;uridto take posses- Colonists to settle on the Acadian Peninsula. sion of Charles Fort and the remains of the They landed about five miles from the form- settlement at Penobscot. er Port Royal and built CharlesFort. The Scottish settlers remained there until 1632, Charles de Latour resented-Ie new when the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye governor, and Razilly, knowing ofe for- sorted out the French and English posses- mer's influence with the Indians, wished to sions in the New World, and returned Acadia placate him. Razilly agreed to maintain his and Canada to France. Mest of the Scottish colony at La Heve, and leave to Latour his settlers were returned to England, but a few chief fur depot at Cap( "".able. familiesremainedand becameFrench subjects. Razillyalso granted Latour fishing and hunting rights along the Saint John After the settlers at Charles Fort had River in New Brunswick, where Latour built departed, Charles de Latour, who had re- a fort he called Jemseg. mainedinthe interior with his coureurs de bois. decided to renew contacts with Two of Razilly's chief associates in 74 69 the Acadian venture were Charles de Menou for failure from the start.It was not long de Charnisay, Sieur d'Aulnay, and Nicholas before open hostilities broke out between Denys.D'Aulnay was put in charge of set- the two governors. Latour expropriatedone tlers and agricultural pursuits.Denys was of d'Aulnay's ships and, in 1640, trieda charged with 'building up the fisheries and surprise attack on Port Royal with two thefur and timber tradewith France. ships. Thus,itfinallyseemedthat dr D'Aulnay was not surprised, however, French in Acadia were about to embark and the attack was repulsed. When d'Aulnay on a period of growth and prosperity. reported these depredations to Paris, the court revoked Latour's commission an&his Theprosperitypromisedtothe trading rights.D'Aulnay was named gov French ventures in Acadia under the leader- nor and lieutenant-general, and was ordered ship of Isaac de Razilly was short-lived. For to seize Latour and return him to France for nearly four years the new colony at La Heve trial. prospered, then Razilly died suddenly in 1635. The death of this nephew of Latour barricaded himself in his fort Richelieu, who enjoyed the confidence of at Jemseg and defied d'Aulnay.In 1443, the highest of French officials at home, Latour went so far as to contract an alliance marked the beginning of a long period of with the hated English and, with four ships dispute in Acadia. and two armed frigates, he and his allies at- tacked Port Rdyal once more. Three men The trading company which Richelieu were killed, seven wounded and a quantity had organized to handle Acadian affairs of livestock, a shipload Gf furs and all sup- decided that Charles dr. Menou de Charnisay, piic- o4' fok,d and powder were taken away. Sieur d'Aulnay, one of Razilly's lieutenants, was to take Razili)ts place as head of the D'Aulnc::' decided to go to France Acadian venture.This deir,i a course, and plead with the court for help. In a final disappointed charles Latour and Nicholas judgment in March 1644, the French court Denys, each of whom felt he should have %"-- branded Latour an outlaw. D'Aulnay then been named to head the trading venture. returned to Acadia with reinforcements and orders to drive Latour out.In 1645, he About a year after Razilly's death, launched an attack against Latour's strong- d'Aulnay decided to move his settlement hold at Jemseg. Latour was absent, visiting from La Heve to Pert K. yat, where there his English allies in Boston, but the defense was more arable land. of the fort was carried on by Madame Latour. Meanwhii,,Latour's fur tradew!.s prospering, and he was mending his political After a three-day battle, d'Aulnay's fences back in Frmice.In 1638, Latour's forces captured the fort. Many of Latour's backers persuaded the government to name men were hanged as traitors. Madame d'Aulnay and Latour joint governors in Latour hersel survived the fall of the fort Acadia. by only three months. Such an arrangement, between two Latour, learning of the fall of the fort strong and opi.i!onated men, was destined in Boston. fled north to Canada, where he 7j 70 began a career as a pirate. left with only Port Royal and its immediate vicinity, and her creditors were powerful. In 1647, the French crown transferred all of Latour's rights to d'Aulnay, and peace Once more Latour did the unexpect- descended upon the little colony once more. ed. The old rogue suddenly proposed mar- riage to the widow of his rival and married D'Aulnay was not destined to enjoy her on Feb. 24, 1563. He was 60 at the his triumphs for long, however. One of his time.The former Madame d'Aulnay bore chief projects was the building of dykes to him several children. keep sea water out of tidal marshes so as, to convert them to arable farmlands.While His new marriage left Latour master visiting one of these operations upriver from of all Acadia except the fiefs held by Denys. Port Royal, d'Aulnay's canoe was swamped in a mud flat.Unable to escape from .the Troubles were only beginning for the mud, the governor died of exposure. colony, however. Emmanuel LeBorgne, d'Aulnay's old creditor, obtained a judgment The death of d'Aulnay left his widow against the d'Aulnay estate, and in 1652 in financial straits and the colony in con- sailed to Acadia to take demand judgment. fusion. Back home in France d'Aulnay's LeBorgne, apparently an irascible fellow, creditors immediately began to call in their seized two of Denys' posts, burned the debts. settlement at La Heve and took possession of Port Royal while Latour and his new wife It was at this critical moment that the were at the fort at Jemseg onthe other side indefatigableLatour surfacedagain. of the Bay of Fundy. Sensing a prime opportunity at the death of his old enemy, Latour took ashipfor Whilr the Latours were planning to France, to seek forgiveness of the crown. He oust LeBorgne, war broke outbetween usedall of his old influence and his old France and England, and an English fleet out friends and was so persuasive that King of Boston sailed north to clear all the French Louis XIV exonerated him for his acts of out of Acadia.The English took Jemseg piracy and his rebellions against prior court from Latour and Port Royal from LeBorgne. orders. The king even made Latour governor of Acadia, as d:Aulnay's successor. Fad with this new Ois.tster, Latour went to London to plead his cause with Armed with his new powers, Latour the new rulers of Acadia. There he suc'eed- chose a merchant of Cherbourg, Philippe ed in getting from the English permission to Mins d'Entremont, as his lieutenant, ati engage in the Acadian fur trade,in partner- sailed for Acadia. ship with an heir of Sir Williafn Alexander, the Scotsman who had previously tried to On arrival, he presented his credentials settle at Port Royal. tocl'Aulnay's widow and demanded the ...turn of his fort at Jemseg and all ofthe In 1656, Latour returned to Acadia, territory over which he had traded for furs. where he supervised his affairs until he died in 1666, at the age of 73. That left only The poor widow, powerless to resist, Nicholas Denys among the leaders who had could only do as he asked.She was now come out from France with Razilly.He was 71 driven out of severalof hisposts by land, however, needs the stability of family Le Borgne and went to Franceto seek life, and d'Aulnay was one of the first to judgment against his persecutor.Nothing recognize this. came of this, and Denys final), died a poor man in 1688 at age 90. Underd'Aulnay'ssupervision,the firstfamilies were recruitedtosettle in Conditions in Acadia went from bad Acadia. The governor spent a large part of to worse until 1667, when the Treaty of his time as Rwilly's lieutenant, and during Breda et ded the war between France and his own term as governor, in recruiting England, and byitsterms Acadia was colonists from the seigneuries owned by him restored to France. and his mother in the region of Loudunais. While the vendetta between d'Aulnay The colonists landed.by Razilly at and Latour for the control of the fur trade La Heve in 1632 evidently contained few convulsed the infant colony of Acadia, and women. When the colonists were moved to while the colony suffered during wars be- Port Royal from La Heve in 1635, they tween French and English,Ithose same years numbered only 30 or 40, indicating that also saw the beginning of really permanent most had returned to France after complet- settlement in the colony. ing construction of the company's head- quarters and other buildings. Beforethed'Aulnayperiod,the French who came to Acadia, save for the Shortly thereafter, probably around wife of a high official or two, were men 1636, the first families are recorded as being only. They were contract workers, for the brought to Acadia. A number of them ar- most part, who came out to work at the rived that year, landing at Port Royal from flaking sheds, or at the fur trade, or at tilling the shipSaint-Jean. the company's fields to provide food for other laborers. Three ofthese«firstfamiliesof Acadia» were those of Pierre Martin and When their stint of labor had been Guillaume Trahan, both of Bourgueil, and completed,mostof them returnedto Isaac Pesselin of Champagne.There were France, unless they were like the men of also the Bugaret and Blanchard families from Latour, who became accustomed to the La Rochelle. restless and dangerous life of the fur trade and ranged the forests with the Indians, Louis Morin, one of Razilly's officials, becoming more savage than civilized. brought his wife and his daughter, Jeanne. The latter soon became Madame d'Aulnay. By 1630, there were trading posts established-in addition to Port Royal - Between1636andthe death of at Pentagouet, also in the Cape Sable area, d'Aulnay, a number of other families were and on the St. John River, and at Cape settled in Acadia. Many familiar names are Breton. Scores of fishermen visited the included in this group, who were among the Atlantic coves of Acadia every year, with first Europeans to find true homes in the wintering-over on the increase. New World. Any permanent settlement in a new Because of the irregular education of 72 many of those who made up the sailing lists tiers to his outposts in Acadia, principally to and took the censuses, there are variations the fort at Jemseg. The first Bernard was in spelling of these early family names.It Andre Bernard, a stonemasonfrom was an era that gave no particular virtue to Beauvoir-sur-Mer, who arrived in 1641. The consistencyinspelling,and sometimes familyofMiusd'Entremont,Latour's the same family name might be rendered lieutenant, arrived in another Latour expedi- in two or even three different versions. tion. Among those families who arrived in Some of the most popular Acadian Acadia during the early d'Aulnay period are names are not French in origin.According the following: tosomeauthorities,whenSirWilliam Alexander's group of Scottish settlers were Babin,Belliveau(Belliveaux), Bour repatriatedto -England, a fer ofI Sem (Bourg, Bourque), Breault (Breaux, Brot, remained to live among the French. Braud I,Brun (LeBrun), Dugast (Dugas), Dupilis (Dupuy), Gaudet, Giroir (Girouard), Among them were Charles and Peter Landry, LeBlanc, Morin, Poirier, Raumbaut, Mellanson. They married French wives, and Savoie (Savoy), Thibodeau (Thibodeaux). intimetheirdescendantswere named Melancon. Two others were named Peters According to Genevieve Massignon, and Paisley.These names, in turn, became who has attempted to trace the Acadians to Pitre and Pellesey (Pelleset). their place of origin in France, all of these families were recruited from La Chausse, Roger Casey, an Irishman in French near the village of d'Aulnay. service, was captured by the English, wound up in Acadia and started the Kuessyfamily Others from the same region, accord- tree.Michael Forest arrived in Acadia dur- ing to Miss Massignon's research, were the ing the Englisi' occupation after 1654, and Blanchard, Guerin and Terrio (Theriault, remainedtobecome progenitorofthe Theriot) families. Acadian family named Foret. Arriving in Acadia during the latter Jacques Bourgeois, d'Aulnay's part of d'Aulnay's administration were the surgeon, is mentioned as arriving in 1640. following families: One Michel Boudrot (Boudreau, Boudreaux), who came to Acadia in 1642 as lieutenant Bergeron, Caouette (Caillouettc, general and judge at Port Royal, was the Cayouette), Clemenceau, Comeau originator of a large and widespread Acadian (Comeaux),Corporon,d'Aigle(Daigle, clan. Daigre ), Doucet, .,Carceau, Gautreau (Gauthreaux), Godirt (Gaudin), Gousman, A number of fishermen brought over Guilbault (Guilbeau), Hebert, Henry, by Denys to work at his posts along the Lannoue(Lanneau,Lanoux), Lejeune, Atlantic Coast also settled down to become Pellerin,Pichet,Picot,Poirier,Richard, Acadianpatria.zhs. One of these was Rimbault, Robichaud (Robicheaux), Simon, RobertCormier,whosettled in the Sire (Cyr), Thebault (Thibault) and Vincent. Annapolis River basin after working out his contracts with Denys. Charles Latour also brought a few set- 73 73 The English occupation of 1654, of One of Grandfontaine's first acts as course,discouragedfurtherimmigration governor was to take a census of the colony, from France, and many of the French al- and the census of 1671 has become the most ready in Acadia returned to the homeland. famous recordof the«firstfamilies of Acadia.»It has been widely reprinted in Most of them remained, however, various accounts oi Acadian history during both because they were attached to their he past 50 years. homes and also because Colbert, French prime minister, foresaw the return of the In 1671, Port Royal, Cape Sable and colony to France when peace was achieved. La Heve were inhabited by several families He ordered the settlers to remain, therefore, of Acadian settlers. There were fishing out- rather than to return to France, or to go to posts at Miramichi, Nipisiquit and Cheda- Canada. bouctou, under the control of the Denys family. The family of Mius d'Entremont oc- The Treaty of Breda, signed in 1667, cupied Pobomcoup and Pentagoet.The returned Acadia to the control of France, forts at Jemseg and Passamaquoddy were but it was not until 1670 that the French manned by garrisons. sent out a governor to take control of the colony. By this time, ,Colbert had assumed The census of 1671 revealedthat power in France as King Louis XIV's chief there were 61 heads of families in Acadia, as minister, and he saw a real potential in well as four widows with children.There Acadia. were also a number of roving trappers and fisherfolk,plus coureurs de bois who He set up Acadia as a crown colony, lived with the Indians, and colonial officials therefore, and removed it from the control in various stations whose presence was not of thefurtraders. He named Hubert reflected in the official census. d'Andigny, Chevalier de Grandfontaine, as governor of the new crown colony. Here is a list of the heads of families, with ages, for whom occupations were sup- Grandfontaine was already living in plied in the censps of 1671: Canada and had been a companion of Tracy inthat officer's expeditions to the West Jacob Bourgeois, druggist, 50; Jacques Indies and at Quebec. By the terms of his Belou, cooper, 30; Antoine Hebert, cooper, appointment, however, Grandfontaine was 50;Mathieu Martin,weaver,35;Pierre placed under the guidance of the governor Sire, gunsmith, 27; Pierre Doucet, brick- ofCanada, who was designatedhis layer, 50;Pierre Commeaux, cooper, 75; immediate superior. Jean Pitre, edged tool maker, 35; Clement Bertrand, carpenter, 50; Thomas Cormier, On Aug. 6, 1670, Grandfontaine set carpenter, 35; Abraham Dugast, gunsmith, up a camp at what is now Penobscot, Maine, 55; and Pierre Melancon, tailor, age not and senthis lieutenant,Joybertde given. Souianges, to take possession of the fort at Jemseg.Grandfontaine moved on to Port Other heads of families were Royal on Sept. 2, being accompanied by presumably farmers.The alphabetical I.st, several officers of the Carignan regiment of with ages: the French army, then stationed in Canada. 74 Antoine Babin, 45; Antoine Belliveau, include the settlers at Cape Sable (estimated 50; Martin Blanchard, 24; Jean Blanchard, at 25 persons), Les Cotes de l'Est (estimated 60; Michel Boudrot, 71; Jean Bourc, 26; at 16), as well as those living at La Heve, Antoine Bourc, 62; Bernard Bourg, 24; Pentagoet and the fort at Jemseg. Charles Bourgeois, 25; Vincent Brot, 40; Vincent Brun, 60; Etienne Commeaux, 21; From the census and other records it Jehan Corporon, 25; Olivier Daigre,28; is possible to reconstruct a picture of the Germain Doucet, 30; Michel Dupuis,37; colony. of Acadia during this period, which Michel deForet,33; Jean Gaudet,96; marked the beginning of prosperity for the Denis Gaudet, 46; Francois Gauterot, 58; Acadian pioneers. Francois Girouard, 50; Jacob Girouard, 23. At the time of the census the popula- Also, Antoine Gougeon, 45; Laurent tion had grown tonearly 400 persons. Granger, 34; Pierre Guillehaut, 32; Roger The settlers at Port Royal had 425 cattle, Kuessy,25;JeanLabatte,33;Pierre about the same number of sheep, pigs, and Lanaux, age not given; Rene Landry, 53; horses, and the habitants were cultivating DanielLeBlanc,45;PierreMartin,40; 400 arpents of land, not counting the BarnabeMartin,35;PierreMartin,70; natural grazing meadows. CharlesMelancon,28;PierreMorin,37; Francois Pelerin, 35; Claude Petit Pas, 45; The population at Port Royal, there- Michel Poirier, 20. fore, had already sunk_ deep roots in the land. Some of the heads of families were the Also,MichelRichard,41;Rene third generation to live in Acadia. They had Rimbaut, 55;EtienneRobichaud,no gained valuable experience in farming the age given; FrancoisSavoye, 50;Claude country. Terriau, 34; Germain Terriau,25; Jean Terriau, 70;PierreThibeaudeat',40; The substitution of a royal governor Guillaume Trahan, 60; and Pierre N incent, for the colonial proprietors who had been 40. interested chiefly in fishing and furs meant that the needs of the colonists themselves The four widows were the widows of would be given a higher priority back home Etienne Hebert, Francois Aucoin, Jacques in France. Joffrian and Savimine Courpon.All had small children. Indeed, Jean-Baptiste Coloert, Louis XIV's new minister, had placed the develop- The census-taker reported that tailor ment of New France high on his list of need- Pierre Melancon had refused to answer his ed accomplishments, and he sought to give questions, but that he had a wife and seven the colonists as much aid as possible from children. He also reported that Etienne the mother country, as well as sending out Robichaud did not want to give an account additional coloniststr?strengthen Acadia of his lands and cattle, and that Pierre againsttherepeatedincursionsofthe Lannaux sent word that he was «feeling English. fine, but did not want to give his age.» Still, the original families continued to Unfortunatelyfor future historians dominate the colony.The Acadians had and genealogists, the census-taker did not developed into an American type - long- 75 lived, frugal. and adapted to the land. They except those farms of the Bourgeois family had large families, and they sent their sons already laid out.Valliere called the area out to clear new land for themselves. Beaubasin. Authorities have concluded that three- In 1680, the first farms were cleared fourths of all the Acadians liOing today, in the Grand Pre region in the Basin des ther in Louisiana or Canada, or Nova Minas area by Pierre Melancon of Port Scotia or Europe are descended from the Royal. Two years later he was joined by families listed in the census of 1671. Pierre Terriot, and other settlers began to flock in. The colonists of French Acadia enjoyed the most piOsperous era in their history dur- In1689, Mathieu Martin of Port ing the 30-odd years between 1671 and 1710, Royal, often called «the first Frenchman despite repeated raids of English freebooters, born in Acadia», was granted a parcel of who continued to descend upon the colony land near present-day Truro.In the same from time to time, burning, looting, and year, other Acadians received land grants in murdering. the area north of Port Royal in the vicinity of the Petitcoudiac and Memramcock rivers. It was a time of growth and expansion. There was a significant fusion of new blood Meanwhile, new settlers were arriving from France in the form of artisans, soldiers, bothfromFranceandfrom Canada and colonists. In addition, from time to time Soldiers from the Carignan Regiment, which marriageable girls came to Acadia, seeking had been shipped to Canada to fight the husbands and a place for themselves in New Iroquois, began to settle in Acadia after their France. terms of, service.They bore such names as Leger, Lort and LaMontagne. New settlements began to spring up throughout the peninsula.In 1762, Jacques Inthespring of 1671,theship Bourgeois, one of the more prosperous inhab- I'Oranger from LaRochelle brought out about itants of Port Royal, began to develop a set- 50 colonists reci-uited by Colbert.These tlement on oneof the extensions of the Bay names were noted among the newcomers: of Fundy known today as Cumberland Basin. Amirault, Arcenault (Arceneaux), Barriault The Indians called the area Cliignectou. (Barilleaux, Barrois), Benoit, Brossard (Broussard), Doiron, Giraut (Girault, Girard) Bourgeois had arrived in Acadia as a and Levron. surgeon in 1640 under d'Aulnay's regime. He tradedwiththeIndiansin the Colbert continued his efforts to re- Cumberland Basin region, where he decided cruit new blood for the colony, seeking to to lay out farms for his two sons and three strengthen it as a barrier against the English. sons-in-law. Thomas Cormier,oneof Between 1671 and 1686, several ri:nv family Bourgeois'sons-in-law, became the most names appear io Acadian history, their own- well-to-do member of the new settlement. ers having arrived either from Canada or France. Among them: Chaisson (Giasson), In 1676, Michel LeNeuf de la Valliere, d'Amours,Dubreuil,Gourdeau,Hache a Canadian from Trois Rivieres, was given a ( Ache), Henry, Labauve, Lapierre, Lambert, grant of all the land in the Cumberland Basin Leprince (Prince),Mercier,Mignault, 76 Mirande, Pelletier, Pinet, Porlier, and Rivet. Estevin, Gilbert, Guidry, Lacroix, Leonard, Mordvant, Picard, Primeau, St. Duringthe.. decade following 1686, Ma:..in and Thibaud. names of new arrivals appearing in Acadia included: Bonneive,Blondin, Boucher, 'V In 1714, a census taken at Grand Pre Boutin, Bo isseau, Brasseau, Cellier, revealed the following new names in Acadia: Champagne, Darois (DaRoy), Heon, Herpin, Aubin,Bellefontaine,Blou,Bastarche, Lalande, Langlois, Lavergne, Mouton, Cochu, Desorcis,Fardel, Godin, Gareau, Naquin,Nuirat,Olivier,Oudy (Audy), Levron, Laroche, LaBarre, Lalloue, Lavellee, Poitevin (Potvin), Poitier (Poithier), Savary, Lagosse, Michel, Martel, Poulet, P.rejean and Suret( Surrette),Tillard,Toussaint and Tourangeau. Vignault( Venoit,Vegneaux,Vignaud). As the population of Acadia expanded Duringthelastyearsof French through the arrival of colonists and the controlof the colony,stillmore new- growth to maturity of the children of the comers werearrivinginAcadia seeking older settlers, more farm land was needed lands for farms and opportunities to make and more settlements were founded. Two their fortunes. colonies sprang up on the Petitcoudiac River in 1698.Chipoudy was founded by Pierre Among thelastarrivalsin French Thobodeau, who had come to Acadia with Acadia were: Allard, Allain, Barnabe, Beau- Fmmanuel LaBorgne. Guillaume Blanchard mont, Babineau (Babineaux), Bideau, Cadet, also founded a settlement there which he Crosse,Clemenceau, Chauvert, Carr; de named for the river upon which it was based. Vaux,Dubois,Denis,Donat, Dumont, Darbone, Emmanuel, l'Esperance, Guerin, Alexandre Brossard and his brother, Jasmin, LaBasque,LaBreton,Lounais, Joseph, settled on Boudary Creek around Lafont, LaMarquis, LaMaistre, Lessoil, La- 1740.Joseph was later to become a legen- liberte, Laurier, Lanquepee. dary figure in Louisiana. Also, Moipe (Mope), Maurice, By 1710, it was estimated that the Maillard,Marceau,Maissonat,Parisien, population of Acadia from the St. John Raymond,Roy,Rosette,Saint-Scene, River to Cape"Breton had increased to some Samson, Simon, de Saulnier, Thibeau, Veco, 2,500 persons, a handsome increase from the Voyer, Villatte, Yvon. 400-odd counted in the famous census of 1671. ThelateDudleyJ.LeBlancof 4 Abbeville, who was an assiduous collector of By 1755, when the expulsion of the Acadian lore, reported that his researchers Acadians was begun by the Eli ;fish, it was had uncovered a number of other names in estimatedthat the population numbered Acadia during the decade just prior to the between 7,000 and 8,000. English takeover. By the beginning of the eighteenth Among these were Baptiste, Baudion century, the Acadianshad adapted them- ( Beaudion),Barrios,Bonin,Bonvillian, selvesto the New World and had learned to Beaulieu,Beauregard,Berthelot,Cailler, make full use of the country's gifts. They Celestin, Coussan, Druce, Dupont, Durocher, became adept at farming, livestock breeding, 77 hunting, lumbering and fishing. cobbling, the salting and smoking of meat, and the endless household chores that were During the long winters they spun the lot of women in a frontier economy. cloth, using either wool or flax, tanned their own leather and made their own soap and As the population increased, so did candles and fashioned their own furniture Acadiantrade with Canada, the French and wooden tools. West Indies and France.Timber, furs, fish and flour were exportedin. returnfor . In the spring, they made maple syrup manufactured goods, metals, implements, and spruce beer, of which they grew quite guns and ammunition that the Acadians fond. needed. There was also an illegal, and there- fore clandestine, trade with New England They were still, however, dependent for some of these necessities. upon foreign sources for metal, guns and am- munition, salt, some we4ring apparel and the Thus, after three or four generations, trinkets they used for trade with the Indians. the Aca&ans had succeeded in carving out forthemselvesa comfortable,ifnot Hunting and fishing, the building of luxuriou ;n 'he New World. They tilled boats, and small vessels, and the fur trade their dyked fields and built their cabins occupied some Acadian families, but for the :nthe slopes between the sea and the vastmajoritythe major occupation was forests.Parents worked with their sons and fanning. sons-in-law, and da,vbters banded together and worked as tean Early in their stay in the New World, the Acadians learned to build dykes across Married sons of the same family often the mouths of rivers that flowed through lived in their father's house, or nearby, and lowland marshes, thus clearing fie land for respectedthefather'sauthority. The caltivation. Acadians' deference to and respect for .neir elders, according to contemporary accounts, The majc : crops were wheat and peas, seem without modern parallel. Acadian standbys even into the nineteenth ,..entury. Oats, barley and rye were also Theybuiltchurches,schonls and grown, along with cabbages and a large. homes and grew to love the soil upon which variety of garde': vegetables.Apples and they toiled. cherries were also plentiful. They were hospitable and cheerful Livec.'ockofallkinds were kept, and were happiest when gathered together but cattle were the most numerous. Horses to celebrate the rituals and the melodies were few, indicat.ng an infrequent use of of the great liturgical occasions. plows and poor reads. Most of the lana was hand-cultivated, and the Acadians traveled Their chief weakness, it was said, was by water whenever possible. a love of gossip and a certain amount of personal vanity.Yfit, according to Silber- During the winter months, of course, %ase, laFt French governor of Acadia, thetimewasoccupiedbyhousehold The mot\ I ..on: dcr these people, the more carpentry, spinning, weaving, tanning, I believe they are the happiest people in the 7$ world.» set off to select a suitable place at which to plan a trading post.It should be near NoW, with the Acadians prospering in enough to the sea for easy access from Acadia, it is time to retrace our steps, and France and also near the northward-flowing to follow the fortunes of other French tributaries of the St. Lawrence so that furs pioneers who planted theflew de /Lson the from the interior might be brought down by rocky shores of Canada. canoe. Exploring the Continent Sailing upriver from Tadousac on the last day of June, Champlain decided to plant While somegroupsofFrench his post at a spot where a point oLland merchants were attemptingtosettlein jutted out into theriver, narrowing the Acadia, others were attempting to exploit channel. Overhead high bluffs towered. Ar- the fur trade of the northern wilds by forg- riving at this spot on July 3, Champlain set ing settlements and trading posts on the St. his partyto felling trees to build a stockade Lawrence River. and cabins. AfterhisexperiencesinAcadia, .He wrote 43 his superiors in France: Champlain once more turned his attention «Where I searched for a place suitable for to the St. Lawrence. Champlain returned to our settlement,Icould find none more France from his explorations in Acadia in convenient or better suited than the point of 1607, and immediately sought out the Sieur Quebec, so called by the Indians because it is de Monts witha proposal .that further covered with nut trees.» explorations be carried out in. the North. After the construction of the post, At first, de. Monts was not interested, Pontgrave sailed back to France for the but laterhe was able to obtain from the winter, leaving Champlain with 27 men to crown a monopoly of the fur trade onthe man the post. Among those who remained St. Lawrence River for a. year, and in April with Champlain were Nicholas Marsolet, of 1608, he dispatched an expedition of two Etienne Brule, a doctor named Bonnerme, ships to the St. Lawrence to explore and to Jean Duval, and Antoine Natel, a locksmith. open up the fur trade. The winter was a hard one, and scurvy Thetwoships. Don de Dieu. and dysentery claimed many victims.Natel captained by Henri Couillard, and Levrier. died during the last of November, and some captainedby Nicholas Marion, set sail on time after that the doctor, Bonnerme, also April 5 for Tadousac, an Indian village and succumbed. There were 18 others attacked trading pest on the St. Lawrence.At ors; by scurvy, of whom 10 died.Five others time, the Portuguese had set ti;) a whaling wer claimed by dysentery. station there. When the spring arrived, only eight of Champlainandanother Acadian the 27 men were living, and Champla'n him- veteran,the Sik. 1r de Pont (called self was seriously HiThe French had not Pontgrave, were in charge ofthis yet learned the need for fresh meat and had expedition. The expeditionarrivedat attempted to sustain themselves through the Tadousac without difficulty, and Champlain winter on ship's biscuit and salted meat. 79 With the arrival of spring came Claude was to grow into Montreal.In 1613, he Gode:, Sieur de Marets, who was the son-in- sought to find the fabled Northwest Passage law of Pontgrave. De Marets reported that by exploring the Ottawa Riw.r. Pontgrave was in Tadousac. Champlain then went to Tadousac himself, where he was Throughout his career in New France, handed a letter frt,m de Monts, which asked Champlain sought to strengthen the settle- that Champlain return to France to report ment at Quebec, develop the fur trade in the on the progress of the post at Quebec and St. Lawrence River Valley, and maintain the progress of the fur trade. good relations with all of the northern tribes so that their furs would be brought to the BackinQuebec inSeptember, trading post there and at Montreal. Champlain then met Pontgrave at Tadousac, and the two sailed to France to report to In 1628, when war broke out between de Monts. The latter, meanwhile, had been the French and the English - again - the enable to get his fur trading monopoly ex- English sent a naval squadron commanded tended. Crown officials decided to permit by t-apt. Datid Kirke to oust the French any French subject who wish,.d to engage from the St. Lawrence. in the fur trade. When the English squadron suddenly De Monts, crestfallen at this, decided arrived at Quebec, Champlain had only 18 to withdraw from the venture since he saw men at the post. There was little to do but no chance to make a profit under the surrender, which Champlain did on August changed conditions. De Monts' former part- 9,1629. ners, Collier and Legendre of Rouen, decid- ed to continue the vene,--., and outfitted Because of the poor communications two ships at their own expo nse, which they of **lose days, neither Champlain nor Kirke placed under Pontgrave's command. realized that a treaty of peace had been signedbetweentheiitwo countries the No provisions weremade for previous April. Champlain to accompany this expedition, but he complained to de Monts, and the When the French government received latter asked his partners to allow Champlain word of the capture of Quebec, therefore, to sail with the expedition. This they agreed the return of the post was dem; nded. King to, and in 1610, the new expedition sailed Charles agreed, and Quebec was turned over from Honfleur. to France once more, although it was not until1632 that the French were able to The tireless Champlain, who possessed take possession of the post again. the temperament of one of the great explor- ers,spent much of his time in the New Champlain once more was sent back World in exploring the many waterways that to the New World. There were only a few entered upon the Great Lakes any the Si settlers on hand to greet the veteran, now Law c nee River. 66, when he landednce mure at Quebec. New houses were being built, along with a In 1611, he led a small expedition up chapel, a convent and a school. the St. Lawrence to the falls of the river, where he established the trading post that Champiain died on Christmas Day in s 80 1635. Where he was buried has remained a The reason for this was the rise of the mystery, but there islittle doubt that with- Long House, better known as the Iroquois out his skill and daring and his efficient ad- Confederacy. ministration the little colony at Quebec would have experienced much harder times Archeologists believe that the various andCanadamightnothaveremained tribes and clans which became the Iroquois French. originated in the southern Mississippi Valley in the era of du, mound-builders. About the The white man in the New World has beginning of the Christian era they began a often been censured for involving the Indian long migration northward, and by the four- tribes in Europe's fratricidal warfares, mak- teenth century, seem to have established ing them but pawns in the hands of the themselves in what is now New York state, empire builders west of the Hudson River. In retrospect, however, it would be Therewerefivegroups of these more accurate to say that theIndians in- Indians, which the white men called tribes. volved the white men in their own inter- The farthest east were the Keniengehagas or tribal warfare, and thus helped to intensify «flint people», called Mohawks, or «eaters econouicrivalriesbetweenthe French, of men», bytheir Algonquin enemies, in- English, Dutch, Spanish and other colonists dicating that they were - ceremoniall,at and traders who ca ne the New World. least, - cannibals. Thencamethe Goyogouins,whomtheEnglishcalled When Samuelde Champlain,for Cayugas; the Onontagues, or Onondagas; andthe example, made .7* .3 voyagetotheSt. theOnneyouts,orOneidas; Lawrence River Valley in 1603, the first re- Tsonnontounns.calledSenecasbythe quest made of him by the Algonquinand English. Montagnais tribes. whom he visited was that he help them in their wars.Being the Through most of thi:z history, these diplomat that he was, Champlain promis trites were engaged in blood feuds and wars. to do so when the tine was ripe. War was self-perpetuatin3, since ever/ death had to be avenged. and it might be said that On his second voyage to Canada, in the Iroquois looked upon war as the natural 1608. the same demands were made. The vocation of man. tench wished to trade for the Algonquin and Montagnais furs? Very well, they Some time after their arrival in New should have no qualms about helpingtheir York, probably between 1475 and 150e redbrothersstrike a hard blow against two prophetssprang up among them - theirtraditionalenemiestothesouth. Hiawatha, a Mohawk, and Degandawiea, Otherwise. there might be few furs for the I:uron adopted by the Onondaga.They French to carry back home. persuadedthefivetribesto1.--,ury hatchet, to halt their wars and blood feuds, It was unfortunate that the time and and to live together in peace. the place of France's colonial efforts (and those of England later) would land the This did not mean they gave up their colonistsinthe middle of a century-old warlike pursuits. They simply directed them Indian war of extreme bitterness. against tribes outside the confederacy.After 81 their confederation, they called themselves French assist them in their wars. Champlain Ongwarosioni, or «People of the Long decided the politic thing to do was to accom- House,»in honor of their elongated bark pany this force on its southern foray. huts. The party proceeded south, through The Algonquins, who knew themtoo Lake Champlain to Lake George, where they well from their long wars, called them Ir- encountered an Iroquois force ready to iakhowi, or «true rattlesnakes». fight.The fight opened, and arrows bega.1 to fly. Champlain was escorted to the front The People of the Long House hada and fired his musket which was loaded with complex social system with a wide variety of four balls. Two of the Iroquois were killed taboos, a highly developed religion, andan and one was wounded, but the loud noise extensive, uhwritten «literature». An early, created more confusion among the Iroquois unknown contact with Christians had left rinks. The Iroquois took flight and, found them with a legenu of a flood, the prophecy I lter in the woods. of a savior and a confessional, anda distinct understanding of the role of the unconscious Some historians blame Champlain's and dreams. participation in this raid for the subsequent hostility of the Iroquois to the French, but They were also among the cruelest, it seems far-fetchedinbelieve that condi. most bloodthirsty and -most ruthless of tions would have be 'a different had he not peoples. taken part. Because theycouldconcentrate The French were few in number, and armies of several hundred, up to perhaps they depended upon their Indian neighbors 2,000 warriors, the Iroquois broughta new to maintain their lodgement at Quebec. and more deadly dimension to forestwar- Hostile Indian neighbors would have made fare, which previously had beena matter of the early settlement untenable.Besides, ac raids and counterraids ofa score or a few long as the French traded with the huronsor dozers combatants. the Algonquins or the Montagnais, whowere the Iroquois' enemief, it scents far-fetched to The Iroquois soon drove all other believe that the Iroquois would ever have tribes from their area west of the Hudson had a friendly feelins toward the F:ench. and carried on a steadily escalating wf ith theAlgonquins,theHuronsa. the Even if the French nal maintained the Montagnais to the north and to the west. strictest neutrality, it seems impossible that they might have avoided a confrontation The Iroquois and their enemies had with the restless and expansionist Iroquois, been in a major war in the St. Lawrence who seemed determined to subdue all of the Valley since before the start of the :sixteenth forest tribes to their fierce will. century.It was this ancient war in which Champlain was asked to participate when he At anyrate, the presence of the visited his Indian frienc:. near Three Rivers Iroquois in western New 'fork meant that in 1608.In 1639, a gatheringof Huron, the French colonization in:.hat direction Algonquin and Montagnais warriors gathered was blocked. This fact deflected French fur at Quebec and once more demanded that the traders to the west, and eventually to the 82 discovery of the Mississippi River and the eliminated, the Long House could ..ontrol planting of the French flag in what is now the fur trade of the whole GreatLakes-St. Louisiana. Lawrence region.Then they could direct the flow of furs to the French or the Dutch, During the years following the death as they pleased. of Champlain, events of major importance to As early as 1633 a war party ofthe the history of French America were taking r. place south of the St. Lawrence. Long House attacked a party of Champlain's men on the St.Lawrence, killing two and The Dutch, after «buyingy, Manhattan wounding four others. Island from a group of Indians who didn't own it, set up a series of trading postsalong The French retaliated by extending the Hudson River, hoping to gain a part of their forts and posts farther up theriver, the fur trade for themselves. and by sending missionaries to attempt to convert the native tribes.In 1634, a fort It was not long before the men of the was built at Trois RivIeres, at'he Juncture of Iroquois Confederacy decided they would the St. Lawrence and the St. Mauricerivers, have this fur trade with the Dutch for their one of the main .river routes tothe North. very own, and the native tribes inthe lower New York .regions were exterminated, or Li 1638, Jean Nicolet, an agent of driven out. the Company of New Frmice, which wasthe commercial firm that «owned* the colony, The Iroquois quickly developed an penetrated the wilderness to Lake Michigan, appetite for European goods, especially for then down Green Bay to the Fox River to guns. In '1623, they traded morethan 8,000 establish trade relations with the pelts to the Dutch, and by 1633 they were Winnebagos, and to make peace between bringing in more than 30,000 pelts a year. them and the Hurons. This opened up a vast Trade of such magnitude, of course, soon ex- new territorytothe French fur trade. hausted the supply of fur-bearing animals in Iroquois country. Religious societies also played a major role in the expansion of the colony, bothby The men of the confederacy, now supplyingmanpower and by supplying dependent on European goods to maintain funds.In 1630, the Duc de Vandadour, their improved standards of living, sought to then viceroy of New France, organized the obtain furs from the Algonquins andthe Compagnie de St. Sacrement to promote mis- Hurons, but these tribes were trading with Fionary activities among the Indians. the French.Thereupon, the Iroquois con- ceived a brilliant plan: having armed them- This society, made up of men of great selves with the white man's guns, they would piety, wealth and influence in France, gave take the warpath against he northern tribes. its support in 1640 to attempt to found a settlement at Montreal for the purposeof Their aim was simply extermination - convertingti,eneighboringIndiansto '.efirst recorded instance of genocide in Christianity. American history.The Iroquois reasoned thatif the Hurons and the Algonquins, Thus, Montreal can lay claim to being along with neighboringtribes,were the only great metropolis in NorthAmerica ff 83 foundedforpurelyreligiouspurposes. coureur de bois, a sort of backwoodsman who came to be the despair of French Som './0 devout colonists, therefore, officialdom. They were a wild, unruly lot, established Ville Marie de Montreal, under and made themselves more obnoxious by the command if Paul de Chomeday, Sieur trading whiskey to the Indians. de Maisonneuve, a 33-year-old army veteran whose piety had greatly impressed the mem- The prototype of this sort of back- bers of the founding society. woodsman was Etienne Brule, who came to Caaada as Champlain's servant.He found Thus was the flag of France pushed an affinity for the forests, and soon deserted to the juncture of the St. Lawrence and Quebec settlement.Thereafter, when he Ottawa rivers.Although the new post was came to Quebec, he was always in Indian ideally situated for the missionaries to gain attire. He was said to be unusually strong, access to the Indian tribes, it soon proved and was quick to learn Indian ways and to be commercially important, too. Indian languages. The Ottawa River was the principal By 1680,authoritiesatQuebec route by which the Algonquins and the estimatedthat between 800 and1,000 Hurons brought their furs to the French. Frenchmen were off in the foresb illegally, A trading post at Montreal would save them seeking furs from the natives. the long paddle to Trois Rivieres of Quebec, and possible ambush by the Iroquois along The life of the coureur de bois was the way.It was not long, therefore, before not one for weaklings.It was hard and ex- tradingfacilities were established at acting. He was called upon to crouch in a Montreal, mugh to the dismay of the pious narrow canoe and paddle hour after hour founders. from dawn to dark, at 45 to 50 strokes per minute.For nore than 1,000 miles the Since the settlement was made on coureurstraveledthus,pulling their ca- territoryclaimed by the Iroquois,itis noes through small rapids by ropes as they surprising that the small company was not waded up to the waist in some swift anan- attacked. The Iroquois overlooked the new charn1 river, or carrying canoes and cargo colony, though, since their war parties were on their shoulders to portage around great concentratedagaitIsttheHurons along rapids. Georgia Bay and the Ottawa. The advent of the coureurs de i)ois IndividualFrenchmen,too,were marked a new tack in French relations with not slow to venture into the wilds them- the Indians and began a headlong race bet- selves, to meet tribesmen on the way to ween missionaries and traders to see if the Quebec or Trois Rivieres or Montreal, and former could convert the tribes to civilized to short-circuit the officialtradir.g posts. ways before the traders iestroyed then. with The natives would as soon trade with an whiskey and European diseases. individual in the forests as at a trading post, especially if he were thereb-y\ saved a long French efforts to convert the Indian journey. tribes to Christianity date from the begin- nings of the colony at Quebec. On his third Thistendencygaverisetothe voyage, Champlain brought with him four 83 34 Franciscans of the Strict Observance, com- Hurons east of Georgian E iy. Missions were monly known as Recollets. established in theHuronvillagesof Ihonatiria and Ossossane, and in 1639 a They were Fathers .oseph le Caron, third was established at the mouth of the Jean d'Obleau, Denis Jamay and Pacificitte Wye River. It was called Ste Marie. du Plessis. The bishops of Paris subscribed a sum of 1,500 livres to cover the expensesof SteMarie consistedof a chapel, the mission, since the Recollets were a men- hospital, mill, stables, barns, a residence for dicant order, depending upon charity for the priests and another for lay workers,all their daily bread and the patched grey robes surrounded by a log palisade. As many as they wore. 35 Frenchmen resided there from time to time-priests,laybrothers, agricultural The first Mass ever heard in Canada workers, a surgeon, a druggist, a carpenter, was celebrated by du Plessis.The four friars and other artisans. cut the trees, hewed the logs andcarved the stone for their mission, a leg building, sur- The priests were seldom in residence, rounded by a palisade. spending most of their time serving missions in outlying villages, or traveling by canoe to Thevastprogramofconversing the distant Petun tribe, called the «Tobacco thousands of savages, however, was beyond Nation» by the French, to the «Neutral» the resources of the Recollets, and in 1626 tribestothesouthwestandtothe five members of the Society of Jesus were Algonquins farther north. sent out to help them. Three were priests - Charles Lalemant, Jean de Brebeuf and These outposts, separated from the Enemond Masse. Two were brothers of the settlementsontheSt.Lawrenceby order - Francois Chartond and Gilbert Burel. thousands of miles, formed tiny islands of Father Lalemant was appointed director of Baroque civilization in a Stoll., Age ocean. the Jesuit missionary effort. The life of the missionaries was hard The Recollets left the colony when it and demanding.Indian food was hard on was captured by the English in1629 and did European stomachs, and some of the Indian not return when Quebec was restored to customs were revolting. The Indians existeu France by the Treaty of 1632.Thus, the on two meals a day,composed of corn Jesuits were left alone in the mission field. ground betwt'n two stones and boiled into a mush. Mixed in withit were any dirt or Their numbers were considerably in- insects which might have happened to be creased after 1632, principally dye to the on the stones.If fish or birds were caught, financial backing by pious members of the they were thrown into the pot without being French court. They established missions cleaned. among the Montagnais on O.. north sholv of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, another at If a war party returning home with Miscou at the mouth of the Baie de Chaletrro prisoners ran short of food, one of the and a third on Cape Breton. captives was knocked in the head, butchered, and his flesh added to the community kettle. In 1634. Inc Jesuits expanded their missionary effortsinto the land of the Villagelifewas not much better 85 Men, women, children and dogs with their clothing and had their fingernails pulled fleas all crowded into the huts, winter and out.Jogues was beaten senseless with war summer. There was little room to move, and clubs.The three were forcedt) run the in the center a fire filled the crampedspace gauntlet and were beaten by Iroquois braves with smoke. until they were drenched with blood and half dead. The Frenchmen gotno sleep at The difficulties of mastering Indian night because the younger warriors pulled languages and dialects and of finding some out their hair and beards. The village chil- wayto communicate the rudiments of dren amused themselves by placing live coals Christianity to these savages complicated and red hot ashes on the bodies of the the missionaries' task further. prisoners. The priest finally escaped and found refuge with the Dutch at Oswego, Despiteall of thedifficulties,the from whence he was able to return to Hurons offered the missionaries their best France. One of the lay brothers also. opportunity to make significant progress in escaped, while the other gained the respect Christianizing the savages.They were a of a Mohawk brave and was adopted into the relatively non-migratory people, they tribe. practiced the rudiments of agriculture, and theirvillageswereconcentrated intoa Jogues was received with jubilation at relatively compact area. Jesuit headquarteis in Paris, and his reports were listened to eagerly. As for Jogues him- There were some 15,000 to 20,000 self, he was already making plans to return of them when French traders first made to the Iroquois country and set up a mission contact with them. The Hurons welcomed post in their midst. the missionaries among them and willingly listened to their sermons. Throughout1643 andl644,the border warfare between the Iroquois and the Many of them responded readily to Hurons, the Algonquins and the French con- Christianteachings,andbaptisms were tind. Losses Were heavy 3n both sides, frequent. Bythelate1640's,several and/ neither gained an advantage. thousand Hurons had accepted baptism. Hope was high in the minds of the mission- In 1645, the Iroquois decided to r k aries that the entire nation might eventually for peace, and sent delegates to meet the accept the faith. French and their allies at Trois Rivieres and bury the hatchet.Thus, the frontier had a The French also attempted to send short respite. missionaries to the Iroquois, but these at- tempts met with anything but success. The In 1645, too, the Rev. Isaac Jogues Rev. Isaac Jogaes, for example, was captured was back in Canada, and with the advent of and tortured by Iroquois in 1643 as he and peace was making plans for tiie foundation two lay brothers and 17 Huron converts of a mission to the Iroquois, which he called were paddling up the St. Lawrence River. The Mission of the Martyrs.» The party via- ambushed by 70 Iroquois. Most of the Hurons were killed and the three In the middle of May he departed F renchmen were captured.Father Jogues from TroisRivieres with an Algonquin and his companions were stripped of their escort,traveledtoFort Orange on the 86 Hudson, where they were entertained by attacked the Huron villages near St. Joseph Dutch traders, and then departed for the MissionA Many of the fluron warriors were Iroquois country. away on a hunt.Rtishing the palisades at sunrise, the Iroquois soon hacked apath Soon .after the departure, the escort into the village. Within there was terror deserted, leaving Jogues and a lay brother, and panic at the first sound of the Long known to us only as Lalande.Soon, they House war cries. The few warriors who tried were ambushed and captured by aMohawk to make a stand were shot down. Nor were band and carried in triumph to the nearest the women and children spared.At the Mohawk village. mission,theRev.AntoineDanielwas celebrating Mass. He hurriedly baptized Here crowds surrounded them, beat- those he couttl before the Iroquois attacked ing them savagely. A Mohawk cut strips of the chapel. flesh from Jogues' back and legs, saying as he did so. «Let us see if this is the flesh of Then, in his whiteAlb_and red stole, a great wizard.» and carrying a cross in of him, Father. Daniel went to the entrance.He was shot Inthe evening, Jogues sat fainting down at the chapel door, and the Iroquois from his wounds when he was summoned to swarmed aroundhim. Hisbody was the chiefs hut.As he bent to enter, a stripped, his head hacked off, and his body Mohawk struck him from behind, sinking a gashed. tomahawkintothemissionary'sbrain. Jogues fell at the feet of his murderer, who The neighboring village was served finished the job of hacking off his head. The in a similar manner. Of the 3,000 people next morning, Lalande suffered a likefate. living in the two villages, only a few es- Some 700 were taken as prisoners 0 caped. Jogues'fatewaslearnedbythe and were subjected to torture and death in French from the Dutch at Fort Orange, who the Iroquois towns. learnedit from the Iroquois themselves. Though the rest of the summer passed The French missions prospered in the with only sporadic attacks by the Iroquois, Huron country, but in the 1630's, smallpox the Hurons lived in constant fear of the was introduced into thetribe by French future attacks which they knew would be coming. traders., By the winter of 1645, more than I. half of the 15,000 Hurons had died from the disease. The next blow fell on March 16 of 1649, a grim and bloody year. The ice had No sooner had this plague abated not yet broken up and snow was thick on than a new whirlwind struck.After three the ground when the Iroquois suddenly years of peace had recoupedtheir forces, struck at a Huron village called St. Ignace. and after they hadLocked up with guns They had scaled the wall before dawn, when from the Dutch, theLoislaunched their most of thevillage was sleeping. The blitzkrieg agaihst the Hurons. slaughter was the same as before. Then the Iroquoif tide flowed to the small mission Without warning, the Iroquois chapel of St. Louis, manned by 80 Hurons columns debouched from the forests and and two priests, the Rev. Jean de Brebeuf 9 4.,1 r-r' 87 andthe Rev.GabrielLalemant. The French mission at Ste. Marie. More than 6,000 Iroquois, a thousand strong, soon swarmed disconsolate Hurons huddled around the over the walls and put the Hurons to death. stone church. The missionaries did all they The two priests busily attended the wound- could to feed the multitude, but starvation ed. Unfortunately for them, they were not threatened them all. The Hurons' food sup- killed, but were captured and led away to plies had gone up in the smoke of their villages. torture. The Iroquois soon moved against Ste The Iroquois stripped the two priests, Marie, but here a Huron counterattack drove tied them to a pole, t.,re out their fingernails them off.The Iroquois army retired to St. and clubbed them all over their bodies. One Ignace,amuseditselfwithburningits of the Iroquois, who knewa smattering of prisoners for a while, and then retired to French, told Brebeuf: «You say Baptism Iroquois country, carrying a rich harvest of and suffering will lead to Paradise. You will scalps and furs. go there soon, for I am going to, baptise you.»Then he proceeded to pour boiling The Hurons' will to resist was by now water over the priest three times. Red-hot broken, and there seemed nothing to do tomahawks were applied to his armpits and for the survivors but to flee.They simply stomach. could notstand against the Iroquois and their guns.Some sought refuge with the Through thetorture, Brebeuf con- Neutral nation, others (with the Petun, the tinued to preach to the Iroquois, urging Erie and the Ottawa. them to forsake their paganism and accept Christianity. Not wanting. to hear him By summer the Huron nation was no speak, they cut out his tongue and cut off more.Only piles of ashes, charred'human hi5 lips. Then they stripped the flesh from bones, and clearings in the forest where vast his legs, roasted it and ate it. Hewas scalped corn fields had once been planted remained and his heart was torn out, roasted and to mark the existence of this onte-powerful eaten.Some of the Indians drank his still- and populous tribe. warm blood. The destruction of the Hurons forced Father Lalemant was put throug%a the French missionaries- and traders - to similar ordeal. extend their efforts to tribes farther into the interior of the continent.Meanwhile, The remains of the two priests were the Iroquois launched further wars against found a few days later by other missionaries theErieandtheNeutraltribes,but and were brought to Que4c.c for burial. permanent victory eluded them. They were operating too far from their base and lacked The two great raids by the Iroquois the sophisticated system of supply to keep on the Huron villages terrorized the remain- them for long in enemy country. ing villages.And even after the Iroquois armies had retired, the death tollamong the In 1653, the Iroquois again sought Hurons continued to rise. peace with the French, convinced that the destruction of the Hurons would allow the Some 15 outlyingvillageswere Iroquois to take chargeof the fur trade. deserted, and the refugees flocked to Peace was agreed upon, and the Iroquois Sh were free to trade with either theFrench or QuCbec applied for aid from the French the Dutch. government at home. France, at the time under the able direction of Jean-Baptiste Meanwhile, the French were setting Colbert, had the most efficient government uprelationswithmore westerntribes. in Europe.Colbert had an important task Frenchfur traders were voyaging to the for Canada, since he wanted it to supply the western Great Lakes to trade with the «far mother country with timber, ship masts and Indians.» By 1656manyvoyagers, naval stores, as well as furs. including Pierre Esprit Radisson and Medart Chouart deGroseilliers, had established Colbert decided to revise the govern- relations with far western tribes. ment of the colony. He canceled thecharter of the commercial company that had ruled On thesevoyagesthey beganto Canada and made it a crown colony.'I% hear rumors of a great river that ran south make the colony more secure from the to the Great Southern Sea, which in turn Iroquois, the Carignan Salieres regiment of washed the shores of the Indies. the French army was shipped to Quebec, comprising nearly 1,100 men under veteran After being interrupted only a few officers. years, the flow of furs once againbegan to reach Montreal and Trois Rivieres. None of In the fall of 1666, the regiment, plus the furs came in Iroquois canoes, however, 400 Canadian militia, led by the newly ap- because the Ottawas of the Northwest had pointed viceroy, Alexandre de Prouville, stepped in to take the place of the Hurons. SieurdeTracy,invadedthe Mohawk country. The Iroquois were furious.All of theirlong campaigns had gained them The Mohawks declined to fight and nothing. Once more they took to the war- faded into the forest depths. The French path and began blockading the rivers leading burned their four . villages,containing all into the St. Lawrence Valley, stopping the their winter food supplies, and then marched fur trade from the west once more. back to Quebec. No Mohawks were killed or captured, but the loss of food supplies was a When the settlers went out in the severe blow.Also severe was the loss of morning to tend their crops or livestock, huts, furs, canoes and other equipmentthat they could never be sure of seeing their was extremely harp to replace. families again at the end of the day. In the field, behind any stump, tree, stone orhill, In fact, it wasa hard year forthe a Mohawk couldconceal himself, waiting Loll House. A Mohawk and Onondaga war patiently for hours until the settler came party had been almost annihilatedby the withinrange of his gun ortomahawk. Ottawas, and the Seneca and the Cayugahad been mauled by the Andastest The Iroquois War parties of 100 or more ravaged had spread themselves too thinin their settlementsfromMontrealtoQuebec, wars of conquest.In addition, smallpox destroying crops, burning homes and barns, sweptthroughthe Long House villages, and slaughtering stragglers. probably contracted during their wars against the Hurons. Faced with these disastersand Finally, in 1663, the authorities at expecting more French expeditions,the 9 g9 Long House decided once more to sue for the great Sea by thecities of Cathay. peace. The Jesuits were in the forefront of An Iroquoisdelegationappeared the westward thrust.Father Claude Dablon before Quebec, and accepted the terms prof- conducted a mission at Ste Marie du Sault, ferred by Viceroy Tracy.They agreed to in a square enclosure of cedar logs, with a halt their wars against the French and all but and a chapel. At the other end of Lake of their Indian allies. Superior, another young Jesuit,the Rev. Jacques Marquette, had charge of the Mis- WithpeaceinbothCanada and sion de St. Esprit at La Pointe. Europe, the way was open for a further development of the colony and a serious Thence came Louis Joliet, deputed by colonizatiofi effort on the part of Colbert. the authorities in Quebec to hunt for copper The officers and men of the Carignan mines. Another pioneer in westward explo- Salieres regimer:`, who had been sent to rations was Daniel Greysolon, Sieur du Lhut, Canada with the underst,.nding that they whose main achievement was opening ut. would be returnedtoFranceafter18 thecountrywestandsouthof Lake months, were given every encouragement Superior. to remain as settlers. In 1680, with a party of four French- Several officers and men - some 400 men and an Indian guide, he spied out the in number - agreed to remain, and were given lay of the land arounci the Brule and Si. land grants.It was an important reinforce- Croix rivers. He established a trading postat ment for the colony. In addition, peaceful the mouth of the St. Loui; River, and in conditions and improved administration en- years to come this was to grow into the city abled the French to concentrate upon ex- of Duluth, named in his honor. tendingtheirinfluencefartherintothe interior. Now there appeared on the Canadian scene one of the chief actors in the great The fur trade was the mainstay of drama that would wit' for France an inland French Canada. From its revenues came the empire almost beyond measure. Rene money to maintain the colony.It was the kobert Cavelier, Sieur de la Salle, was born first business of the colony, therefore, to at Rouen on November 21,1648, or a noble see that the fur trade flourished. and wealthy family. Thismeant.inevitably,thatthe In his early youth he resolved to join French must penetrate farther and farther the Jesuit order and fit himself for the mis- into the interior, since the trade on the scale sion fieldsof the New World. He entered it was being carried out soon exhausted the the Jesuit novitiate at the age of 15 aid supply of wildlife in a given territory. forc- progressed far enough to win the title of ing a westward expansion. «scholastic» and to be sent to teach in a Jesuit school at Alencon, being later trans- The westward expansion had other ferred to Tours and then to Blois. impulses. too.There were tales of copper mines in the interior and storms of the great LaSallewasnotsuccessfulasa river that perhaps flowed into the shores of teacher, being too impatient with his1u 90 In fac :, he found the teaching profession a was deternlined to find this great river and boring one, and was much too active in body follow it tq its mouth.He informed the and mind for the classroom. Sulpician Fathers, andfound them sympathetic. They arranged to buy back all Finally, LaSalle asked to be sent at of his land except the plot he had laid out once to take up his work in the missions, for himself.This gave him enough money but it was judged that his spiritual training to,. outfit an expedition, and he decided had not proceeded far enough. With this set- to join a mission that the Sulpicians were back, LaSalle asked for his release from the ending to the Shawnee Indians. The party order. and at the age of 24 his resignation of 14 set out in four canoes on July 6, was accepted. 1669. They were retained a Month at one of the Seneca vraages, but then crossed the Finding himself free, and with little Niagara River, hearing the roar of the great to maintain him in France, LaSalle took a falls in the distance. ship io Canada. He arrived during the sum- mer of 1667 and joined an older Vother, BytheendofSeptember,they who was a member of the Sulpician Order, reached an Indian village at the site of what in Montreal. is now Hamilton, Ontario. Hew LaSalle parted company with .the Sulpicians and The younger LaSalle won the friend- headed his canoes south. He was not heard ship of the Sulpicians, and they made him a from for two years. grant of land on Montreal Island, where they were attempting to develop a series of farms. Just wherehe went is a matter of This was a wide and valuable domain, and debate, but he almost certainly reached the LaSalle immediately cut it into farms, and «Beautiful River», now called the Ohio. set about attracting tenan...,. He followed it downstream to a waterfall, which he described as fors haw. and which He cleared some of the land for him- blocked further progress. This was probably. self, built a house on it, and stil' found time the falls above Louisville. to study Indian languages. Almost from the beginning, however, LaSalle's mind was not Meanwhile,the Jesuits,too,were upon his farm, but upon the Great West that making explorations into the interior. They lay beyond the viewof French voyageurs. knew that beyond Green Bay were regions Nhete buffalo roamed by the thousands, One winter a group of Indians from and there were tribes who had never heard ;lie Seneca tribe camped on his land, and the the Gospel.They also heard the stories of tales they told were so interesting LaSalle the greit river that flowed into the South invited them to spend the winter. They told Sea and decided to send an expedition to him of the «Beautiful River», running due find it. west, which was larger e. en than the St. Lawrence, and which finally emptied into For this purpose they chose Louis the Vermilion Sea. Joliet, who had already been exploring in the west looking for copper mines. To ac- These exotic names firedLaSalle's company the experienced Joliet, they chose imagination. The Vermilion Sea could only one of their own number, the Rev. Jacques mean the warm seas of the Orient!LaSalle Marquette. a 9t.? a/A a I 91 They set out for the west on May 17, explorations of the western areas of New 1672, in two canoes with five companions. Francewas the new governorofthe En route they encountered many new and province. strange tribes - the Wild-Rice Indians, the Miamis, Mascoutins and Kickapoos. Louis de Baude, Comte de Fitontenac et Palluau,. succeeded Remy ct^ Coucelle as Then one day, about a month after governor and lieutenant general of New their start, they came to a place of unusual 0 France, and arrived in Quebec on Sept. 12, beauty, 4ere the Wisconsin, River, which 1672: they had been following, joined a new and widestreamwhichrolledmajestically He immediately set upon a policy of toward the south. vigorousexpansion of colonial activities, particularly in the realm of the fur trade. Their Indian guides assured them with One of Frontenac's first projects was the gestures and much eloquent oratory that erection of a French fort oil Lake Ontario this was indeed the great Father of Waters, to hold the Iroquois in check r*: i to inter- the Mechezebbet, which flowedfor 'cept thefur trade that the western tribes thousands of miles into the Great South Sea. were carrying on with the Dutch and English in New York. The Indians were awed byl it, and urged the French to go no farther upon its Frontenac early made di acquain- broad surface. Huge monsters, that made a tance of LaSalle, and consulted with the habit of eating men, besieged the southern young explorer and fur trader often. LaSalle reaches of the river, they said.This was was a student of the Iroquois and knew a probably the first mention that the French great deal about the western country. He had of Louisiana alligators. supplied the maps that convinced Frontenac that his fort should be built at Cataraqui, Marquette and Joliet were not to be where Kingston, Ontario, now stands.It dissuaded, however, and followed the great was to be called Ft. Frontenac. river south until they reached the mouth of the Arkansas. At that point they decided to The fort was built in 1673, and thz. turn back. They knew not how many more experience brought Frontenac and LaSalle hundreds of miles the river flowed, but they to develop grander plans for trade and were now sure that it flowed into the Gulf discovery. LaSalle burned with an ambition of Mexico, rather than the Vermilion or the to secure the western country, and sought Great South Sea. the governor's backing in a scheme to con- structfortsalongthegreatriverthat Now the way was cleared for further Marquette and Joliet had discovered, and to Frenchpenetration of the interior, and build a greater empire than Canada for the LaSalle was on hand again to be the spear- French crown. head. The next year, LaSalle went to France LaSalle and the Father of Waters toseekfinancial backing for this great venture, and carried with him a letter of One of the staunchest of the support- introduction to Colbert, the French minister ersoftheSieur de LaSalle during his of state. LaSalle made favorable impressions 1 1 92 upon Colbert and otherministers, as well as environment, in the court of Louis XIV as the king. easily as with the coureurs de bois, squaw men and renegades of the frontier. His project was adopted.He was He was the son of Lorenzo di Tonti, granted a patent of nobility on condition a banker who fled his nativeNaples after that he rebuild Fort Frontenac with stone participatinginan' unsuccessfulrevolt. and maintain its garrison at his own expense. Lorenzo fled to France, where.he became a In 1675, LaSalle was back in New France, financier and where he invented the form of where he rebuilt the fort as he had been lottery known as a tontine,. directed, planted grain fields, established a mission school and built ships with which to His son entered a French military navigate Lake Ontario in pursuit of the fur academy, served 'four years as a midshipman trade. at Marseilles and Toulonadd made seven military campaigns - four in ships and three In 1677, LaSalle returned to France inegalleys. While he was serving in Sicily, his to gain permission of the king to lead an right hand was blown off by a grenade. He expedition to explore the great western river was captured and held prisonerfor six to its mouth. Again his petition was acted months.Later he was released iu an ejc- upon favorably. change of prisoners. Since he had no finances of his own He returned toFrance, where the lavish enough for such an undertaking, king granted him a pension for his heroism. LaSalle induced a number of merchants, He replaced his lost hand with one of iron, relatives and officials to advance him sums and later on the American frontier this of money to undertake the exploration. awed his Indian- friends, who dubbedhim «Iron Hand.» ,He was at Versailles when On July 14, 1678, LaSalle sailed from LaSalle came there, and they were intro- La Rochelle with 32 men, a supply of stores duced.LaSalle promptly enlisted Tonti's and implements for building ships 7 the services for the expedition. great lakes .and the great river. Hereached Quebec two months later. When LaSalle's expedition arrived at Fort Frontenac, the first task was to build One of the men whose services he a ship to sail the lakes.Tonti's experience gained in Paris was destined to leave his was utilized and a sloopnamed Le Griffon name in history amongthe great explorers I. was launched. On August 7,LaSalle and his of the west.He was Henri di Tonti, an men embarked, enteredLake Huron, weath- Italian by blood and a Frenchman by service, ered a terrible storm, and finally anchored at the Mission of St. Ignace, at the Straitsof There have been few more romantic Mackinac. spirits in Agierican history.His exploits in theMississippi ValleyeeVere the stuff of Within a few days, LaSalle sailed into which legends am ma . His indomitable Green Bay, where he met some of his traders, energy overcame a weakphysique. He en- and a huge store of pelts was taken aboard. duredprivations that would have broken On September18. LaSalle sent the ship lesser men. He was at home in every back to Niagara with the cargo that would !), s 93 help to pay off some of his creditors. provisions when the Indians, members of the Illinoistribe, proved to be friendly. LaSalle then took 18 men and set off along the western and southern shores of Facingbitterwinter weatherthat Michigan toward the mouth of the St. would make further exploration impossible, Joseph River. Tonti and 20men were dis- LaSalle decided to winter at the site.He patched by land along the eastern shores for builta small fort on a hill in what is now the same destination.LaSalle arrived at the suburbs of Peoria,He named it Fort 4'the StrJoseph first, and set about buildinga Crevecoetir, after the Dutch stronghold that fort there. the French under Marshal Turenne had cap- tured in July of 1672. Tonti had served as Three weeks passed and neither the one of Turenne's officers in that engage- ship nor Tontiappeared. Tonti finally ar- ment. rived toward the end of November, but there was no word of the ship.Tonti had only InMarch1680, with spring near,' half of his men.His provisions had failed, LaSalle decided to go back to Canada to and he had been forced to leave half of his seek word of Le Griffon and to securemore men 30 leagues behind to sustain them- supplies for his expedition to the Mississippi. selves by hunting while he pushedon. Five men were to accompany him, aid Tonti Finally, all arrived, and LaSalle decided to was left with the others in command' of the push on before ice closed all the streams. fort. The party of 34 ascended the St. When LaSalle set out in March of Joseph in eight canoes that often hadto 1680 to return from the Illinois country to be dragged through the shallow, boulder- Canada, he faced a long and dangerous strewn and icy current. Near the preknt site journey. LaSalle had five companions- four of South Bend, Ind., they madeaportageto Frenchmen and one Mohegan hunter. They the Kankakee River, toiling throughsnow-, traveled in two canoes, and set outon the mantled country and downnarrow, twisting long journey back to the fort that LaSalle streams flowing through reedy and frozen had built at the mouth, of the St. Joseph marshes. River. Finally they reached the point where Winter still gripped the land, and they the Kankakee and Des Plaines rivers join to were forced to drag their canoes over ice and form the Illinois.Gliding down the Illinois, through swift currents. Often they paddled past thetall cliffs of Starved Rock, they in a cold rain that froze the clothes to their came to a large town of the Illinois Indians. skins. They endured hunger and fatigue and The town was deserted, as the inhabitants allthe other privations of the wilderness. were on a hunt, but on Christmas Day the French landed and took 30 bushels of maize Finally they arrived at the forton the from an underground storage basin for their St. Joseph River, where LaSalle had left provisions. two men to await Le Griffon. They reported no news of the ship. There was nothing to They pushed on through Peoria Lake. do but go on to Niagara. Just beyond they discovered an Indian vil- lage. They went ashore, and obtainedmore LaSalle left the canoes ate fort and J 94 it led his party across the St. Joseph River on a LaSalle sent out patrols, however, and raft.Then, by foot,they crossed southern- when seven of the deserters anpeared in two Michigan, forcing their way through dens' canoes, they were takenprisoner. The ntxt woods, choked with brambles and under- day, the remainder were taken in the same brush, eluding Iroquois hunting parties that way. ranged the forests. Undaunted by all of his ill fortune, At last they came to a stream which LaSalle hurried his preparations to return they followed to Lake Erie. Here they built to the Illinois country. He wasfotiliv.te in another raft, crossed the Detroit River, and obtaining the services of Francois Daupin, then resumed their long march across the Sieur de la Forest, with 25 men. northern shore of Lake Erie, through tor- rents of rain and flooded woods. Theytraveledto Mackinac, where LaSalle left La Forest to gather storesand After much sufferingtheyfinally follow as soon as possible. With ten French- came to the French fort atNiagara on Easter men, two Indian huntersand a number of Monday.Here LaSalle received the depres- dogs, LaSalle pushed hurriedly onward.He sing news that Le Griffon had never arrived reached 'the fort at the mouth ofthe St. on its voyage from thefort on the St. Joseph and left five men there to awaitLa Joseph.Her fate is still unknown. He also Forest. learned that another cargo ship had sunk at the mo of the St. Lawrence River, car- With the remaining men, he ascended ryingtp e bottom a cargovaluedat the Kankakee and crossed to the site ofthe 22,000 Ies which had been sent tohim village of the Illinois. There they were greet- from France. ed by sights of horror. The village hadbeen burned and stakes thrust in the ground upon Disappointed, but not discouraged, which were human skulls.Here and there LaSallesetoutonce moreforFort crows and vultures torethe,bodies of slain Frontenac, arriving there on May 6, after Illinoistribesmen,and,,olves prowled covering more than 1,000/miles in 65 days, through the village. much of it on foot. Cornfields had been burned or cut His disappointments were not at an down. The ground was strewn with pots and end, however.At Frontenac he found a kettles from the Illinois cellars, wherethey letter from Tonti awaiting him. Tonti re- had kept their supplies and belongings.All ported that the garrison at Fort Crevecoeur of this was the work of the Iroquois,who had mutinied, torn down the fort's palisade had invaded the Illinois country andwiped and fled into the forest after throwing into out the tribe. the river all the arms and ammunitions they could not carry.Tonti was left with five There were no signs of Tonti and the men, two of whom weremissionaries. few loyal men who had remained withhim. One by one LaSalle and his menexamined LaSalle later learnedthat some of the ghastly corpses, fearing to find that the mutineers were on the way to Fort each one was French.But they were all Frontenac to murder him as the best way Indians. toescape punishment fortheir mutiny. 1 95 The Frenc< addled in the darkness The glare of the snow gave LaSalle and that night, keeping watch should the grim some 4 the others snowblindness, and the foe. strike again. party had to halt, near a camp of Fox Indians. Thy Foxes said they had seen six "- The next day,They paddled farther white men traveling from a village of the down river on the way to Fort Crevecoeur, Potawatomi toward Green Bay. The six men passing ruined and destined Illinois villages had kept% themselves alive on elderberries on the way. The fort was deserted and the and wild onions, Lye was told. surrounding country was a vast graveyard. Tied to stakes here and there were half- LaSalle was convincedthis was a charred bodies of Illinois men, women and report of Tonti and his men and that while children.Day after day, they continued he had come down the eastern shore of Lake their search for Tonti and his men. Michigan, they had gone north along the op- posite shore. Beyond the junction cf the Kankakee and Des Plaines rivers they stumbled across a As soon as LaSalle had reghined his cabin, where they saw a piece of wood that sight, he returned to the fort on the St. had recently been sawed.But they found Joseph, and then hurried up Lake Michigan nothing more. to Mackinac.There be was overjoyed to meet Tonti, who had arrived from Green It was now winter again, and LaSalle Bay the previous day. sadly turned his footsteps back_to the fort on the St. Joseph. He left two men to guard Tonti revealed that he and his men the supplies and canoes and with the rest of had been captured by the Iroquois and the party set off on fdot. condemned to death.An Onondaga chief, however, had interceded for them, and they Snow fell for 19 days in succession, had been released with a leaky canoe. On and the cold was so severe that LaSalle later the way back, one of the missionaries, wrote that he had never known a harder saying his breviary during a stop on shore,. Winter. was killed by a Kickapoo war party. After much suffering, they arrived at Their leaky canoe was soon wrecked, the fort on the St. Joseph, where they found and they were forced to walk. Tonti came La Forest and the rest of the party, but no down with fever, and suffered from swollen word from Tonti.LaSalle sought to throw legs, but they staggered on.They sought off his despondency by making new plans. help from the Potawatomi, but found the He sought to gain an alliance with a band of villagedeserted,and foundlittlefood. Abenaki and Mohican Indians who had been driven from New England by the Puritans.' Having worn out their shoes, they covered their feet with parts of the surviving He also set out on a winter journey to missionary's cloak.In this strait, they were visit the unmolested villages of the Illinois, discovered by a band of Ottawas, wt o to seek their support in his objective of ex- escorted them to another Potawatomi vil- ploring and settling the valley of the great lage, where they spent the rest of the winter, river. and in the spring they went on to Mackinac. V.' 96 These adventures illusVe the hard- Indians.As was theif custom, the Indians ships and sufferings which 'explorers and brought along their wives and Oiildren. ,This pathfinders were forced to endure in open- made a large group, whichsomeof the ing up the west. . Frenchmen felt was too. unwieldly. LaSalle was ir, a fever to make another LaSalle, however, knew whal he was attempt at exploring the Mississippi to its about. The Mohieans and the Abenakis mouth, and hardly had he been reunited were well-arined and expert in the 'use of with Tonti than he began to plan his next their weapons.They were less likely to expedition. desert than the voyageurs, and they.could be nted upon to do the bulk- ofthe pad- He was determined to streamline his dlinhunting and scouting. operations and decided that the best course was to recruit a mixedgrout of French and The Indian Ikomen, LaSalle knew, Indians to make the long' voyage to the would be expected to cook the food, do south.He began to preach the need for a more than their fair share of portaging, do confederation of the Indian tribes who dwelt all the camp chores, live on scraps and free in the west.If they joined forces, they the Indiansfor the hunting and scouting. could defendthemselvesagainstthe Iroquois. On December 31, 1681, the expedition arrived at Fort Miami. After a pause there, He lobbiedhisideas amongthe they set out toward the south, walking on ti Miamis, Shawnees from the Ohio River the surface of the frozen Illin'ois River.. Valley, I'otawatamis from the West and' Abenakis and Mohicans who had been exiled For 120 miles they trudged along on from New Eng,lat.d by the English and the the ice. The the ice began to break up, and Iroquois. they took to the shore, reloading the canoes, andlaunching themintotheice-filled The next step was to return to Quebec stream. and put the idea of another expedition before Gov. Frontenac.LaSalle's plan was Theypaddled downtheIllinois, to employ a hard core of the most trust- through the leafless forests, and then on worthy Frenchmen he could find, teaming Feb. 6 the expedition issued upon the broad them with Indians who were at home in the surface of the great river itself. forest wiltis. Who werethese men who were To raise money for this new venture, destined to be the first Europeans of record LaSalle sold parts of his fur monopolies and to set foot in Louisiana? LaSalle's journals borrowed from his family in France. Then yield their names.In addition to LaSalle he and Tonti, having recruited 'their expedi- and Tonti, there were Father Zenobe, a tion, set off for the Illinois country and the Recolletfriar;theSieur' de!oisrondet., first stagesof one of the most important Jacques Bourdon,Sieurd'Autray; Jean ventures ever undertaken in the New World. Michel, surgeon; Jacques de Meterie, notary; Pierre Prud'homme, armorer. °Theexpeditionconsistedof23 Frenchmen and 18 Abenaki and Mohican Also,JacquesCochois,Anthoine 97 Bassard,JeanMasses. Pierre You, Colin ,continued on past what is now Vickburg and Grevel, Jean de Lignon,. Andre Henault, Grand Gulf. GabrielBarttier,Pierre Mignaret, Nicolas de laSalle, Andre Boboeuf, Pierre Buret, Abdut 300 miles below the Ackansas, LuisBaron,JeanPiinabel,andone the expedition' halted on the edge of a vast individual merely designated as La Violette. swamp on the western shore of the river. Here, their two. guides told them, lay the LaSalle's notary did not recdrd the k path to the great city of the Tensas. LaSalle names of the 'Indians who made up such decided to send Tonti and Friar Zenobe an important part of the expedition. tovisitthis tribe.Thus, the twowere probably the first white men to set foot in 4n relative comfort, the expedition \Louisiana, since the village Sys located in paddled .ftyn the great fiver, uneventful what is now Tensas Parish. day following uneventful day. One evening ire\ about dark they saw on their right the course Tonti andriar Zenobe, accompanied of a great river and were awed at the rush of bynativepaddlers,carriedtheir canoe the muddy currrent of the Missouri entering throughthe swamp and launched it on a the clear waters of the Mississippi.Later lake which had once formed part of the they passed the mouth of the Ohio, and on channel of the great river. In two hours they Feb. 24 camped on the heights of the reached the town, and were astounded at its ChickasawBluffs. They built a small extent. stockade there, and LaSalle named it Fort Prud 'h omme. The houses were square structures built of mud and straw, with dome-shaped Dayafterdaythey followedthe roofs made of cane. river, until March 13 when in the midst of a thick, fog, they heard on the right shore There were two larger structures, one the booming of a war drum and the shrill being the lodge of the chief and the other whoops of Indians. the House of the Sun, a temple. Tonti paid his respects to their chief, who sat .on what LaSalle ordered the canoes to keep appeared to be a bedstead, with three of his near the far bank. Suddenly the fog lifted, wives attending him, and surrounded by his and the Frenchmen saw an Indian town. council of 60 old men, clad in white cloaks The Indianswere astonished at the sight made of mulberry bark. of the white men, and after LaSalle dis- played a peace pipe, the expedition landed Whenthechiefspoke,his 'wives at the town. They discovered it was a village howled to do him honor, Tonti said, and his oftheKappa (Quapaw) band ofthe council gavel him due reverence.When a Arkansastribe,neark the mouth of the chief died, Tonti was told, 100 men were Arkansas Rivef sacrificed. After a feast and much celebration, 1 he chief received Tonti graciously, the expedition set forth again, this time ac- and later visited LaSalle. He was preceeded companied by two Kappa guides. They by a master of ceremonies and six heralds, passed the mouth of the Arkansas, where and when he arrived at the meeting place, he Marquette and Joliet had turned back, and was clad in a white robe and accompanied k 7 98 by two men bearing fans and a thirdwith grht chief. There they found a villagpnd a huge copper discrepresenting the Sun. a trlibal hierarchy much.like they had found thought by the .Tensas to be their chiefs anfong the Tensiks. elder brother. .The next day, LaSalle began the de Tlie interview was friendly, and the cent of the Mississippi anew, and twoleak French departed the next morning, going below the NateN they visited the Ko down rivk, again,this time with Tensas where they found another Hearty wei guides. from the red men. A . AftertheirvisitwiththeTensas,/ On March 31, the expedition passed the French explorers continued 'down the a viltpse of theHouma Indians, and that Mississippi.Now' LaSalle and his men had night Tamped just below the junction of entered the realms of eternal spring.The the Red River and the Mississippi. hazy sunlight filtered through the warm and drowsy air, which came from the banks of Three dayslaterthey surprised a the river laden with the scent ofta thousand fleet of wooden canoes, fishing in the. canes along the edge of the water. The Indians exotigsblossoms. . tl fled at the sight of the Frenchmen.LaSalle They saw extensive swamps and green sent a party to reconnoiter, but asthey en. canebrakes on both sides of the river, filled tereethe marsh, the scouts were greeted with thousands upon thousands of wildfowl. with a volley of arrows. ) They heard for the first time the fearful bellow of the alligator, and some ofthe Inthesurroundingfest,they hunters killed a couple of these huge beasts. heard the sound of drums and th hoops of mustering savages. Prudently, L Salle re- 0 One morningthey happened upon a called his scouts, and ,desiring to keepthe wooden dugout full of Indians, andToilith\ peace along theriver, resumed his course. gave chase as the dugoutwithdrew rapidly. The tribesmen probably belonged tothe .As the dugout neared the bank, more than Quinipissas, who dWelt in what is now 100' Indians armed Ivith bows and arrows St. Charles Parish. appeared out of the canebrakes.LaSalle hastily called to Tonti to withdraw. A few leagues below, the French came ,to a cluster of three villages on theleft bank Tonti volunteered to return to the oftheriver,apparentlydevoid of in- bank with a peace pipe to open negotiations. habitants.LaSgle landed a party, and the The Indians received them with signsand three villages were found to be filledwith friendship,whereuponLaSalleandthe corpses.These villages of the Tangipahoa remainder of the expedition followed. They tribe had been sacked by theirenemies proceeded to the village, where they spent only a few days before. the night. By now, the trench were nearing the venture. On April 6, TheseweretheNatchezIndians, end of their daring. whose great chief dwelled in alade town the expedition arrived at a place wherethe near the' present site ofNatchez, Aiss., and riverdivideditselfinto 'threebranches. LaSalle and his men traveled to meet, the r 99 LaSalle divided his party. He descend- kme Avril,1682.0Beside the column, a ed the westernmost branch. Tonti took the large crosswas ejected. 'Beneath the cross central passage, ails' the Sieur d'Autray de- LaSalle buried a leaden elate on which were scendedtheeasternarm. They moved scratched the words:,,Ludovicus Magnus through flat country, the current flowing Regnat.o sluggishly between the shores of reeds and Marshes. Fatherenobe bestowed his blessing upon the party, and LaSalle formally pro- The water was brackish, and the hori-. claimed tIe land as the possession of France, .ion was limited on all sides by wind-driven giving to Louis XIV and 'hissuccessors «the walls of gray-brown reeds. The brackish possession of this country of Louisiana, the water grew salty, and the breeze was fresh seas, harbors, ports, bays:ladjacent straits, with the tang of tb a sea. and all the nations, people; proxincef, cities, towns, villages,mines, nfinerali, fisheries, Then the reeds fell behind, and before streams and rivers, .within the extent of the LaSalle'scanoethererolledthe broad, said Lougana, from the mouth of thegreat boundless surface of the Gulf of Mexico, river and the rivers which discharge them- tranquil, .shimmering in thesun, without a selves thereinto, from its sources beyond the sail, as 'unsullied as when itcame forth from country of the Nadouessioux (the Sioux) the bourne oftime. and as far as its mouth at the sea, or the Quit' of Mexico:» It must have been an exultant mo- ment for LaSalle. Despite the hardships, the With one magnificent gesture, LaSalle setbacks, the disappointments, this fierce, had presented to his sovereign the heart of proud man had reached his goal. For the an entire continent, an area many tithes first time a white man had traveled from the larger than France, and named in honor of St. Lawrence River to the Gulf of Mexico, its new overlord. through the heart of an unknown continent, traveling by water except fora few miles The Colonization of Louisiana overland. Indiscoveringthe mouth of the From his early days in anada, La- Mississippi and claiming the valley of the Salle had searched for a great central water- great river for the crown of France, LaSalle way, and now he had proved that it existed. reached the peak of his career. LaSalle set his paddlers to work coast- After the exhilaration of the discov- ing the marshy borders of the sea before he ery, however, it was time for the French to decided to return to the rendezvousat the retrace their steps, to gain once more the conjunction of the three distributaries. When sanctuary of Canada, where LaSalle was de- all had reassembled, LaSalle helda ceremony termined to consolidate the vast empire he claiming all of the surrounding lands for had won for his king at the expense of so France. ----rnuch suffering and hardship. A column was set up, bearing the The expedition began the long jowl rudely carved inscription:((Louis le Grand, ney back up the river, by hioculean efforts Roy de.,Fri. ?we et Navarre. Regne; Le Neuv- this time, against the current. Supplies were v, ( V' 0 lob running low, and. LaSalle was ia hurry. France, where he won employment at one of the Jesuit pqts onitake Huron. Here he be- /- For some days the party, subsisted on came sc proficient at Indian dialects that he the flesh of alligators. They arrived at a wasable to take up residence in Montreal as village of the Quinipissas,.determined to seek an official interpreter.He was given a grant food. They were feasted by the tribesmen, of land, which he began to cultivate, and but attacked in the night. the same thing soon became a man of prominence in the occitrred at the village of the Kfrreas. The littlefrontier 'town. In 1654 'he married French won tarough unscathed, but LaSalle Catherine Thierry, a native of the Diocese of was suddenly stricken with a serious illness, Rouen. probably a fever. He was unable to proceed past Fort Prud'homme, and sent Tonti on The LeMoynes settled in their home ahead; of him. It was not until September and began to rear the remarkable frilly of that LaSalle was well enough to travel the sons whose leadership was to gain themthe rest of the journey to Canada. title of the Maccabees of Canada. As his sons grew up, LeMoyne added to their names ere he found that Governor From- titles taken from localities near' his native te his longitime supporter, had been re- Dieppe. Occasionally, when as boy died early called. also f4;and his creditors importP- in life, his title was transferred to a later nate and, in some cases, nasty. arrival. Here is a list of the LeMoyne chil- dren with the dates of their birth: Det mined to shore up his fortunes. LaSfille once more sailed for France. He Was Charles de Longueuil (1656), Jacques not destined to return to the country' of his de Shinte-Helene (1659), Pierred'Iberville triumphs, hoWever. His return expedition to (1661), Paul de Maricourt (1663), Francois the Mississippi met with?, disaster. A faulty de Bienville I (1666), Joseph de Serigny navigator put LaSalle and, a colony destined (1668), Francois-Marie 41670), an unnamed for Louisiana ashore on the plains of Texas, child(1672),Catherine-Jeanne(1673), then abruptly departed for France. Louis de Chateauguay I (1678), Marie-Ann (1678), Jezin Baptiste de Bienville II (1680), For some time the colotiy subsisted, Gabriel A'Amigny (1681), Antoine de Cha- but as supplies dwindled, LaSalle was de- teauguay II (1683). termined to try to find his way back to Canada and kelp. On the way, he was mur- The greateste. of Charles' sons, how- dered by one of his own men, somewhere ever, and the most important toLouisiana, near the Brazos L. er in Texas. was Pierre d'Iberville, the thirdchild. At the age of 14 he was appointed amidshipman in ( LaSalle's dream of an American em- the French Navy and was sent to France. pire did not die with his death, however, and After four years' service, he returned to it was now time for Charles LeMoyne and Canada, where he took part in the almost- his pride of young Canadian lions to take the incessant fighting between the French and center or the Louisiana stage. the English. Although he fought with only a few hundred men, or small fleets of two or Charles LeMoyne was a native of three ships, Iberville possessed a natural ap- Digppe, born in the parish of Saint-R6my in titude fdr the tactics and strategy of war. 1626. As a youth, he joined an uncle in New .4 e 101 47a-\ He began his CanadiAn career in 1686, Faced with these threats, Pontchartrain when he led, a detachment under3DeTroyes devised au expedition cf his own to plant a against the. English forts on Hudson's Bay, fort at the Mississippi's mouth.It so hap- and aided in the reduction of the forts. Also, pened, too, that he had just the man to com- with the aid of his brothers, he captured two mand this venture his premier Canadian cap- . English ships. He Was left in command of the tain, Pierre LeMoyne Iberville was forts and succeeded in 1688 in capturing an experienced navigator and would,not make . two more ships. the mistake of missing the mouth of the Mis- sissippi.And if it Came to a clash of arms In 1690 he participated in Ale cam- - Iberville had' already proved his mettle against paign against Schenectady and later in the the English. year recaptured Fort Albany On Hudson's Bay, which the English had retaken. In 1694 Iberville was given two ships, Le Marin he captured Fort Nelson, and during the and La.Badine, both frigates of 30 guns. Two winter of. 1696-97 he captured Fort Pema- smaller craft, called traversiers, were addeti w quid and ravaged the English settlements on the flotilla, and a contingent of French and the coast Of Newfoundland. Canadians was recruited to man the fort. A company of French marines was also furnished In 1697; in command of a frigate, he for any skirmishing that might be necessary. again entered Hudson's Bay and captured three superior English ships in a desperate Iberville assumed command of La Ba- 'engagement. Again he took 'Fort Nelson, dine, with his younger brother, Jean-Baptiste which the English had retaken. de Bic:r.,!11P. as second in command. Le Marin was under the command of the Chevalier The Peace of Ryswick left him urign- Grangeide Surgeres, while his second officer ployed, just when the French government was the Sieur Sauvole de la Villantray. sought someone to carry on LaSalle's work The expedition of some 300 men de- in Louisiana. parted Brest on October 24, 1698, and Iber- Although the Tieaty of Ryswick in 1697- ville needed only 31 days to reach Cap Fran- ended hostilities between the French and the cois, the northern tip of St. Domingue, the English, Jerome Phelypeaux de Pontchartrain, leading French colony in the West Indies. the French minister of marine, still found riimself faced with problems. After a refreshing stay, the fleet sailed on to Leogane, the colonial capital on the . He knew that the Spaniards were plan- western side of the island, for a conference ning to establish a base at Pensacola Bay, and with Jean du Casse, the governor. There from the limited geographic knowledge of the d'Iberville recruited a detachment of.«bucca- time ,Pontchartrain suspected this was de- neer.to aid in his colonization efforts. On signed to blockade the mouth of the Mississippi, the last day of 1698 d'Iberville sailed from Leogane, rounded the tip of the island, and also heard reports that the English seta westward course for the mainland. were planning anoVerlah expedition toward 1 the Mississippi from their seaboard colonies Afteranuneventfulvoyage,the on the Atlantic. French fleet reached Pensacola Bay on Jan. 26, 1699. The fleet anchored in the bay and I 102 discovered there a Spanish vessel..The' next he had recruited in St. Dorhingue.kThe two morning d'Iberville sent an officer ashore to vessels sailed out of Mobile Bay on January reconnoitre. He returned with news that the 27 and threadet4 theireway through the maze Spaniards' had a colony of 300 men ashore of small island; that dot this part of the Gulf building a fort. The post st.is called Santa of Mexico. Maria de Galve. The Spanish commander sent word that he would not allow the The weather was bad. High winds, French vessels to enter the harbor, but they torrential rains and thunder and lightning might continue at anchor in the outer bay. impeded progress and made life in the small boats miserable. On the second day of lberville did not tarry, but set sail March, as the two vessels raced along under a westward, convinced that the Mississippi lay quartering wind, Iberville saw to the south- beyond Pensacola. He now entered un- east a line of rocks projecting out from the familiar waters, and proceeded with caution, coast. It was almost dark when he saw a rift taking frequent soundings and never losing in the line of rocks, and he sailed through. sight of shore. Suddenly hefound himself -ging On thelast day ,of January, the easily on a quiet stream. tle had discovered French fleet anchored off Mobile Bay, which the North Pass of the Mississippi. The water Ibervill,proceeded to explore with a long was fresh, and it had athick, whitish appear- boat from LaBadine. ance, just as LaSalle haddescribed. The rocks he saw proved to be masse of drift-, The bay extends some 25 miles in- wood and .nud piled up by the current, land, to the mouths of the combined Tensas blackened with age and cemented together and Mobile rivers. At first Iberville thought by diment brought down by the great this Might be the mouth of the Mississippi, rive but nothing in thecontours of the coastline resembled what he had been told. On the following day, Shrove Tues- day, Iberville began to ascend the river. Two The French landed, built a but on the and a half leagues above the entrance, they shore and e5plored farther inland. They saw came to a juncture with twoMiller branches, several Indians in canoes, 1%lio fled at their and a broad sheet of water more than 1,000 approach. Later contact was made with yards wide rolled before them. huntingparties of the Bayougoula and fie Mougoulacha tribes, who shared settlements Proceedingnorthward,the French on the Mississippi. Iberville wascareful to passred through a vast region of canes and maintain friendly relations with the, tribes, rushes extending as far as the eye could see. who could help him with their knowledge of For the next few days they continued up the country. river until March 7, when they made contact with more members of the Bayougoulas Once the French were established on Indians. the shore, Iberville prepared his two tra- versiers to explore the coastline to the west. A tribesman agreed to guide them farther up the river to an Indian village Iberville manned the two craft with where they might obtain food. his Canadian veterans and the «buccaneers» 100 103 On March 13, the expedition reached boundary between the territories of the the Bayougoulas village on the western shore Bayougoulas and the Houmas. The Indians of the river some 65 leagues from the river called the marker «Istrouma», which the mouth. An aged sachem smoked a calumet French freely translated as «Bato.n Rouge.» with Iberville, and the French were given a proper welcome. Two days later they arrived at a land- ing place where they might pick up the trail Food was brought-an unappetizing to the chief Houma village. Gathered on the mush of sagamite, beans and Indian corn shore was a delegation of Indians with a cookedinbeargrease--butthe hungry peace pipe. The Houmas were a branch of Frenchmen made short work of it. Then the the Choctaw nation, and the landing place tribe staged an Indian dance in honor of the was probably just north of Tunica Island. French, and a chief strutted forward wearing The village itself lay a league and a half a blue coat that had been given to him by southeast of Clarke's Lake. Henri di Tonti. Here was evidence that the river was the Mississippi, but Iberville had to After his ceremonial visits with the be certain. Was there other evidence? Houmas, Iberville considered drivingstill farthernorth on the river, but decided As Iberville's two traversiers contin- against it. This must be the Mississippi, and ued upstream in the broad, rolling river, the he decided to turn back for he coast, since French captain was convinced he had found it would soon be time for him to return to LaSalle's Mississippi River, but he still hoped France. for definite evidence of the fact. When thepi, arrived at Bayou After spending the night of 4/larch 13 Manchac, Iberville dec . to explore a short on the river bank, the party ro.,,z).0 north- cut to Biloxi Bay ineil-uned by his Indian ward against the river's current and shortly guides. after midday they were escorted to the main village of the Bayougoulas, a hundred-odd Sauvole and Bienville were ordered huts surrounded by a 10-foot wall of cane. downriver with the traversiers, while Iber- There were some 250 Indians here, many of ville and four of his men, plus a Mougou- whom were suffering from smallpox-added lacha guide,set out in two canoes and evidence that they had been in contact with turned off into Bayou Manchac, through the Europeans. Amite River, Lake Maurepas, then Lake Pontchartrain,thenceintothe Gulf of On the morning of March 16, the ex- Mexico. On March 30 he camped on the pedition set out northward once more, this shore some four leagues from whereLa Ba- time accompaniied by Bayougoulas guides. dine rode at anchor, and lighted a bonfire to They passedal small stream on the eastern attract attention. bank (probably Bayou Manchac). Later in the day the French saw on the east bank a By noon the next day Iberville was high pole, stained with some red substance back aboard his flagship, arriving shortly and adorned with the heads of fish and after Sauvole and Bienville. Iberville was bears. overjoyed to find his brother had, while in the Balv ougoulas camp, discovered a letter Iberville was told the pole marked the that Tonti had left on April 20,1685, when 104 he descended the. Mississippi in search of Pettyofficers:JeanFrancoisde LaSalle's expedition. Vasseur, master ofLa Precieuse; Francois Guyon, master of Le Voyageur; Nicolas la In the letter Tonti wrote that he had Voye: Pierre Tabatrau, road pilot; Philipes found the post on which LaSalle had nailed Ley, master gunner. the coat of arms of France at the river's mouth in 1682. There was no longer. any Sailors: Pierre Hardouin (Ardoin), ship doubt that the great river was the Mississip- carpenter; RaymondSaintot;Bernard pi. Saurotte;JacquesRoy,shipcarpenter. Now was the time to select a site for a Canadians: Jacques Bellair, Pierre Pot, French fort to guard the approaches to the Philipes du Coudret,PierreTesserontie, river, since supplies we ;e getting low and the Antoine Damedieu, Le Polonnais, Hurs Le ships must soon sail for France. Clau& Marandan, Jean de Chesne, Estienne Godefray, JealitiEmery, Jean Pintu- Iberville decided on Biloxi Bay as the reau, Jean du Boullary, Jean Baptiste Her- most favorables!te, and on April 8 the viers,Jean Cabuteau, Tineau Alexandre, French began to clear land for their fort. Louis Guay, Antoine Olivier. The work went smoothly and by mid- Freebooters: Pierre Desmarsz, Michael summer of 1699 the fort was completed. Chesse, Nocholas de Garde, Jean Nimon- neau, Jean Desplans, Philipes Paget, Pierre lberville named it Fort Maurepas, in Bertrand, Jacques Emerit, Andre Regnaux, honor of Count Pontchartrain's son, and Jacques Caro lle, Jean Charneaux, Louis Le then prepared to return to France. Duc, Pierre St. Germain. lberville selected 75 of his best nen Laborers: Jacques Gourdon, edge-tool and six cabin boys to garrison the fort and maker; Francois N:caud, carpenter; Estienne left them six months' supplies. The Sieur Tardif; Henri Croisy; Jean la Porte; Francois de Sauvole was tobe the commander. de Salle, shoemaker; Esteinen Duguay, baker; Marc Antoine Basset; Claude Bage; Pierre On May 9 Iberville weighed anchor Potus. and set sail for France in the Marin, accom- panied by La Badine. Cabin boys: St. Michel, Pierre Huet,/ Gabriel Marcal, Jean Jo ly, Jacques Charon( The garrison left behind by Iberville Pierre le Vasseur. made up the first French colonists in the new colony of Louisiana. The list of names, Soldiers:DanielPineau,Francois preserved in the French National Archives, Montiron, Jean Desgarennes, Pierre Bosset, has been reprinted several times, as follows: Jacques Porche, Heyerome Brouin, Jean Malbeg, Jean Marpeaux, Pierre Godeaux, Officers: Sauvole, commandant; Bien- GuillaumeMartin,AntoineNiret,Jean ville: Le Vasseur de Roussouvelle; the Rev. Chesne, Jean du Val, NicolaslaTuille, Bordenave, chaplain; Pierre Cave, surgeon- Jacques Henry, Pierre Val let, Pierre Maury, major. Morgan Nomme, Pierre Cilliraux, Guillaume Lucas. 105 On January 8, 1700, Iberville arrived ShortlybeforeIberville'sarrival, again at Fort Maurepas, heading a fleet that however, Sauvole had received ominous consist of the Renommee, the Gironde, news. It was reported that Father de Monti- commanded by the Chevalier deSurgeres, gny had been murdered by the Natchez and two feluccas foruse in navigating the Indians. Sauvole also reported to lberyille Mississippi. that Bienville, on one of his explorations, had met an English ship on thealississippi, He found affairswellat the fort, and had persuaded the English to depart. with only four men having died since he Iberville thus felt that he had to mount an had departed. In view of heavy mortal;ty expedition against the Natchez to punish suffered in other early settlements in the them for the murder, and also to build New World, this was a remarkably good another fort on the Mississippi itself to record. prevent more incursions by the English. While Iberville had been absent in A number of men who would be- France, Sauvole and Bienville had been ex- come famous in Louisiana accompanied ploring the country and making contact Iberville on his second voyage. Among with the Indians. Sauvole had cemented them were the Rev. Paul du Ru, a Jesuit, as relations with the tribes living near the fort chaplain for the colony; Andre Joseph and had dispatched two of his cabin boys Penicaut, a master carpenter who spent two tolivewiththe Bayougoulas and the decades in the colony and recorded its Houmas, to learn their customs and lan- early years in his chronicles; Pierre du Gue guage. de Boisbriant, a major in the French Army; andthe most celebrated of all,Louis Bienville led exploring parties to the Juchereau de St. Denis, the explorer-adven- Pearl River and Mobile Bay and later to turer who was to found the city of Natchi- the Pascagoula River. He cemented friendly toches. relations with the Colapissas, the Biloxis, the Pascagoulas and the Moctobi. Soon after his arrival, Iberville de- parted for the Mississippi, accompanied by Since the discovery of the Mississippi Bienville and St. Denis. The expedition by Marquette and Joliet, the great river headed for Lake Pontchartrain, seeking a valley was being visited by more and more crossing to the Mississippi and succeeding missionaries,tradersandtrappersfrom after a muddy portage near Bayou St. Canada, and thesewanderers sometimes John. drifted downriver to the Gulf of Mexico. Sauvole reportedtoIbervillethat two Bienville paddled upstream to seek missionaries from the monastery of Quebec high ground for a fort, while Iberville re- had visited the fort. The Rev. Francois de turned to Fort Maurepas, where he pre- Montigny had established a mission among pared a traversier and two feluccas, plus a the Tensas, and the Rev. Antoine Davion fore': of 80 men to explore the north coun- was sing the Tunicas. They visited the tryandto move againstthe Natchez fort accompanied by 18 men and stayed Indians. for two weeks before setting forth on their missions. Since the larger ships could not use the short cut through Lake Pontchartrain, 1 1 I 106 Iberville entered the river through the North had made several trips down the riverafter Pass. When he arrived at a spot Bienville had LaSalle's expedition and by 1700 he and his with selected, 17 leagues from the river's mouth, coureur debosswereacquainted the\ combined forces began to construct muoh of the Mississippi River Valley and the another fort, named Fort de la Boulaye. eastern and northern parts of modernLouisi- ana. While the fort was being constructed, Iberville sent instructions for Boisbriant and In May 1700, Iberville sailed again for Le Sueur to come to the new fort with France. During his absence, the colonists another party of men. When they arrived, carried out the various explorations he had the combined forces prepared to move north ordered. Le Sueur led an expedition up the against the Natchez. Mississippi to the Sioux country, seeking copper mines, while St.Denis returned to Before they left, however, they were the Red River, spending some six months pleasantly surprised at the arrival of the sloshil.:, through swamps and flood plains. illustriousHenridi Tonti, LaSalle's col- Le Sueur returned with a cargo of blue league, who came down river with a force earth, thought to be copper, which was later of 22 Canadians from the Illinois country. sent to France. Di Tonti informedIbervillethat Meanwhile, supplies began to grow Father de Montigny had not been mur- short. The French had not yet learned to dered but was alive and still performing his farm in the semi-tropical climate of theGulf mission with the Tensas. On hearing this Coast. Fishing and hunting afforded fresh news, Iberville dispatched mostof the sol- meat, but most of the colonial energy was diers back to Fort Maurepas, and persuaded devoted to the fur trade. di Tonti to accompany him up the river. In July, Gov. Sauvole died suddenly, The party, now reduced in size, pad- leaving Bienville in command. Supplies failed dledupriver,making contact withthe to arrive either from France orSaint Domin- Indians, until they reached the village of gue, and only foodavailable was baskets of the Tensas, where Iberville was seizedwith corn traded from theIndians. In addition, violent pains in a kneecap, which prevented disease broke out, and when Iberville arrived him from walking. This untimely mishap again from France in December, he found forced Iberville to return to Fort Maurepas, only 150 of the colonists left alive. It was but he dispatched Bienville to explorethe then decided to shift the fort to a more suit- Red River and LeSueur and di Tonti to as- able site. For this new fort, Ibervillechose cend the Mississippi to search for copper the area of Mobile Bay. mines and other minerals reported there. Bienville and his contingent reported Ibervillewas immobilizedonthe from Fort de la Boulaye and helped to con- Mississippi for some weeks, and it was not struct the new Fort St. Louis de laMobile until May 18 that he arrived back atFort on the MobileRiver. Larger than Fort Maurepas. He prepared once more to return Maurepas, which was now abandoned, the to France, leaving Sauvole againin com- new fort measured 325 feetalong each of its mand, and pleased that the colony had been four walls. When the fort was completed, reinforced by the arrival of Tonti. The latter Iberville felt, it would be a more healthful r 107 site for colonial headquarters and would be pected to return to France once their tours strong enough to defend the Mississippi of duty had been completed. Another 50 or Valley from the English, the Spanish or any so were Canadian trappers and traders who other intruders. roamed Tar and widsrand were seldom seen in any of the settlements. By 1706, the In April of 1702, Iberville lefthis colony had dwindled to 85 inhabitants, but Louisiana colony for the last time, weighing a new influx from France raised the popula- anchor for Cape Hatien and then for France. tion to 178 in 1710. Shortly before his arrival in France, Queen Anne's War broke out between England and In 1706, a census reported that there France. Iberville was given command of a were 23 families in Louisiana who could be French squadron, and set sail for the West presumed to be permanent settlers and the Indies. nucleus around which the garrison and the fur traders revolved. The heads of these He struck a strong blow for France by families were: seizing the British islands of St. Nevis and St. Christopher and captured an enormous treas- M. de la Salle, the intendant; Guil- ure on the island of Martinique. He then laume Broutin, Jean Roy, Jean La Loire, weighed anchor for Havana to join forces Jean LeCamp, Francois May, Nicholas La with the Spaniards for an assault upon the Freniere, Francois Trudeau, Etienne Bruille, British key position on Barbados. Michel Riche, Laurent Clostiny, the Sieur Barran, Andre Renaud, Gilbert Dardenne, InHavana, however,Ibervillefell Pierre Broussard, Pierre Allin, Jean Bono- victim to yellow fever. On July 9, 1706, bonnoire, Antoine Rinarre,'Claude Trepanie, within two weeks of his forty-fifth birthday, Jean Coulomb, Joseph Peniguad, Jean Sossie he died on board his flagship. and Jean Louis Minuity. Bienville, left in charge in Louisiana, The census also reported, there were sought to deal with the colony's problems. three widows, Mme. Le Sueur, Mme. Gabri- Yellow fever, imported from Saint Domin- elle Bonnot and Mme. Anne Perro. gue, where African slaves had brought it, swept over the colony and carried many to Thus, after several years of colonizing early deaths. Hurricanes blew down houses, effort, the French government had compara- destroyed crops and ruined stores. tively little to show for its efforts. Deciding that the colony was too much of a drain on Bienville pleaded for more hel! om the treasury, it was decided to grant Louisi- France, for more suitable colonists and ana to a proprietor, after the manner of especially for girls of marriage age. In 1704; many of the English colonies. 23 young women arrived, and they soon found as many husbands.The same ship The man chosen was Antoine Crozat, also brought 75 soldiers, four families of the Marquis de Chatel, and in 1712 he took artisans, a curate and two Gray Sisters. control of Louisiana. His responsibility was to supply the colony for its needs and to The newcomers boosted the colony's . underwrite all expenses except those of the total population to 195, but 94 of these military. In return, he hoped to reap profits were soldiers and sailors, who could be ex- from minerals and trading rights. 113 108 The.enthusiastic Crozat decided to Louisiana, and in,1722 was appointed com- invest 700,000 livres in Louisiana and puick- mandant of Fort Saint Jean Baptiste at ly sent out the first shipload ofsupplis.On Natchitoches, where he lived until his death board, to9,was Crozat's new governor, in 1744. Antoine de la Mothe Calillac; a new com- missary commissioner,kenBaptiste du Bois Meanwhile,Cadillacwasbuilding du Clos; and 25projective brides from other postsFort Toulouse at the juncture of Normandy. the Coosa and Tallapoosa rivers, and Fort Tombecbe on the Tombigbee River--de- Gov. Cadillac found his new post dis- signed to keep the English from infiltrating appointing. He wrote back to his master that the lower Mississippi country. «this whole continent is not worth having.» Ordered to turn his attention to agriculture, SincetheCanadianhuntersand he reported *this wretched country is good coureurs de boisscorned agricultural labor, for nothing....» Cadillac imported Negro slaves towork the fields and raise food crops. Some 500 were He was, nevertheless, an energetic brought in during 1716 and 3,000 thefol- They proved a troublesome r1 an,,and set about promotingp the lowing year. rade, as well as trade with the Spaniards in addition, being rebellious andaddicted to exico and the Flondas, with the English voodooism. colonies and with the islands of the Carib- bean. Despite all of his energies, however, Cadillac was something of a misfit in his job. In 1714, he sent out St. Denis once He proved to be quarrelsome and opinion- more to establish a post on the RedRiver, ated, and in 1716 he was recalled by Crozat. and for this the latter chose a site that was Bienville once more took over the reins of to grow into the present city of Natchitoches. government, pending the arrival of Crozat's When his post was completed, the romantic new governor. St. Denis set out with a pack train and trade goods for Mexico. By 1717, Antoine Crozat was having second thoughts about his investments in At San Juan Bautista, on the Rio Louisiana. He had dispatched a new gover- Grande,St. Denis was detained by the nor, Jean Michele, Seigneur de Lepinay et de Spanish commandant, Diego Ramon. While la Longvuille, to supervise his affairs, and the in custody, St. Denis fell in love with the king had sent out five companies of infantry commandant's granddaughter, Manuela with the new governor. Sanchez y Ramon. He was quickly bundled off to Mexico City, where he made a good The national exchequer was low, how impression upon the authorities and was ever, and the crown decided to increase the ordered released. taxes on property in France. Since Crozat was one of those who had to dig deeper,he He returned to San Juan Bautista asked to be relieved of his Louisiana respon- and resumed his courtship of Manuela uotil sibilities, since he had already lost some one her reluctant grandfather consented to their million livres in that enterprise. marriage. For several years, St. Denis con- ducted an extensive Indian trade in western The crown granted him his wish, and 114 109 sought to find another proprietor. One was cleared and a town laid out. Work proceeded at hand. He was that legendary character, slowly, and by the end of the year, only a John Law, a Scot who had gained an inter- portion of the land had been ideared and a national reputation as a financier. few huts built. Many of his ideas on government In 1719, a severe hurricane struck, finance were ahead of his time. He interested ruining much of the stores and flattening the the Duc d'Orleans in his schemes, however, huts. In 1720, the Paris headquarters sent and was enabled by the regent's patronage out Adrien de Pauger as colonial engineer, to open a bank in Paris, which became and he directed the work force in laying out known as the General Bank of France. streets and blocks. His plan called for a town eight blooks long facing the river, and ex- Law took up the challenge of the tending for five blocks inland. Louisiana colony. He organized the Compa- ny of the West to supervise thecolony. and Drainage ditches and canals were dug. capitalized it at 100 million livres, half the A wharf was constructed. The first church shares of which were offered to the public. and building to house the municipal author- Law received a charter on the same terms as ities were next. Also, .a cemetery was laid Crozat, and he promised to send 6,000 out.Bienvillecalledthe town Nouvelle colonists and 3,000 slavestoLouisiana Orleans, in honor of the Regent of France, within 10 years. the Duc d'Orleans. The Sieur de Lepinay surrendered the In September 1721, a five-day storm reins of government when Crozat was re- destroyed most of the building, but the lieved of his charter, and Bienville once more town was quickly rebuilt. The town grew became the colonial governor. steadily and at the end of 1721 had a popu- lation of 147 men, 65 women, 38 children, One of Bienville's first projects was to 28 servants, 73 slaves and 21 Indians. persuade colonial officials in Paris to provide for the founding of a town and trading post In 1722, two hurricanes again leveled on the Mississippi River,which would im- the settlement, and again it was rebuilt, this provecommunicationswiththeIllinois time with several biick buildings. The town, country and Canada and also provide a as laid out by Pauger, occupied the siteof better anchorage for vessels from France the present Vieux Carre of modern New than was available at either Biloxi or Mobile. Orleans. Early in 1718, Bienville gathered a WhenLaw andhissubordinates work force of 50 men and departed Mobile. attempted to find colonists to boost the size Sailing up the 'river, he chose a spot where of the Louisiana colony, they discovered the river bends in a big crescent near Lake what other would-be colonizers had come to Pontchartrain. realize: Frenchmen were not eager to forsake La Belle France. They had no desire to leave The site was higher than most other what they considered the finest country on spots along the river, and it was accessible the globe to risk the wilds of the New World. to the sea both via the river mouth andvia LakePontchartrain. He orderedasite Law and his colleagues, therefore, 110 sought help from the authorities. They were Using modern public relations tech- given right to impress vagabonds, to take niques, they spread glowing advertisements men and women from prison,houses of cor- of Louisiana throughout the Rhine Valley, rection and poor farms. They even instigated particularly in the Palatinate of Germany. press gangs to fill their quotas of willingand Subsequently, thousands of Palatine Ger- unwilling colonists. mans, attracted by the rich promises ofLaw and his associates, decided to seek new The impressed colonists proved to be homes for themselves in Louisiana. more of a liability than an asset.For many of them, the long/voyage in cramped ships, No one knows how many Germans plus the rigor of life in the colony, where came to the New World.Early estimates set malaria and yellow fever were constant the number from 8,000 to 10,000, but mod- threats, proved too much. Scores of them ern research has indicatedthat this is far too died on the passage out or after they had high. Many of the Germans grew, tired of reached Louisiana. waiting in French ports for transportation and returned to Germany. Others took jobs On March 9, 1718, three vessels ar- in France. Epidemics killed many others. rived from France with three companies of infantry and 69 colonists. In June 1718, Modern research indicates that not three more vessels arrived from France with more than 1,200 Germans everreally landed 300 colonists, troops and convicts. Of these, in the French colonies. 148 were sent to 'Natchitoches, 92 to the Yazzoo lands which were being developed The mass immigrations began in 1719 and 68 to New Orleans. and continued through '1720. According to Andre Penicaut, whose journal is the source In January, 300 more colonists ar- of much of the history of the colony during rived, and in February 80 girls from a Paris this period, some 4,000 colonists arrived house of correction were landed. during 1720 in seven ships from France. They were, Penicaut said, French, Germans Some of these proved to be sturdy and Swiss. and dependable colonists, but most of them, from the busy streets of largecities in The new colonists were landed at France, were unable to cope with the wilder- Biloxi and at Mobile, and thus had to make ness,a strange climate anddeadly new their way overland to their new homes in diseases. Soon they became public charges or concessions laid out along the course of the died. Mississippi. It became evident that some other Many of them sufferedhardships means of attracting settlers toLouisiana during this journey since little or no prepara- would have to be developed. tions had been made to furnish them with food and transportation. In 1721 and 1722, Early in their proprietorship of Louisi- other hundreds of German colonists arrived. ana, John Law and hisassociates decided that they must seek farther afield, beyond Because of oversights there was often the borders of France, to find colonistsfor not enough food for the newcomers,who their settlements in the Mississippi Valley. were told to subsist upon whatthey might 1 1 I catch on the beaches.They combed the Schecksehneide0- Schenck, Schmidt, surf, searching to) crabs, oysters and the Schmitz, Strantz, Struempfl. like, and purchased as much corn from the Indians as they could. Also.Tet,Thiel,Traeger,Trischl, Troxler, Vogel, Wagensback, Wagner, Weber, Many starved on the beaches before Weiss, Weisskramer, Weller, Wiltz, Widmer, they could be sent inland to the concessions Yens, Zahn, Zahnbrecker, Zehringer, Ziriac, awaiting them, and epidemic diseases swept Zweig. away hundreds more. Earlytravelersboating downthe Thoie among them who survived dis- Mississippi have left descriptions of the neat ease and starvation eventually settled along farms and the little white houses standing in the Mississippi kiVer north of New Orleans, great numbers on both banks of the river. a streh tat soon became known as the They tell how the German farmers rowed German CiAst. ddwn to New Orleans with their crops of vegetables, corn, rice, and later indigo, to These settlers proved to be capable sell their goods on Sunday in front of the farmers and industrious workers, and they Cathedral. provided a valuable addition to Louisiana. In fact, a number of historians have stated They also tell how, in the 1760's, the that the Germans really saved the colony provisions generously offered by the settlers from stagnation. of the German Coast saved the Acadian exiles, who landed in Louisiana as bereft of No one knows today how many supplies as had the original Germans. Germans firstsettled along the, river, but a censusin1724 revealed them to be The census of 1724 reports the settlers securely establishedin farms Here are on the German Coast as follows:53 men, the family names of those listed in the 57 women, S9 children, or a total of 169 census: persons. Other German settlements brought the total to about 330. Anton, d'Arensbourg, Bailiff, Bayer, Bebloquet, Berlinger, Betz, Bock, Callander, Down through the years, the Germans Christman, Clausen, Clemens, Cretzmann, multiplied as their children grew and found. Distelweig, Dubs, Edelmeier, Engel, Fried- ed families of their own. As the Germans rich,Foltz,Fromberger, Funck, Fuchs, intermarried with the French an s they Grabert, Hegli, Heidel, Heil, Hencke, Hem- registeredtheirbaptisms, maniasand mei, Hofmann, Horn, Huber, Kamper, Kat- births with French-speaking clerg men, a zenberger,Kistenmacher, Klomp, Kobler, subtle evolution took place in the original Krestmann, Kuhn. German names. Slowly,theybecame Gallicized. Also, Jansen, Lambert, Lesch, Luech, Magdoiff,Manz, Marx, Matern, Merkel, Some were translated directly into Mayer,Miltenberger,Monthe, Mueller, French.Zweig, for example, is a Germa'i Muench,Necker,Oberle,Pictot,Poche, word meaning twig.When the first Zweig Raser, Reinhard, Ritter, Reusch, Richner, registered in Louisiana, the French function- Riehl;Rodler, Rommel, Schaf, Schantz, ary decided to translate into French, and the 117 112 family abrup became LaBramhe. year.All of the girls were soon married. In another curious evolution, Milten- In1728 Bienville was recalledto berger became Mil de Bergue, and Edelmeier France to give an account of his stewardship, became Le Maire. and a new governor was sent out.He was Etienne Boucher de la Perier de Salvert, a Other German names, and the French former naval officer who soon found himself spellingtheynowhaveareClemens embroiled in an Indian war.In 1729 the (Clement), Dubs (T,oups), Engle (Mingle), Natchez Indians, coaxed onward byEnglish Foltz(Folse),Heidel(Haydel),Huber traders, attacked Fort Rosalie onthe site of (Oubre, Ouvre, Hoover), Kamper (Cambre), the present-day Natchez. The Frenchgarri- Katzenberger (Casbergue), Klomp (Klump), son was slaughtered andnearly 300 colonists Japsen (Hentzen, Hensgens), Lesch (Leche, in the area were killed.It was the first Laiche), Manz (Montz), Mayer (Mayeux), serious Indian outbreakin many years. Reinhard (Revnard). The French gathered their forces for a Also,Rjchner(Rixner),Rommel counterattack, and in a winter campaign in (Rome), Schaf (Chauffe), Scheckschneider 1730-31 the Natchez were routed, driven (Schexnayder, Schexnailder, etc.), Traeger from their forts and harried out of the (Tregre), Trischl (Triche), Troxler (Ins- colony. Several hundred were capturedand clair),Wagensback (Waguespack),Weber sold into slavery. The others fled tojoin the Webre),Wichner(Vicknair),Zehringer o Choctaws, anu theNatchez ceased to exist as ( Zeringue). a separate Indiannation. In 1720 the French colony in Louis- The colony continued to make slow fell upon hard times when Sohn Law's progress. By 1728 NewOrleans had a popu- lime economic structure collapsed. Law was lation of nearly 1,000 and by thenhad a hounded out of France, and the affairsof handsome brick church on the site of the the colony were neglected by the govern- present Cathedral of St. Louis. ment. Emigration lapsed. Concessions were abandoned. Lack of industry and know- In 1719 the d'Artaguette family had how on the part of many colonists handi- been given a concession of land onthe east capped both themselves and the economic side of the Mississippi, five leagues aboveLa well-being of the colony. Manchac.By'i25 land had been cleared and ast. :demtcalled Dironbourg had Bienville, operating on meager resour- grown up, consisting of some30 whites and ces, strove to hold the colonytogether and 20 Negro slaves. The settlers, however, per- to strengthen its foundations.He continued sisrl inealling the settlement BatonRouge. tG plead for help from France.In 1722 the first group of files a la cassetti arrived. / In 1723 a detachment of soldiers was Called «casket girls» because ea.zh was ,given sent up the Red River toestablish a post at a sort of hope chest to carrypersonal be- the rapids.Thus, Poste du Rapides devel-` longings. they were girls of marriageable age opedintopresent-dayPineville. New and of good noral character.They were settlements were laid out along thelower lodged in New Orleans under the care of Mississippi above and below New Orleans, the Ursuline Sisters, who arrived the same and along the Upper Lafourche. By1731 the '113 population of the colony was estimated at out Bienville's pa t and untiring efforts, 7,000. theFrench colony may not have been founded.His skill as an.administrator, his A' II Governor Perier,like all governors, ability to endure hardships, official indiffer- had his troubles with the government at ence back home, andthe'trials that face any home, however, and was recalled in 1832. pioneer leader, were at times the chief guar- Bienville was called .out of retirement, and antee that the colony would survive. made governor of the colony for the fourth time. Bienville spent most of his life in the American wilderness. He was 19 years Bienville arrived back in Louisiana in young,. thanIberville,his most famous thespringof1733,awe: ther-beaten, brother, and was only.19 when Iberville left. yellow-complexioned man of 60. He found him as second in command to* Sauvole. in the colony growing but the reins of govern- Louisiana. He became governor for the first ment lax and the military establishment in time at age 21, when Sauvole died suddenly. disarray.Food was scarce and the colony wassufferingfromextensivehurricane He helped build Fort Maurepas, Fort damage. Rosalie at Natchez, Fort St. Louis at Mobile and posts at Block Island, at Baton Rouge ti Before he was able to set many things and on fir lower Mississippi. He established aright, he was faced with another Indian Mobile in 1711 and New Orleans in 1718.° outburst, this time on the part of the Choc- taws and the Alabamas. Bienville surveyed the country, chart- ed its waters and drew the first maps. He ex- Bienville ordered forces upriver and plored the Red River as far as Nkchitoches, downriver to assemble for a campaign. The mastered several Indian dialects and waged upriver force rashly attacked before ,pien- war against a number of powerful tribes. ville and the bulk of the French troops arrived, and was decimated. Historians have called his patience and tenacity without parallel in the history of Bienville, when he finallyarrived, European colonization.He built a strong launched three attacks against the strongly and viable colony in Lopisiana despite an in- entrenchedtribe,buteachattackwas different court, jealousy Within the colony beaten offHe assembled an even larger and depredations by English and Indians. force later, but in 1740 the Choctaws sued for peace, and a treaty was signed in April. Bienville introduced the first cattle, hogs and chickens into the colony. He grew The last years of Bienvi s 'cm as and exported the first cotton and tobacco. governor were embittered by growing ti He experimented with indigo and silk.He lity on the part of French officials in Paris. exported the first timber and turpentine. He Finally, he gave up in disgust and in 1742, at was a sailo , soldier and explorer, but mainly the age of 70, he asked to be retired.' e de- he was a bder, and he-had faith, tenacity, parted for France in 1743, and disap ;eared fortitude ancr frugality at a time when the from the colonial stage. infant colony needed them most. It iF exaggekation to say that with- One of his last acts was to request the 114 establishment of a college in Louisiana for other supplies. theeducationofthecolony's youth. As early as 1720, members ofthe Bienville lived on in retirement in Board of Trade considered expelltivgthe France for nearly 20 years after leaving Acadians, but they felt their ties in Nova Louisiana. He made perhaps his .last Scotia were still toweak. If the English notable appearancein1762, when he garrison there needed wheat, or vegetables appeared before the officials of the French or meat, they mustbe procured from ihe court in a vain attempt to persuade them Acadians. The English could not even get not to cede Louisiana to Spain. He died in the timber they needed to buildtheir forts 1768, at nearly 88 years of age. withouttheaidof Acadian axemen. Now it Is time to'retraceI) our steps During the War of the Austrian to Nova Scotia, toconsider the fortunes of Succession, from 1744 to 1748, the .Aca- the Acadians under English rule. dians maintained their neutrality, despite three invasions of Nova Scotia. by French The Acadian Exile troops. Paul Mascarene, the English gover- nor at the time, reported: Since 1713, the Acadians had lived under the English"' laii.°The Treaty of «Therepeatedattemptsofthe Utrecht, signed in that year, gave the whole enemy on Nova Scotiahave not had the of the Acadian Peninsula to the English. success they expected; andnotwithstanding By the terms of this same treaty, the Aca- the means they used to entice or forceinto dians were given the right to keep their open rebellion theAcadians, who are all of arms, to practice their religion and to re- Fiench extraction and papists, they have tain their possessions.The English often been not able to prevail, except upon a few broke treaties, however. of them.» By the treaty terms, for example, Despite this fact, the English govern- those Acadians wishing to leave the prov- ment turned more and more to theidea of ince to settle in Canada were to be allowed expulsion.A new governor, Sir Edward to go.They were to be given a year in Cornwallis, was appointed with instructions which to prepare to move and were to be to take a careful census ofthe Acadians, to allowed totaketheir possessions with allow no priests to officiate among them them.Those who elected rto remain were and to use all means necessary to haveAca- assured that they would not be required dian children instructed in the Protestant to bear arms against the French. religion. Throughout the era of English rule, If these measures were not success- however,Englishofficialsdeniedper- ful, sterner measures would be used. The mission of any Acadians to leave the prov- Acadians sent many petitions to London, ince.It was correctly pointed out to the asking that their persecutions cease,but to Board of Trade in London that if the Aca- no avail. Now, more and moreof the Aca- diansleftNova Scotia, as the English dians were leaving their homes secretlyand called it, there would be no °ate left to settling in French territory rt New Bruns- support the British garrison with food and wick. Ithas been estimated that some 115 6,000 left Nova Scotia between 1713 and all firearms or to be considered\---- is r bets. 1755. On August 1, 1755, Gov. Lawrence For those remaining in Nova Scotia, sent out his instructions to his troop de- conditions grewworsein1753 when tachments:All Acadian lands, tenements, Charles Lawrence became governor. Law- cattle and livestock were to be forfeited rence was a moody, irascible man, known with all other effects.All French inhabi- in London for rashness and a quarrelsome tants of Nova Scotia were to be removed nature. and they were prohibited from carrying any of their possessions, except as much of The English citizens of Halifax in their household goods as they might carry 1758 denounced Lawrence as «a lowly, -in their hands. crafty tyrant,» and inveighed inofficial protest against his «wicked mind and per- TheAcadianswereorderedto fidiousattitude,»for«oppression and assemble at their churchei to hear an im- tyranny.»They accused him of embez- portant proclamation by the English goy- -, zling sow 30,000 pounds in supplies, and ernment. At all points, the Acadians were k for stealing 1,000 cattle and 3,000 hogs told they were to be depdted and were im- from the exiled Acadians. mediately held prisoners. As soon as he took over the adminis- In Beaubassin, some 400 Acadians tration of Nova Scotia, Lawrence moved to gathered to hear the proclamation. They expel the Acadians.He feared to drive were all imprisoned, and military detach- ',hem into Canada, however, where their ments were sent through the countryside numbers would increase French strength. to bring in all others. Many others, being warned, fled into the forests. Most of them Lawrence decided to use an oath of eventually made their way to Canada. allegiance as a pretext. He would demand that the Acadians swear allegiance to the The 400 prisoners, including some English, Even to the point of fighting under 140 women andchildren, were driven the Elkglish flag against the French. As he aboard ships. There was no room for near- explained his scheme: ly 100 other wives and children, and they were left behind. Most of them attempted «I will propose to them the oath of to reach Canada, but the majority died allegiance.If they refuse, we shall have from exposure and starvation on the road. in that refusal a pretext for the expulsion. If they accept, I will refuse them the oath, Altogether,however,sometwo - saying that Parliament prohibits them from thirds of the Beaubassin inhabitants es- taking it.In both cases,Iwill deport caped the English. them.» At Grand Pre 418 men met in the Preparationswerecarefullykept church, and all were taken prisoner.At secret.Troops were marshalled near the Pisquid the English took 183 men. At Ana- principalAcadiantowns. Ships were polis, nearly half of the population of brought in from as far awayas Boston. 3,000 escaped. Today, the descendants of MI Acadians were ordered to surrender all of those escaped Acadians total some \\). 121 116 230,000. glish burned all of the houses and farm buildings, burned the crops and slauttered Those captured were .loaded into all of the livestock they did not etant for ships,overcrowded,withoutprovisions themselves. Those who escaped, therefore, and shipped off to strange lands. faced the grith prospect of making the long journey to Canada and safety with little Edmund Burke wrote probably the more than their hands to sustain them. most sober assessment of the expulsion: On Oct. 27, 1755, 14 Ships carrying eWe did, in my opinion, most in- 1,600 Acadians from Grand Pre and 1,300 humanely, and upon pretenses that,in from Pisquid and Port Roy0 joined 10 the eye of an honest man, are not worth transports in the Bay of Fundy with 1,900 a farthing, root out this poor,innocent, Acadians from Beaubassin.This was the deserving people; whom our utterina- first wave of imprisonment and transporta- bility to govern, or to recengle, gave us tion that was to continue through 1763, no sort of right to extirpate.» until the4Treaty of Paris ended the French and Indian War. The Acadia suffered grievously during their daysf capture and impris- tood and water were inadequate onment by the English, and even more aboard ship.In many instances, the Aca- on their voyages to exile. diens were crowded into small ships so tightly packed that they could not lie In the Beaubassin regio, some400 down, The mortality rate was especially men assembled toheartheovernor's high among the old and the young, and proclamation of exile, and they were im- this, coupled with no knowledge of other inediately placeerunder ariped gud. Mili- members of their families, made the voyage tary detachmend were dispatch to-round a nightmare for most. ,p all other Acadians in the area. Husbands and wives, brothers and When ships arrived to talfe them into sisters, parents. and children, fiances and . exile, the Engl. hauthoritiesiordered the friends were separated, as thy thought for "'Men onto the s :s first.S me 400 men only a few days or weeks, but for the vast were taken, and then about 150 of the majority, they were aever to meet again wives and children. No attempt was made on earth. Unknown tb them, theships all to ketp families together, and forthe most had different and far-distant destinations. part, husbaru s were separated from their wives and children frdm their parents. Gov.Lawrencehaddecidedto scatter the exiles eking the Britishcolonies At Grand Pre, some 418 men report- on the Atlantic seaboard,only he neglected ed to hear the priflamatidn, and the same to inform the authorities pf these colonies procedureswet followed. At Pisquid, that the Acadians were coming.\ some 180 men were taken, and atAnapolis the toll was more than 1,500. As a result, no preparations were made for them. They were dumped ashore Those who escaped the soldiers had with no friends, no money, no food, and the wilderness to 'traverse because the En- only the clothing they wore.Six of the L4 ) 117 ships, bound for South Carolina, were hit exiles, kept them- from coming ashore,and by a storm and forced into Boston for re- here too, epidemics broke out andmany pair.The Boston authorities reported the hundreds died.Finally, ire survivors were ships overloaded, with insufficient food taken to England, where theywere treated and polluted water.They were not sea- as prisoners of war. worthy, it was reported, and the exiles thus were disembarked in Boston. About 1,000 Acadians were landed in South Carolina, where theywere inden- They were there made indentured tured to work in the cotton and indigo slaves.Those who still had their children fields. By dint of much suffering they had them torn away and distributed in Prot- gained funds enough to buy two old ships estant homes in various Massachusetts towns. and gained permission to leave the colony. The Acadians were forbidden to leave the Their ships, being unseaworthy,ran aground towns in which they were indentured for off Virginia. any reason, even to seek relatives. There the authorities confiscated all Some 300 exiled to New York met of their belongings and forced themto put the same fate.Colonial authorities com- to sea again, where they ran agroundon the plained that Lawrence had sent the exiles Maryland coast.Finally, they were able to opoor, naked, without any of the necessi- repair the ships, and took to thesea again, ties of 'ife . aheavy burden on this col- finally arriving in Canada after 1763. Of ony.» the 2,000 of this group who departed from Acadia, only 900were alive by the time About 450 were sent to Pennsylva- they reached Canada. nia, where the governor said he did not know what to do with them and demanded Georgia received .400 exiles, where that Lawrence take them back. Smallpox they, too, were put to work to slave in the soon broke out in the ships, and many fields.In 1758, they received permission died. to leave, and bought a ship to take them back to Canada, where fewer than 100 Nearly 1,000 Acadians were sent to finally arrived. Maryland, and there alone they received a welcome, since Maryland had been settled Some 60 per cent of the exiles died by English Catholics, so the Acadians were before they were repatriated, and there not considered to be aliens.They were were many in every English colony who quartered in private homes at first and then were never returned because of age, infirm- helped to find and build houses for them- ity, illness or other reasons.Particularly selves. melancholy was the fate of hundreds of orphaned children who had been separated A suburbofBaltimorebecame from their parents in Nova Scotia,or whose known as French Town, where a churcl. parents died later. Therewas no place for was built for them.Others spread out to them to go. Most of them died, and those other Maryland towns where many of their who survived grew upas Englishmen and descendants still live. Englishwomen.Their descendants today. usually do not know the history of their Virginia, too, refused to receive the ancestors, nor that they carry Acadian 123 118 names. Indies, such as St. Domingue, Martinique and Guadeloupe. They could go to France. In Nova Scotia, too, the fugitives They could go to Louisiana. who escaped the ships were hunted down by the English and the Indians. The English All four refuges received their share put bounties on the Acadians and paid for of the Acadian exiles, but the largest major- the scalps of Acadians and their Micmac In- ity finally came to Louisiana. Those exiles dian allies. in the Southern colonies of the Carolinas and Georgia were, of course, nearestto On May 14, 1756, Lawrence set up a Louisiana, and they seem to have been bounty of 30 pounds sterling for each male among the first to arrive. scalp over 16, and 25 for younger males or women and children. Although this was os- Many of them set out for the Missis- tensibly limited to Indians, in practice the sippi, either by horse and wagon orby English paid the bounties without inquiring riverboat. Some of those in Pennsylvania into the race of the original owners of the floated down the Ohio and Mississippi scalps. rivers to French territory. 124 119 lands» did not meet their liking. retired French army captain, Antoine Ber- nard d'Hauterive, who agreed to supply the In 1763, Charles Aubry, the military Acadians with the beginnings of a livestock commandant inLouisiana, reported 60 herd. Acadian families had arrived fromSt. Domingue, and that there were already In addition to Beausoleil, the con- so many Acadians in Louisiana that awe tract signed on April 4, 1765, contained do not speak of them in the hundreds any- the signature of Pierre Ar enaud, Alexan- more, but in the thousands.» dreBroussard, Jean-BaisteBroussard, VictorBroussard,JeanDugas,Joseph When the Treaty of 1763 was signed, Guillebeau and Oliver Thibadau. many Acadians who had been imprisoned in Nova Scotia were released. Their farms Beausoleil died in October of the were now occupied by English colonists, same year, probably from. the plague that however, and they were forced to seek new seems to have accompanied the Acadians homesteads and new means of livelihood from St. Domingue. elsewhere. Among other Acadians whose deaths Some of them went to St. Pierre and were recorded in the official registers in the Miquelon, two small islands in the Gulf of St. Martin Parish courthouse, were Francois St. Lawrence that were still French posses:* Arcenaux; Joseph Bellefontaine; Augustin sions.Still others went to the West ladies Bergeron; Sylvain Breaux;Alexandre and to Louisiana. Broussard and his wife, Marguierite Thibo- deaux; Victor Broussard and his wife, Isa- In 1764, a large group of thesefiewly belle LeBlanc; Jean Dugas and his wife, released Acadians, led by Joseph Broussard Marie-Charlotte Gaudin; Joseph Girouard; (dit Beausoleil), migrated to the West In- Jacques Hugon; Rene Robiceaux; and dies.They had not been there long, how- CharlesThibodeaux'swidow,Brigitte ever, before they were stricken by plague Breaux. in that fever-ridden island.They decided to come toLouisiana, and when they Theregistersalsoannounce the arrived, Louisiana authorities gave them christening of Anne Thibodeaux, daughter permission to settle around the Poste des ofOlivierThibodeaux andMadeleine Attakapas, in the southwestern part of the Broussard.This notice was signed by the colony. Rev. Jean Francois, who signed himself as cure de Nouvelle Acadie des Attakapas. From theseoriginalsettlers and others who followed them, there descended 'throughoutthe1760's, Acadians the present-day inhabitants of St. Martin,, continued toarriveinLouisiana from Lafayette, Iberia, Vermilion and St. Mary Canada, Nova Scotia and the West Indies, parishes. and joined their confreres who had already settled in the colony. We have no record of the dates of the arrival of the Acadians in the Attakapas While many of the Acadian exiles in country, but their chief leader, Broussard the English colonies came to Louisiana, dit Beausoleil, signed a contract with a others asked to be sent to France. This was 125 . CIL 120 particularly true of those in the northern The 'Acadians had not been in France and central colonies.Also, those Aca- for many months before they began to con- dians held as prisoners of war inEngland sider Louisiana as a possible refuge. These were sent to France uponthe signing of the feelings grew as the Acadians became pro- Treaty of 1763. gressivelymoredisillusionedwiththe failure of the French government to find In August of 1763, for example, 660 lands for them. Acadians in Connecticut petitioned colo- nial authorities to be sent to France. There With the blessings of French official- were 249 in New Yorkand 280 in the Car- dom, Acadian leaders sought the assistance olinas who also asked for French refuge. of the Spanish ambassador in Paris, Don Another 187 families in Georgia and 383 in Pedro Pablo Abarca de Bo lea, Count de Pennsylvania were returnedtoFrance. Aranda. Of some 1,500 Acadians originally Thefirstcontactwas made by sent to Virginia, 866 survived tobe return- Peyroux de la Coudreniere, a resident of ed to France. After the end of hostilities, Nantes who had spent seven years and the British themselves sent 2,452 Acadians, massed a fortune in Louisiana.He knew whom they had been holding as prisoners that the Acadians already in Louisiana of war, to France. The bulk of theAca- would welcome their brethren in France dian exiles settled in Normandy, Brittany, and would assist them insettling new Aunis and Guyine. For 10 years they sub- homes along the Mississippi and its tribu- sisted there, hoping for some governmental taries. program to furnish themwith farmlands, or to permit th to settle elsewhere. King Charles III not only gave his . consent to admit the Acadians to Louisiana, Attempts o settle the exiles in the but agreed to assume the expense of trans- interior of France fellthrough because porting them to the colony and settling there were no arable lands available in that them in new homes. country. As a result, most of theAcadians clustered in the seacoast towns and sub- Afterlengthynegotiating,during sisted upon au allowance of six cents per which some of the Acadian leaders almost day per person provided them bythe lost heart, the French crown gave. permis- French government. sion for the Acadians to leave. More nego- tiations were necessary, however, before It remained for Spain to come to the arrangements were completed. Who would rescue of these Acadians. pay the debts the Acadians hadincurred during their long stay in France?What In 1762, when they realized they should be the fate of French women who were losing their war withEngland, French had married Acadian men? And vice officials ceded the colony of Louisiana to versa? Finally, all was settled and commis- Spain.It was a secret pact, which served sioners were dispatched to gather the signa- two purposes.It kept the British from tures of those who wished to be repatriated seizing Louisiana along with Canada and in Louisiana. it rewarded the Spanish government forthe help rendered to France during the war. A total of 1,508 Acadians registered their wishes to leave for Louisiana. Ships seer for the Acadians, and Martin Navarro, then hadto be obtained and supplies the Spanish superintendent, was given the gathered.More signatures were sought. general supervision of the entire coloniza- The Spanish authorities were eager to re- tion project.They set up an «Acadian ceive as many Acadians as they could get camp* at New Orleans to care for the because of these exiles' proven ability as immigrants until they could be settled on farmers.Louisiana was greatly in need of farms in the interior. men and women who could not only take care of their own needs, but produce a sur- Onceallarrangements had been plUs. made, 37 of the 38 families arriving on Le Bon Papa were given farms on the banks Inaddition,Spanishauthorities of the Mississippi at Manchac. The other knew that these new colonists would act family chose Bayou Lafourche. as an implacable bulwark against the en- croachments ofthe.English who, after the Le Bon Papa was the first of seven e Treaty of 1763, had taken over not only ships arriving from France. In quick succes- Canada but also all of the land east of the sion there arrived La BergEre with 73 fami- Mississippi as far south as Baton Rouge. lieson August 15 and Le Beaumont on Au- gust 19, with 45 families.These families Finally, enough ships were obtained, were quickly settled at Baton Rouge, La- but the winter months were judged too fourche and the Poste des Attakapas. severe to put to sea, so another delayin- curred. More negotiation3 had to be The St. Remy left Franceon June undertaken, and the masters of the ships 20 with 325 passengers and 16 stowaways had to be reimbursed for their long wait. aboard. The ship was badly overcrowded, and smallpox broke out, killing 31 passN- Finally, on May 10, 1785, after 29 gers at sea and in camp at New Orleans. years of aimlessexile,the first group Nueva Galvez, Lafourche and the Attaka- of 156 Acadians left France and sailed pascountryattractedthesefamilies. for Louisiana under the frigate Le Bon Papa The frigate made the voyage to La Amistad arrived November 7 with New Orleans in 81 days, anchoring at 68 families, followed by La Villa de Arcan- the city on July 29, 1785.Only one gel with 53 families. The latter vessel ran death, that of an infant girl, marred the out of supplies and ran aground at Belize. voyage. Navarro rushed food, water and medical supplies to the ship, and she finally arrived A royal order had been dispatched at New Orleans. of the families in to Don Esteban Miro, Spanish governor in these two ships werewere settled at Lafourche New Orleans, ordering him to welcome the and Bayou des Ecores. Acadians, settle them with the greatest speed, see to their needs and grant them The last ship to arrive, La Caroline, tillable land, good homes, farming tools anchored on December 17, and its passen- and a subsidy until they could support gers were settled in Lafourche. themselves. Altog_ther, the seven ships brought a Anselmo Broussard was named over- total of 1,624 Acadians, plus a few French- 1 2 7 122 men, to Louisiana.Spain and Louisiana to make further attempts at converting the thus shared in the largestsingle trans- Indian tribes to Christianity. Atlantic colonization project in the his- tory of the North American continent. That this effort was extensiveis attested to by the fact that in 1721 the The Spanish government spent more Rev. Pierre de Charlevoix was sent down- than sixty-one thousand dollars in bringing river from Canada for an inspection trip to the Acadians to Louisiana and some forty the Jesuit missions.Thus, during the de- thousand dollars after they had arrived. cades following the founding of a French These new immigrants doubled the number settlement on the Gulf of Mexico, dozens of Acadians in the colony, the others, of of anonymous missionaries and coureurs course, having come from Canada and the de bols found their way west from Canada English colonies. and southwest through the western reaches of the great river basin. Thus, after many years of exiles, the Acadians finally found new homes for PierreRadisson and Medard des themselves and proceeded to carve a Nou- Groseilliers explored beyond the upper velle Acadle in the Louisiana wilderness. Mississippi in 1659, and Francois and Louis Verendye explored the Sioux country in Epilogue 1742-43, penetrating as far west as the Dakotas. . During the era of French dominion, «Louisiana» meant much more than what Pierre Laclede came north from New isthe state today.In Iberville's time, Orleans to found St. Louis in 1763, two ((Louisiana» meant all of the vast territory years before Ste. Genevieve, the second drained by the Misssissippi-Missouri river town in Missouri, was founded. systems, except that areaeast of the Mississippi already in the hands of Europe- French trading posts were estab'ish- an nations. ed on sites which were to become St. Jo- seph,Lafayette,Fort. Wayne and Fort French influence was strong in this Clarke in Indiana; Kaskaskia, Cahokia and region, and French explorers were the Fort Charles in Illinois; and Omaha in first white men to reach most of the states Nebraska. that now make up the vastterritory. Jean du Sable established a trading Henri de Tonti and his fur trappers post on the spot that was to become and traders began to make regular voyages Chicago in the 1770s. on the Mississippi and its tributaries shortly afterIbervillefounded Fort Maurepas. Le Page du Pratz traveled in Louisi- Other trappers and traders drifted down- ana in 1718, to be followed by Drs. Louis river from Canada, and spread throughout and Jean Prat in the 1720s and 1730s. the region, moving up tributary rivers on Andre Michaux reported extensively on their facile canoes. In many instances, they Louisiana fauna in the 1770s, and Georges found that French missionaries had pre- Collot studied the area in 1796. ceded them. The French in Canada regular- ly sent out missionaries mostly Jesuits Throughouttheregion, however, 123 French traders and trappers, along with the Jesuit missionaries, formed the spearhead of civilizationin the Mississippi Valley. The life of thecoureurs de bois in the Mississippi Valley was essentially the same as it had been in Canada. Their work was hard and their lives perilous.It was their calling to penetrate the unknown. They lived solitary lives and died unknown deaths, to be buried in unremembered graves.Even their names are forgotten. But they were the pioneert who found trails through unknown country and who discovered the beaver waters, handling the trapping, the skinning and the preparation of the pelts. They made contact withun- known tribes of Indians and, sometimes in the face of great difficulty, opened trade with them cr settled among them to preach the Gospel. They lived by their wits off the country, facing the thousand nameless hazards of the wilderness, including Indian hostility, the elements and disease. And as a sideline to their work they thoroughly explored the vast areas west, northwest and southwest, from the Mississippi. River to the Mexican border and the Pacific Ocean. The trappers and the missionaries were followed by the traders, and they, in turn, gave way to permanent settlers. All of these were French, and they left their marks if not their names upon all of the vastterritories west of the Mississippi. Their work, too, is a part of Louisiana's Frenca heritage, and although their very identities have been lost to history, their handiwork has survived them in the broad acres and the busy cities of a dozen or more American states. ti Reprinted by permission of the author and the Acadian Profile. .1 HAITI HISTORICAL SETTING* beliefs.Throughout the countryside, the, voodoo priests are community leaders who *Until recently, Haitian emigration from exercise significant power over the people./ the island had been minimal or of a transient nature, e. g., researchers, diplomats, or students Haiti was discovered by Christopher who always returned, or a few immigrants to Columbus in 1492 when, in the course of Louisiana.However, an influx of Haitians into his first voyage in search of a route to Asia, metrop5litan areas, including those of the North. he landed on the northern shore of the east, has been visible since 1959. Hence, we felt island, which he named La Isla Espahola, that a background article about Haiti would be later known as Hispaniola. This island be- appropriate. came the first permanent European colony in the Americas (Santo Domingo).The Haitian society reflects, for the most .westernpartof the colony of Santo part, the 'historic impact of French colon- Domingo was to become a French colony ization in the eighteenth century and the (Saint-Domingue), which in. 1804 became importation of slaves from Africa.There the Republic of Haiti, while the eastern are virtually no traces of Spanish culture parteventually became the Dominican or of the culture of the Taino (Arawak) Republic. Indians.The official language is French, and the language spoken throughout the Unions of French and blacks in countryisCreole,adialectbased on colonial times produced a mulatto element French.French influence is apparent in that became an elite class. Throughout the the educational system, and the elite mulat- history of the republic the rivalry of mulat- toes - descendants of black and French pro- toes and blacks has resulted in struggles for genitors - traditionally regard Paris as the power and prestige involving assassinations, world's cultural capital.The agricultural insurrections, and civil wars.Interest in economy is based mainly on small plots Haiti's strategic position on the Windward carved out of the French plantations that Passage has brought foreign warships into flourished in the eighteenth century. The Haitian waters. The United States' concern transition from a prosperous plantation for The territorial integrity of Haiti during economy to a nation of peasants, proud of World War I and its desire to protect in- their landownership, began early in the vestments in a country that was in a state nineteenth century, when rulers of the of chaos triggered the military occupation newly independent country cut up large that lasted from 1915 to 1934. The oc- estates and parceled the land out to people cupation forces brought many benefits to who had recently freed themselves from the people in the form of public works, slavery. health programs, and public utilities, but after the departure of the United States West African influences are apparent forces these were allowed to deteriorate. in the religion of the majority of the people who, despite nominal adherence to Roman During the early years of the repub- Catholicism,believein voodooism, the lic, powerful leaders undertook to direct Haitian version of West African religious economic and political life along definite 124 ON% 125 lines, but itsoon became obvious that trouble with the Indians, to seek gold, and planned social structures would not remain to explore the island. After an enthusiastic intact.Subsequent developments in the reception in Spain, Columbus sailed with political and economic life of the country seventeenships;1,500settlers; soldiers werelargelyunplanned,Andinthe and missionaries; and supplies of agricultur- twentiethcptury standards ofliving, al implements, cattle, and seeds: He found comparedwiththoseof many other Navidad deserted.The settlers, who had countries, were low. treated the Indians ruthlessly, had been- killed. Turbulence has played a prominent role in the histdry of Haiti, beginning with Columbus then founded Isabela on theannihilationof the Tainos by the the northern coast of what is now the Spaniards and the establishment of the first Dominican gepublic. The settlers suffered permanentsettlementbyFrench and from disease and fought off attacks by English pirates.The slave rebellion that Indians, thousands of whom were killed. drove out the French at the end of the In an effort to build a handsome city, eighteenthcentury,invasionsofthe Columbus ordered his followers to perform Dominican.Republic,.revolutions supported manual labor - a command deeply resented by mercenary Haitian guerrillas, and rulers by men who considered themselves gentle- who haveexerciseddictatorialpowers men.These malcontents plotted against aithlessly - all have contributed to instabil- Columbus and denounced him tothe ity and uncertainty in the lives of the authorities in Spain. The Spaniards' cruel people.After the rise to power of Rafael treatment of the Indians generated revolts Leonidas TrujilloMolinain1957, the that were mercilessly crushed, and many peasant continued to cling to his small Indians fled to the mountains. plot of land; the mulatto elite maintained its prestigious position; and black leaders Isabela,where Columbus' brother remained politically powerful. BartolomewasservingasColumbus' deputy, was in a virtual state of anarchy, Discovery and Conquest and the prospects for the colony were gloomy.In 'June 1496 Columbus, intent It was in Hispaniola that Columbus on defending himself against his detractors, conceived a colonial policy for Spain that returned to Spain, where he waited two left a lasting imprint on the life in the New years before obtaining ships for a third World. Finding friendly Taino Indians who voyage. wore golden ornaments, Columbus pre- dicted that Europeans would gain «profit- When Columbus arrived at the town ablethingswithout number,» and he of Santo Domingo,a new settlement speculated on the great opportunity for founded by his brother, many .Spaniards spreading Christianitythat would result in the northern part of the island were from his discovery. openly revolting against Bartolomeo In an effort to mollify the rebellious colonists, After founding the town and fortress Columbus establis3 a system of exploi- ofNavidadonthenortherncoast, tation that was toecome a basis for social Columbus returned to Spain, leaving about institutions thro out the Spanish fortymen withinstructionstoavoid colonies in America. This was the scheme 131 126 of repart mientos, under which asettler 'crown, but the colonist to whom land was granted a large tract of land, along with was granted was entitled to certaindays of the Indians wholived on it, to exploit as he labor from his Indian tenants.He was pleased.In order to rid themselves of a obliged to look after their physical well- gold tribute that the Spaniards had been being,to instruct them in Christianity, demanding, the Indian chieftains turned and to pay a tribute to the crown.Al- their subjects over to the colonists. though the encomienda did not involve actual possession of the land, grantees were Newsofdissensionamongthe able in one way or another to become own- colonists,however, had promptedthe ers of the tracts assigned to them and to Spanish king and queen, Ferdinand and "reduce the Indians to a state of virtual Isabella,toname FranciscoBobadillo slavery. chiefjusticetoinvestigateconditions in the colony.On his arrival at Santo Although it was to persist for many Domingo inAugust1500 he found a years in the Spanish colonies on the main- number of colonists, who had revolted land and was not outlawed until the end of againstColumbus,swingingfromthe the eighteenth century, the encomienda gallows and several others about to be system in Hispaniola did not last long. By hanged.Bobadillo ordered the arrest of the middle of the sixteenth century the Columbus and his brother Bartolome and Taino population, estimated at about 1 sent them to Spain in chains. million in 1492, had been reduced to about 0 500. The need for a new labor force led to Columbus was released six weeks the importation of 'increasing numbers of after his arrival in Spain and was received Negro slaves, principally for the cultivation by Ferdinand and Isabella;but, without of sugarcane, and by 1520 Negro labor was consulting Columbus, the monarchs sent usedalmostexclusivelyinHispaniola. NicolasdeOvandotoHispaniolaas governor. Ovando importedthefirst Throughout the island each land- blacks into Hispaniola, fought Indians who owner exercised virtually. complete author- had managed to maintain their indepen- ity over his estate, and there was little dence, and built up the city of Santo contact between the hinterland and Santo Domingo. Columbus, however; persuaded Domingo, the capital city. Santo Domingo Ferdinand and Isabella to furnish ships was principally concerned with its.lations for a fourth voyage,inthe course of withSpain,whichfurnishedsupplies, which he coasted the shores of Central administrators, andsettlersforthe America, was wrecked on the island of colonies, and with the continent, which Jamaica, and was rescued by Ovando. The provided treasure for the crown. It was a man who, in the words of HubertHerring, way station for traffic between Spain and had made the Caribbean Sea «a Spanish continental America, and a jumping-off lake» returned to Spain and died in 1506. point from which the Span)ards explored the New World. The repartimiento failed to improve the lot of the Indians, and in 1503 the In 1509 Columbus' son, Diego, was Spanish crown instituted the encomienda appointed governor of the colony. With a sytem, under which all the land theo- view to curbing the power of the governor, reticallybecamethepropertyof the the crownin1511established a new 132 127 politicalinstitution calledtheaudiencia piratical operations, occupied themselves atribunal consisting originally of three with hunting wild.cattle and hogs and with judges with jurisdiction over all the West farming.. The settlement prospered in spite Indian Islands, where it became the highest of Spanish efforts to destroy it, and in court of appeals. ° During the sixteenth, 1664, Louis XIV, king of France, placed seventeenth,andeighteenthcenturies theterritory under the control of the -audiencias,established in many parts of French West India Company and appointed the Spanish Empire, became the continuing a former pirate, Bertrand d'Ogeron, as core of royal authority; but the failure of governs.: sometocarry out administrative and disciplinary duties assigned to them led to Tobuildupthe brcountrythe the appointment of viceroys, who person- governor encouragedagriculture and ified the power and the prestige Of the brought young women from France to king.In 1535 Hispaniola became part of marry the men. Among a number of small theViceroyalty of New Spain, which towns foundedinwesternHispaniola, included Central America and much of called Saint-Domingue by the French, was North America. Cap Francais (now Cap-Haftien), laid out in 1670.In 1697, under the Treaty of After the conquest of Mexico by Ryswick, Spain ceded Saint-Domingue to Hernan Cortes in 1521 and the discovery France; andagovernorgeneral,who in Mexico and Peru of great wealth in gold served as the principal royal authority, and and silver, the prestige of Santo Domingo aig..s intendant,thechiefjudicialand began to decline.Alluvial deposits of gold financial officer, established their authority were depleted, and the Indian labor force over the inhabitants. was dying off. Large numbers of colonists left for Mexico and Peru Viand the popula- The population. of Saint-Doming ue tionofHispanioladeclinedsharply. atthe end of the seventeenth century Agriculturewasneglected,andSpain included about 6,000 adult white and became preoccupied with the larger and mulatto males and approximately 50,000 richer colonies on the mainland. According black slaves.Although mulattoes were, to the Haitian historian, J. C. Dorsainvil, strictly speaking, the first generation off- the population of the colony in1545 spring of Negroes and whites, the term amounted to no more than 1,100 persons. was applied totheir descendants. By 1775 tlrliave population was estimated Saint-Domingue at approximately 250,000; and the resident white population, at more than 30,000., The Spaniards neglected Hispaniola, Under a decree issued by Louis XIV in but French and English pirates, intent on 1685, certain mulattoes (gens de couleur), attacking Spanish shipping, established a achieved their freedom and French citizen- base on Tortue Island (Ile de la Tortue). ship; and at the end of the eighteenth better known as Tortuga, in or around century these mulattoes, also known as 1625.In 1641 they founded Port Margot freemen(affranchis),numberedabout on the western end of Hispaniola and 28,000. before long had gained a foothold in the surrounding territory.The French then During the eighteenth century Saint- drove out the English, and, along with Domingue became oneof therichest 128 coloniesintheFrench Empire. The Blacks (Les Amts des Nofrs), led a demon- colonists raised sugar, coffee, cacao, cotton stration against the colonial governor and and indigo - products that were exported to was put to death. Before long, the colony France and eventually to the United States. was torn with riots involving all groups. Roads were built; handsome houses were Slaves deserted their masters and organized constructed; old irrigation was developed. bands that burned and pillaged throughout The planters lived in luxury, and many the colony. The insurrection that started spent much of their time in Paris. Many in August 1791 resulted in the massacre of freemen acquired great wealth and,aroused every white man, woman and child on the jealousy of the petits blancs,the whom the slaves could lay their hands-. whites who had failed to become grands All whites who escaped this fate fled the blancs whites who held high office, colony. owned large plantations, or were wealthy merchants. 1kne of the leaders of thESIslave rebel- lion was Toussaint Louverture, an exslave In the last quarter of the eighteenth whose French master had allowed him century freemen owned plantations in all leisure for self-education and for the ac- parts of the coly, and one fertile parish quisition of a private fortune.He had in the south (itiemie) was almost entirely considerable knowledge of militarytactics in their hands. They owned large numbers and possessed significant qualities of leader- of slaves, sent their children to France for ship and political acumen. In the course of their education, and in many cases were the slave rebellion Toussaint crossed the acceptedinthesociety of the grands border from Saint-Domingue into Santo blancs. Eventuallytherisingtideof Domingo and joined Spanish troops in their color prejudice influenced grands blancs, battles with French forces - a consequence and discriminatory laws were pawed-by the oftheFrenchrevolutionarywarsin colonial authorities pkohibiting most free- Europe. He rose to high command in the men from carrying firearms andimposing Spanish forces; when France announced other restrictions.The freeman was not theemancipationofslavesinSaint- allowed tohold any fice superior to Domingue in 1793, however, he returned those held by a w to on and was to that colony and joined the French units barred from certain occupatts.He was fighting British and Spanish forces, which required to wear clothing dif rent from had attacked Saint-Domingue by land and thatwornbywhite people rand was by sea.With the support of Negro forces segregated when he attended cNrch or led by Toussaint, the French drove out the the theater. Spanish and British invaders. When news o French Revolution In 1795 Spain ced Santo Domingo (1789) reached Saint-Domingue, the free- to France, an ussaint had himself ap- men hoped to win backtheir rights as pointed cmander-in-chief of all French French citizens. The whites, on the other forces in the colony. He assumed dictato- hand, saw an opportunity to gain indepen- rial powers and in 1801 promulgated a dence for the colony under white rule. constitution that in theory emancipated all Early in 1791 a young mulatto, Vincent slaves in Hispaniola but in fact provided for Oge. encouraged by members of an organi- further importation of African slaves. The zation in France called the Friends of the constitution also provided that the Roman M 129 Catholic Church, which had been peo no opportunity to become familiar established in Santo Domingo by the with occupations other thantilling the Spanish and in Saint-Domingue by the soil.Dessalines' system, sternly adminis- French, would be the official church and tered, furnished the roots for the peasantry that whites and blacks would be equal that would soon become a typical form of before the law.Toussaint declared the Haitian life. whole island of Hispaniola an independent nation and was made president for life. Dessalines used his troops to enforce discipline among the workers on the land lndepende ce and forbade individual enterprise. He tried to gain control of most of the land in the Naleon Bonaparte,whohad country, but when he died many of the become /first consul of France in 1799, mulatto landowners who had held estates refused, to recognize Toussaint's rule in in colonial times retained their properties. the colony; he dispatched an expeditionary Dissatisfaction with his callous, autocratic force of 23,000 men that, after meeting rule burgeoned, and in October 1806 he strong resistance from Toussaint's armies was ambushed and killed near Port-au- and .suffering from the ravages of yellow Prince.Utilizing a display of force, which fever, brought about Toussaint's defeat. created fear among the people, Dessalines Toussaint died in a French prison in 1803, hadsucceededinestablishingastate. but in November of that year the French forces remaining in the colony surrendered After the death of Dessalines, the toGeneral Jean-Jacques Dessalines; on country was split under separate rulers. In January1,1804, Dessalines proclaimed the north Hefiry Christophe, the last of the the independence of Haiti - the first colony revolutionary generals, ruled from 1808 in Latin America to sever its political ties to 1820. Born a black slave in the English with the Old World.Virtuallyall the Caribbean island of St. Christopher; he had whites had left, and the blacks were in settledinHaiti and was one of 800 power. A struggle for position was about Haitians who had volunteered for service to begin between the mulattoes and the under the Marquis de Lafayette in the ruling blacks. American revolutionary war.An admirer of things English, he spelled his first name Dessalines, an exslave who assumed inthe English manner rather than the the title of governor general for life, had no French.He invited English scientists to followers with experience in government. visithiskingdom andtried,without On his orders, most of the few whites who success, to introduce English agricultural were left were killed. The fighg in 1802 methods. In 1811 he had himself crowned and 1803 had virtually ruined agricultural King Henry I and established a royal court projects and plantations. The population filledwith barons, counts, and knights. of the country had dropped about 380,000; He built the magnificent royal palace of and women outnumbered men by almost Sans Souceand, on a mountaintop, the three to two.Dessalines established an imposing citadel of La Ferriere. economic organization that was, in effect, based on serfdom. All people except Christophe saw toit that everyone soldiers were «attached as cultivators to a worked, and men assigned to the fields plantation»,asystem which gavethe performedtheirtasksundermilitary 130 discipline. As a result of his energetic Pierre Boyer, who had succeeded Petion in measures, profitable agriculture and com- the south in 1818, reunited the north and merce were revived, and the people proba- the south and, in addition, annexed the bly enjoyed greater security than they had eastern part of Hispaniola where, in 1822, ever known before. Christophe's rule com- the people of the colony of Santo Domingo binedmilitarydespotismwithcertain had driven out the Spaniards. Boyer, like paternalisticelement andterritorial Petion, was a mulatto educated in France, feudalism based upon the noble class that who had served in the Potion government. he had created.Christophe's stern disci- When he took office, he continued the dis- pline generated dissatisfactic however, tribution of ''small parcels of land and left and, eventually, rebellion.In 1820, ac- the people to their own devices.Whit,' cording tolegend,Christophe, a in 1825, Boyer's government approved a benevolent despot, killed himself with a French ordinance that recognized Haiti's silver bullet. independence in return for trade privileges and a large indeimity, Boyer hoped to ward The rival regime in the south was off another invasion by the French, but headed by Alexandre Petion, a mulatto black leaders were enraged by the fact that who served with thetitle of president these concessions had been made by a Irom 1808 to 1818. Educated in France, mulatto-dominatedgovernment. The Petion had a certain admiration for dem- blackswerealsoangeredbyBoyer's ocratic ideals and allowed the people to negotiation of a French loan to pay t!te enjoy unprecedented liberty of action.. indemnity,atransactionthat madeit - He confiscated the large French planta- necessary to issue paper money to meet tions and parceled out small plots of land domestic needs. tosoldiersandofficers. generosity, howevermotivated, changed When theinternalsituationcon- the entire agricultural base of the society. tinued to deteriorate, Boyer abandoner" his No longerwillingtocultivate coffee, moderate rule and adopted the stern tactics indigo, and sugar, most of the people in of Dessalines and Christophe, forcing the the south grew garden crops for their own peasants to plow and harvest 'under armed use.Although profits from export crops guard.His inept `rule lasted until 1843, declined, the common man, secure on his when he was overthrown and exiled by a smallplot, probably considered himself conspiracy of members of his own social better off than ever before.In terms of group - urban mulattoes.In the ensuing national prosperity, however, the results turmoil the people of Santo Domingo threw werecalamitous. Customsandtax offHaitianrule,andthe ,Dominican revenues declined; paper 'money without Republic was established in the eastern part backing was issued; and a few foreign loans of Hispaniola. After trying unsuccessfully were obtained at excessive interest :ates. toestablishastablegovernment,the Nevertheless' the people in the south en- mulattoes in Haiti lost their power to unlet- joyedfreedom,whilethepeoplein tered Negro leaders, and for the next Christophe'skingdom livedas'serfs. seventy-two years Negroes were in almost Petion, who died in 1818, was popular with complete control of the country. the people he endeavoredlo serve: Inthe middle of the nineteenth / After the death of Christophe, Jean century, Haitireachedan economic u3 Ls 1 131 impasse. Toussaint Louverture's system or gens de couleur, of the colonial era. of forced labor had generated a temporary When the French colonial aristocracy was increase in the colony's productivity, Ix destroyed, they had acquired muco.1 of the many peasants had fled to thehills and wealth of the colonial elite and under settled on land that they regarded as their Pt tion and Boyer had enjoyed socialand own. A system of sharecroppinghad been political dominance.When the Negroes initiated by white émigrés whom Toussaint came to power in1843, the elite were hadencouragedtoreturn. Under compelled to console themselves with a Dessalines certain freemen who were al- belief in their social superiority.. Adeep lowed to possess plantations had continued chasm separated the elite from the masses, the system of sharecropping instituted by who now constituteda peasant society Toussaint.Thus for many years forced largely illiterate and poor. labor,squatting, and sharecropping had persistedasthebasisof agricultur At the end of the Boyer regime it was production.Petion's large-scale dist'u- apparent that the mulatto effort torule the tionof land, continued by Boyer, had country as an eliteclass while making contributed to the deterioration of the economically damaging concessions to the country'sagriculturaleconomy. Most predominantly black population had ended individualholdings were too small for in failure. Not only had organizedcultiva- sugar and indigo cultivation,and sugar had tion of cacao, cotton, and sugarcanefor all but disappeared from the country'slist export ceased, but irrigation workshad of exports. The major export wascoffee, fallenintodisrepair, tidy coastal towns a crop that was moreeasily cultivated on had become villages of woodenhouses, small farms. and thecountrysidewas dotted w;th African-type huts of-tud and wattles. The lives of the people were pro- The elite mulattoes 1...iu abandonedtheir foundly influenced by voodooism(vodun), plantations and, lacking any directinvolve- the religion based largely on WestAfrican mentinagriculture,had shownlittle beliefs and practices, including ancestor interest in maintainingirrigation systems worship, performance of propitiatory rites, and roads or in promoting ruraleducation. and belief in communicationby trance Crowding into the cities, they turned their with deities.Although the Catholic mis- backs on the peasants.Color prejudice sionaries brought to Hispaniola bythe grew and became a permanentfeature of Spaniards and to Saint-Domingue bythe Haitian life. French had made nominal convertsof the slaves, voodooism's hold on theblacks was Years of Turmoil, 1843-1915 usually stronger than the influenceof the church and was to coatirnieinto ill° twen- The seventy-two years followingthe tieth century as a majorelement in Haitian exile of Boyer were marked by therise and life. fall of twenty-two dictators andrecurring civil disturbances. Between 1844and 1859 By the middle of the nineteenth the Negro army, determined toreduce the century the stratificationof society that power of mulattoes ingovernment, placed was to last into thetwentieth century had four Negro presidents in office.One of clearly evolved.The elite were, for the thesewas Soulouque(1847.59),who. most part, the descendantsof the freemen, assuming the title of Emperor Faustin1, 1 3 7 132 made two unsuccessful attempts to re- the mulattoes, who mounted an insur- conquerSantoDomingo,killed many rection Ain1883. In reprisal, Salomon Haitian mulatto leaders, and assigned il- executed so many mulattoes in Port-au- literateblacks to public positions. He Princethat business came to avirtual practiced voodoo openlyand devoted standstill.Then, in 1889, when he at- hours to elaborate court ceremcnies daily. tempted to extend his tenure of office Opposed by forces led by General Fabre beyond the constitutional limit, he was NicolasGeffrard,Soulouquefledthe faced with another civil war and was forced country in 1859. into exile. Fabre Geffrard, described as .K neither Another president during the 1843- black nor mulatto» (the son of a black 1915 period who is remembered for efforts father and a mulatto mother), served as to improve conditions is Florvil Hyppolite, president from 1858 to 1867.He en- in office from 18d9 to 1896." A dark- couragedthe cultivation of cotton; es- skinned member of the elite, he established tablished an agricultural credit corporation; the Ministry of Public Works, which built promoted public works such as reservoirs bridge.,introducedtelegraph andtele- and gaslight companies; and opened whools phonesystems,andconstructednew of architecture, painting, and law. He marketplaces in Port-au-Prince and other favored the Concordat of 1860, under cities.As a result of an increase in the which the breach with fly! Vatican, created price of coffee, the country enjoyed a by Dessalines atthe bcsinninp of the short period of relative prosperity, which century, was mended; ard educational and prompted the government and merchants charitable orders such as th,. Sisters of St. toindulgein extravagant expenditures. Joseph de Cluny (Soetrs de Saint-Joseph This led to a deteriorating financial situa- de Cluny) and the Brothers of Christian tion and growing dissatisfaction among Instruction (Freres do l'Instruction Chre- Hyppolite'srivals.In1891, Hyppolite tienne) were allowed to establish them- mercilesslysuppressedanuprisingin selves in Haiti.Geffrard's efforts to im- Jacmel, in the south; but five years later, he provethelot of the people failedto died while leading his troops to punish the prevent an insurrection, however, as he rebellious Jacmelians again. was driven into exile in 1867. During a period of almost three- LouisFeliciteLysiusSalamoo, quarters of a century after the Boyer president between 1879 and 1888, who regime,onlythree of the twenty-two hadservedas Souieuque's minister of presidents were mulattoes.The mulatto finance,introducedmonetaryreforms, eliteofnecessityadjustedtoexisting but these were offset by the issuance of conditions-controlling the business sector, quantities of paper money that led to indulging in cultural pursuits and, because inflation.His efforts to effect agricultural ofti,^irsuperior education,servingin reforms were unsuccessful.Among con- certaii, governmentpositions. Political structive projects inaugurated during his consciousness and activity were confined term of office were improvement of com- almost entirely to th- army, the towns- munications with the outside world, ef- people, the elite, and those who aspired to fected by the laying of a submarine cable. elite status. The great mass of the peasants Nevertheless he was bitterly opposed by were little affected by reform movements, 1 3 s 133 revolutions,counterrevolutions,financial regarded as a death blow to the cacos. disasters, or foreign relations. During this period Haiti evolved into a country of peas- Between 1843 and 1915 Haitire- ants cultivating small plots of land, which, . ceived little aid from foreign countries in when divided among heirs, became increas- solving its domestic problems, and for many ingly smaller. years after independence ithad been virtu- ally isolated in the field of foreign relations. At the end of the nineteenth century The first nation to recognize the country's Haiti lacked a significant educational system. independence was France in 1825. At No president had seen fit to introduce uni- about the same timeBritish consul general versal education, and some powerful mem- was appointed, but theUnited States did not bers of the elite expressed doubts regarding extend recognition until 1862, after which a the educability of the black masses. Lacking coaling station for the United States West education, the people had no opportunity Indian Squadron was established at Cap- to compare Haiti with other qountries or to HAltien. Between the termination of tile participate in politicaldiscussjon,and they United States Civil War and the intervention were easily swayed by agitatorswho op- in 1915 Haiti was affected by the opposing posed the incumbent president. A politician interests of Great Britain, the United States,. planning a revolution could raise an army Germany, and France and by strained rela- and take the field against the government tions with the Dominican Republic. after borrowing money from a merchant at approximately 100 percent interest, to be Between 1908 and 1915, a period paid when the revolution succeeded. characterized by revolutions, assasinations, andinsurrections,Haitiangovernments During the latter half of the nine- raised money through bond issues and un- teenth century and the early years of the orthodox financial operations, driving the twentieth century an important factor in the republic into 0 litical and financial bank- political life of the country was the use of ruptcy. During this period seven men served mercenary guerrillas by revolutionarypoliti- briefly as president, most of them having cians aspiringto the presidency. Certain seized power with thesupport of cacos. peasants, who found fighting and rapine an One was killed when the presidential palace occupation more profitable than any other, was blown up; others fled the country;and were known as cacos inthe north and as the last was hacked to pieces by an infuriat- piquetsin thesouth. Known as «king- ed mob In 1915, when Germany was win- makers,» the cacoswould make an agree- ning victories in World War I, there were ment withapresidential aspirant under rumors that Germany sought a naval base in which, for a certain sum to be paid after a Haiti, and Germans in Haiti who had lent successful revolution and an opportunity to large sums tofinance caco revoltswere loot towns on the way to the capital, they asking their government for help. French would move down fmm the mountains and owners of Haitian securities werepressing placearevolutionaryleaderinpower. the Haitians for payment, and United States During the American intervention, initiated financial interest conitrolling Haiti's railroads in1915, caco leadersorganized an up- and banking were concerned over the danger rising,which was suppressed by United to their investments. In the face of these States Marines after several years of guerrilla threatstoUnitedStates interestinthe warfare. The marines' success was generally Caribbean and bearing in mind United States 134 responsibilityforthePanamaCanal, treasury. The Haitian Guard proved to be PresidentWoodrow Wilson made Ake the best constabulary in the history of the decision to intervene in Haiti. country, and United Stiles engineers over- sawtheconstructionof much-needed United States Intervention, 1915-34 public works. The Americans organized a public health program and opened a school In 1914, there were frequent visits for farm leaders. The American presence to Haitian ports by United States naval was, however, resented by Haitians. who vessels. Marines from French, British, were angered by the affront to Haitian and German warships also went ashore to sovereignty, by Haitian army officers and protecttheircountries'interests. In politicians whose usual sources of income January1915Vilbrun Guillaume Sam had driedup,and by tacos who, re- parched toward Port-au-Prince at the head senting the drafting of peasants for road- of a caco army and by March had es- building, staged an insurrection that was tablished himself as president.An Amer- saidto have costthelivesof 2,000 icanadmiral,William Caperton, whose Haitians. ships were standing by, had warned Sam against violence but, when a rival caco Haitians were angered by the terms a9ny was reported on its way tothe of a treaty with the United States, reluc- dapital to overthrow the president, Sam tantly accepted by the Haitian government threw his principal critics into prison and in1915, which gave the United States fled to the French Legation.More than control over the customs and over the 160 prisoners, including respected members gendarmerie. Most Haitians were unhappy of the elite, were killed, probably on Sam's over the fact that the occupying forces orders. A mob then dragged Sam from the seemed to favor the mulattoes and to French Legation, tore his body apart, and discriminate against blacks.In 1930 a marched through the city with the pieces. commission appointed by President Admiral Caperton then landed with 300 Herbert Hoover recommended that the marines from his cruisers. incumbent Haitian president step down in 4 favor of an interim government that would Supported by additional forces the supervise a free election.The election marines spreadout over the country, brought Stenio Vincent to the presidency disarmed the Haitian army, and opened in 1930.The United States minister ap- recruiting offices for a native constabulary. pointed by President Hoover was given the This police force of about 2,400, com- responsibility for bringing to an end the manded at the outset by 100 marine of- American occupation as rapidly as pos- ficers, was the nucleus of the future Haitian sible. When Franklin D. Roosevelt became Guard (Garde d'Haiti). Roads connecting president in 1933, the process was well the principal towns were built;clinics, underway.In 1934, President Roosevelt ho4pitals,andtelephonesystems were ordered withdrawal of the marines, and in established; and reservoirs and sewerage 1941 a financial commission that had re- systems were constructed.Between 1915 mained to protect United States invest- and 1930, under presidents installed in of- ments was finally withdrawn. fice by the occupying forces, United States officials eliminated graft, collected taxes, introduced economies, and managed the 135 Developments, 1934-57 was overthrown. For nine moaths there- after there were seven shaky governments, The United States' occupying forces and in September 1957 Francois Duvalier, had shifted political responsibility from the aformer follower of Estill* who had blacks to relatively enlightened mulatto refused to accept Magloire in 1950, was leaders, who ruled until 1946. The black elected president. masses, however, worked for a return to black leadership.Backed by the Haitian LANGUAGES Guard, which had been organized by the UnitedStates'occupying forces,black Haiti has two national languages. leaders ousted a mulatto president and Creoleisthe language of the common installed Dumarsais Estime, who purged the people butisunderstood and spoken government of mulatto officials and re- throughout the society.French is the of- placed them with blacks and who initiated ficial national language and is understood reforms designed to benefit urban workers and spoken only by upper and middle class and to improve agriculture.' He discharged urbanites. The differences inprestige, the American debt and signed an agreement usage, and governmental policy with the United States Export-Import Bank surrounding the two languages highlight to finance a US6 million dollar irrigation the polarity of the so,...iety and offer a andland-reclamationprojectinthe partial explanation for the continuing iso- Atribonite Valley. When, in 1950, he lation of 90 percent of the population. attemptedtohavetheconstitution amendidto allow him to succeed himself, Linguistshaveidentifiedseveral the army removed him from office and sent factors influencing the users and usages of him out of the country. Creole and French. Approximately 7 percent of the population is bilingual, and Estime's successor was Colonel Paul the rest are monolingual in Creole. Fpr this E. Mag loire, a black leader and a powerful 7 percent, the two languages are used side figure in the army, who seemed to enjoy by side and are frequently interchangeable the tacit approval of the elite along with within a sentence. French is always used in theenthusiasticsupport of the black formal public occasions and is preferred in masses. Inhisinauguraladdressof formal private situations as well.In in- 'December6,1950, President Magloire formal situations, both public and private, promised to safeguard rights guaranteed by Creole predominates. In addition to these the constitution, to give priority toir- social contexts, personality differences and rigation projects, soil conservation, coop- change of style or mood will determine eratives, and independent planters, and which language the speaker employs. A toglpnt assistance to education. He tooka more relaxed and progressive bilingual in- statid against communism, persuaded the dicates his identification with the black United States to expedite aid programs, consciousnessandthenativeculture and encouraged foreign investment. Total through the usage of .creole, whereas a foreign trade increased in 1951 and 1952, more conservative individual or a member largely as a result of high prices for exports of the rising middle class. may insist on stimulated by the Korean War.Magloire French in all situations. was accused of despotic rule and corrup- tion, however, and in December 1956 he The legendary stories attached to the 136 origins of Creole reflect the deprecatory at- began to change during the twentieth titude manifested by most Haitians. Until century. The first attempt at a Creole recently, it was felt that Creole arose as a text appeared in 1925 and the first Creole corrupted, Africanized version of French newspaper, in 1943. The black conscious- during the early years of the slave trade -in ness and nationalistic movements have al- Haiti.Settlers supposedly simplified their ways been tied' to the desire to extend language to facilitate comprehension by Creole usage, and social protest literature slaves, who in turn supplied Wet': African has used the peasant's language for both grammar. The result was the pidgin practical and ideological reasons.There French of the lower class, which was con- was, however, no official reference to sidered a patois without the flips or status Creole until 1057.The constitution of of a separate language. that year stated that Creole would be recommended over French where there Although this theory has some basis was insufficient knowledge of the latter. In in fact, most linguists now consider Creole 1969 a law was passed acknowledging ,,the a full-fledgedlanguage arising from the existence of Creole and granting it legal French maritimetradedialectexisting status; it could be used in Congress, law prior to colonization but characterized by courts, and clubs but not In accredited the syntax of West African tribal languages. educational institutions. The striking similarities of the Caribbean Creole dialects would indicate that Creole EDUCATION did not develop in an insular fashion in each colony.It was an amalgam of the Education in Haiti had a late start. dialects of several French provinces, and During the colonial regime, schooling had it served as the «lingua franca» for whites been limited to the French elite to such an and blacks in the slave collecting centers in extent that the first chiefs of state iilthe Africa and in the French colonies alike. independent country were illiterate.n the second decade of the nineteenth tntury, The use of French and Creole during thecountry'sfirsthighscho 1was the colonial and independence period set .established by President Alexandre Petion; speech patterns and attitudes for the next in the early 1970's it still existed as the century.French was established as the Lycee Petion in Port-au-Prince. A compre- language of culture and refinement, and it hensive system failed to develop, however, was spoken only by whites and educated and the emerging elite who could afford mulatto freedmen. When the slaves became the cost sent their children to school in free,thegreatestbarrier between the Paris. variousclasses of coloredpeoples was broken down, and allHaitians became Educational development passed a legally equal.Thus, the maintenance of milestone in 1860 when the signing of a the French language and life-style became a concordat with the Vatican resulted in the vital distinction between the two groups assignment of additional teaching clergy and a necessary means of ensuring the to the young country.Education had mulattoes' superior status over the former alreadybeenlargelyanecclesiastical slaves. function,butthearrivalof additional priests further emphasized the influence of Traditional attitudes towards Creole the Roman Catholic Church.The new 137 priests were, for the most part, French, and charge of the public program, and at both they were motivatedtofurthera primary and secondary levels religious and rapprochement between Haiti and France. secularprivate schools have played an important role. Inthisatmosphere,theclerical teachers concentrated their efforts on the Most of the urban public educational developing urban elite, particularly in the programis under the direction of the excellent new secondary schools, where Secretariat of State for National Educa- Haitian students were made fully aware of tion, but rural primary and secondary the greatness of France, the backwardness schools are functions of the Secretariat of of their own country, anditslack of State for Agriculture, Natural Resources capacity for self-rule. Virtually no schools and RuralDevelopment,andother of any sort were established in the country- secretariats have responsibility for certain side. specialized forms of schooling. The country is divided into twenty-four school districts, The effort to draw Haiti into the but the geographicalif not the functional French sphere of influence was abandoned centralization of the program is under- shortly before 1900, but it left a heritage in lined by the fact that laws and regulations which education remained in large measure concerning national education make no ref- a system in which the clergy taught mem- erence to local boards. bers of the upper class.Only a few went into the interior to teach the peasants. Private education in the late 1960's and early 1970's continued to play an im- During the 1920's, under the occu- portant role, but the extent to which the pationbyUnitedStatesMarines,a central* government subsidizedprivately considerable number of farm schools were operatedschoolsblurredthelineof established in which peasants could learn division between public and private educa- toreadandwriteand couldreceive tion.At the primary level, for example, practical instruction in agriculture. These in 1967 a little less than half of the primary units were later absorbed into the regular enrollment was in schools operated by the primary system.The occupation author- government and refe ed to as lay public ities also were instrumental in establishing institutions(pu ueslaiques). The schools for vocational training in the larger presbyterialschools, and some of the urban areas, but the program was unpopular privateones, were operated by Roman and collapsed even before the withdrawal Catholic orders and Protestant denomina- of the marines in 1934. tions. The Protestant groups were particu- larly important in rural areas where they During the most recent years, the maintained the mission primary schools, principal benchmark in educational progress which in 1963 had an enrollment of an has been the establishment in 1944 of the estimated 10,000 children.During the University of Haiti, which was formed from same year nearly 40 percent of the secon- several preexisting academic faculties.A dary students were in private institutions. characteristic of the educational system during the years after World War 11 has The small secondary school enroll- been the plurality of its direction.No ment (about 10 percent of the primary single government agency has had full school enrollment during the 1960's) does 138 L not include students in church-operated maturity only after the fall of President but publicly financed institutions in the Jean-Pierre Boyer in 1860 led to greater public school sector comparable to the freedomofexpression.Althoughthe presbyterialprimaryunits.During the histories and biographies that predomi- 1960's, however, private education received na/ed during the first period and the poetry public subsidies equivalent to about 10 per- and fiction that gained popularity during cent of the funds allocated to public the second often dealt with Haitian subject schools. matter, they were indistinguishable in style from the French works of corresponding Some of the best private institutions time periods. Many of the Haitian literary are parts of conglomerates that offer a figures were educated in France, had their complete range of education from kinder- books published there, and received recog- garten through the secondary level; these nition from the French Academy (l'Aca- schools draw their student bodies from the Wink Franfaise). children of the elite. Others operate for profit, are of inferior quality, and function Jacques C. Antoine, founder of two in rundown urban properties under the literary journals in the 1930s and 1940s, direction of teachers who are themselves maintains that Haitian literature was born barely literate. of anger directed against the white masters of the colonial period. He suggests that the Public schooling is free at all levels, obsession, throughout much of the nine- but textbooks must usually be purchased. teenth century, to prove that the Negro So few are available and they are so lack- was not intellectually inferior resulted in a ing in variety that, at both primary and «servileimitation of French models»- secondary levels, rote learning is the rule. French not only in style but in mode o Textbooks from France are used fairly thinking as well. Antoine concedes, ho- extensively, and the Christian Brothers of ever, that there were exceptions, such as Canada have published some texts designed Oswald Durand, whose lyric poexy in both for Haitian use; but there are few history French and Creole conveyed something of or geography books written by and for the national mystique. Haitians. Haitian history and literature were not taught extensively before the A third stage, generally described as regime ofPresident Francois Duvalier, one of the most brillant epochs of Haitian who produced the book Oeuvres Essen tielles letters, began toward the end of the nine- (Essential Works), which is used as a text at teenth century and continue.: beyond the all Lvels. centennial of national independence in 1904. The s44-called Centennial Generation Literature was distinguished by the dedication of its memberstoarejuvenation of society Critics have generally discerned four through literature. It was composed in part stares in the evolution of Haitian literature. of former pupils of the Lycee Petion, who The first, manning the period from inde- had studied under teachers imported from pendence in1804 to about 1820, was France. They were stimulated by the need characterized by chauvinism and the pio- to compete with and at the same time neering spirit. The second, influenced by distinguish themselves from - their com- romanticism, began slowly and reached full rades 010 had studied in Paris. In 1894 4. 139 Nok they °groupedthemselvesaroundthe occupation was translated into wide-ranging magazineLa Jeune Haiti,whose founder, literary efforts, including novels, poetry, JustinLherisson,was notedforhis drama, essays, and scholarly works. The portrayal pf Haitian family life. anguish of occupation and the shock of the rediscoverythatmulattoes,longthe Massillon Coicou, poet and play- favored race in Haiti, were still treated as wright of the Centennial Generation, was racially inferior by many whites was per- one of the first writers to introduce Creole haps best expressed by Leon Laleau in his intothenationalliterature. In 1898 bookLe Choc(The Shock). Coicou and other members of the club known asLes Emulateurs(The Emulators) Driven by curiosity about voodoo founded the literary journalLa Ronde. and folkways, educated young people, such The second director of that journal, Dantes ak those who foundedLa Revue Indigine Bellegarde (1877-1966), distinguished him- (The Indigenous Review) in1927, left self as diplomat and educator as well as their comfortable homes to live in slums philosopher and social historian. Author of and rural villages.Their experiences gen- some twenty-four books, he was the last erated social protest as well as literary influential figure in a long line of franco- nationalism.These trends reach a high phile traditionalists. poitt in the poems, novels, and ethnolog- icalstudies of Jacques Romain. His Another member of that generation, Gouverneurs de la Rosie(Masters of the Jean Price-Mars, was a precursor of the Dew), a powerful and realistic portrayal fourth and contemporary stage of Haitian in creolized French of life in a peasant literary development.Early in the twen- community, has been translated into some tieth century, Price-Mars and his fellow seventeen languages.It was published four ethnologist J. C. Dorsainvil focused at- months after his untimely death in 1944. tentiononHaitianfolklore and paid tribute to its literary values.It was not Three novels of Haitian peasant life, until the United States' occupation, how- Le Crayon de Dieu(The Pencil of God), ever, that the nationalism and social con- Canapé-Vert(The Green Couch), andLa sciousness that have characterized the con- Bite de Musseau (TheBeast of the Haitian temporary period pervaded the intellectual Hills),writtenbythebrothersPierre community. The transition in both style Marcelin and Philippe Thoby-Marcelin, also and content constituted the literary ex- received withsprehd acclaim at home and pression ofnegritude. This upsurge of abroad.They were written with greater prideinblackness and inthe African detachmentthanweretheworks of heritage, reflected since the 1940's in vir- Romain. tually all aspects of national life, has been viewed as an attempt by the culturally am- Efforts by Frank Fouche and F.Moris- bivalent middle and upper classes, especial- seau-Leroytonationalizethe dramatic ly those of the intelligentsia who had been arts included the rendering of Sophocles' educatedinParis,toestablishtheir Oer"gus RexandAntigoneintotheir identity.The peasants, of course, had no own versionof Creole.Severalpoets, need of it; they knew who they were. including Carl Brouard, Magloire St. Aude, and :mile Roumer, have been noted for Resentment against foreign works that, although linguistically French, 140 are Creole in expression andsentiment. In The movement was sparked by a 1935 Louis Diaquoi, a leading poet and United States artiste DeWitt Peters, who journalist,fostered a group called Les was teaching English in aHaitian govern- Griots (The Sorcerers), who derived their ment school. Peters felt frustrated because inspiration' fromvoodoo. Francois there was no colony of artists with who71 . A Duvalier; a member of this group, later to spend his leisure hours.He rented a used his intimate knowledge of the religion building and spread the word that artists to great advantage in concentrating power 'were 'invited to meet there,work thege, in the presidency. and exhibit their work; self-taught painters began to appear !Ind timidly offer their One of the most prominent of the work in exchange for a few ddllars and younger poets a Rene Depestre.Ills painting materials. Mineral Noir (Black Ore) and Traduit du Grand Large (Crossing of the Open Sea), When Rigaud Benoit first appeared written in exile, denounce- the white world at the center in 1945, for example,he was and express nostalgia for Africa and belief so unsure of the value of hiswork that he in human brotherhood. attributed most of it to tfriends). Haitian literary activity more or less The most famous of the Haitian coasted the momentum of the renais- primitive painters, the voodoo houngan sance of the 1940's untilthe mid-1960's. (priest) Hector Hyppolite, was discovered As Duvalier had himself been a participant when Peters passed his house and was in the blactnationakst literary movement, captivated by the decorative painting on' he did not mo'e initially to suppress it in his door.In 1946 Hyppolite brought systematic fashion: In fact, he introduced Wilson Bigaud, then a boy of fifteen, to national literature into the schools for the the center.Philome Obin, whose talent first time.By the mid-1960's, however, hadalreadybeen recognizedinCap- the pervasiveness of political repression Haftien, continued to work in his home- was such that most members of theintel- town, where he later established his own ligentsia had been rendered silent or driven school, but he sent many of his paintings into exile, and national literary develop- to the center. ment was suspended. Seiden Rodman, North American The Graphic Arts poet and anthologist, becameassociated with the Art Center in 1946, and in 1948 The renaissanceinliterature had he directed the Haitian Art Center in New been underway for about fifteen years York, through which many Haitian paint- before the rich potential in painting and ings made their way into United States col- sculpture flowered into a national move- lections. Meanwhile, in1947, a small ment.Until the Art Center was opened selection of Haitian paintings, especially in Port-au-Prince in 1944, those who paint- thoseof Hyppolite, had aroused great ed for the love of it did so in isolation, excitement at the international exhibit of without encouragement,instruction,or the United Nations Educational, Scientific recognition.There were no art schools, and Cultural Orga ization (UNESCO)in museums, or commercialgalleries. Paris. Episcopal Bishop Alfred Voegeli gave the wimitivart movement a Most 1 4 G 141 when he commissioned the center to deco- Early Haitian sculpture, such as the rate the walls of the Holy Trinity Cathedral portrait busts by Louis Edmond (Cathedra le Sainte Trinity)in Port-au-Prince. Laforesterisand the.monumentto Benoit,' Obin, Casters Bazile, and several Toussaint Louverture by Norman Ulysse others participated in the effort. The most Charles,was stylisticallyFrench. The highly acclaimed of the several now-famous movement launched by the Art Center, murals is Bigaud'sMiracle at Cana,in which however,gaverisetoinnovationin the New Testament feast is placed ina sculpture and woodcarving and called at- Haitian setting and embellished with such tentiontothe African artistic heritage. details as a policeman chasingathief. The sculpture of Valentin bears striking resemblance to that of West Africa, al- The voodoo influence his been most though he was not known to have been notableinthepaintings of Hyppolite, familiar with it.Odilon Duperier, once a whose creativeskills had been devoted carpenter's assistant, gained fame for the for many years to such ceremonial designs excellence of his carved masks.Jasmin as the give, which are drawn m the dust Joseph is noted for his imaginative terra and later stamped out by the dancers. cotta sculptures; and Georges Liataud, for Although he painted, often with a house- his work in sheet iron. painting brush, in bold strokes of bright color, the mystic quality of his personality Haitianarchitecture,scarcelyaf- is evident in his work. He died of a heart fected' by the renaissance in painting and attackin1948 while painting his own sculpture, reflects the country's colonial portrait. past and its dual culture.The thatched huts(Mlles),modeled by the first Negro Next to Hypo) lite, Bigaud is proba- slavesafterthose they had known in bly the most famous of the Haitian painters. Africa, are still the characteristic dwellings His canvases, among whichEarthly Paradise inthe rural areas, although many have andCockFightareparticularlywell been embellished with brightly painted known, are filled with great detal The doors, shutters and woodwork. jungles of Enguerrand Gourgue, like hose Architecture resembling that of French of Bigaud, are noted for their bar que chdteayxpredominates in the urban areas. lushness.Rene Vincent is noted fohis Some of the more outstanding examples of psychological expressiveness, and Touint French-inspired architectureare the 'eigh- Auguste, for the balanced sym of teenth-century cathedral at Port-au-Prince, his work. the Sans-Souci palace (built for King Henry I in the early nineteenth century), the Iron By 1950 the primitive art movement Market, the National Palace, and several had grown enough to develop rival groups, elegant mansions inthe French style of one of which established its own gallery, the late nineteenth century. The country's the Center for Plastic Arts(Foyer des Arts most impressive architectural monument Plastiques),inPort-au-Princeandhad is the Citadelle near Cap-Haftien, begun achieved international fame.Primitive art in 1804 under the direction of Henri Besse, has continued to flourish, but in recent a Haitian engineer.According to legend, years artists have also experimented with the construction of this massive mountain- modern trends emanating from Europe top fortress cost the lives of some 20,000 and the United States. to 25,000 slaves. 14 7 142 In recent decades there has been a the houngan's female chorus is also impor- transition from gingerbread detail and high- tanttothe ceremony. Some of the peakedstructuresinspiredby French ceremonial songs have been adapted, with architecture toward the simpler lines and little change in rhythm or melody,for functionalismofmoderninternational secular usage. Gossip, anecdotes, affection, architecture;severalHaitianarchitects, patriotism, and even political satire are especiallyRobertBaussan and Albert among the secular themes thatspice the Mangones, are noted for their contribu- work songs of the combite and the party tions to this development.The transfer songs of the bamboche (seech. 5). of politicalcontrol over the past few decades from the- French-oriented mulatto Most of the country's dances - and elite to the black middle class is reflected in there are dozens of them - were bornof the capital in a more general way by the voodoo also.The peasants dance indivi- abandonment of uniformity or style co- dually rather than in couples; their un- ordination in architecture and in the trend inhibited bodily motions respond to the toward greater use of bright colors rather 1...... 9rhythm of the drums. One of the dances than white. most commonly seen at a bambocheis known as the danse pinyique. The dance Music and Dance that the elite has shared with the urban lower classes, as well as-with most of the Music is an integral part of the lives other Caribbean countries, is the meringue. of all Haitians.Playing the piano is a The lyrics of the meringue are often full of common pastime for the womenof the innuendos concerning loveorpolitics. elite, and drawing room recitals featuring local or visiting performers are often ar- In addition to drums of all sizes and ranged.Music and dance have served as descriptions, Haitian musical instruments emotionalcatharses sincethe days of 'elude the bamboo flute, the tambourine, slavery. The street vendor chants the theAfrican marimba, the conch shell merits of her wares, and the farmer singi Iambi, the papaya-stem piston, and the inthe fields.Voodoo dances are per- bamboo base-vaccine. formed by peasants of allages, from toddlers to the old and infirm, and fathers Haitian folk music was transmitted teach the art of drumming to their young orally from generation to generation with sons.In Ainsi Parla l'Oncle (Thus Spoke no other means ofdissemination for many theUncle),Price-Marswritesthat, cA years; however, during the1930's a North Haitian could accurately be described as American, Harold Courlander, and two one who sings andsuffers, who toils and Haitians, Werner Jaegerhuber and Lina laughs, who dances and resigns himself to Mathon-Blanchet, began collecting, print- his fate.With joy in his heart or tears in ing,describing, recording, and arranging his eyes he sings.» public rerformances of Haitian songs and dances for folklore enthusiasts beyond the Most Haitian musicis of African nation'sborders. In1939 Madame origin and has its national roots in voodoo. Blanchetorganizeda group of young In the voodoo rituals there are songs to people to perform the traditional songs every god or loa.Possession by the loa is and dances. Since then several such groups induced mainly by the drummers, although have performedinHaitiandabroad. 143 Jean Leon Destine, after making a name for of the American-sponsored Constitution of himself on the New York stage with his 1918 guaranteeing freedoM of the press. solo interpretations of Haitian dances, has This action was taken to bring under returned periodically to Port-au-Prince to control the opposition press, which had direct the Folklore Troupe of Haiti, a gov- persisted in publishing propaganda against ernment sponsored entity, in its regular sea- the governments of Haiti and the United sons at the Verdure Theater (Thedtre de Ver- States. The press was censored, and dure).Emerante dig Pradines and Odette editors were jailed. Wiener also organized troupes that have per- formed at home and abroad; Katherine Dun- President Stenio Vincent (1930-41) haiN a United States citizen who spent sev- imprisoned editors without t 41 and sup- eral years in Haiti, has incorporated Haitian pressed their publications.President Elie rhythms into her internationally renowned Lescot(1941-46)arrestedandjailed modern dance routines. critical journalists. Presideryt/Dumarsais Estime (1946-50) closed a number of news- The most successful of the contem- papers.President Paul Magloire (1950-56) porary Haitian composers of formal music arrested editors and banned partisan radio have been those who have looked to the broadcast-in 1953 the presses of Haiti folklore for their inspiration. Jaegerhuber Democratique, an opposiRion newspaper, incorporated folksongs into an impressive were smashed. operaticrenditionofRomain'snovel Masters of the Dew and wrote a complete President Francois Duvalier's control mass in which he used African rhythms. of mass media was virtually complete. JustinElie,Theramene Manes, Decide Shortly after Duvalier took office in 1957 Joanty, and Ludovic Lamothe are also the publisher aad the leading columnist of noted for their use of folk rhythms, melo- the Haiti-Miroir were arrested; the editor dies, and legends in their formal composi- of the Independance was detained; and tions. the plants of these opposition papers and Le Matin were destroyed. Another oppo- PUBLIC INFORMATION sition paper - Le Patriote - ceased publica- tion after its offices were bombed and mem- In 1972 freedomof the press was bers of its staff were injured.In 1961 guaranteed by the constitution, and formal Duvalier closed La Phalange, a Roman censorship was not in effect, but most Catholic daily that, as of 1972, had not editors and publishers were careful not to resumed publication. print material that might be offensive to the government.Throughout the history Duvalier forced surviving newspapers of the country there have been many to do his bidding by granting subsidies, by instances of rigorous press censorship and compelling newspapers to publish - as their suppression of publications, and editorial own - previously prepared progovernmente immunity has rarely been a reality. Even editorials,and by assigningto regular duringtheUnitedStatesoccupation editorial staffs writers directly controlled (1915 -34),throughwhichtheUnited by the government. These controls were in States government hoped tointroduce effect at the time of his death in 1971. ir?democratic practices, the occupying forces ( considered it necessary to alter provisions 149 41 144 Newspapers, Periodicals, and Books The size of the dailies in 1972' ranged from four to eight pages; all of During the third quarter of the the newspapers carried advertising. eighteenth century the colony of Saint- Coverage of international news was small, Dqmingue suppoited an estimated fifty andtheonlyforeignnewsagency newspapers and other journals.Because providing service to Haitian publications of the high cost of production subscrip- was the French Press Agency ( Agency tions to these publications were limited France Presse - AFP). almost entirely to members of the upper class. The firstnewspaper was the In addition to official statements Gazette de Saint-bomingue, a weekly that and foreign news items considered to in the late 1780's had about 1,500 sub- beofoutstandingimportance,the scribers.The monthly Journal de Saint- contents ofthedaily newspapers Domingue rantosixty-four pages of consisted largely of gossip, reports of articles on belles lettres and such projects cultural events, sports news, and articles as commerce, agriculture, health, natural on home economics.Little space was history, and science; but, for lack of given to crime news, and political news subscribers, it lasted less than two years. was usually confined to official releases. Anofficialnewspaper,theGazette Politique et Commerciale d'HaiYi,ap-. Periodicals played only a limited peared in 1804 - the year in which the role in the field of public information. republic was founded.It was followed Several weeklies were published regularly, byhundredsofshort-livedjournals and a number of periodicals appeared published during the nineteenth century sporadically. A scholarly journal, Revue andttiefirsthalf of the twentieth de la Societe Haltienne d'Histoire et de century. Geographie,waspublishedquarterly. In 1972 the principal daily news- There were several printing firms rs,all published in Port-au-Prince, in Port-au-Prince in 1972 but no pub- were Le Nouveau Monde, Le Matin, lishing houses. A substantial proportion Le Nouvelliste, Panorama, and Le Jour. of Haitian writers had their works pub- Le Nouveau Monde, a semiofficial daily, lished outside of the country, and the had an estimated circulation of 5,000 or latest statistics available in 1972 indicated more.Le Matin, founded in 1907, had that in 1965 a total of twenty-five books an estimated circulation of 3,000 or more. were printed in Haiti. Le Nouvelliste, established in 1896, was the oldest newspaper being published Radio, Television and Motion Pictures 1972; itscirculation was an estimated 5,000 or more.Le Jour, founded in Because newspaper circulation and 1950, had a circulation estimated at about television broadcasting are limited to the 1,000.All of these dailies had general Port-au-Prince area, the nation's primary appeal. A newspaper that tended to take information and advertising medium is arelativelyindependent position was radio.In 1972 there were sixteen k.z.tive Panorama, founded in 1956.Its circu- broadcasting stations, most of which were lation was estimated at 1,500 or more. privately operated and licensed to adver- tise. They broadcast in both French and 145 Creole.The -number of receivers in the have run as high as one million. French country was estimated at 300.000. Large films predominated, but a considerable numbers of people did not hear radio number of films from the United States broadcasts regularly. and other countries were being shown with French soundtracks. In 1972 the three most powerful broadcasting stations (ten kilowatts each) Foreign Governmc at Activity wereRadio Nouveau Monde, Radio Haiti Inter -both in Port-au-Prince - andVoix In 1972 the French government Evangelique,in Cap-Haftien, oprated by was engaged in fairly extensive cultural ac- the -OrientalMissionary Society, a tivities in Haiti. The French Alliance(Alli- Protestant-based organization that had a ance Francalse)conducted academic, lan- number of other transmitters in Cap - guage, and other cultural programs and car- Haftien and Port-au-Prince.The- govern- ried out an exchange program in which ment station wasLa Voix de la Revolu- French professors and teachers came to tion,with severaltransmitters -allin Haiti and Haitian students were sent to. Port-au-Prince-the most powerful of France. The French also distributed films which broadcasted on seven kilowatts. and publications. The United States Infor- Radio Lumierewas operated by the West mation Agency provided material to the Indies Bible Mission, a Protestant organi- press and to radio and television stations. zation;itbroadcastedreligiousand It also provided instruction in English in a cultural programs over transmittersin binational center in Port-au-Prince, and Aux Cayes, Cap-Haftien, and Port-au- operated a library. Prince,themost powerful of which utilized five kilowatts.Power used by Other countries engaging in cultur- other stations most of them in Cap- al activities in Haiti were the Federal Re- Haitien and Port-au-Prince ranged from public of Germany (West Germany), Italy, 1,000 watts down to 100 watts. In order Spain, Great Britain, Canada and a num- topresentspecialfeatures or govern- ber of Latin American countries. ment-sponsored programs local stations made arrangements to rebroadcast programsemanatingfromthemore powerful stations. There was one television station, commercially-operated and broadcasting on two channels in1972. The two channels were receivable onlyinthe Port-au-Prince area. One telecast was in French, and one was in English; both operatedonlyduringeveninghours. Motion picture theaters in 1972 numbered 30, with a total of 17,000 seats. Eight of the theaters had wide screens. Tn? number of admissions in 1972 may THE HUGUENOTS by Marie-Reine Mikesell TransIgted into English by Phyllis Hagel Yorktown, Virginia At Yorktown, where Washington camp- ed and where Nicolas Martiau hadlived 125 As was the case in Boston and New years earlier, one can readthe following inscrip- York, the French Protestants were among the tion upon a monument: first pioneers in the southern states. As far back as1619, the treasurer of the Virginia Site de la maison de Company indicatedthat experiencedvine- Nicolas Martiau growers had been sent for to developviticul- le Huguenot aventureux ture. In 1621, the new Goy Amor, Sir Francis ne en France en 1591 Wyatt, received the order 'to Ptifft -mulberries venu en Virginie en 1620 and to take care of the Frenchmen who had Capitaine lors de been sent to take care of this task, and the l'insurrection indienne Virginia Verger of 1625 mentions the arrival Membre de la of 8 French vinegrowers from Languedoc to cul- Chambre des Electeurs tivate the vineyards and the mulberries. In 1629, Juge du me de York the French made an attempt at colonizing along en 1635 l'un des responsables the James River, but they had been given a de l'expulsion du gouverneur Harvey swampy and unhealthy tract ofland, and many ce qui represente of them died; the others dispersed without leav- la premiere opposition ing a 'trace. During the 17th century, some iso- a la politique colonial britannique lated Frenchmen continued to pass through Premier Patente de Yorktown Virginia, but it was not until the revocation et par le mariage de sa fille Elizabeth of the Edict of Nantes that several hundreds avec le colonel George Reade, of refugees arrived. We only have scanty in- it devint le premier ancetre formation about these refugees. americain a la fois du general GEORGE WASHINGTON One of the Huguenots who sought et du gouverneur Thomas Nelson refuge in Virginia, however, became known &lige par la Societe Huguenote through the celebrity of one ofhis descen- de Pennsylvanie avec 13 dants.Nicolas Martiau was one of thefirst cooperation de la Federation colonists of Virginia. Born in France, in 1591, nationale des Societes huguenotes et he waived in Virginia via England in 1620. He la Commission du wasthefirst American ancestor of George cent cinquantenaire de Yorktown Washington. Dr. John Baer Stoudt wrote his 1931 biofraphyin1932: «Nicolas Martiau,the adventurousHuguenot».JohnWashington Charleston, South Carolina and h:s brother Lawrence emigrated to Virginia only in 1657. It was in South Carolina that the greatest 146 1 (5" 147 number of French refugees established them- mined. At first look it would appear that every- selves and that the Huguenot influence was the thing pertaining to this group ought to have stongest. The history of the French immigra- turnedthem away.Itwasnotreligious tion follows fairly closely that of Virginia. It questions that motivated the rupture between was in 1679, one year before the founding of Henry VIII and Rome, but the refusal of Pope Charleston, that the first Frenchmen arrived. Clement VII to grant the King an annulment They had been sent to develop the culture of of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon. From vineyards, mulberries and olive trees, and King this situation, the changes in the ritual and the Charles II himself had. paid the costs of the doctrine that followed were numerous, and of expedition. During the years that followed, ref- all the Protestant Churches, this is the one ugees continued to arrive in small groups. The which retained most of the traditions of medi- latest to come founded New Bordeaux in 1764. eval Catholicism. It is likely that the Huguenots Some of them who had first stopped in New were pushed to this extreme position by their York and in New England, left after remaining situation. Scattered in the thirteen colonies, briefly in the colder climate to settle for good they were not numerous enough to maintain in Carolina. There was a total of 6 settlements their church and to obtain ministers. They founded by the Huguenots in South Carolina. were often forced to resort to calling upon the Charleston, the oldest, was also the one that «Society for the Propagation of the Gospel retained for the longest time characteristics Abroadd. It appears certain also that the for- that were clearly French. malities of naturalization were ea3ier for those who had accepted the power of the official The beginnings were not always easy. Church of England. Governors and representa- Some Frenchmen had been able to take their tives of the royal power exerted an undeniable wealth with them, wWch permitted them to pressure on the refugees to conform. Many buy land and to settle themselves better than yielded. Their attachment totheir culture the poorer English immigrants. On the other shoowed itself in another manner, by their per- hand, country people accustomed to the labori- siritat efforts to transmit to their children ous work of the vineyard succeeded in becoming the language that they had received from their prosperous through their businesses. By their ancestors. But certain among them resisted very success, they seemed to acquire more and staunchly and succeeded in maintaining for a more influence, which was felt as a threat. long time the discipline of the reformed French Thus they came to find themselves refused the churches. The Huguenots of Charleston, in spite right to sit in the provincial assembly and were of the obvious disadvantages which resulted the objects of suspicion and even of persecu- from their faithfulness to the pure Calvinist tion by the local authorities. Eventually the doctrine, as well as that of their descendants friction diminished, and in 1719, there were after them, steadfastly refused to «conform» two Huguenots, Benjamin de la Consiliere and and to become pact of the Episcopal church. Pierre Saint-Julien, on the Council of Twelve. They kept, until even the present day, their independent organization and are proud to As was the case in Boston and New belong to the only Huguenot church still exist- York. the French refugees of South Carolina ing on American soil. 1 The beautiful building, thought early on to ally themselves with the of gothic-normand style, has occupied the Church of Englan.The reasons which decid- present site since 1693. ed so many Huguenots to conform and to accept, at least in name, the discipline of the Anglican Church hae not been clearly deter- 1 .5 3 148 Francis Marion a favorable setting. In spite of thefounding of Harvard College, the taste for education Each war has its commanders and its he- was not widespread in Boston; commerce, roes. The American War of Independence pro- religion and politics absorbed all intellectual duced its most heroic and most romantic figure effort and people thought of developing a in the person of Francis Marion.His story culture independent of English culture only reads like an adventure novel.He was the during the time of the national crisis preced- grandson of a Huguenot refugee from Langue- ing the Revolution. The refugees were able, doc, who settled in South Carolina. Francis' within limits, to contribute to the expansion father was the oldest of 13 children. When the of the knowledge of the French language. regular army was formed in 1775 to defend They furnished several French teachers, but South Carolina against the English, Marion was those were without great cultural knowledge named captain.After the capitulation of and contact with the French intellectual life Charleston in 1780, he went to Santee, one of and thus they had necessarily limited in- the Huguenot settlements, where he found a fluence. From the religious point of view, fair number of his co-religionists ready to place their Calvinism seemed to have been moder- themselves under his command. He formed ated and humane, and they could have, withthem the Brigade de ."'-2rionwhich became perhaps, contributed to softening the rigor of legendary. His exploits mark a turning point the Puritan dogmas, if they had notrallied al- in the outcome of the war. He sowed confu- most everywhere early on to the Anglican sion among the Tories and revived the patriotic church. fervor among soldiers who had been reduced to a handful of men bydesertions and discourage- But if the Huguenot refugees had often ment. The mapner in which he luredthe en- only a secondary influence upon the develop- emy into ambushes and defeatedthem, even ment of American civilization, it was a differ- though he was almost without munitions, ent story for their descendants who played earned him the appellationRenard des Marais. an important role during the war for Indepen- dence and during the debates which preceded Even if one omits a precise numerical the adoption of the Constitution. They pro- evaluation, it nonetheless remains a fact that vided America with statesmen who played the support brought by therefugees of a decisive role during the timeof the Revolu- French origin to the formation of the Ameri- tion in the destiny of the country, men like can population of the thirteen coloniesis far Alexander Hamilton, whose mother was a from negligible. Had the majority of the HuguenotfromtheAntilles; John Jay, refugees belongedf.tiniie educated and grandson of Auguste Jay from La Rochelle; enlightened clan. .aociety, and had they and Anne-Marie Bayard from New York, found themselves zIn atmosphere encourag- Elias Boudinot from Philadelphia and Henri ing to the dcvelopt, Lnt of science and litera- Laurens from Charleston. The latter, captured ture, perhaps they .'ould have exercised a at sea in 1780 by the English while he was on distinctinfluenceasthey had done in a mission to Holland, hadthe great honor to Holland, England and Prussia. But we know be exchanged for Cornwallis. It is verysignifi- that the American refugees were peasants or cant that among the four signers of the Treaty businessmen, that there were few artisans of Paris in1782 (John Adams, Benjamin among them, and that only the pastors were Franklin, John Jay and Henri Laurens) which educated. NeitherNewEngland, New assuredthe independence of theUnited Amsterdam and even less so Carolina offered States, two were son and grandson of French 149 refugees. A Huguenot was the first Secretary This is one of the reasons, and by no means oftheTreasuryofthenewrepublic the least, for the popularity which the name (Hamilton), the first chief justice (John Jay) La Fayette continues to enjoy in the United and three of the seven presidents of the Con- States. tinental Congress (Henri Laurens 1777-78, John Jay 1778-79, Elias Boudinot 1782-83). The reconciliatiiin between Frenchmen James Bowdoin (Baudoin) presided over the and American Huguenots continued to grow. A conventionwhichgaveMassachusettsits As strong as The prejudice was of the Ameri- constitution and John Jay and Goyernor can Huguenots against the country of Saint- Morris cooperated in the writing of the New Bartholemy and of the Revocation of the York constitution. Edict of Nantes,nonetheless, the French participation in the American war of inde- America owes also several of its best pendence seemed to have redeemed the situa- poetstoHuguenot descendants.Philippe tion and made the old prejudice forgotten. A Freneau, the firstreal poet of the young Colonel Fontainewrote, on 26 October, UnitedStates, had keptin contact with 1781,after York's surrender: «The troops French literature and was a translator as well which came were the flower of the English as an original writer. Whittier, the anti-slavery army, but, however, I do not think that their Quaker poet, was proud of being descended appearance was better than that of our troops on his mother's side from Huguenot refagees. or of the French troops. The latter, you can Longfellow had Huguenot ancestry and the be sure, are very different from the ideas we French origin of Sidney Lanier, poet of the had been given beforehand which portrayed South and of David Thoreau is apparent even them as a people who lived on frogs and by their names. Thoreau was the grandson of horrid vegetables. I have never seen better- Philippe Thoreau and Marie Le Gallais, who looking troops!» were refugees inthe Isle of Jersey. Also among the Huguenot descendants are presi- At the end of the 19th century, when dents of the United States: Washington, the calm returned after the civil war, the Ameri- two Adams,Tyler,GarfieldandF. D. cans could turn towards the past, and the Roosevelt:philantropistsandsupporters descendants of the Huguenots reclaimed their of education: Stephen Girard, Christophe ancestors. With Macauley, they proclaimed Roberts, Matthew Vassar, James Bowdoin that «A people which does not revere with and Thomas Gallaudet. pride the noble accomplishments of its ances- tors will never accomplish anything worthy The volunteers who accompanied La of being preserved in the memory of its own Fayette and Reliambeauss soldiers found descendants». In 1885, on the 200th anni- more than once among the troops in Washing- versary of the Revocation of the Edict of ton's army men who bore the same names Nantes,thedescendantsoftheFrench asthemselves, and who could oftenstill refugeesfoundedtheSociete Ifuguenote reply in their maternal language. La Fayette d'Arnerique, which had as its objective to himself was so struck by this that upon his «reunite the sons of the sons of the French return to France he worked to return civil Reformers, to retrace and to preserve the rights to the French Protestants. We know memory of the actions of their ancestors, and that thanks to his efforts, the Assemblee des to transmit them to their children and'to their Notables adopted a Tolerance Act in 1787 children».After this date, commemorative which gave back legal rights to the Huguenots. plaques multiplied. During the same year, 150 , they established on a similar basis the inde- pendent organizationSociete Huguenote de la Caroline du Sud.On the official seal of the two societies are found the fleulde lys of France on a blue background. NB - No other people played as privileged a role in the history of the United States as did the French. Through her explor- ers and founders of cities, such as Joliet, La Salle, Du lhut, Cadillac, .Vincennes, Bienville and many others, through the participation of the Huguenots in the founding of the republic, and through the vital French military aid during the war of independence, the French people truly left a threefold imprint upon the history and the countryside of America. (1)Since 1950, the Huguenot church of Charleston has had neither a pastor nor regular services. Reprinted by permission of the author and Le Travailleur, Worcester,Massachusetts. 15 6 THE ACADIANS OF MAINE by Julie D. Albert Foreward Many authors, in order to shield the that is valuable, because it has been, from the British government from the responsibility of very beginning, preserved in living human minds having committed one of the most atrocious instead of in cold historical print.Since our crimes against humanity, have distorted the facts oldest residents had very little or no education, about the Acadians and their dispersal.They they often developed vivid memories, and many have pictured them as a rebellious and untrust- retain clearer impressions Of the customs and worthy people while the real stories have been habits of their youth than of more recent hap- buried with the wretched and miserable wander- penings. ers lacking the necessities to sustain life.You will learn here that they had their faults, but We can understand and appreciate our none that deserved the oppressions and per- own civilization better if we are informed of the secutions they, had to endure for centuries. If earlier inhabitants who once existed on the very you are Acadian, you have just cause to be lands, beside the same waters, in the same valley proud of your lineage. You can rightfully claim we now inhabit; if we are acquainted with their for heritage virtues and qualities that no other mode of life, their joys and sorrows, their trials race in the world possesses. and victories, their concocted medicines and remedies for men and beasts, and their foods Some French words and expressions have and dishes now long out of fashion. been used because they would lose much of their flavor if translated.I have done my best Most of the things inthis world go to give a good general background of our Aca- through three stages.First,. they are new, excit- dian ancestors and ask my readers to take up ing and interesting.Then they become dull, any complaints with the committee for the next have more or less outgrown their function, and centennial in the year 2069.Good reading. are put aside.If they manage to survive this dangerous period, they become interesting again, Introduction even romantic, tinged with a certain mystery for the power they have to give us insight into the Someone has compared a community lives of our ancestors. Some such antiques are which does not know its own history to a man the old iron kettle, the clay pipe, portraits, who has lost his memory.Our own town is homemade tools and furnsture, firearms, etc... relatively young compared to others in the They have become heirlooms to be treasured, country, but already many of the traditions and and in the not too distant future will be the only customs of our Acadian ancestors, worth record- ones left to gspeak* of bygone days to those ing and preserving, are vanishing from our family interested in glistening*. life. YOUR LAND AND MINE. The old residents' unwritten information, handed down through generations, although lia- Geologists tell us that at one time the ble to fluctuations and variations, contains mu...h whole of the St. John Valley, as well as the rest 151 15 152 of the continent, w- s covered with a glacier ing beauty that it has been compared to the ice several hundred feet high. Careful studies Rhine. of rock strata reveal that at least twelve times during the millions of years of geologic times From the fin., the soil was found favor- our mountains were th :List skyward, only to be able for growing plants such as fodder and leveled away by erosion of sun, wind, rain and cereals, for root vegetables, (potatoes in partic- snow. Climate ranged from tropical to temper- ular) and for fruits that ripen in temperate ate to frigid, until finally the last great ice sheet zones.The climate is healthful, and the late started melting and moving on top of the spring and early fall frosts that were once the mountains. As the climate grew warmer, the terror of the colonists are quite rat.!. The valley glacier inched its way to the southeast, literally itself, by its very formation, is preserved from gouging out streams and rivers, taking loose soil many natural disasters that occur els,:where. and rocks GUt to sea.In time, rivers narrowed down, leaving or the shores part of the beds Although winters are long and cold, the they had occupied, Thus, the tops of ours hills land is truly magnificent in any season.In were long ago the shores of the river.Lakes, spring,the quiet shadows of thick fir and ponds, rapids ar 3 waterfalls were formed; spruce are dappled with the lighter green of grasses, plants and flowers sprang up. Forests sunlight on budding trees; the maple, birch, grew, wild animals roamed through them, and beech, and alder thickets blaze gloriously in the stage was set for man's coming. October; and, always, the rivertranquil, free, now clackas ebony under dark scudding When the glacier finally left Maine, it left clouds, then pink and gold as the afternoon 2503 lakes and ponds, thousands of streams light diffuses in shadows. never counted, and the only Atlantic Salmon rivers in the country.Lakes are big, Moose- Today many French Acadians refuse to head being forty miles long and half as wide. be drawn from the peace and quiet of their On its eastern side, rising a thousand feet above own realm to the attractions of the modern the lake, is Mount Kineo, which the Indians city.Home ties are strong here. Civilization claimed was a huge moose crouching down so has dispelled the wilderness, the majestic pines that the giant medicine man could talk into its have nearly all vanished, but the soft hand of ear. This is where they came every summer to the valley, once it has captured your heart, get their felsite, hornstone, quartz and flint for does not easily give it back. making arrowheads, knives, spears and other tools. NATIONAL COLORS The St. John River, so called because it In 1880, theSociete St-Jean-Baptisteof was discovered by Samuel de Champlain on Quebec, wanting to celebrate its national holi- St. John the Baptist's Day in 1604, used to be day in a special way, invited all the French named the Wooloostook, in honor of one of people of America to the planned festivities. the Indians' greatest chiefs.Translators have This was the first time the Acadians were to be interpreteditas meaning Crooked River or assembled together since the famous call to the Shallow River. Flowing in the opposite direc- church for the dispersion of Grand-Pre. A tion from any other river in Maine, it winds its .committee was formed to see that delegates leisurely way between the fertile lands of the from Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia valley, as if reluctant to leave the picturesque and New Brunswick were named to convene shores.Where it traverses Madawaska, in the later to see to their general interests.Condi- middle of its course, it appears in such enchant- tions havingchangedconsiderably,the. 153 153 Acadianshad begun to feel somewhat apart These Indians were not brutal nor stupid, from the Canadians and wanted a National but spoke with insight and good judgment. Holy Day proper to themselves- a day when How ever, every one of them was highly super- they would reunite once a year to talk of their stitious, hence the following legend: fathers, recall the glories of the past, and reaf- firm their faith at the foot of the altar. A live- An enormous beaver, a mon. of colos- lydiscussion ensued, and finallythe date sal proportions, possessed of a bad spirit and decided upon was August 15th, with Notre- named Glouscap had predicted for them many Dame de l'Assomption as their patroness. The mishaps. Outraged by their infidelities, Glous- celebration was a complete success. cap, after having ravaged the lower part of the river, had come to Madawaska. Here he an- Three years later, at a-. ether assembly, nounced to the inhabitants that their head- the Acadian flag was designed.The star is quarters would he destroyed and the Malecites symbolic of Mary, Stella Maris, who guided the would know many moons of bad luck. Seized outcasts through storms and sufferings.The by fright, the Indians tried to appease his anger blue field it rests upon represents the persons by bringing beaver skins, which they deposited consecrated to her; while the papal colors, gola at the mouth of the river. A trickster came to and white, show their inviolable attachment to tell them that Glouscap's anger had subsided Holy Mother, the Church. Their chosen hymn and that, at last, they were to see good days. was Ave Maris Stella, and their motto, Surge Acadia. The first flag was made by M. s. The genius of conscience, very happy Alphee Belliveau (Wile Babineau) and is con- with this reparation, wanted to leave his mark served at the museum of the cathedral Notre- of contentment.Seeing that only a narrow Dame de l'Assomptionin Moncton, N.B. stream of water passed at the foot of the for- tress, he changed the course of the river by Seeking to strengthen the unifying ties bringing it near their houses.An immense among Acadian groups, the Societe Nationale pliecdng ridge of rocks made a .11 in the bed des Acadiens now meets every five years, in- of the new course. A part of this he hit with quiring into their economic and social standing, his powerful tail to let the bark canoes cross coordinating national effort for effective ac- this fall.Then he left to spend the winter at tion, prtmoting the welfare of Acadians every- Temiscouata. where, propagating the French language and Catholic religion and helping isolated minority The next spring, word came back that he groups who cannot survive or progress by had been seen departing in the glow of a themselves. sunset, to return to his home in the rising sun. From there, however, he was liable to come THE LEGEND OF GLOUSCAP back at any time to punish the Malecites H ho were not faithful to the Great Spirit. Before 1830 the Indians of Madawaska lived along the river shore. They were peaceful IN OLD ACADIA citizens, respectful of authority, honest, and charitable.Even though they have lost their The name Acadia is very ancient.In right to a political chief because of the diminu- 1524 Jean Verazzano named a region in Nova tion of their people, the era of patriarchy is Scotia Arcadie because of its beautiful trees. still with them and they live at Tobique, capital In 1603 Champlain used Arcadie to denote the seat of the tribe, under a regularly elected chief. same territory. 15J 154 Port Royal, now known as Annapolis, were of the cheapest, unseaworthyold hulks was the second permanentEuropean settle- with no comfort or safety, with only one aim: ment in America.Piziquid is now Windsor; to get them out as quickly as possible, in the Beausejour is Cumberland;Ile Royale is Cap- cheapest way.cI do not know,» observed Breton; and IleSt. Jean is Prince Edward George Bancroft,if the annals of the human Island; Baie Francaise is now Bay of Fundy. race keep the record of sorrow sowantonly in- flicted, so bitter and so lasting as fell upon the EVANGELINE French inhabitants of Acadia.»During the eleven years of exile, about 10,000 died on «This is the forest primeval. land and sea, a fact which speaksr itself. The murmuring pines and the hemlocks, Longfellow weaves a story ofe simple inhabitants of Acadia, their numeroL Bearad with moss, and in their honesty and attachment to theirertile garments green, indistinct in lands and to the Catholic religion. How sweet the twilight, life was along the river shores, in the apple or- chards where young men met the pretty shep- Stand like druids of eld, with herd girls and declared their love!. voices sad and prophetic, Grand-Pre was the largest and loveliest Stand dike harpers hoar, with parish, where lived Gabriel Lajeunesse and beards that rest on their bosoms.» Evangeline BeUefontaine, son and daughter of two lifelong friends. 'Their marriage contract Thus states Henry Wadsworth Long- had just been drawn up by the rfotary when the fellow's mournful epic,familiar to almost men were called to St. Charles church,for the everyone. But what everyone does notknow is announcement of the dispersal.Evangeline's that the cruel dispersal of the Acadians by the father died of emotion and was buried on the English in an effort to make them disappear shore before the embarkation; then she and from the face 61 ..e earth was more horrible Gabriel were herded on different ships. than any writer or poet can describe.Woids cannot do justicetothe humari anguish The rest of her life was anagotaing broughtabout by the cunning and deceitful search for her beloved. Hearing rumors of his Lawrence and the intense hatred heentei* whereabouts, even speaking with people who tained for the French Catholics.In a way it is had just seen him, she sought him everywhere. ironical that his orders to the soldiers who were Believing he had gone to Louisiana, she joined about to imprison the unsuspectingAcadians: a group of Acadians and descended the Mis- were fashioned after those ofOur Savior to sissippi, to find his father, the old blacksmith Judas: «Quad fads, fac clams»...«Whatever of Grand-Pre.He now owned land and cattle you do, do it quickly.» and had succeeded in Louisiana. But Gabriel? Tortured by the thought of his loved one, un- It was under his orders that the Aca- able to stay long in one plate, he had left that dians after heart-rending separations, embarkeid day on another boat, which had crossed hers to be transported to strange lands. At agiV6 during the night.She and Basil, his father, amount per head, with a small allowanceof arrived at a Spanish town, but he had just left pork and flour per week, they were given no by the prairie routes,They travelled west more consideration thananimals. The vessels where Jesuit missionaries told of seeing him, 155 but he had gone north and was not due back maritime provinces: Nova Scotia, New Bruns- until fall. Basil returned hcAne, and the days of wick, and Prince Edward Island. waiting dragged into months. Winter came and went, and now rumors were that he was in the Until 1755, our forefathers had-persisted Michigan forests. Resuming her pursuit, all she in refusing to take uThe Big Oath», as it was found were traces of the elusive phantom, Her called, unless they were assured that in case of story is much like that of the Acadian people war they could take a neutral stand and not themselves, who came to be the most nomadic have to fight against the French, their brothers, on earth. or the Indians, their oldallies.Here is the oath:4cle promets et jure en foi de chretien, Worn out, gray and old before her time, que je serai fiddle et fobeirai i1Sa Majeste she became a Sister of Mercy in Philadelphia. George II, que je reconnais comme le Souverain An epidemic broke out, and not caring for her Seigneur de l'Acadie ou Nouvelle-Ecosse. Ainsi life, she went to nugthe sick in an almshouse. que Dieu me soit en aide.*However, when There, among the destitute, she found the dy- Governor Lawrence came into power, he insist- ing Gabriel in time to close his eyes. In his last ed that they now take it or be drastically pun- moments his feverish mind had been with his ished.Delegates sent to intercede were jailed, beloved. Evangeline in Grand-Pre.With a and missionary Leloutre advised several fam- prayer of thanks she pressed him to herbosom ilies to leave secretly, since at the time no one as he breathed his last with her name onhis could leave the country at will. On August 3, three priests were arrested, but not before they consumed the Hosts in their Churches; all In Acadia this poem is read, devoured in church records were destroyed,Before they parishes and homes. The most educated people were shipped out, the holy meninstructed the translate it and explain it. In schools, students stunned people to strip the altars, spread the memorize it.They weep or rage. They give funeral cloth on the pulpit, and put on it the the name Evangeline to girls, and no one seems crucifix - they had only Jesus Christ for priest to note that Lajeunesse is Canadian, not Aca- now. dian. The story is what matters. Not long after came the famous order LE GRAND DERANGEMENT for all men, from the oldest to boys about ten years old, to meet at the St. CharlesChurch at The past of the French Acadian people Grand-Pre on Friday, September 5, at three in who came here from Nova Scotia is a long the afternoon, for 4ca special message from the story of persecution by the English, a century king.* No excuse, under any pretext would be of uncertainty when their country changed accepted, and those who did not go would have allegiance nine times, a continuous struggle their property confiscated.The same order with unequal arms.It is no wonder that one was read in the neighboring parishes.Some man, who could not endure any more,asked, familiesfledto the woods with whatever qDoes God not make any more lands for the belongings they could carry. But that is how Acadians?* 418 Acadian men and boys found the church doors locked behind them, and listened in Historians do not agree on the origin of shock and disbelief while Winslow read to them the word oAcadie,, but most-accept that it is and someone elsetranslated,thatalltheir derived from an Indian word meaningplace lands, crops, buildings, livestock, etc. were fertile in. Today, Acadia signifies the three being confiscated, and that they and their lf 156 families were to be deported. After five days French population, but few returned to their of being held prisoners, they were led to the homeland. beach, at bayonet point when they resisted, where vessels awaited them, with more boats In 1776, a caravan of about 200 families coming from Boston. walked up from Massachusetts through. the woods; about 30 of those families stayed in the On October 8, a sorrowful file, one and Fredericton area, on the St. John River. They one half miles long, between the church and did not have legal title to the lands they took, the beach, started the embarks: - old people so with the arrival of the Loyalists, they had to broken with grief,the sick and infirm on move further north.This time they crossed stretchers, women carrying small babies, fright- Grand Falls, where they knew the vessels of ened children, separated families to be put on war could not follow them. different vessels bound for different places. The first three boats were the Endeavor, the It was June, 1785, and they had arrived; Industry and the Mary, with the Boston firm Their names were Duperre, Potier,Daigle, of Apthorp & Hancock as agents in settling Fournier, Cyr, Ayotte, Thibaudeau, Sansfacon, with the owners of the vessels for transporta- and Mercure. Of these, _lie Cyrs have stayed tion. the most localized in Madawaska.Others to come later from the same place were: Cormier, Night fell...both at sea and in all hearts. Violette, AMirault, Martin, Mazerolle, Leblanc, As they made for the high seas, their last look Gaudin, Hebert, Theriault, etc. Many are so lingered on the dark silhouettes of their homes typically Acadian that they are recognized against a glowing red sky; the last things they everywhere: Comeau, LeBlanc, Legere, Gaudet. heard were the moaning of those who had been found by soldiers with bloodhounds, and were ACADIAN SKETCHES being punished amidst the oaths and laughter of the English. The boats were fish transports It was back in 1714 that the Lord of which had not even been cleaned and were so Trades decided to keep the Acadians by force on crowded that there was not enough space to lie their own land when they wanted to flee the per- down. The necesMties for the old and sick had secutions. This law was in force for 40 years. not been brought, so many were soon released from their misery by death. Such was the naiveté of the Acadians that when they were summoned to the church for They were left, literally seeded, all along the deportation, they thought that this wsis still the Atlantic shores, from Boston to Georgia. a question of the oath. They knelt because this Those who were left furthest went to Louisiana was the house of God, even though inhabited by which was still a French colony; and today, English soldiers. Also, they were imploring Lis they have very much the same culture as ours. help in this hour of distress. Meanwhile Winslow, In Virginia no one wanted the unfortunates, so who had had orders to leave the country an un- they were sent to England, where half died in inhabitable wilderness to prevent their return, seven years. A very small number stayed in the took his place at a table in the middle aisle. Fkoni English states where they were sent; and those there he delivered the crushing blow that left who did, with few exceptions, have just about them numb with grief. Slowly they made their lost all trace of their origins.Always, they way to the doors, to tell their families, but were tended to regroup and come back, many going rudely turned back with bayonets.' to Quebec where they were absorbed by the 162 157 The next day Winslow gave in to their they were found, many were unable to walk. weeping requests that some of them be let out Said a missionary, «These people died in great to tell their wives and mothers what had hap- imbers that winter, and those who escaped pened. He let go 10 from Grand-Pre, 10 from at ath did not escape the horrible contagion Riviere-aux-Canards, every day by turn .on con- and famine which reigned, driving them to eat ditionthat the others were responsible for the leather of their shoes and carrion.» them. If they did not return, then punishment was to be inflicted upon the next of kin or the *** next neighbor. The English even introduced smallpox Until the actual separation of families among the Indians by means of contaminated began, they had submitted, but now they cried blankets, and more than 200 died. and refused.Soldiers with fixed bayonets or- dered them to march. So they started, slowly, *** praying, some singing hymns, all weeping - being met by the women all the way, some It was the ship Pembroke, hearing 232 follow;ng on their knees.It was a sad sight exiles from Port Royal, that was mutinied indeed to see husbands and sons kissing the under the leadership of a Beaulieu, an old me&Ai hung from their necks and tossing it master mariner, and landed at the St. John t(' a wife or mother; and she, understanding, River (in the Fredericton area). holding it tightly, kissing it back and returning it to him. Many of these were never to meet *** again. For nearly one hundred years, some Thinking that perhaps they were still Acadians had for food only potatoes, salted being deceived and would return, the women fish and pork, pVis berries, roots and herbs locked their wardrobes hoping to find again the found in the wOds. Many did not remember precious cloth woven by their own hands. what bread tasted like. Under such conditions, Some dropped their money into wells, others it is aot surprising that many recipes were for- buried it in chests or earthen pots where they got ten. were found by the Englishsettlers sixyears later. *** The first fleet set sail on October 27, In 1760, having learned of the fall of 1755, with almost 4,000 Acadians encircled by Quebec, and that the French had lost, they three warships equipped with cannons.Six were fully resolved to die rather than surrender hundred eighty-eight buildingsat Grand-Pre to the English. In spite of famine and unbear- and Riviere-aux-Canards,representingthe ablehardships,they remained sincere and labors of six or seven generations, were in devout, atruly Christian and God fearing flames.The water in some of the wells had people. Today the Acadians harbor no hatred even been poisoned. for the English for the wrongs suffered at the hands of their fathers. In November of the same year, hundreds of fugitives had escaped to the St. Lawrence *** where they lived in huts, dressed in rags. The winter was severe with lots of snow; and when In1766,the caravanthat came up 163 158 through the Maine woods found in New Bruns- the joy of celebrating Mass in the little bark wick friends and relatives they had not seen for covered chapel erected by the colonists, not 11 years.Some stayed there; others went on far from where the St. Basile church is today. to their old homes only to find everything From Kamouraska arrived the families Soucy, changed.The only things that remained 'the ,Albert,Michaud, Levasseur, Chaurest, and same, were the wells, the dykes, thewillows, Saucier; then came the Dubes, Beaulieus, and and apple orchards. They went further south Gagnes from Isle Verte; tuimonds and Ouel- to St. Mary's Bay, having travelled on foot lets from Riviere-Ouelle, and Desnoyers from 1,000 miles, and lands were granted them the Riviere du Sud.Later came the Gosselins, next year.When the English colonists, who Bellefleurs,Vaillancourts,Auclairs,Tardifs, had now built homes on the ashes of theirs, ar- Marquis,Racines,Laforests,Lizottes,and rived. they met a few straggling families who Smiths. had not eaten bread for five years. Even though the New Brunswick author- LOG CABINS AND MOCCASINS ities had promised them title to their lands three years after occupation, they had to wait It was in June of 1785 when the would- five.Many, still suspicious of false promises, be Founders of Madawaska abandoned the left.But in 1790 Joseph Mazerolle and 51 little Parish of Ste Anne des Pays-Bas. others were givel documents making them legal owners of their farms.Conditions were After ten days of difficult march, they that they pay annually to the provincial treas- perceived the valley was getting wider, with ury two shillings for every 100 acresgranted, soft undulations and contours, and knew that clear in less than three years three acres on they had reached their «promised land». On fifty given, construct a hole at least .20 by 15 the virgin soil of the south side of the river, feet, and drain the marshes. about one and one half miles from where the St. David church now stands, Joseph Daigle With wooden harrows and. plows, they planted a wooden cross which all saluted as a set about carving their domains. Lacking tools sign of salvation and hope in the future. The and materials,they built crude log houses Cyrs chose this farm, and it remained in the caulked with moss and covered with birch Cyr family for five generations. The Dufours bark.In the center of the only room-was the were tosettle further up,as the Heberts, hearth, a large chimney of stones cemented by Daigles,etc. Land belonged to whomever mortar made of clay.It was used to heat, cleared it, and this they set about to do at cook, and give light by night. There were a few once, with the center ofthe colony being a benches, sometimes tree Rumps to sit on, a shortdistance fromtheactualSt. David table, storage chests, and always, a cradle for Church.Land holdings were divided in long thenew. additionfilm came everyyear. narrow fields stretching awayfrom the river, Women helped with thycrops, did the weaving, which ;ccounts for their later being called spinning, knitting, malting, of cljthes, garden- osuv -nt er farms». This was so thateach had ing, washing by hand, milking and housekeep- a terrain with combined advantages, ing.Everything was homemade or grown; a such as river frontage for fishing and water out- few articles like salt, oil, and molasses were let, level lands for farMing, and hillylands for transported by canoe, sleds, or on the backs of timber and maple sugar. men from Riviere-du-Loup, eightymiles away. Clothes were of rough gray, homespun, and all In the second year, Father Leclerc had wore boots or moccasins madefrom animal 16'.j 159 hides.Crops grew reasonably well, but soon honest, hospitable,patient in adversity and the Acadians realized that they would have to noted for his courage in difficult circumstances. move further upland to escape theflooding of He was cheerful, spiritual, a great lover of song the river, which recurrently submerged their and fun, and probably would not have survived houses and barns every spring. had he not been so stubborn!He was inscru- table, reticent and quite pessimistic. He would «C'ETAITLANOS kRES» never give a direct yes or no answer,but when he had given his word, it was parole de mi.' Our fathers arrived in the most abject and there was no greater insult than saying of poverty, with no resources, no instruction, someone that he had failed his word.Although with only one aim...to be forgotten.For a a little negligent in his work and apt to trustin time they succeeded so well in achieving com- Divine Providence, he was naturally inventive, pleteisolationand abandonment, avoiding adept in construction and woodwork.Con- being known and attracting attention, that sequently, he often exchanged his time build- they nearly ended by forgetting themselves. At ing for the Canadian, while the latter, who sur- the time of the deportation in 1755, more than passed him in agriculture, plowed fields and 50 percent were literate, a respectable propor- cleared land for him. tion for the time. However, 50 years later, this figure had dwindled to 25 percent. Not only A bornphilosopher,workingina had they not advanced, they had retrogressed. dreamy melancholic silence, he nevertheless Intime, however, through their proverbial had a great fear of appearing sentimental.It stubbornness and strength of will, these ances- was entirely fit and proper todiscuss an inter- tors of ours were to take their rightful placein esting case of bunions or heartburn, but one the political, economic, intellectual and reli- did nct speak freely of matters of the heart, gious world. We shall see that they had special and he quickly turned away when tears filled characteristics, many of which are still en- the eyes or a lump came to the throat. countered after nearly 200 years. Nothing came before his own nationality, They were a la fois Breton et Nor- his Roman Catholic religion, and his French and, meaning thattheyoriginally came language. He clung tenaciously to the customs from Brittany and Normandy in northwestern and traditions of his fathers.Families were France. Physically, those of Nordic strain were large and of prime importance.Parents were fair complexioned, tall, blue eyed, with long totallyrespected and their decrees obeyed. heads and thin hair.The former were dark. These people extracted a hard living from the shorter, with large square jaws, handsome and soil, but still found sweetness in their days... well built. The women were often very pretty, sorrow, joys, tragedies, all weresham a. Lend- talked and laughed a lot, and dominated the ing and helping each other prevailec;.1 true household.They excelled, as they still do, in Christianspirit. Sudden laughter sustained needlework of all kinds. them in their pains, prayer inclined their souls to resignation, and hard work brought consola- We do not deceive ourselves in believing tion to their sorrows. that they all possessed outstanding character- istics.Some were the scum of the earth, fu- The first three parishes in Acadia were gitives from justice, ruffians and misfits; others Port Royal, Grand-Pre (St. Charles Church), wer . ordinary men, women,and children, just and Beaubassin, with Sulpician priests. as we are today.The typical Acadian was *** 160 Grand-Pre means large meadow. them the next day. At first a little wary, the Malecites soon let tall their suspicions and cor- *** dially received the white men in the room of the grand council, which was filled with war- «Men use rough words and harsh, some- riors. This diplomatic visit was worth much to times, by reason of the very gentlenessand, the Acadians because Chief Francois-Xavier pity that are in their souls.» had, at the time, som 200 warriors under his Ouida orders, and the Acadian representative would have been at their mercy had any differences *** occurred. As it happened, the old chief's pride was flattered and he took them under his pro- Profoundly religious, Crime, theft,and tection. debauchery were unknown among them. Good or bad, they accepted their lot in life as the will The Malecites were expert hunters and of God without murmur. fishermen, and taught the newcomers the basic principles of becoming woodsmen, trappers, *** guides, and of surviving in the woods. Some of their woes were hollowed out from logs, Wefindstrikingpointsofresemblance others made of hides stretched over frames; but between the maritime Acadiansid those of by far the most beautiful was the bark canoe. Louisiana, although they have not had contacts Covered on the outside with paper birch, its for two centuries. joints waterproofed with pitch pine and other natural gums, it was lightweight, graceful, easi- *** ly controlled, and rode the water as silently as a fallen leaf.Until the coming of the white REDSKINS AT HOME man, nails were unknown. Long pliable roots and animal sinews were used for binding, sew- The primitive site of the Malecites, who ing, and the making of snowshoes. Trees for were to become the most faithful allies of the canoes were cut only in the dark of the moon, Acadians, was at one time where the city of because it was believed the wood was then less Edmundston now stands,andwas called subject to worms and rot. MadoueSkak. Thereiscontroversy among translators...some say the name was Micmac for The Malecites were nomads, and did not «porcupine place», while others claim it meant care for work nor for well-made homes, which «a junction of rivers» or «grass lands extending were deserted part of the year while their oc- totheriver banks»,More agreed with the cupants engaged in warfare with their enemy, porcupine theory, because of the prevalence of the Mohawks. The vegetables to be raised and this animal in the region. harv3sted were left to the women. They were true slaves, but strangely enough, more cruel This tribe numbered about 300, and be- than the men and took part in all massacres of longed to the Abenakis (Dawn People), who in prisoners and barbaric celebrations that accom- turn belt)! J to the Algonquins, one of the panied these scenes of cruelty. On the march, most important Indian races.As soon as our they served as pack horses, and could usually forefathers arrived, two young men were dele- carry more on their backs and heads than most gated to visit the Indian chiefs, to tell them white men. they were here, and that the elders would meet 161 Killing of large game was not only for In March, 1792, the Acadians learned food, but also for many'inedible by-products. that FathetPaquet, who had succeeded Father Deerskin was used for moccasins, thongs and Leclerc, could not come to them so they could clothing; sinews for thread and bowstrings. make their Easter duties.After a meeting, it Antlers and bones were fashioned into skin- was decided that all who felt capableof walk- dressing tools, arrow points arid, ornaments. ing 100 miles on snowshoes would go to Isle Bags and containers of various kinds were made Verte for that purpose. The walk took two from the paunch and bladders. Deerskins days; and Father Paquet, moved to tears by could be tanned soft, much superior to cloth such an act of faith, lodged the weary pilgrims in durability and warmth. Fish was cured by in the rectory where they talked long into the drying and smoking. The Indians taught the night. whites the many uses of herbs, roots and plants for their aches and pains; even that The next day, after Mass and commu- the lumps from spruce trees, tangy and purple nion, he praised them publicly for their fervor. hued, made a pleasant, long-lasting chewing «Such sentiments are worthy of thefirst gum. Christians,» said he, «and of your fathers who were always remarkable for their piety,their Today, the descendants of the Male- devotion to the church and its clergy.»The citesare on the Tobique reservation,little Acadians expressed -their wish to have him given to agriculture, and decreasing in num- come and visit them in the summer, buthe ex- bers. They have kept the nostalgia of the claimed, <<.No,I will go right now, even if I woods, do not closelyassociate with the have to walk night and day!» Fifteen days lat- white race that dispossessed them, and prefer er he was in St. Basile, to the greatjoy of the to blend with the shadows of the last oaks of old men and women, and the children who had the ancestral forest and await the death of their not been able to make the trip. race. With all the facilities we now have to at- NOBLE GESTURE tend church services, this might be a good time to ask ourselves, in all sincerity:«If Sunday In spite of their faults, our foreTathers mass became non-obligatory, wouldI still go?» had indisputable virtues which have furnished to our history and that of (Lie church some of THE «COUREURS DES BOIS» its most beautiful pages. The following is one which very well depicts their religious spirit Although the Indians were without dis- and deserves special mention.If we speak so pute the first inhabitants of Madawaska, the often of religion, it is because here as in all of valley was perhaps best known by the intrepid Acadia, it preceded civil authority, the priest coureurs des bois.During the struggle be- being known long before the surveyor. tween France and England in 1755 to 1760, the route of the St.John and Madawaska Rivers was In 1786, FathersscP::a. from Isle Verte the «Key of Canada», permitting the French came to visit our colonists aim; added this new to detour strategic points at the mouth of the mission to his already too large territory, which St. Lawrence. In 1756, there were two French extended to the Gaspe Peninsula.In a little posts: GrandFalls and Lake Temiscouata. chapel covered with birch bark he performed Madawaska was a relay post for the couriers, the first marriage, between Simon Hebert and the miiitia and messengers of the king who Josephte Daigle. passed this way. 162 Theirs was a hazardous and perilous official messages, until progress in transporta- function, especially in time of war. At the risk tion made this honorable occupation obsolete. of their lives,for fifty dollars a trip, they covered more than 600 miles, in bark canoes in NOTES ON THE VALLEY summer and on snowshoes in winter.This they accomplished in less than 15 d'ys, averag- The oldest record of exploration of the ing 40 miles a day. In dark homespun, animal St. John Valley goes back to 1612. A map of hide moccasins, gun on the shoulder, sheathed the region was drawn in 1699, 'ndicating four knife in belt, pipe between the teeth, brave and Indian settlements on the river. stubborn as airetonsio, superstitious as Mo- hawks, they went their way, faithful to God *** and proud of their mission in life. Those who could not read memorized the letters and char- The Indians of New Brunswick and acters of their messages; then, they re!ayed Maine, the Malecites, Abenaquis, Medoctetes, them to the recipient who often could not read along with the Micmacs of Acadiak, constitut- nor write either. Staying overnight on a deliv- ed one big family. ery, they recounted all the news seen on the way, often embellishing messages with com- *** pliments that were highly appreciated. The Malecites, a tribe of about 5,000, The most famous of these were Joseph lived in the St.John Valley, and were also Dufour, the brothers Louis and Michel Mercure called the Etchemins.The Abenaquis, num- and Jean Baptiste Martin. One night in 1783, bering about. 10,000, lived along the Maine Joseph Dufour (who allegedly brought the coast. The Etchemins coast, now New Bruns- news of our independence here after the Rev- wick, was a territory rich in furs. olutionary War) and his companion Archibald McNeil were assassinated at the mouth of the ST. BASILE AND ST. DAVID Siegas River, about ,6 miles from St. Leonard, by two Indians who were after «fire-water». The three pivots of all durable society - One of the murderers, Charles-Nichau Nofste, religion, family, and propel-4V, existed from the was executed at Quebec; the other, Francois first in Acadia and served as h base for its devel- L'Harguenion, was saved by the intervention of opment.The Catholic faith was as solidly his chief, Francois-Xavier, at Quebec the fol- rooted in the Acadian soul as the okl oaks in lowing year. France. Our forefathers left us valuable lessons of valor and energetic spirit, which are not to By 1850 the American side had 4 post be disdained in this time when too many drift offices from Grand Falls to St. Francis. Mail into an indifference for all that is noble and was transported by horse drawn vehicle, with ethical. the driver announcing his arrival by sounding a The old Mission volante de Ste-Anne des horn.Postage stamps came into use, 2 cents Pays-Bas automatically disappeared in June of covering delivery to all parts of the United 1785 when about 15 canoes with a few families States and Canada. Before that, a fee was paid arrived on our shores.The numerous Cyrs according to distance traveled.Newspapers went further down to L'Anse aux Croques, were still a luxury article, and the few available while others, such as the Mercures, chose the werepassed around from handtohand. north side. Couriers were still used for long distances and 163 Only two years later, in 1787, Father Le- parish.He confirmed 186, including 58 In- clerc was saying Mass in a little birch bark dians, ranging from 12 to 80 years of age. The covered chapel erected by the colonists. There firstpriest from the region to be ordained are diverse ideas on the actual site. Some say (1830) was Prosper Cyr. His father, Eloi Cyr, it was near where St. Basile church is today, and stepmother drowned in the St. Lawrence not far from the river. Others claim it, and the while on their way to his ordination. Crushed first cemetery was at St. David,a couple of by this tragedy, he himself died within a few miles below the actual church. Therewas no months. resident priest until 1792 when the parish of St. Basile was officially founded, nuking itone Several years later the residents on this of the most ancient parishes since the expul- side of the river sent a petition to Msgr. David sion of the Acadians. The only two olderones W. Bacon, bishop of Portland, asking admission were Memramcook and Caraquet. to his diocese. They listed several reasons, such as the great inconvenience for them of crossing In 1793 a new church wasup, made of the river to accomplish their religious duties. big pieces of squared lumber, measuring SS feet Many had drowned, lost horses or vehicles, or long by 35 feet wide, witha large cross instead were deprived of the lastrites during the of aspire. It was blessed with pompous formation or breaking up of the ice.Also, ceremony and a solemn Mass.The rusty Maine laws demanded a report of all marriages, voices, hoarse with emotion, silent for 40 births and deaths, which they had neglected to years, alternated with that of the pastor and send be.catise Canadian priests were under bish- echoed ih the depths of the forest. Thecan- ops from St. John and Chatham. A similar pe- ticles recalled heart-rending memories to those tition,signed by Louis Cormier and 1,018 who had heard them at Grand-Preso long ago. others, was also sent to Pope Piux IX, adding Following this, Joseph Daigle, who had been that he please send them a French speaking first marguiller, or church warden, andwas priest. now an old man, turned his duties over to his successor,Alexandre Albert, declaring with In 1871 the parish of St. David was thus legitimate pride that allexpenses paid, there founded, and named in honor of Bishop David remained in the treasury sixty-nine louis d'or. Bacon. The church was constructed on terrain This church had 27 pews in 4rows.Simon furnished by Mrs. Ephrem Michaud, with Rev. Hebert had the first two along the wall, and Sweron serving, although notinresidence. the others were asfollows: Jacques Cyr, Until 1881the parish had several different Michel Mercure, Paul Thibodeau, Chrysostome priests serving under his administration. Then Cyr, Jean Levasseur, Joseph Edouard Cyr, Father Eugene Bernard took charge as first Joseph Thibodeaux Francois Martin, Joseph resident pastor. He re-established the financial Cyr, Francois Cyr, Pierre Duperre, Michel Cyr, system, repaired and finished t1church, and Joseph Saucier, Jean-Marie Cyr, Joseph Daigle, 114er everywhere.He was succeeded by JeanFrancois Thibodeau,Louis Mercute, Fate,:. Gory, who constructed the actual rec- Simon Beaulieu, Olivier Thibodeau, Zacharie tory.The., came Fathers Etnaud, Huot who Ay otte,JosephMichaud,PierreLizotte, constructed the actual church, Pelletier and Benjamin Theriault, David Dufour, Joseph Du- :viartin. fOU r. *** At the dawn of the 19th century, the bishop of Quebec found 446perQ-ins in this St. David is called the cradle of Madawaska. 164 WHAT'S IN A NAME? French Acadians, in retaliation for the English actions againstthem, named their Acadians descend mostly from the ex- animals, Jim, Blackie, Jess, etc... so they could pedition of Razilly in 1632 when several men hurl invectives at them, even use the whip of nobility came to Acadia, a few bringing their when necessary, while bringing down the wrath families, Many surnames in the St. John Valley of heaven on such names. The English them- are those of the early colonists of Port Royal. selves are still calledles Wes careesorles grosses Some have become Anglicized, others have tetes. changed so that they are not recognizable, while still others have disappeared entirely. Then there was the giving of nicknames, The familiar ones, besides those of the first of which our race seems to be so fond. A cer- families mentioned earlier, are:Babin, Blan- tain line of Cyrs wasLes Croques.The original chard,Doucette,Landry,Morin,Paradis, croqueswas Jean Cyr, born at Beaubassin in Poirier, Richard, Robichaut, Arsenault, Pelle- 1710, ancient soldier of Father LeLoutre and tier, Pintte, Voisine, Roy, Toussaint, and La- father of nine sons. He hated the English with gasse, The Daigles came from Anjou, and were such a passion that his friends would tell him, Daigre or D'Aigle; Cyr was Sire; and Pitre be- oCroques-les!»or df the English bite.you, bite came Peter. them back!» Many other names related direct- ly to family characteristics, such as lean or The same Christian names appeared in stout, such as Le Sourd, etc. Some people did every family. While doing research it is not un- not mind the name calling, while others were usual to come across two children from the only called these names behind their backs, or same family, of different ages, who bearthe purposely to make them furious. same name.(Perhaps one was named after another who had died).The most common Joseph was abbreviated Jos, then pro- were:Marie,Marguerite,Anne, Catherine, nounced Yoe. In one instance, both father and Francois, Pierre, Michel, Rene, Charles, An- son were Joseph, so the younger wasYoe toine, Guillaume and Jacques. Bonhomme (Joseph a Joseph,not being a sufficient distinction). Names were also used for functional pur- poses. For example, if someone of German or Whatever the names were, history states English extraction came, the foreign name was thatwhen Acadiawasbeingcolonized, hard to pronounce, so he became L'sllemand France's minister, CardinalRichelieu, gave (the German) or L'anglais (the Englishman). orders that all colonists had to be ardent Cath- When a German named Franck arrived, his olics, of good moral character, and with excel- name was accepted as suchbecause its French lent reputations. phonetic counterpart was easy. *** When a family was related to another name through generations, double names were CANDL MAKING used. Examples are: Roy ditDesjardins, Hudon dit Beaulieu.There was one called Before kerosene or gas lamps, the candle Louis Gatte, dit Bellefleur, dit L'Oiseau. An was the only means of illumination, and every old citizen affirms that one of the first Belle- home made its own water candles, orchandelle fleurs in the region was named Loison, of a la baguette. which L'Oiseau would be a corruption. 165 A great caldron of hot melted suet was neighboring families, one might have 18 chil- set beside a tub of cold water.Four or five dren, the other 22. twisted wicks were attached, witha weight at the end of each, to a horizontal stick. These What the young woman did not bring to were dipped in the suet, pulled out, plunged in marriage in dowry, she furnished in the hones- cold water, the process being repeated until ty of her soul, in her indomitable courage and the candles were of proper thickness. in the spirit of sacrifice requireti to raisea large family. She cooked, hauled water and wood, The candle was lumpy and rough; it did the laundry in wooden tubs, made soap, smoked and gave off a limited circle of yel- fashioned candles from suet and tallow, and lowish red.But, at once humble and proud, learned the different uses of herbs and soots its plucky rays lit the patient labors ofour for treating disease. mothers.They guided her bare feet to the cradlenand were faithful even unto death, She had nothing to say in the affairs of when all during the wake-they kept silent church or village; but if the .nen made the laws, vigil at the head of the deceaseld. women made the customs. How heavy is the debt we owe to these generous women who, by Blessed at Candlemas Day, these the fruit." of their untiring labor, have modeled, candles werelitfor protection against the affirmed and guided the developmeh; ofso fury of lightning and sudden floods.Later many little beings!In their homes they pre- came the candle mold, and suet was replaced served the language, the religious and happy at- by wax. But how simple life was by the light mosphere that was sacred to th,Ar ancestors. of the water candle! The soul of the child, the man of tomorrow, was mo`Aded by their e.,:a-aple, their lullabies WIVES AND MOTHERS awi cherished traditions Colonization cannot-succeed without the White men were more inclined to look help of women. It was our ;mothers whopre- toward the future, women conserved the ele- vented our race from disappearing in themass ment of thepast. To Al heroic Acadian of the Anglo-Saxon population.It was they women we owe a tribute of admiration and who, with the faith of Brittany and thesongs recopition. Along with our physical life,we of France, perpetuated in this vast Arnericaa derived from them the best that is inus: our proud generation. They were the conservative Ciristian faith, and a family spirit that sus- element, the stabilizing influence that affixeda tained the French resistance in diverse regions displaced people to the soil, with their routine where continue to multiply the old Acadian lives and ancestral habits. names of 1671-1700.Theirs was a strength more powerful than that of all their enemies, Back in the 17th century, the Canadians that inclined them to pray for heir tormentors. had le den du roi when they married. Louis XIV It was Faith.Only a deeply rooted faith can accorded 'a premium to all young men who save the human soul from despair as It ex- married before 20, girl., before 16, and mother periences crucifying trials, and that has been to families of 12 chileiren. So the most authen- the secret of their survival.Theirs is a story tic wealth of these people, wh, J had neither in- of tragedy ane heroism, of hate and love, of fluence. privilege, nor distinct;on in the world persecution and triumph,truly a splendid of affairs. was their nun.eious offspring. One heritage that no riches could buy. child followed the other so closely that in 171 Ii 166 SOAP MAKING tainmuscles; and the onlyremedy, besides time, was to go back and do moreof the same When spring came, the familyofl'ancien work. tempshad a large accumulation of greaseto be made into soap. To makelye, the housewife TWO CHOSEN PEOPLE added hardwood ashes to cold waterand rosin in a wooden tub. This was mixedwell and al- Two devoted souls, consecratedto God lowed to stand until settled.The clear liquid and sent to St. Basile in1880, deserve special history of Mada- was dipped withchina pots or jars, not metal mention when we study the nor granite. waska. They are Rev.Louis Napoleon Dugal and Rev. Sister Maillet. The fat was added and this wasbrought de St. Joseph to a rolling boil, while someonewatched, ready In 1873 four Hospitalieres to throw in a handfulof snow if the mixture arrived from Montreal at the requestof Msgr. threatened to boil over. When the soap had Rogers.In November, there were sevenwith reached the right consistency, itmade a ball in Mother Davignon as superior,and classes and cold water or threaded fromthe wooden spoon. the hospital opened thefollowing year. The Salt was added, and the caldron wasallowed to poverty and misery, the manynights when hungry, the utter cool overnight. they went to bed cold and desolation of the cloister arestill remembered The next day, 'the soapthat had sepa- by some of the oldersisters.Although they rated to the top was cut intoirregular blocks did not refuse charity, theydid not ask br it for the year's supply, thebottom liquid was either, and outsiders were moreapt to pity potash(de la potasse)and was used to wash than to help them. rugs and especiallydirty clothes. In 1880 Rev. SisterMaillet was sent LI TOUW DE LA FAUX to then., a daughterof God that will live for- ever in the memoryof those fortunate enough The elevenear oldboy had cut oats to have known her.Cheerful and loving, she with the scythe aafternoon, 'ails father or nursedtheadolescent Madawaskawith a other men coming to sharpenit every once in tenderness that surpasses thatof a mother for its soul, a whilebecause it became dull oftenerthan her sick child.She murmured into when cutting hay or othergrain. He was proud exasperated to the point revolt againt a lot because with his help, theother men could too hard to endure,her sweet words of en- she finish their own work muchearlier than they couragement.On its obstinate forehead imprisoned there by had anticipated. relit the noble intelligence indigence and neglect. For morethan a quarter The next day, however, heawoke with a of a century her hospital wasthe only refuge of headache accompanied by feverand aches all the sick, open to poor andrich alike. On her over, such as he had never hadbefore. There golden anniversary, one priestsaid of her, «If Mother Maillet will was absolutely noposition he could take to there are no sick in heaven, make himself comfortable.His mother had not want to stay.). nim drink infusions and was at aloss as to what to do for him.Then the wise fathersaid, In 1885 the angular stoneof the actual Now I know what the matteris IIa le tour convent in St. Basile wasblessed. Today, it hill at the center of de la faux!»This happened over-exercising cer- still stands on the historic 167 the most beautiful scenery of the valley, had them sing a few canticles. reminder of an era of veritableprogress. The old parishioner also received wed- Msg. L. N. Dugal was also a distin- ding vows (which were regularized when a guished fnunder of Madawaska. Of its citizens, driest came), baptized the newborn, assisted he had this to say, in part, the dying and traced the sign of the cross over coffins and graves. «Om people are Catholics at heart. They prove it every This wei.7 on in Acadia, with the approv- day byinsistingtothe al of the clergy, until the 19th century. The authorities for the forma- one presiding had to sit in the nave with the tion 'If parishes and regular faithful and dress.iii ordinary clothes; he did services, close contact with not have the right to say «Dominus vobiscumo, the priests, and better prac- but could say eDomine exaudi orationem tice of their religion.The meant) and the bells rang at the Magnificat spirit of la famille parols- of vespers! staleis very active here they love the parish, the LE PAIN BENIT Church, and the priest is respected.The persistent Theblessi4of the bread was a custom faithof the parishioners prevalent in the 1800's; it did not replace Holy andtheprotectionof Communion.On Sunday, one of the more Divine Providence are clear- prosperous farmers would bring to church a ly evident here, when we loaf of bread. The priest blessed it, then it was see that from 31 families in passed around to the congregation, and every- 1792, there are so many one took a pinch from it, made the sign of the parishesflourishingwith cross, and ate. residentpriests,and mis- 4 sions that will soon become BLESSING OF THE SEEDS parishes themselves.* (Nov. 1919) At the end of a Mass before spring planting, the wiriest would bless a large bowl full of mixed seeds.Then the farmers would VENERABLE OLD CUSTOMS each bring a handful home, to be sorted out according to kind. These were the first to be Les messes blanches were Acadian reu- planted, then the rest would be mixed with the nions in the parish church under the leadership regular seed,This practice was given up with of one of the oldest residents. They were the the coming of mechanical sowers, because family prayer of the orphans of Acadia who there was always the chance that a few bles- had neither residing priests nor missionaries. sed seeds would remain in the hopper. At this touching ceremony, the people sang together the Kyrie, the Gloria, and the Credo. From Longfellow's Evangeline... They read the ordinary of the mass and the gospel. A pious reading replaced the sermon. Solemnly down the street came the parish priest, Then, while the grown-ups chatted in front of and the children the church, a devoted woman taught the basic Paused in their play to kiss the hand extended principles of the religion to the children, and to bless them. 173 168 Reverend walked he among them; and up rose angel protector of the weak, the infirm and matrons and maidens, sick, and proved to be the saving strength of Hailing his slow approach with words of the mirable colonists. On snowshoes, with a affectionate welcome... load of clothing and provisions that she would do without or that she had collected, she went Priest and pedagogue both in the village, had from door to door distributing a ray of hope. taught them their letters Laying out the dead, snatching from the grave Out of self-same back, with the hymns of those who were surely doomed without her the church and the plain-song. help, she gave her care and lifted the morale of those who had given in to their misfortune. At (The plain-song was a Roman Catholic chant. last, one night the men returned, with the body Knowing the plain chant means being able to of one who had died of privation and cold, and sing by note). another dying, but also with a 'lade food. The colony was saved. LA TANTE DU MADAWASKA Tante Blanche, as she was known, when In the 1790's there were about thirty all her charitable works were revealed, became families in Madawaska. Besides cultivation of the object of general veneration. She cured the the soil, the industries of the time were maple sick, chased out evil spirits, found lost objects, sugar, fur commerce, and exportation by water reconciled enemies, and brought good luck just of lumber which was much in demand for the by wishing it. She softened the most hardened construction of the English ships. Already the souls, reformed blasphemers, and brought con- colony was exporting grain, having more than niving cheaters to live exemplary lives, in the it could consume.But the severe trial that most tender piety. Even hopeless drunkards nearly always comes to new colonies was to were more afraid of her word of admonition or bring famine. Two years of floods and Septem- the menace of her fist than of a bishop! ber frosts destroyed nearly all the crops, so that 1797 became known as the year of la More than one mustache was wet with grande disette,or la misEre noire ...the year of tears when she was lowered in her quasi-royal the great famine. grave. She was the real aunt of a greatnumber of young families in Madawaska, Leblanc on After the last frost of 1796, the rest of her mother's side, she was the granddaughter of the crop was snowed under by one of the hard- Rene Leblanc, the notary of Grand-Pre men- est winters known. Many colonists left for tioned in Evangeline.She died in 1810, and Fredericton or went up the St. Lawrence for was exposed in the church of St.Basile, a the winter. Those who stayed lived exclusive- privilege never before accorded and to very few ly on wild meat and herbs. since. At the end of a particularly long period (The Rene Leblanc in question had 20 of waiting and anguish when the men were children and about fifty grandchildren at the gone and snow had fallen for eight days with- time of the deportation. Becoming illy he was out stopping, all food was gone... the last of left at New York with his wife and two young- the boiled wheat, the last cow slaughtered and est children, the others were all dispersed to eaten.It was during those long days of hunger different places. Later he went to Philadelphia, and anxiety that Marguerite Blanche Thibo- where he found three other children. He died deau, wife of Joseph Cyr, accomplished her without anyone knowing more about him). wonders ofheroidm and charity. She was the 174 169 THE WARP AND WOOF OF IT weaving during the long winter mofittis. About ten hours of labor were required to prepare a In every house the spinning wheel and pound of linen thread. the loom, perhaps with an unfinished web of woolen cloth or flaxen crash upon it, were in The loom was made of pine or cedar. evidence. French Acadian women were known Girls learned to mount the warp threads on the fortheir remarkably beautiful needlework, rack and transfer it to the loom, to wind the which their daughters learned at an early age. skeins from the spindles and fill the spools ancli. bobbins. Wool cloth for clothing was woven in Before cloth could be bought, it was herringbone or diamond design, according to homegrown and handmatie.Flax, which is preference. Some housewives used cotton and best adapted to medium loam and clay soils, wool for warp and woof while others used all grew very well along the valley.A whole wool.The resultant cloth was the width of family coopetated in pulling up the flax stalks half a blanket, so that two widths weresewn by hand, taking care to leave the fibers as long side by side, then brushed with a wool comb as possible.Since there was no machinery, until soft as angora.A good worker could every laborious task in this preparation was make about a yard a day if she worked from done by the combined efforts of all able- early morning until dusk. bodied members of the family, who worked for weeks on end. To the extent which machines Tow, which was the short and tangled have freed people from such combined work, fibers, could be, carded to produce strands of the great family unity has been weakened. parallel fibers which were then spun into coarse yarns.Worn out clothes were unraveled and After the stalks had been pulled out, the wool recarded, spun and woven into rugs. they were bound and set in shocks for drying. The fine yarns were used in high quality house- Dried stalks were then deseeded (battreau hold linens and dress goods, while the coarser fleau) and the seeds were winnowed in the yarns were for crash, twine and heavier fabrics. wind and saved for sowing and for medicine. The deseeded straw could then be retted to For tinting, tea and coffee were popular; dissolve the gums that bind the fibers to the also blue indigo and alder branches boiled in woody portions of the stem.This was done water to make couperose, copperas. Black either by spreading it thinly on the ground strands were alternated with white to make ( dew retting), or immersing it in ponds, vats gray: or sluggish streams for several days until the bark loosened sufficiently to be readily peeled A few looms still stand dusty and forgot- off.After being dried again, the stalks were ten in attics, their worn benches pushed aside put through a braie to break up the pithy core forever.Spinning wheels are mostly used as and loosen it from its fibrous sheath.This ornaments and souvenirs of yesterday. core was completely removed by a process called ecorcer, here. locally. ecoeher. This was ON GROWING OLD the beating of the outside covering of the plant with a wooden object until it loosened and fell The old couple sit and watch their great from the stalk.Then the short tangled fibers grandchild in the cradle.Dulled to gisay, the were completely combed out with a special corners rounded by hard wear, the points of comb, leaving long straight fibers called line the rockers worn away by the touch of many a fibers, which were further combed and twisted patient foot, the cradle is as old as the family int() yarn on the spinning wheel and stored for itself.All is well because the lineage continues. 170 Truly blessed are the hearths wheremany a in the grande charnbre and examinesit again. birth comes to cheer the inhabitants'and bring He cannot read, but the characters are etched them perpetual youth. in his mind. The very fact that they are writ- ten in English, 'vhich he does not understand, It seems that not so long ago they came imparts them with a special importance.It to live here, and continued carving out the do- reads somewhat like this: main his father had started. Already they are old, and every tomorrow is more uncertain be- cause all things pass away, and we along with Providednevertheless,that them. For over half a century they have sup- their son and daughter-in-law ported, comforted, assisted and endured, they (named) will suitably support are weary and do not much fear death.In- and maintain them with good stead, they spend a great deal of time in the meat, drink, clothing, nursing deep philosophic calm of the aged, often slip- and medicine in sickness and in ping into short sudden slumbers.Their res- health during the remainder of ponsibilities have been relinquished and their their natural lives and provide religious duties lightened.They are not ex- them with suitable, comfortable pected to go to Mass or to keep the rules of houseroom in their home; and fasting, these concessions being made because at their death they shall be suit- of the disabilities of old age. The virtuous life ably interred according to the of humble people fashions its own reward- a rites of the Holy Roman Catho- mind at ease, with no regrets. lic Church, and there be said for them two Requiem MasSes and Outside their home stretches the farm... ten High Masses and twelve Low fields of barley, wheat, oats, hay and buck- Masses after their death for the wheat.Then there is uncleared land, and a repose of their departed souls... sugar cabin on the far horizon.Silently he or at their option shall pay them draws on his pipe, the old Normand type, and the sum of $150 the first May his faded eyes linger at the spot where he cut every year during the remainder his first tree.They wander toward the rock of their natural life, or such por- that his grandfather rolled near the barn, and tion thereof as shall be required over the rich brown soil that his ancestors' by them; this deed shall remain. plows turned over and over.There are other in full force; otherwise, it shall farms, but most of his contemporaries are be void. dead. In the distance, the church steeple gleams in the last rays of the sun that is setting Both their X's have been put there, behind the cemetery. eTh re they sleep - Jean, betweentheirproperandfamilynames, Remi, Baptiste, Joseph,nd so many others that are written by a stranger, more literate with memories, traditions and beliefs that are than they. identical to his own. There he, also, will soon rest with sa Heine beside him always.It has What more can a man and w\fe ask for? been a good life, just the same. Hand in handOthey kneel' in front of the black crucifix on the wall and start the evening prayer According to custom the bien has been ...«Au nom du Pere, du Fils, et du Saint- legally turned over to their inheriting son, and Esprit ...» they have taken a life support mortgage. He takes out a yellowing copy from the cupboard 171 Byrights,thecradleinafamily fat pork spread, eggs, jam, maple syrup, molas- belonged to the oldest daughter to bring as part ses, milk and cream. Whoever wants to eat has of her dowry when she married. only to reach out, and some move' in for the whole period, for just that purpose. At mid- FOR DUST THOU ART night there isthe traditional lunch.Often drinks from a common jug have been passed The church bells toll, their hollow sound arouhd outside, or in the barn, all evening; and echoing in the chill November air... three lan- jokes and stifled laughter are overheard. guid strokes on each bell:a man is dead. (See footnote). Then the bells all toll together, each The morning of the funeral arrives.A knell dying away before the other is sounded. tearful look, a last kiss on the brow, a pat on the hand, a time that wrenches the heart. A pine coffin is being made for the one Members of the family save a lock of hair, a who now liessur les planches.These are the crucifix or the coffin handles for a souvenir. boards laid side by side, covered with a white The deceased is put in the coffin and the cover sheet.La grande chambre,which is rarely op- screwed tin,All are ready for the funeral rites. ened, smells of candle smoke, and is slowly being filled with people. Some have come to The most intimate friend of the deceased pray and offer their sympathies, others simply walks first, carrying a black cross. Then, four out of curiosity.There is a homemade crêpe bearers walk along the coffin, which rides on a at the door, and at the right on entering, a horse-drawn wagon. The temperature dropped small table with a blessed candle, holy water sharply at dawn and now a cutting sleet of and a branch of palm. snow pellets drives slantways, ruffling the hors- es' manes. At night more friends arrive, so that chairs have to be borrowed from the neighbors. And the knell tolls... the little church is The men sit on benches lining the walls, chat packed with parishioners. The priest is in black about crops and the weather, and make com- vestments . ..Requiem aeternam dona eis, plimentary remarks on the life, ancestry, and Domine .. In the balcony the choir has been character of the deceased.When a person waiting... Et lux perpetua luceat eis .Ev- dies, his virtues tend to be extolled and his eryone is silent. It is now the sequence...Dies faults soft-pedalled. A grayish-blue smoke irae, dies ilia .. hangs over the room like mist over a plowed field.The women fold their shawls against «Dreaded day, that day of ire...» Now their breasts and utter pious sighs. Others, more the absolution over the catafalque.. .Requies- personally involved, with reddened eyes and cat in pace.Bursting into fresh sobs, the mourn- clenched lips, travel from the kitchen to the ers file out behind the coffin as the choir in- bier, shake their heads and leave with downcast tones a canticle about our meeting again in looks.Sometimes children, or a spouse, sit heaven... Parents cheris, le pars pour l'autre for hours, just staring at the face they soon will vie... All cling close together and, if the weath- see no more. Every few hours someone kneels er permits, stay until slow ropes lower the cof- and starts a rosary, and all answer... eeQue son fin in its grave. Each in turn throws a handful dme et celles de sous les Niles trepan& repos- of earth and leaves, some so reluctantly that ent en paix par la miserkorde de Dieu.. they have to be led away. The dead rests in peace... Food and drink are ordered by custom. For three days. the table is laden with meats, A wife in mourning was required to wear 172 complete black, with a veil (une pleureuse) stock, which could not be kept longIn win- from the front of her hat to the hem of her ter, some was frozen.Families arranged ex- dress, for two years; then halfmourningfor et- 'rips so that when one was .slaughtered,he at least another year.Men wore black arm v ,uld return the amountborrowed from the bands if they could not afford a blacksuit, other. When meat could not be frozen, it was black ties, black or white shirts, black bordered salted down in barrels of heavy brine. handkerchiefs, and a three inch square of black crepe on the right side of theirhats. For a year Square tailedtrout and togue were after, the family did not attend public meetings, native to our waters.The former has de- weddings, parties, card playing or any other creased, while the latter, which wasunexcelled Salmon festivities. for chowder, has entirely disappeared. was stocked in 1896, andsmelt some time *(The knell (or .glas) for a woman: The bells later. Deer came only after the country was op- ring twice inslow succession, three times). ened to agriculture because food was too scarce before. Moose,however, was plentiful; THE WONDROUS FOODS but caribou disappeared at the beginning of the OF OUR CHILDHOOD century. The forest pressed hard upon therough Butter was churned by nand, the butter- buildings, but the noon sun drew a golden path milk immersed in the brook in earthenware on the broad stretchwhich axes had cleared, jugs to be used for drinking or incooking. and it was time to come in to dinner.Simple Acadians had a marked taste for home- peasants,thecolor of the soil, they came in to a type,of a simple meal.They loveddu lard,preferring it made pastry, especiallydes pou tines, to partfidge and hare.After a bowl of pea dough based on flour or scraped potatoes. soup, salt pork andboiled potatoes and hot Cut and rolled intoballs, the dough was tea, they filled their saucers withmolasses in dropped into boiling broth, where itcooked which they soaked large pieces of bread.Then and rose to the surface. they leaned back to enjoyune touche. Not to be overlooked are buckwheat How good were the foods of 'our child- pancakes, orplogues.These were either thin hood, perhaps so much better to us thanto and turned over, or raised.The latter were leaven or yeasty residue that was strangers!Possibly it is because we associate made with them with family, security, love, andfreedom kept in a wooden bucket from meal to meal, Let us recall some of They raised hot and light, with many tiny holes from worry and care. and were not them. spurting a mouth-watering steam, turned over but stacked and kept hot. Potatoes were the staple food. The old- time woodsman method of cookingthem There were cabbageoup, wild berries (sliced raw and laid on top of the stovewhere (fresh in summer, jams in winter),des grillades, they sizzled and toasted, then salted andbut- du pain de buck whit, de latourtiere,or pork tered) has yet to be beat. How aboutthose pies.'The earthen cellar floor, cool but above cooked in hot coals, raked out blackas a cin- freezing, was covered with pumpkins, carrots, der, with the insides white andfluffy? Then beets, turnips, potatoes and onions,Croque- des palates fricassees,do you remember? cignols,a kind of raised doughnut,made.of a round piece of dough, slashed andtwisted, Meat was fresh game or slaughteredlive- then fried in deep fat, was a holidayspecialty, 173 (These are called beignes in the Province of a point: II est lad; ca fait peer! Une tempete, Qiebec).They were served, with homemade Fa faisait trembler. wine - either dandelion, choke cherry, beet, patte d'ole or chasseparell. For a large quantity; 11 y en a; en veux- tu? N'en v'lir! Before tabletea could be bought in 1830, tea was made from branches of Ameri- Someone is angry: II mord dans le ;et.. can larch or tamarack, steeped in hot water. Coffee was barley, roasted in a shallow pan Someone is lean: II est raide maigre. until brown. Beer was concocted from fir tops, soaked in a barrel with yeast and molasses. Let me. .Tchitte-moi faire; Let me get This was fermented for a few days, and when it .Tchitte-moi alter ci ercher. settled the clear liquor that resulted was con- sidered not bad atall. On holidays was A woman is expecting a baby: Elle va brought from the bottom of le grand coffre a etre mulade. Elk est pour acheier. 51.1e espere. bottle of rum - worth a week's. work - but Elle guette (pronounced djette). fully appreciated by our ancettors whose love of un p'tit coup has not diminished with the Wome -s: Les creyatures1 generations. Young nmi: Les jeunesses. To drink to excess was to virer une tanante de brosse or prendre une brosse. Young boy: Une r'rit mousse. OLD EXPRESSIONS Boy friend: Un cavalier. How many do you remember? Girl friend: Um? blonde.(This had no relation to the color of !lair; most Acadian girls When the grandfather says, «Pal nonante were brunette). (90) ans», he speaks the language of three cen- turies ado.The tr..ther who says to her little Adolescents: grandettes. boy, «'.1a hucher ton Ore au bout du champ», uses the old verb hucne which comes from Having A dominating or haughty manner: the Latin hue (hither) and means «call in a Avoir les voiles en ciseaux. loud voice». A housewarming: Pendre la cremaillere. The Acadian said farme for ferme. sarcle for cercle, sarrent for serpent; thus, rvoudrais They designated a place by. the people sewer mon p'ti: darnier. who lived there:La route des Beaulieus, Le Ruisseau a Violette; Platain des Dufours, Gag- Pure Acadian: Jai rem's les hardes de non Brook, L'Anse auxCr6ques. mon pere a Joseph, pour qu'il les y donne. What kind of people they are: De quel Superlatives used by the peasants: Elle bois ils se chauffene. est belle, belle.II fait chaud, chaud..1`.6.tais fciehe, ftiche. They a-e . : the same kind: Its se chauf- fent du meme bois. Many exaggerations were used to express 174 A deceased person exposed during the SCHOOLS THE OLD AND THE NEW wake: Ilea sur les planches. Prior to the first organized elementary To go bury Someone: After porter en terre. schools in Madawaska, the literacy of the popu- btion was at an all time low. It is said that some Where did she say she was going? Oh qu 'a ambulatory teachers made efforts to tutor in the dit qu 'a va? homes, but their pay was at a minimum, and so was their knowledge. At twilight: entre chien et loup. At the first town meeting in 1869, the se- I'll have a little drink: Ten prendrais bin lectmen Olivier Sirois, Michel Cyr and Hyppolite une larme. Cyr were also made trustees of the ministerial and school fund, which consisted of $250 for Starting something backwards: mettre la that year for the support of the schools. charrue devant les boeufs. At the second town meeting Honore He- Someone brave, fearless: 11 ne recule pas bert was made a one-man school committee. d'une semelle. The town was divided into 7 school districts, whose agents were: Michel Cyr, Baptiste Four- Someone wealthy: 11 est riche! C'est le nier, Vital Hebert, Vital Dufour, Auguste Dionne, bout des chiffres! Joseph Daigle and Simon Beaulieu. It was pro- posed to raise another $250 for the support of Someone has become suspicious:11 a schools, but this was defeated by vote. How- senti le fer. ever, a special meeting was calledin May, and $325 was voted, as required by State Legislature. To lick the lips over something tasty or smelling delicious: se tripper les babines. AS the populatiqn of Madawaska increased, new districts were created,until by 1890 there A very chaste people, Acadians were reti- were 15.It was decided to build a free High cent on matters of sex: Un mouton de garde School houso,$60 was voted to buy school was un Wier; un male entier, un etalon. books, and subscriptions, besides the regular taxes, were offered by local residents.It is in- In France, during the reign of Louis XV, teresting to see who the pioneers of our High us: jabot was the front of the shirt: With our School were; Beloni Hebert volunteered to fur- fathers, the word meant what was in the shirt. nish all the windows; Eloi Albert pledged$30; Consequently, the wcrd was never mentioned Arthur Daigle, Fleurant Cyr, Laurent Fournier, in public or in front of children. Jean Cyr, Michel Martin, Vilas Cyr, Vital Belle- flew and Denis Hebert pledged $10 each; Isi- There was very little blaspheming ir. the d. e Daigle, Regis I. Daigle and Abraham Du- old days. People disguised words instead, such four, $5 each; Germain Dionne pledged $2. In as:pardienne, saladienne, satan-diable, satre- June, 1890, Madawaska adopted as legal text- dienne.Then the English introduced to them boc';s for use in the pubic schools Harpers Read- the word «godam, .This they could not swallow, ers and Copy Boc4cs,Harpers Arithmetic and so they changedX to gadelle.Still, it was a very Harrington's Speller. Eloi Albert was then Su- relieved old man who walked out of the confes- perintending School Committee.It was also sional after having confessed «d'avoir gadeller voted that the School Committee would have cityq fois». full management of the Free High School fund, ) IP I 9 175 with the following men as trustees:Arthur From 1932 to 1933 it continued as a 2-yearhigh Daigle. delonie Albert and Vital Bellefleur. school. Madawaska Nigh School became a 4-year high school in 1933 under the -dministrationof `Ckst, By 1891 we find the amount of $325 vot- Miss Louise Beaulieu, Principal :-.nd Mr.Albert' ed fo !tools; $200 for the High School; $60 Martin, Superintendent of Schools. There was for boo $2 for the washing of the school no gymnasium available.However, all indoor house where -town meetings were held. In 1893, sports were played across the street inwhat is the citizens voted that a «woman is not allow» presently the upstairs of the Chain Apparel Store. to teach school in any district of Madawaska. There were now 3 teachers: Vital Beaulieu, Ubald In 1935 a new high school was constructed. 1)ufour and Jacques. Cyr. In 1894, «any man The building is known today as theAcadia take money to build or repair school houses, they School. The enrollment was 250 students includ- have to come and settle immediately». Also, the ing the 7th and 8th grades which comprisedthe inhabitants were to furnish firewood for the Junior High School. The school was in operation schoolhouses. In 1895, Vital Beaulieu was elected from 1935 to 1949, offering such courses as Supekwisor of Schools, at $40 a year. 1896 saw Commerc:41, Co-dee, Home Economics, Agricul- the fir.«truant» officer, whose t.iity it was «to ture and General. Mr. Albert Cyr wasPrincipal and see that any schoolers able to attend school go Mr. Albert Martin, Superintendent ofSchools. to school». He was paid $.50 for each school visited.Teachers were then getting about $20 As the enrollment of the high school in- a month. creased to a total of 350 students, it became necessary to build a new high school.Con- In 1908 there was a big discussion about struction of the main section of the present the transportation of children to and from school, Madawaska High School building started early but no money was voted fo. 'his purpose. How- in the spring of 1950 and was completed in the ever, the town people agreed to pay about $4 fall of the same year. Mr. Eloi Daigle had been each for the heating of the schoolhouses. appointed Principal in 1948 and continued to serveinthatcapacityuntil1952. Mr. Teadiers taught children from kindergarten LawrenceViolettewas Superintendent of through grade 8, and performed their own janito- Schools. Because of new equipment and facili- rial duties besides. Students wishing to further ties,it was now possible to offer courses in their education would attend Madawaska Train- Industrial Education. ing School in Fort Kent or St.Mary's College in Van Buren. In 1962, a two-story wing was constructed adding ten additional classrooms The first secondary school to appear in to Madawaska High School. The eighth graders tiladawaska was in 1930. The ninth and tenth from Acadia School occupied the lowet door grades were added at Evangeline School, thus of the new wing and the Freshmen occupied changing its name to Evangeline High School. the second floor. The total enrollment of the high school was 44 students. The school operated until .931 when Further construction continued it was forced to change location because of an throughout the year 1e58. This included the iii-ase in enrollment. building of a new gymnasium, cafetorium, Industrial Arts and twelve additional class- In the fall of 1932 the school opened in rooms. The new addition to Madawaska High what was then known as Edmund Cyr's Apart- School permitted new facilities in the Science ments and is now known as Pelletier's Studio. Department, Home Economics, Music and 1I 176 and Business Education. It became possible personae n'eut cosi costinem. Neither didthe for the first time in the history of Madawaska younger ones argue with their olderbrothers or High School to offer our high school students sisters. There was a lot of .affection among all 0 an adequate library. members of a family. Certainly the history of schools would Acremaillerewas a large cooking pot not be complete without mentioning Miss suspended in the chimney or fireplace. Catherine Albert, daughter of Eloi Albert, who taught in the Madawaska schools. for 35 years. If a girl supplanted her boy friend,El le If all her past students were assembled, they lul falsalt manger de l'avolne. would make an impressive group indeed. If someone had talent, intelligence, or A graduate of Fort Kent Training School ability, Ilavalt de la jarnigoine. (1897)andCastineNormalSchool,. she devoted her life to the progress of education in The expression for someone who was our town.For many years she was Helping very sleepy ix...for lovers, was(molr les yeux a la Teacher, visiting elementary schools, inquiring gadel... intotheir prqblems and their needs.The particular schools who anticipated her visit To make the Easter duty was ln called held classes on Saturclas to welcome her. Shc faire des Piques de renard. died a few years ago at St. Basile, N.B. at the age of 85. Someone slow wasun bretteux. *** Running around was calledcourir la gallpote. Early Acadians had no money and no need forit. A sheep was worth a certain Lethim know,fait y demander. number of bushels of buckwheat. Early trad- ing posts had moccasins and molasses in return A baby's pacifier, canedbuveron,was a for firewood, shingles and more buckwhit. piece of rag tied into a roll foam, dipped in grease and sugar of molasses. Besides homespun, The first families used *** furs-of the bear, beaver, fox, otter and nutten-and gave not only comfort and warmth but were very good looking. Acadian THE GARDEN women loved elegance inclothes. One d homestead looked mu the The men wore pants apanneauthat but- same as another. The roof wasshingles, toned up on both sides; their shoes were of theoutsidewasoften limed. All e moose skin, or the hides ofbeef, the end being hospitable; no fence forebade entrance,line sewed up, the knee of the animal forming the just walked in and was made welcome. Vines heel. grew along the sides; and on one corner alarge barrel collected rain water, soft and precious. To dress warmly was calleds'encipoter.. In front were perhaps a bench, a white rose- bush, and two lilac trees. The authority of the father and mother used to be absolute. Quid ils l'avaient dit, Invariably there was a garden on one I. 177 side of the house.It was enclosed because surrounded religion with all sorts of mysteries, animals were left loose to eat at night. One superstitions, and omens. Sometimes it even would never have thought so many things grew became a frightening thing, especially when in such confined dimensions. There were rect- death was concerned. angles and rows of peas, beans, turnips, pars- nips,cabbage, onions, pumpkins, potatoes, Suicides, or people who had fallen away corn, carrots, cucumbers, ichalottes and leeks from the faith were not brought to church nor for salt greenonions. Then there was flax, buried in the regular cemetery. They were car- camomile,parsley,summer sivory,anise, ried over the fence, in the dark of night, to be catnip and such herbs for the miclicine chest. buried with the unbaptized babies. There was nofuneral,norweretheirnamesever In the back were rows of gooseberries mentioned in church or masses said for them. (des gadelles), prune trees, choke cherries, and an appe tree. (Apple trees were a favorite, While a parishioner was doing public the same as in old Acadia, with the exception penance (for example, following scandalous that they were not grafted). beha, tor) he attended Mass in the vestibule. If someone had committed a public sin or made a Along the borders were the flower «bad» marriageandwantedtomake These were never cut and brought into t reparation, he had to k.ieel at the altar with the house to decorate the tableor mantel.I priest and ask pardon. eater, the priest would stead, they were left for the glory of God until announce that this person wished to make their petals fel'. and strewed the alley.Daisies reparation d'honneur. delicately, high on their stems. There were wild roses, hydrangeas, with their persis- At this time of isolation all contracts tent flowering, bachelor buttons, heavy-headed were by word, which had the force of law. The peonies and lots of poppies. Then the sweet missionary,withtheassistatiiiitof afew smelling mignonettes and pansies of all colors, notifales of the place, directed and ruled on even some with naughty brown faces, not un- discipline and dissensions, which were definitt:- like that of a dirty little boy. ly regulated at Easter time. This was so effec- tive that there was no need for lawyers, magis- Their mission. seemed to be to give a trates or courts of justice. festive air to the garden. At night a perfume rose in the air like incense, a perpetual yer The priestwas figuratively put on a to heaven.Grandmother's garden ided pedestal.By renouncing secular dress, social food for both the body and soul, and that was contact, and physical pleasures, he simulated .:ntirely as it should be. a living death and lived in a more or less purely sacredworld. Received with the utmost RELIGIOUS OBSERVANCES respect in the grande chambre when hecame OF YESTERDAY on his parish visit, he blessed every bent head, saying the prayers that protect.Then, he, The Catholic faith was not just a Sunday counted parishioners, inquired about needs, matter to our fathers:it3cas their perpetual receivedconfidences, calmeJ worries,gave help, their strength, their way of life.If they counsel, sympathized, encouraged and could come back to earth, they would no consoled. He never failed to speak of the ones doubt be horrified, not scandalized, to see all who haddied,recalloldmemoriesand the changes that have been made iN recent 'strengthen the hopes of his flock. A sled asually years. Wellmeaning but ignorah: they followed his sleigh, for la quete de I'Enfane 1S3 178 Jesus, and people gave in kind, according to The weepingwillow,athome on their means. maritime shores, is the Acadian national tree. Besides being chosen for its weeping branches When he went to give the last rites, the and leaves, symbol of the mafy tears shed by church warden drove a sleigh ahead of him, their people;, it was adopted bieguse w the more ringing a bell.Everyone knew wle bon Dieu* you cut it back, the more it flourishes*, asthey wa'% going by, and they came out and knelt by have done. A French willow in Annapolis, the wayside with bowed heads until he had believed to be 200 years old and measuring S passed. feet in diameter, was uprootod by a storm in September of 1932. It was one of the principal One picturesque figure was the church souvenirs of ancient Port Royal, and shaded a crier. After Sunday mass, he stood on the whole street corner. church steps, announcing coming meetings, frolics,lost and found objects,or holding Within the recollection of some elder auction. In November, the month of the citizens of Madawaska, the Indians along the deceased, he would have at his feet such river used to build earthen domes in the spring anincongruouscollectionofitenisas which they heated to as high a temperature as turnips, headcheese(tetefromagee), a they could endure.. Then they would enter and roll of carpeting, tobacco, homespun, maple stayuntil covered with sweat after which syrup, pumpkins, hens, pigs and geese.This they'd run out and roll in the snow or jump in was the chance to give thedeparted ones a the river.This was topurify their systems* little shove toward heaven. It was not unusual after the long win tei.One man remembers a to pay a disproportionately large amountfor strapping young Indian performing this ritual, an item, then give itback to be auctioned and whose body was never recovered from the again. The money was turned in to the priest frigid waters of the St. John. ' to have masses said for the dead. During lent there was no rejoicing of any One pm ticularly charitable custom was kind, no card playing, no games; instead the that of a farmer giving money for a mass to be people sang canticles and said the rosary said fcr the most abandoned soul in purgatory. together. OF THIS AND THAT The youth is the wealth of the country. When the children all got together and helped The onion: Onions correct stomach dis- theirfather all day, they saved him from cords:es and carry off poisons in the system. paying a day's work, 25 to 30 cents. They are a good blood purifier, do perfect work in constipation trout,les cannot be sur- Faults typical of the French, of which passed as a vermifuge and, eaten taw, will our ancestors Were not exempt:A certain often check a cold in the head.Well recom- fickleness, an individual vanity and a great love mended for sleeplessness, it acts on the nerves for gossip. in a soothing way.The heart of the onion, heated and placed in the ear, will relieve the TO DREAM A LITTLE .bony of earache,while the syrup procured from sprinkling a sliced onion with sugarand Omens in dreams were recognizable in baking in the oven will work wonders in a advance. Dreams of newly cut wood and new croupy child. houses or smoke meant death.Blood and flames signified victory. 179 Breaking a mirror or burning two lamps got behind a particular jumper and let out a on the same table meant death within a yeara bloodcurdling scream, the poor Frenchman If a bird hit a window in its flight, someone in jumped up in the air and gave off a correspond- the family would die sikon, And that was how ing yell, then hightailed it for the woods, The they would say, de ne suss pas surpns: j'avais wife was also a jumper, and a pretty hefty one cu )4n avertissement.» - at that. One day this prankster made her jump and she broke through the cellar trap door, but To dream of your loved one: Take one not before grabbing his whiskers and pulling thimble of salt, one of flour, and waterenough them clear out. After that incident, he left the to make three little cakes. Cook, eat them and Clump in g Frenaunens to their misfortune and walk backwards to bed without talking to any got his laughs by less painful methods. one.Salt produces thirst, and in your dream someone will bring you water.This is your THE LUMBER AND DRIVE future husband or wife. The sombit giants, in their lonely wild- If the above does not work, try: During a ness, with the wind sighing overtheir tops, full moon, took at the moon and say, sBelle were to reign over the wildernessfor about lune, jolie lune, fail moi voir dans mon som- fifty years. In 1860, Aroostook had a popula- meil celui quedesire dans mon revels. Walk tion of 3500 lnd it was a time of prosperity. backwards :is bed and do not' talk. The intense exploitation of forects brought wealth, employment in the woods, and a TILE JUMPING FRENCHMAN market for farm products.Every fall heavy barges came up the river, filling with joy the Among Acadians are a few unfortunate hearts of the colonists at harvest. As soon as persons knownas 4cJumping Frenchmen*. winter came, every available man left for the They are so-called because of what seems to be chantiers or lumber camps. a r.cryous disorder, hereditary or acquired, that is irticular to that race, It has been attributed All winte; long they cut and hayed, inparttothehardships suffered by the searching for trees of outstanding value in the mothers over many years of persecution. How- face of danger, fro.Abite, and sudden death. ever, it seems improbable that the condition Sharp axes slipped on icy surfaCes ar.-4 hard should have survived to this day.And yet it thrown chips or falling timbers sometimes has. The dumping Frenchmen are still with knocked a man unconscious. us. The standard ton weigt. t 'of pine was a What are the symptoms of this strange sawed log 40 feet long and 1 foot squait., with affliction?Its victims threaten to throw them- the averace virgin pine squaring 5 tuns to a selves off a tractor or wagon seat at the un- tree.Without rivers, yellow pine could never expected sound of an automobile horn. They have been the golden harvest that it was, will :zap up an down, muttering a string of un- floating logs by the millions to mills and ports intelligiblewords, eveninchurch. They where it was in great demand, espec:ally for strike, kick, or repeat what you say if you the building of Britisl vessels. suddenly grab them under the arms. Men have been 'mown to leap ;nto rivers or fires because The loggers' first job was to shape a way of the thoughtlessness of a joker. to the water. Sometimes they used drysluice ways, down a hill, made by laying largetrunks One stranger had discovered that if lit of trees together the whole length of it,Logs 1 180 were rolled into the upper end, and descended evitablegigantichea4acl 1thatfollowed. at such speed that smoke and bark would fly. At other times, a hemlock with its limbs cut LE MOULIN ,MURCHIE about a foot from the trunk was used as a drag which the oxen drew, while a log was attached Around .the year 1880, industry was to it by strong chains. The stumpy limbs pre- starting,A sawmill, at the little river Crock vented the team from being pushed forward was constructed by Remi Pelletier; then one in too fast, but if that chain had broken it would Connors, and another along the St, John River, have meant certain death for them. The best below St, Francois, They furnished employ- cutter was surrounded with general considera- ment for many people, sawing boards and m- tion, as was the pair of horses that could haul ing cedar shingles.Those, eventually ditap- the heaviest load. peared and are hardly remembered by anyone. The crew ate boiled or frozen pork and In 1882, the James Murchie & Son Co. beans, which they washed down with tea bought rights and installed a sawmill on the sweetened with molasses. Buckwheat pan- Madawaska River where Fournier Bridge is to- cakes, of course, were a staple, and sometimes day.Its products were exported by Canadian dlr.,had salt codfish and potatoes. The PacificRailroadoutsidethe county, It evenings were long and the story teller was at employed 50 to 75 men, but because it was run his best. by a water wheel that served as a turbine, it was in operation only about six munths a year. When the ice went out, tons of timber started moving toward the ocean. The crew Meanwhile, in 1877, Donald Frifser, the followed the drive down, camping along the founder of Fraser Companies, Ltd., had begunr shores. With courage often borrowed from the his career as a jumber operator by purchasing a rum in their hip flask, they rode timbers, jamp- smallsawmillatRiviere-de-Chute in New ing from one to the other amidst boiling rapids. Brunswick.In 1892 lie was ,;.,fined in this Balancipg themselves on their pick poles, wet venture by his sons Archibald and Donald, Jr. from icy spills, some even met death when they This undertaking proved most successful and were crushed between jamming timbers or additional mill. were built and purchased, and against rocky ledges.Each log was branded large tracts of Wilber limits were acquired. with a hewn mark to identify ownership, and most started on the St'. John Kiver about nine- Soitwasthatin1911,the film ty miles above Fort Kent. purchased this Murchie Co. in Edmundston. Now known as Fraser Limited, the company There was wild rejoicing when the men continued to expand to a point where, upon reached town, spending their money rm barrels- the death of its foLaider in 1916, it had built ful of whiskey, rum and gin.With long hair up into one of the lazier lumber businesses iii and beards, in heavy woolen trousers cut off the maritimes, if nr:i in eastern Canada. above the ankles as a safety measure, thr., celebrated for days on end. Red strips of flan- The following year, Fraser enterprises nel,theremainsof colorfulshirts,were were incorporated wider federal charter into fastened to tall poles and to the yokes of oxen. Fraser Companies, Limited; and in 1918 made its entry into the pulp business when it built It is no won.ler that young ladies were a 120 ton per day bleached sulphite pulpmill kept inside by their mothers, at least until the atEdAndston, N.B. Animportant step in the boisterous festivity had given way to the in- history of the company was taken in 1925 St) when Fraser Companies, Ltd. incorporated tragedy the Acadian did not singnor cry.,But Fraser Paper. Ltd. as a wholly owned sub- as he came back to life, and the consolations sidiary.The new company constructed a of hope entered his heart once more, the millin which to make paper from chemical songs were reborn. The old ones had been pulps in Madawaska. The first paper ma- light and gay, the words meaning little, their chine started up on October 25, 1925 and the beauty being the gaiety of Gaul set to music. second on January 26, 1926. The heart needs to laugh and cry, td To provide kraft pulps for the Mada- sing in its joy and sorrow. Since the main waska paper mills and thus expand the types emotions of his life were certainly not of joy, and grades of paper manufactured, the com- he returned to des complaintes that hecom- pany opened an unbleached kraft mill in New- posed himself,..spontaneous, most of them castle, N.13, in 1949. Tilts mill now produces mournful. In typical Acadian style, he often 500 tons a day, with modern equipment for turned them to satire and irony. bleaching the prOduct. Some of the songs popular in old Aca- 44144 as throughout its history, the dia were: prosperity of Fraser Companies rests upon the A Saint-Malo, beau port de mer woodlands Aichitmanages and from A la claire fontaine whence it derives the principal raw materials Par derriere chez mon Ore for its mills. Vol, mon coeur, vol Malbrouke s'en va-t-en guerre The sawmill at Plaster Rock, N.B. has a Vive la rose et le lilac planned ekput for1968 of 20,000,000 11 e tait une bergere f.b,m..of Eastern Canadian Spruce lumber. Its products are sold principally in Canada Sung by the Acadians on their march to and the United States, while its waste is con- shore for the embarkation: verted into chips used in Edmunston for the Vive Jesus! Vive Jesus! manufacture of sulphite pulp. Avec la eroix, sans cher portage Vive Jesus! The sma.l sawmill that Donald Fraser Portons la croix purchased has grown, some 90 years later, Sans choix, sans ennui, sans mur- intoa multi-million dollar company. The mure, physical growth of the company is the visible Portons la croix! accorniplishment of many table men, through Quoique tres amere et tres dure whoselefforts an enterprise was created which Malgre le sens et la nature today provides a livelihood, directly and indi- Portons la et oix! rectly,fortens of thousands of people. At the offertory of the mass, or at com- HEART FULL OF SONG munion, one of the most beautiful canticles from France was sung: Les anciIts recall the,old French songs «Qu'ils sont grand Dieu, vos that came from Acadia. so dear to the heart, tabernacles...» or so comforting, which for the most part were aout n'est que vanite, mensonge drowned in the tears that followed the dis- fragilite...» persal 1755.. For many years after that 182 During Lent, they sang: Elle s'est endormie 40, sang qu'un Dieu va ripandre...» Au pied du rosier blanc. Another, sung in church, especially at wed- Son voile par ci, dings, was: Son voile par la, Abner Jesus, recouter en silence Son voile qui volant, volant Baiser ses pieds, reposer sur son coeur, Son voile qui volait au vent. Mettre en lui seul toute ma complai- sance. * ** Voila ma vie, et voila mon bonheur! Divin Jesus, doily( Sanveur que j'adore. Derriere chez nous it y a un etang Pour vous aimer le temps me fait En roulant ma boule debut; Trois'teaux canards s'en vont baignant rattends le ciel pour Miner plus encore. Rouli,roulant,ma bouleroulant Ah! Que ne puis-je y voter aussitlit. En roulant ma boule roulant, En roulant ma b A popular lullaby was the following (they im- provised as they went along): An old lumbermen's song: C'est la poulette grise Voici l'hiver arrive Qu'a pondu dans l'eglise Les rivieres sont gelees Elle a pondu un petit coco C'est le temps dialler au bois Pour l'enfant qui va faire dodo Manger du lard et des poids! Dodiche, dodo! Dans les chantiers nous hivernerons! Dodiche, dodo! Dans les chantiers nous hivernerons! C'est la poulettecail4 THE WAX AND WANE. Qu'a pondu dans la paille... The seasonal moods of our northern C'est la poulette blanche woods, lakes and rivers vary greatly.Cold Qu'a pondu dans la grange... weather arrives and the waters rest quietly, then freeze. Afterward comes the exhilaration C'est la poulette brune of spring and the activity of summer months. Qu'a pondu dans la lune... One thing that can be counted on to come 3 and go v..ith clocklike regularity is the waxing After or during 'evenings of fun, they sang: and waning of the moon. Every month a pale A la volette, Bonsoir Mon Ami Bonsoir, crescent turns to a full.moon, then gradually Alo "ette, 0 Canada!, Evangeline. diminishes again. There was nothing our an- cestorscould deo aboutthismysterious Just for the sake of singing: process, which they took to be a literal break- Marie Madeleine ing up and rebuilding of the moon; but they Son p'tit jupon de lai'ie could use it to their advantage, and they did. Sa p'tite jupe tr; :otee Son p'tit jupon pique. Planting during the waxing of the moon supposedly causes prolific growth; therefore, C'etait unejeune flle flax and hay, which should be long, and grain, Qui n'avait pas quinze ans peas, and potatoes, which should beprolific, 1 S Ar II 1 - 183 are to be planted then.During the waning happen, then the same thing repeated would there is short growth. This time is particular- make it happen again. ly suited to tobacco and garden plants which should not go to stalk.An even ,number of Heavenly bodies are no longer viewed days after the new moon is good for sowing, with fear and respect. Man haseven added especially six or ten. some of his own, and plans to explore the others that God put in the universe. Poiar If a hog is slaughtered during thewane, opinion is that humans themselves have much or.decours, itwill not bleed well, the hair more to do with their own destinies than the cannot be shaved off ea.ily, and the meat will moon. However, it is interesting to find out shrink much in cooking. During the waxing what value these beliefs have forour own orcroissanthowever, the meat is very tender time because no matter how strange theymay and there is no shrinking in thepan. sound, there are millions of people today who still believe in them. The strength of animals waxes and wanes with the moon. For example, a horse TALL TALES should never have its hooves trimmed duringa full moon because it is strong then and this Our ancestors were not forever sad and would not be good for its health. Children,as going aroptd withlongfaces. On the well as animals, born undera full moon are contrary, they were fun-loving, possessed of a stronger. spontaneous gaiety and a sincerity that has been lost in the more sophisticated entertain- In a new year, the first day of thenew ment of today. Having nothing in the way of moon predicts weather for January, the next amusement, they made their own, resulting in day for February, andso on for the following the era of the story teller. months. These people were not stupid. In fact, The three days before and after the full they were much more observant thanwe are. moon are marked by bad weather, as is the With absolutely no knowledge of the laws of last quarter of the moon. The veather is cool nature and man, everything was a mystery- during the full moon and waning, thenwarm- shooting stars, eclipses, lightning, birth, death, er during the waxing. etc. Where there is ignorance, there is always fear of the unknown.Since life was so dif- A farmer could even order the desired ficult, they assumed that there weremore bad sex of animals by controlling the time of spirits than good. So they invented all sorts their conception.If he wished to have fillies, of charms and counter-magicto change bad and found that he had colts by breeding his luck to good. Today we view these stories mare during one phase of the moon, he simp- with tolerance and amusement, but theyare ly shifted the time a half-moon to produce wonderful and whimsy, the stuff of which fillies. dreams are made. Although people could not alwaysex- The really goodconteur de conies, plain why they did certain things to make chewing tobacco, sometimes whittling,was crops grow, or to produce various results, witty, inventive and a wonderful actor.He their thinking was of a practical kind.If a kept his stories, which always started with certain ritual seemed once to makea Mil. «11 y avail une fois» for the spooky hours, 184 and told them with much detail, glancing side- stories to come were expertly introduced, long into the dark corners beyond the light with a promise of even more exciting and of the fire.He was secretly delighted when terrifying adventures. Nowadays, they would his audience responded with wide-eyed terror, be called previews of coming at- imagining ghosts riding on the wind, devils tractions. shrieking in the chimney or murderers sneak- ing across the creaky floors. His stories were Increased literacy has destroyed the most fantastic, where mythology mingled role of the story teller.At first, he was re- with religion, adventures of strong men and placed by reading aloud.Now individual heroes of long ago. He told of les feux-follets reading has taken over and he lives only in our which were thought to be sorcerers who tried folklore. to lure poor people into dangerous places so they would perish, Ifthen would be heard BE IT EVER SO HUMBLE laughing when the unhappy person had been trapped and plunged into a marsh.(Feux- The French are a prolific race, and their follets were actually phosphorescent gases population doubled every 16 years. This was escaping from low wet lands and seeming to a time when the averagehuman life was 33 dance up and down in the dark.) The conteur years; one child out of fourdied before one also told of des fees crue-mitaines, prome- year, and only half of theworld's population nade en chasse-galleri s, bonhomme Sept- reached 17.However, these people, because heure, and lutins th t rode the horses at of their combined spirit of sacrifice and night and p d their tails. The loup garou Christiangenerosity,therigidityof the was a were- f, a man who had the power of Church lakvs and economic need, married changing himself at will intowolf. early and had larger families than elsewhere. Probably due to a natural rigorous selection at If someone had been bad and rejecnl infant level, many lived to a very old age, es- from society, a bird would be seen, about the pecially the women. size of a robin, with balls of fire undernis wings, glowing on and off like fireflies. That Family life had more value and was i'represented the spirit of the person, who much more intimate than it is today. Every- would never be seen or heard of again. Then one worked toward a goal, eventhe children. there was the story of «Le Juif Errant» In all houses, the loom and spinning wheel («The Wandering lew*) who walked all the had a place of honor. The young woman who time, going from one adventure to the next, had not woven her piece on the loom was not an endless tale to rival A Thousandand One worthy of beim; married, since the possession Nights. of this art was part of, her dowry. On the other hand, the young man who had not More than one of the listeners, who cleared his 10 acres or made a pair of wheels could bravely face the fiercest adversary, wept wasconsideredamediocrepretendant. openly at the reciting of the tale of the little Genevieve and her mishaps and the little lost A typical happy family included the shepherd girl; or, if it had been a ghost story, old parents, whose faces resembled wrinkled went to bed trembling with fear. parchment on which the story of a lifetime was written - a lifetime ofenduring hardship These stories were never resolved, plots not only with courage, but with anobl left hanging in air, while fragments of other gaiety. They saw the younger couple taki 185 over the paternal farm, and in turn raise its of the newborn rose from the corner of the own children, so that gthwing old was an en- cabin where the cradle was never put away. tirely natural and satisfying prsicess, life end- ing as they had lived it - side by side and SUPERSTITIONS together. In the days when illiterate peasants Close to nature, family life necessarily lived so close to nature, people constantly revolved around the seasons, especially for the looked for omens and significance in signs, men.In the spring, after the maple sugar especially those that were rare or unfamiliar. season, the land was made ready for planting. Even the regular phases of the moon and the After the seeds were bletsed by the priest, the slow turning of seasons were not without farmer tied a large piece of cloth around his their own indications of the future. However, neck and shoulder, wound the other end an eclipse, a comet or a great storm was of around his arm in such a way as to form a bag special significance, and excited wonder and in which the seeds were put. Then, making a dread for the destiny of mankind.Elders sign of the cross, he easthese out in long, spoke of the dark day when birds ceased to sweeping motions. The garden was made, and sing and chickens flew up to their roosts as it the housework continued much as usual, ex- it were night; cows lowed at the pasture fence, cept that women and girls helped in the fields. and there was such terror that men prayed There was soap to be made, butter to be and women wept.Marching armies of eerie churned, about two dozen loaves of bread northern lights across the sky caused everyone baked twice a month, candles to be molded, to tremble with the fear of their unknown pa- rugs braided and blankets woven, flax to be tents. made into clothes, etc. Besides the weather predictions, many After the crops were in, most of the of which were based on scientific fact, there men left for the chantiers or lumber camps. were the pure superstitions which were char- Pine was truly king in the middle eighties, and acteristic of our race.Most had to do with records show that huge trees sold for fantastic religion or death and the number three comes prices.All winter, these stout-hearted men up ofteir, $eitraps in relation with the Holy swung and swore, cut and hauled, while Trinity. Many are based on the cross, symbol- drivers prodded slow-moving oxen teams. icsign of perfect unity. The following are In the spring, logs by the millions were sent some of the most prevalent, and many are still to mills and ports by means of waterways, belii ved today. free of toll, duties and maintenance.After the drive the men returned home triumphant, The seventh son of a seventh son had with long beards and giant thirsts, and there special powers, especially of curing; the priest was so much wild rejoicing that many a would give him a benediction to en!ighten mother wisely kept her daughters behin" him on their use. When it rained during high locked doors. Mass do Sunday, it meant petite semaine. When fish bled a lot on the hook in spring, it Thus each year a few more acresof meant a big fishing year; when they bled a northern wilderness were turned to crops. A little, a small fishing year. When a deceased in few more Acadians closed their tired eyes for the parish was exposed on a Sunday, there the last time on sunsplashed fields, driving wouldbeothersforthreeconsecutive rains and stupendous snowfalls, while the cry Sundays. A child made to take his first steps 186 while the church bells were ringing for high dreamed of tmarrying against the parents' Mass on Sunday would walk during the week. wishes, arthis union was expected to last Swallows did not carry debris or otherwise until death set one spouse free.It was work on their nests on Sunday. When some- nothing unusual to makela grande demande one died in a house, the pail of water was or ask the father for his daughter'shand after thrown away, because it had become contam- one month of visiting. The young man ex- inated by the spirit passing through it. A plained his financial position and received a baby would not say «yes before the fontanel tentative reply.Then' the 'two families met or soft spot on his head, had closed.A and agreed on the terms of the Contract. mother could deform or mark her unborn Wisely enough, it was inconceivable to link child by looking upon a disfigured person, an two families &It were incompatible, or had animal, or being frightened by some sudden no common historical or culturalties. The incident.Moving on a Friday was bad luck; contract was then drawn up by a notary, in- so was opening an umbrella, or. turningit in volving the grant of a father toson and men- the house.For the same reason, no one tion of the girl's dowry,(la dot)which might turned a knife round and round, as on a consist of a feather bed, household articles table. Bad luck was on the way if one and linens, livestock and sometimes a piece of dropped a knife and its blade stuck in the land. Love grew between the two and floor.If the ticking of a clock was heard families of 15 or more were indeed common, when there was none around, people would pray for their relatives because one wasdying. The wedding feast was held at the No white horse was allowed in a funeral groom's home, the act of going there being processioor A coffin was carried in or out of the bride's first manifestation of subjection to the house or church feet rust.Great care her husband. All day there was laughter, kiss- was taken so a cortege ,uld not stop on ing, jokes and stories, and much teasing of the way to church beca4se where it stopped, the young couple who sat holding hands, a someone from that home would diewithin sign of their new union. One song, relating a year.The number of veNcles in the cor- direr:tly to marriage, conboled the mother for . tege were not to be counted, for the same the loss of her son; another described the feel- reason. ings of the bride leaving Fiume, while others praised the beauty of the sacrament and The Acadian chased away leslutins by wished the couple a long sequence of babies tracing on his barn .1big white cross with and a happy life. together. The younger lime. people sat apart, awe and envy mingled in their looks, hoping this miracle would not be THAT GRAND INSTITUTION denied them one day, while the older ones smiled with approval as if they would like to In the days of marriage by contract and be twenty all over again.Older unmarried with dowry, divorce was r tactically unheard brothels or sisters of the newlyweds .were of.Statistics show that in the 19th century made to dance in a hog trough, much to tilt there was nothing that human beings could delight of everyone. An old man got up, and :ertake that represented such a small to the accompaniment of his violin, his sure percentage of failure as marriage.- Chaperon- voice intoned the first line of Evangeline...«Je age was strict and a closevigilance was kept l'avais cru, ce reve du jeune age...* and on daughters, so that there were noprolonged everyone joinedhim. Then followeda courtingperiods. No one would have medley of folksongs,with dry throats 1L , 187 needing to be daMpened with wine again and was not a war, and that consequently Ilk again. been called the Bloodless Aroostook War. In England, .even though concessions had been After the festivities of the wedding, made onboth sides, it was called the Ash- the couple settled down quickly to their new burton Capitulation.Under its provisions life, certainly at his parents' home if he was England ceded a territory of 7,000 square the inheriting son.Little by little, the young miles, separating in two the little groups of wife took over her mother-inAaw's household French people on both sides.f the river, of duties, while the son continued to work with which 2,000 passed under the American juris- his father.Little changed, really, because the diction. The actual towns of St.,Francis, Fort life of one family was much likethat of Kent,Frenchville,St.Luce,Madawaska, b. another.If after a year they had no children, Grand Isle, Van Buren, Hamlin, (all on the the neighbors openly questioned the reason river) St. Agatha, Caribou; and Presque Isle, for this, offering all kinfls of suggestions to (in_the interior) make up the major part of remedy the situation.Very rarely, however, thisterritory.Ancient complaints of the was there need of this, because usually babies Acadian militia who became, in spite of their came with the regularity of the seasons. For, wishes, American subjects were Tlieltakilt, deliveries, a mid-wife. or pelle a feu, was sum- Hebert, Thibaudeau, Duper* and Lizate. moned, and often she returned to minister to They sleep in Canadian soil in St. Basile with both mother and baby with the traditional several of the co-parishioners of 1850. remedies at her disposal. In spite of the fervent declarations of . There were relatively few names in the elders that treaties could divide the lands use, neighboring families often having up to but never the hearts, their sons grew accus- five children with the same names.As a tomed to the new regime from Washington result,they were identifiedthroughtheir and became distinct American citizens.Al- fathers, as: Jose a Baptiste, or Anselme, Ore though emigration has drained the youth of and le if tit Anselme. both sides toward industrial centers, the tra- ditions and language of France continue to THE ASHBURTON TREATY survive-«C'est encore le Madawaska des Madawaskayens!» Mainewa:iseparated from Massa- chuwtts in 1820, but it was not until August It is unofficially reported that because 9, 1842, that the Ashburton Treaty settled of poor communications, many people along the boundary line between its northern bord- the valleytwere not aware of their change of ers and Canada. The St. John and St. Francis nationality until the War between the States rivers were designated as natural boundaries as two decades later. far as Grand Falls, while remaining neutral and open to both sides; colonists vim had oc- LE VIEUX FOUR cupied lands for six years or more received title to them. The sweet aroma of homemade bread le pain de menagethose tawny hardcrusted The treaty, signed between special loaves!A smell to make us children again! delegates from London, Lord Ashburton, and Oaniel Webster, Secretary of State and Ameri- The four was a dome-shaped earthen can diplomat, brought an end to the war that oven that stood outdoors near the house.It 1 1. 1 88 had an old blackened face and a clay vaulting also had unmistakable signs by which they covered by a steep little roof of boards, but foretold the weather for the complete season that clay had to be purified by I very hot fire ahead. If we had no barometer, radio, or tele- for two whole days before it was worthy. to vision, could we do as well? receive the dough. When the camphor bottle was cloudy, Bread baking was a full day's work, a storm wasbrewing. which was done two or three times a month, resultinginnearly two dozen five-pound When the Sunday gospel closed at the loaves at a time.The dough was made and right, bad weather was in store for the week; kneadedin largetroughs,calledhuches. at the left, fair weather. While it was in its final stages, a hot fire of poplar or hemlock was lit in the oven; then it The spleen of s.the slaughtered hog was closed so that only thesmoke escaped foretold the kind of winter. It could be large, through a special vent.When the fire had then tapering off; start small, then turn large; burned out, the ashes were removed and the large all the way or small all the way. The bread put in. large part meant rough Weather; the small, fair. ..0 There used to be a lovely tradition of tracing a cross on the loaves before baking. The turning of the leaves on trees Later, the father did this in the baked bread meant wind and rain. before cutting it for his family. Unfortunate- ly, it was abandoned altogether. Le trois fait le moistthe third of the month indicated the type of weather for the When the lodes were baked, they whole month. were pulled out with abig wooden shovel, removed from the pans and spread on a A hard winter was coming when squir- board, bottoms up, to be admired. This rels put away a big store of nuts, when onion bread kept fresh and sweet much longer and apple skins were thick, and husks of corn than the commercial bread of today.It was thicker than usual. simpleeveryday fare, which has become a delicacy on our tables. Who can remember A halo around the moon meant bad the crisp crust yielding to the knife with a weather; the number of stars in it indicated shower of flakes, greatsli':es leaning for- the number of days before the coming of the storm: ward, waiting for the home-churned butter r from the big brown crock? The land was to be ready for planting WEATHER PREDICTIONS forty days after the first crow was seen eating in the road. The wither was an intimate reality to farmers who extracted a hardliving from Loons crying at night called for rain. the soil and were at the mercy of theelements. Of their many ways of predicting theweather, Heavy fall coats of fur on animals many aremariOnal between religionand meant deep snows; the same applied to magic, while others are definitelybasedon hornets nests built highin branches;low sound scientific reasoning.These forecasters nests, light fur, little snow. d. ti p 189 4.The clearing of bad weather during crops. the night meant more bad weather within two days. Northern lights meant a change of weather inside three days. An owl hooting in the 14inter time, es barking on a ridge or a fr6zen brook Soleil levant avec oeil de bouc, mauvais swelling overNwith water(ruisseau gonfle) temps afant longtemps. meanta spell of warm weather in winter. Soleil couchant avec oeil de bouc, beau Frost was out of the ground when the temps avant longtemps. (Oeil de boucmeans first frogs made themselves heard. when boat ends of a rainbow are visible but the middle is obscured by clouds). 9 Corn was to be planted when oak leaves were the size of a squirrel's ear. When sparks fly upon sharpening the scythe it will rain before long. Rain before seven meant sunshine be- fore eleven. (Several important signs .have been omitted because they are covered in the If a cat's fur was stroked the wrong weather prediction poem in the_ poetry sec- way and gave off grits, cold weather was in tion.) store. THE FROLIC 4" Signs of rain: frisky animals, the cry of tree toads, a mackerel sky, «mare's tails» The Acadians enjoyed a gretogeth- streaked across the sky. erness, a love of working together an Iping each other in true Christian spirit.When a The time just beforF, rainy weather young man was about to marry, if he was not v43 ideal for fishing. 4 I^ yet lodged, his father only had to make his in- tentions known and there was a frolic. Those Les Journaux de Noel:December who helped were by the very fact invited to 25th indicated the weather for January, the the Adding. The sane aid was given with the 26th for February, etc. On those days when same enthusiasm when a house or barn, snow was predicted and it was warm, rain fell burned, or needed to be built.Often. the instead. parish priest gave them permission to work on Sunday, so they turned out in even greater If the sun setle derriere dans l'eau. numbers. bad weather was expected for the morrow. The young men were given a chance «On Candlemas Day (February 2), to show their agility and prowess, and the half the wood and half the hay». The wise girls could shine as hostesses.Although the farmer checked this, because if he had tised younger men did most of the work, there more than half his woodpile or half the hay in were always old-timers on hand to give the the mow, he would surely run out before occasion historical color and perspective with spring. their reminiscences of past raisings... some of them going back to the days of log barns and A poor run of maple sap indicated small houses. 190 The best man was the one who could be inconvenient today were fully accepted. builda corner, and when you examine one of With a spontaneous gaiety they gave them- those old buildings, you cannot help but selves up to wholesome fun as often as the marvel at the skillful do-etailing or notching opportunity arose. of the old-time cornerer. For dancing they played all the well- When the structural framework was known tunes, beloved of generations before. completed, a young man climbed up to fasten There were the jig, the square dance, cotil- a spruce tree top to the gable,after which it lions, reels, and quadrilles.The fiddler, with was shot down with gunsamidst loud re- his Clot-tapping technique, and the ,layer joicing.There are stories of men who could of la bonte were remarkably good. They run along a log and jump acrossthe opening had lots o rhythm and kept time well.The left for a barn door, about 14 feet, with a bot- delightful melodies of the fiddler and the in- tle of whiskey in.each hand. When thewthole triguing rhymes which he sang are said to have building was finished , it was later blessed by had an almost Chaucerian flavor. Even unac- a priest. companied solds were common.Although some of the words stillexist, most of those *. The women had cooked all day, and songs have died* out as oneby one the old the taising was followed by a feast. There had time musicians passed away. Often at awed- been several p'tits coups taken during the day, ding, for example, someone will start singing but more were in order with the men hoarse Evangeline, hoping that the people will join from yelling and cheer)fig. The fiddler, who in, but too few know the words to keepit up. was always part oftheAcene, tuned up and no one felt too tired to dance. In general, Christmas did not havethe social importance given New Year's Day.The This was a time when folks were not parishioners attended Midnight Mass, after «afraid to get involii,e,rorj time of charity and which there were reveillons in the homes. good will that tem.' 'hit-integral part of the The guests were served wine, candy, fatpork record of the pioneers of this country. spreadandbread,andcroquecignols or beignes. HALE AND HEARTY On New Year's Day, after the priest The diversions of the Acadians, while had blessed the congregation at Mass, «Bonne, much simpler than ours, were more honest Sainte et Heureuse Armee, et le Paradis a la and sincere. Amusements were in the formof fin de vos Jours!» there was general handshak- visiting, mostly relatives, At times there were ing and well wishing among friends, withkiss- cornhuskings, taffy pulling, swings for lovers, ing that was rare except at this time. In every card playing, storytelling,hayrides, barn home the father traced a cross on thefore- dances, weddings, and the celebration of head of each member of ihe family and gave holidays. them his blessing. Then there was the open- ing of presents, cards and feasting withfriends Evenings were spent infamilyre- and relatives. unions, and no one would have thoughtof day the lookingforrecreationamongstrangers. At le jour des rois (on which Nearly all were related or friends since child- figures of the Wise Men were added tothe hood, and many of their games which would creche) a special cake was baked, with abean 191 in one half and a pea in the other. The boy plodded in their slow, age-old way, stopping and girl receivi these were king and queen from one tree to the next, while the sap was for the evening. ne period that followed was emptied from the buckets tothebarrel. the time for the veillees. Bo "s and girls sat in the kitchen playing main chaude, a game This liquid was then heated over a where each tried to slap the hand of the other roaring tire and it began to steam, then bub- as hard as possible.' Then, after much talking ble giving off billows of sweet smelling vapor and the traditional p'tit coup,. card playing mixed with pine smoke. The top foam was "- started, One of the most popular games was carefully skimmed with a wooden ladle, and quatre septs, with the losers relinquishing gradually the excess water evaporated until their places to those who had not yet played. the whole swelled like spun silk. When someone got a vilaine a terrible din broke loose, with yelling and stamping of First came the syrup; then the taffy, feet, one imitating fiddle playing, and the which was thicker but not yet sugar.They other beating on a washpan. Wild maple gathered pans full of clean snow, dribbled it sugar were passed around throughout the in tawny streams from the ladle, and watched evening. it sink down into pools of Cold crispness. One thought he could eat so much! But soon the Around midnight, all sang together sweetest- tooth wasiatisftd. Later they could from their repertoire of well-known songs. cook eggs or thick ham slices in the syrup, Then, the men went to hitch up the horses pour it over pancakes or drop dough into it, and the party was over.These parties were boiling hot. .followed by others until Shrove Tuesday, then one at Mid-Lent aftq which the strict Then came thecriticalperiod. The denial' of pleasures was resumed for the rest right moment for turning to sugar had to be of the Lenten period. calculated before it boiled over or burned. At precisely the right time it was turned into «A La Revoyure!» wgting containers - goose-egg shells, bread pans, cake tins, or birch bark cones. The re- MAPLE SUGAR TIME mainderinthe big iron pot was scraped intofudgysmoothness,suchas money When one could hear the sound of could never buy,The sugar kept indefi- water trickling underneath the honeycombed nitely,andhome-made scrapers were in snow of 'March, when the days grew longer many homes.Scraped maple sugar cov- and the treetops turned pink, then it was ered with thick country cream made a de- sugaring-off time. licious dessert, worthy of the most impor- tant guests. From tree to tree the men and boys went, boring a hole with an auger on the No doubt the children who grow up south side of the maples, driving in a wooden today have many advantages but it is unfortu- spout and hanging a bucket from it.Cold nate that they will miss customs of our past nights and sunny days combined with the thathave been modernized or altogether accumulated snowfalls of winter to start the abandoned in the name of progress. sap running, and the next morning the buck- A ets were full. A big hogshead, traced on a sleigh, A few maple 'sugar cabins have sur- was ready for collecting the sap.The oxen vived, mostly in Canada. The rest have fallen 192 to ruins, with only rusty boiling pansand have thought of accepting anything.How. equipment attesting to their existence.HOw- ever, in later years, offers were softenwillingly ever, in this as in all otherindustries, The big. received. Some left a small dish on a bureau ger ones. have lasted.Here we pay tribute to and turnedtheir backs so the Patient or Pete Daigle's Maple Sugar Club: in Sinclair, relative .could put something in it without Wine. From a simple camp, Pete has devel- enibarrassmen t. oped a popular ,,ear round entertainment Ar center. Eventhoughmodernized,the They clainied no power of their own process of making maple productsis still en- other thqn simply the knowledge of the secret joyed by many every spring. procedurb.Others rarely tried to learn it al- though it was always good to pass it'pn before SECRETS IN A NUTSHELL dying so that people would continue to derive its benefits.The renown of the successful ' Can you keep a secret?You don't, ones was more important inthe public mind haveto;butif you do, make surethe than the knowledge itself, and patientsoften person you tell it to is of theopposite sex, came from far to see those of good reputa- or itwill lose its power.Cpn you tellit tion. often? Not too many times, because it . - may weaken with repetition.Of what use Some cures were full of religious sym- isit? These particular secrets are cures bolism, likethe one for the goiter, others for warts, pain of bums, worms, rheumatism, were quite natural.One healer would rub a eczema (called le' Iff le). theitopping of blond, wart, whisper a few words, and say,«Forget goiter, ticks or colic of horses. about it, now, and it will disappear». A man left the house with a quart bottle, returnedit Sickness and death, lightning and fire, filledwithwater from some mysterious often struck terror in the heart of man. Thus, source, told the patient towash his eczema he learned to use the traditional controls of with that for nine consecutive days, then take natureathisdisposal,techniques handed a good laxative, and the eczemawould leave down from one generation to the other. him.For the stopping of blood, there were, and stilk are, several procedures, but no one Sickness was natural, but more .or less person practiced more than onemethod. It frightening, and had to be controlled if pos- was important that this bedone in private, sible.There were in a parish about a dozen and that the bleeding not stop too quickly people who knew the secret cures tormost because the patient would faint. afflictions. One individual would ktiow only one or two, and these could betoil only to A strict 'taboo was havingsueda 1 persons of the opposite sex.Neither were per around at slaughtering time because they to be offered when the need arose.In- upon seeing the blood, he wouldinadvertent- stead, the person with the power would wait ly think of the secret and stop the flow, leav- until asked to perform the secret although he ing a gaping white wound;die pork meat was sometimes did it privately when he judged it unfit,andthere was no bloodforthe expedient.Later, he might ask when the pain «boudin». or bleeding stopped, andwas often gratified to learn thatit was shortly after he had One cure for horse colic could be perfrimed his ritual.The practitioner could practiced publicly and required no cross-sex not ask for payment, and many would not in the telling. Take five strips of cedar bark 1L) 193 about -three inches long from the side of the ticed by the Indians,before the com- tree toward the rising sun, t.Put these on top ing of the white man). 9f one another in the shape of is cross in a fry- / ing pan, pour water over until well covered, or a bee sting: and boil all the water away The, colic disap- Apply mud, or tobacco juice. pears as the water evaporates. To lower a fever: YOU DO NOT FEEL WELL? Steep catnip. and drink the infusion. To purify the blood and for general well- For sprains: being: Apply hot greenronions. Apply cuss Drink absinthe steeped it hot water. (de l'anguille). (This remedy was Widely used during the 'epidemic of Spanish influenza in 1918). For toothache: Rub with du boil de tonnerre. (This For asthma or to thin the blood: wood was taken from a tree that has Boil white fir and tamarack in water been felled by lightning). until water diminishes by one half. O Take 3/4 cup,four times a day. To induce vomiting in people and animals: Peel the bark of pimbina (high bush For hernia: cranberry) upward,,steep in hot water, Applysuetfromablacksheep. and drink. Take thick cobwebs, twist around a lead disk, saturate with olive oil and For a purgative: A apply. .Grind cowslip to a pulp bet- Peel bark of pimbina downrd, steep ween two stones and apply. and then drink. For earache: For pleurisy: Blow smoke from a pipe into the ear. Drink stove soot mixed with milk. Let the water from a handful of :,now Heat the sore portions with oatsacks trickle into the ear.Eau de frene of ashes. (ash) - take a stick of green ash about a foot longer than regularfirewood, For worms: put- in a stove, leaving extended end Make an infusion of aspen hark and out downward.The dripping liquid give in small doses. Drink milk boiled is your remedy. with garlic" skins.(Itis a fact that sheep which pasture around aspen For falls, bruises, bumps: have no wo:ms). Mix gunpowder and molasses: Take a scant1/2 teaspoon three times a Boils and furuncles: day. (Gunpowder is made from niter Once a day for nine consecutive days, orsaltpeter, charcoal and sulphur). take a tablespopn of a sulphur-molas- ses mixture. Make an infusion of wild To remove therottingfleshfrom open L rhubarb roots; take with a little gin. wounds: Apply green moss.(This was prac- For whooping coughs: 00 ,1 194 . Take fork and honey.Mix poplar said to be removable by 'washing them away ..buds,sandragon,pinegum.and with the dew of the first of May, or with camphor; rub the chest withthis waterdat collects in tree stumps. preparation. WORDS OF YESTERDAY For a whitlow or felon(tour d Mix yellow homemade soap chips There are some words' that a :e 1 with molasses, and wrap around the acteristic of the Acadians, and that are knger.fake the thin skin inside an Aed by otherraces,For example. (..L;gshell, and wrap around the finger. not find in the dictionaryune vailloche, faire Apply a paste of pepper, gunpowder, boucherie,tasserieandbatterie,tiese are gr !ase and turpentine., Normanwords. For a forei0 body in the eye. Abraiewassed in preparing flax , Put a flaxseed in the eye.Take the Some Canadians fromthe Province of Quebec upper eyelid with your fingers and call the Madawaskanbreyonsbecause they make the sign of the cross with it, reproach them withreyerorecorcer(break- ing up) the French language. When.a woman For4baby's diaper rash: did not mind her own business, she was called Scrapede l'ecorce de pruche(hem- une grande braye. lock bark) into a powder and apply. Listed below are some common words For callouses, bunions, sore feet: illustrating this distpttion of °speech.The Steep hemlock bark in hot water until miracle is not that-4e still speak French, but the water gets quite dark; soak feet in that we have conserved a recognizable, even agreeable language.As for our errors, let us remember that someone once said, «Si notre A purgati topurifybloodin women: langue porte de nompreuses blessures, c'est Mix one quart milk,fleur de surreau peut-titre parce qu'elle a traverse beaucoup de Blancand, whiii wine. The milk batailles et recu de vilains coups». curdles, and esehave the patient drink before each meal some of the An old Acadian word meaning diffi- clear liquid,A popular measure for culti!s, tribulations:tribouil. this,as well as many other remedies, was un petit verre a patte.' ..,Hemlock was called:aricot. Soothing syrup for hoarseness: FroidiAkaid:frette: droit: drette; fait: Cherry bark, honey and black pepper. faite; potis pronouncedpotte. GET WELL SOON! From the English oust,inIny say outer;from stooks,des stouques. Note: Although freckles are not a Jisease, they were not to be desired: a lovely The older citizensgay, jorneeforjour - white complexion, with no trace of suntan, nee; tojoursfortoujours; tcheteforqueti was highly sought, and supposedlyattained tchureforcure; tchuireforcuire; tchulotte by washing with buttermilk. Freckles were forculotte. V' Lr, 1.0 TS Up to the 18th century, they were Embarquer and debarqu er is to embark right when they said avri; now it is aril.' and to disembark respectivelw In reTerenee to drowning, someone Mater is to rise ..,rtically. said, «On ne se noie pas en Acadie, on se. neye..r. il.s'est neye», Chavirer is their term for turning or up -; sttting, orlosing one's mind., , Old timers stilt say, mirwe for miroir; tirwe for tiroir; mouchwe for mouchoir. Larguer is to let go. The word imposer has been retained Virer de bord means to turn around. in Acadia with the meaning Of empeche(... fa n 'hYTose pas que .. Bord is used for;\room; etherau bord always means to go to ty waterside. The floor is called l a place...laver la place. INDUSTRY DEVELOPS Molasses is d'la menasse. The very first crop or.the colonists, 4 that of 1786, was,good except the wheat, To do the housework is faire le beurda, which was nearly all destroyed by a Septem- or berda. Berdi-berda means that all is in dis- ber frost.This wheat was ground.between order. twolarge stones which were turned one ainst the other by means Of a handle. Then Morning is la matinee; afternoon is a 'the flour was separated by sieving it through a s'te orloeve. linen cloth. Buckwheat was ground the same, way/. For barley, a «pile» was used. This was Tuberculous: pomonique. a 'piece of wood with a depression init, in the shape of an inverted hat, The grain was To cure: djerir. put in this, pounded with a stick, thus break- ing all the shells.After clea*g, it was ready God: Le Bon Djeu. for soup. Later came the gffst4nill, with the miller keeping a certain amount of grain for Distinct nautical terms dating from his work.It was powered by water running living close to the sea remain. over a large wheel, turning two stones, w"lich ground the grain. Echelle is used for escalier,or stair- case. For half a century,the Acadians .. labored under the most primitive conditions. Le large used tomean the high seas; They remained isolated, retarded in huluistry inland it means «that part of the farm at the and agriculture, far from markets and suffer- extreme limits near the woods». ing from lack of communication. From the manes and tails of horses, they made rope; a Haler is used for tirer. or to pull.. they tanned hides to rilake leather for foot- Wear and harnesses.Clothes, 'sails, baskets Amarer means to tie. and hats were also homemade.Their skill with the axe and chisel provided them with .77 146 rakes, furniture and needed agricultural im- built in St. David, followed by awooden plements. structure in Madawaska the following year. In 1926 the latter was replaced by a brick Thethreegreitinnovationsthat statior. which was razed to make way for the materially transforintd the interior of houses present building in 1959. and conditions of life were ,.the stoves, the flour mill& and the hydraulic sawmills. Stoves THE GENERAL STORE were brought from Canada by boat on theSt. $ John River: The first flour Mills Were con- In the days when men lived separate structed aroi nd 1800, installed on brooks af- and solitary lives, it was the country store ter the fashion of those of Nova Scotia and that was the venterof, the community, Bale Francaise:- The first in the region was People 'gathered there not only because it owned .1)y Paul Potier of Sti.Basile. It turned provided them with things they needed, but slovily,,its overshot wheels withstood the for a certain social atmosphere, a warmth and force of spring floods and lolled with the drier neighborliness that has vanished from the season of midsummer, but it groundbuck- American scene. Here one could look around wheat into flour that was the currencyof the at leisure often taking half an hour to choose land, Then there was another in St. David, a yard of ribbon. There were cubesof indigo the work of Louis Bellefleur.Firmin Thi- for the dye pot, the open cracker and pickle bodeau bought Francois Cormier's mill ir: barrels, hardware, dress goods, thread, pow- Grand Isle and made so many successful der and ammunition from Europe. From the transformationst at he finally had white, West Indies came barrelsof molasses, salt, flour for sale.It s the reign of the grind- sugar, chests of coffee and tea, spices, rum and stone. dyes.The air was heavy with the smell of ti ar strange places, whale oil, kerosene, raw hides In 1878 the first Canadian Pacific and humanity. Raikoad train arrived on two narrow rails through a covered tunnel; at the same spot Bartering was the common way to where the, station is today, thus connecting trade, and the'av'tier was often paid in butter, Edmundston with the rest of New Bruns- sheep, rag coverlets,\cordwood, wool or corn, wick. On JaIU.y 1, 1889, the Temiscouata, all in small lots and processed at home under with a wood-fa engine and accommodating primitive conditions. The farmer fabricated all passenrs and baggage, had a regular113 he could within his own fampy and abstained mile ru Our own Bangor and Aroostook from buying imported goods.as much as pos- 411 Railro was opened here in 1910. sible.Iron was used with great parsimony, forged into tools andrkpair parts that could A box served as a temporary sta- not be made of wood. tion,ith Mr. H.R. Bard as first agent. Mr. EldonTapleywas agent from 1911 to 1931; A buyer did not ay out his money Hector Cyr until 1935; Neil Robertson until with a careless hand in,..tfAse days. Customers 1936: Alfred Lausier until 1968; then he was were relaxed, and the store ownerpracticed replaced by Hercules Levesque who is present the art of patience and tactful,waiting. Mer- agent. chandise was examined,pricesdiscussed, every item compared with the otherand final- From the first, in 1910, a station was lythe serious business of whether to satisfy 2 ) . 197 the heart's desire or necessity Was resolved. bit, listen to the fI9,w of talk or long periods of silence, at ilwetime when life's pace was In the 1870's the mail order catalog uncomplicated and slow! wasintroduced! Since the companies would- not barter for goose feathers or eggs, it was WHERE THERE IS LIFE many years before they were a serious rival to the country store.A more vital competitor Sickness,birth 'anddeath areno was the peddler with his overflowing cart set respecters of time and season.When there high soitcould travel over deeply. rutted were no doctors and storms raged outside,-the roads, and who .could sweet talk the women fArmers sat' tight and tended their stock, and into buying anything in. return for skins, letnaturetakeitscourse. People- knew feathers °I...wool, old rags, discarded horse- enough to stay well or they relied on home shoes or other seraph-on. He brought to the remedies. Diseases like mumps, measles. housewife a touch of the outside world, a whooping cough, rash or croup were either contact with civilization that did much to ignored and allowed to run themselves out; or relieve the monotony of her days. they were treated with medications made fromtraditionalfamily recipes and com- Loafers were hardly profitable to the pounded in the home kitchen. roprietor, but he put up with them while they played checkers by the stove, heckled Rural people were afflicted with a each other, or alternated between heateddis- long list of ailments - frostbite, colds, sore cussions and sudden gusts of loud laughter. throats, kidney trouble, summer complaint, He was often the postmaster, the only sub- cuts,fits,gallst6nes,and le corps barre. scriber to a newspaper, and was looked up to Special and violent experiences in a rough en- for adviceinboth business an.i domes ic yironnient (knifings, gunshot wounds, affairs. accidents with axes, scythes, and pitchforks) called for emer y treatment. Giant trees No one knows exactly what was the that did not fal w ere they were supposed to critical time for that era.It did not seem to were called «widow makers». So the people change from one year to the next, and yet it gathered herbs, roots, and bark along forest is gone. With the coming of the automobile, glades and stream banks, and hung them in the world grew smaller, the community too bunches from the rafters of the back shed to large for what the general store could supply. be used as needed. In their gardens they grew 14ople loved togo for a ride to where there catnip (herbe a Matte), camomile, absinthe, were orderlt departments,. better displays, and mint.Roots such as racine de mosque quick service, and one price for all, even if it (calamus root) ravine de chiendent (couch- meant making the transition from the com- grass) and cowslips were preserved. modity to the currency dollar. Thegeneralsuppositionwasthat Still the country store is recalled with cold causes most illnesses, and so heat and a certain wistfulness, humor and affection. the things associated with it, such as soot, How many folks would give much to slip into snuff, and hot compresses were often used. the shadows of the past for one evening, to A great many of these have been dropped this leisure point of assembly - to sit on the with the development of science and modem wooden bench, chew tobacco and whittle a medicine, but sometimes a doctor is not 2 198 surprised to be called only after sqme,of these materia medico; their whole livesovere spent have been tried.Some were rational and in the open, searching far food and fighting some were not, and many had no curing the weather and the elements of nature. properties; however, when the principle was Flimsy shelters, ground vapors and chilling sound, alleviation of pain or a cure resulted. winds left them ptible to all kinds of N.2) Others, have been found to actually have pains, fevers and al ments. Recent discoveries scientific value. show that they were also victims of bone deformities and decayed teeth. Much could be saidforthe early country doctor, whose services were usually They were hunters first, both of game called for by a distraught man on horseback. and hostile tribes, so all work concerned with He would dress warmly, hitch up the sleigh food was left to the women. They ate only and drive long distances, in all possible weath- one meal a day, in the morning, sitting or erconditions,sometimes withhishorse standing around the fire. The men and boys floundering in snowdrifts up to itsbelly. were served from a clay pot in the embers, Often he would stay overnight at the patk,,t's then the women andigirls ate. Leftovers were Lome, working in deplorable conditions, wait- kept warm all day, and anyone who felt ing for a new addition to the population,, or hungry, including visitotts, could help .them- merely to see what turn the illness would selves.Dishes were never washed, but were take.He was paid in fann produce such as scraped with cornhusks and allowed to dry; meat, jams, buckwheat, maple sugar, etc..; they became so coated with grease that they , sometimes, not atall. One doctor, who turned a deep brown. The tepees belonged by delivered a large portion of the people along tradition to the women, and they were al- the valley and back settlements has many lowed to draw on them but not scenes from such memories.He recallsleturning home, real life. either gratified for having been successful .or with a heavy heartbecause Death had won. The Indians taught the whites to hunt He would hang the reins over the dasher, tell and to fish, using traps and nets with stone sink- the horse to go home, curl up on the seat ers.During their many years-Lin this territory warmly wrapped in a robe de carriole, and they had learned much about plants by looking, awake some time later at his own barn &or, tasting and smelling. They knewiwhich red ber- ries made delicious food and which ones caused *** agonizinstomach, pains.They ught the white rn n what to use for.dyeing, w aving, for gOur remedies oft in ourselves do lie which. healing wnds and treating sickne -; about a we ascribe to Heaven». variety of yog stems, leaves andfl Overheads that could be eaten as greens, and of roots, Shakespeare bulbs, seeds and acquainted them with maple sugar. Arrowhead bulbs taste much like pota- INDIAN LORE toes after they are boiled or baked. Wild car- rot roots are very bitter but not when first On the whole, the Indians were not soaked in boiling water then baked in ashes. the rugged, super healthy race that we often Seed pods were boiled while young and tender think they were.It is not by accident that and served as a vegetable. Sometimes their mil- they were the real discoverers of botanical ky sap was collected, dried, and chewed like, 199 gum. Certain barks and berries were used in diamond in the rough is no less a diamond infusions as a drug. than the one cut with many facets, and no other dialect approaches closer the academic They showed the whites how to plant French than that of the Canadian or Acadian. their corn over dead fish, in order to havea better yield. Many words and expressions have been conserved by the Acadians, with the Many Indian dishes have found theirway same sense they originally had, but they are into our kitchens, especially those made with not in the dictionary any more. Some (such potatoes or corn. Some of their words relating as nautical terms) have been lost through geo- to foods include cacao, caribou, mals (corn), graphical isolation simply because there was no patate, tapioca, tomate,also quinine (a drug), more use for them. In Madawaska we have a and tabac (tobacco). blending of half Acadian and half Canadian. This is due to a fusionain about equal numbers from Acadia through the St. John River and PARLEZ-VOUS FRAIKAIS? from Kamouraska through the forest.The early absence of schools fostered the conserva- All living languages change. In fact, the tion of traits of vocabulary and pronunciation many languages spoken today have so altered of each group. The Acadian syntax has be- thathistorians doubt their common origin. come entangled with that of the Canadian, There are many reasons for this, the most mark- and seems to be giving in to the latter's ed being wars, which ate followed by new re- simpler internal structure and formation of gimes that often create long lasting hybrid idi- words. oms. Other causes, slower and less violent, are migrations, change in climate affrAing vocal The fact rem, that we are the keep- 'cord, international relations, commerce, more ers of the French la- Age. The stubborn necessity of coining appropriate words for folks who begot us Lid a taste of prison in recentlydiscoveredobjectsorprocesses. order to defend their right to the maternal Thus some words, likeclothes, a:e mend7 tongue. Ours is not a patois. When educated ed,shortenedor lengthened, while others people adapt the rich old base of the mother become obsolete and are rejected. tongue to modern phrasing, deleting the unac- ceptable words, their language reveals an in- It is truethat,comparedto describable charm. The historians, chroniclers ParisianFrench, the French we speakis and poets are only adapters; they transcribe monotonous. Our vocal cords are more for the eyes what we create for the ear. The relaxed and we do not roll our r's.There old terms of Acadia, so alive and picturesque, is less vibrating of syllables, which accounts are giving way to the infiltration of alien ideas for the fact that our speech is not so musical and customs, and are definitely becoming as theirs.BasiCally, though, it is the same in Anglicized, especially in cities and suburbs. grammar, syntax and vocabulary. Let us conserve them with extreme care, be- cause «Chaque mot qui part est une time qui Inview of theactthatour an- meurt».(From an old Canadian poet who cestors were illiterate peasants, we expect wished th4t no one word be lost). their language to be less refined, to lack the elegance of professors and poets. However, a *** 200 PICTURESQUE WORDS AND MEANINGS The Big Black was called Chinkaza- ook. Along with the French language, the Indians adopted the white man's custom of Eagle Lake was Pongokwahemook; calling each other names.Thus, they called the Iroquois, Les Nez-Crochus. Mada vas was Med-a-wes-kek, for porcupine pl Ritnouski means retreat of dogs. Sunakade meant place where cran- Chippewa means a windy fellow. berry abounds; Rivi Ere-du-Loup means riverof the Trackadie,Passamaquoddy: fertile Wolves. lands or fields; Some say CanadaisIroquoisfor Seguboonakake or Shubenacadie: place Kanata, meaning a cabin or lodge. Others say where edible roots such as potatoes and arti- it is Algonquin for Odanah, meaning a settle- chokes flourish in abundance, ment; while still others claim that the Spanish sailors, failing to find gold mines, cried «Aca- Cabahonoce meant ducks' sleeping nada»! place. The St. Francis River was called Amil- Other Indian words, adaptations of cungantEguake, meaning «banks of the river which we recognize in our everyday speech abounding in dry meat».(This probably are the following: referred to game meat, but it could not have been venison because there were practically boucan - a grill for smoking meat; we no deer here before the loggerscame). also use boucaner. AllagashisIndianfor«Hemlock matacne - Indian for tattoed; Acadians Bark», or «North Flowing Waters». There is used it to denote varicolored animals. an old superstition that anyonewho drank Allagash waters would die with his boots off. mlcoine- wooden spoonssuch as that used in making butter. The Iroquois referred to the Adiron- pietrow--+Algunquin) ugly, deformed dacks as «bark eaters». The St. Francis tribe was called Abe- piconllle-(Algonquin) verylean, naki, or Wabin meaning people of the emaciated dawn. pimbina - our high bush cranberry There are two theories on the St. John that is used for making jelly River's name: one says it was called Woo loos- took in honor of a great ct .ef; the other mackinaw - warm covers claimsitwastheWallastook,meaning crooked river, or shallow river. babiche - narrow length of leather for 2 201 crude sewing or thongs covered with dust in the shed where no one ever goes... no one except him, old and bent, odiche - dodish, petticoats for small who goes to see his friends, companions of his children ancient labors. He picks them up and softly speaks to them. Like him, they have been re- kayak- closed canoe of skin used by placed by machines, faster, noisier, more ef- hunters and fishermen ficient, better suited to the frantic impatience of our times. Here, away from curious eyes, touladisor touradis-(Algonquin) hidden from insults and disrespect, they share large gray trout their memories- the two handled winnowing basket, the flail, the pitchfork with the wood- tobaganlight sled with front turned en prongs, the little curved scythe (faucille), upwards the brale on top of the bakehouse, the plow- share with a dent in its side, pieces of harness pioui down on young birds - the relics he has put to rest. quiliou used by thecoareurs de bois, And he remembers. How many crops meant the great royal eagle he cut when his arms were solid and sure! He would straighten out at the end of the REMINISCING field, sweat glistening on his brow, and admire the blond heads of grain that lay like a golden Before 'iron was available, plows were carpet. And the flail, as old as he! Like his, made from the roots oi hardwood trees. its joints fail it now; rust has gnawed at its Oxen-drawn harrows were fashioned from iron ring and the leather of its copes has dried three pieces of hardwood through which holes and shriveled. But its wooden beater of wild were bored for teeth made from branches. cherry, its support of maple are sound.He The scythe and the flail of .the 19th century handles the pitchfork with fondness. Once a differed little from those of biblical days. branch in the forest, it was found on a sum- The scythe ,could be swung swiftly, but it mer night. He sharpened its teeth - it was all flung stalks in all directions. Then came the of one piece and so solid it never faltered un- cradle scythe which had prongs along the der the heaviest hay. Yet, it was so light his blade, .that caught the grain'as it was cut and wife could handle it as well as any man. And let it slide to the ground in a neat pile. Farm- he hears his dead father's voice...oNow, my ers used to thresh by beating the heads of sons, we have sold this hay.Let us give a the grain, or driving their animals back and good measure, and more...» The inborn forth over the spread-out grain until their honesty, the generosity of his forefathers, feet had trampled the kernels loose. Winnow- where have they gone? ing was a slow hand process of tossing the grain into the air, in a strong breeze, until the His mother's loom, all made of pine, is chaff blew away. Before the gristmill, buck- partly dismantled. Fine cobwebs weave back wheat was ground between two flat rocks, so and fr,..th between it and the working bench. that the grain broke and produced the flour. Iron:cally, they remind him of the synthetic fibers that have made the fine art of weaving LA FAUCILLE obsolete. Ah, yes!the young people of today would not understand us; better to let Hanging from wooden pins or leaning them sleep in their dark corner. He softly against the wall, the old farm implements are closes the door and comes back to the house, 202 and a smile hovers on hisgood old face. Where dwelt the warlike Malicites, the Mohawks were their foes. THE SUNDAY POETS Then red skinned sons of slaughter had joined in many a fray Diereville lauded the ingenuity of the With savage ire and carnage dire sham- Acadians in this poem: ing the light of day. Sans avoir appris de metiers, But buried was the hatchet, they went Its sont en tout bons ouvriers: to war no more II n'est rien dont ils ne s'acquittent, The little children gambolledabout Cent besoins divers les excitent each wigwam floor A se donner ce qu'ils n'ont pas: Around the 'savage village were maize De leur laine, ils se font habits, bon- fields waving green nets et bas. Mid such sweet peace you scarce Ne se distinguant point par de nouvel- could guess that ever war hadbeen. les modes. Its portent toujours des capots, Sakotis and his daughter, the dark Et se font des souliers, toujours plats eyed Malabeam et commodes. , Sailed up the Oangundy beyond the De peaux de loup-marins et de peaux Quisibis stream rested d'orignaux. And there upon the island they De leur lin ils se font encore de la toile; for the day Enfin leur nudite par leur travail se Their hearts were light, thewoairWas voile. bright, and Nature's face was gay. the THE TRAGEDY OF THE ST. JOHNRIVER But, like a clap of thunder when heavens are calm and clear The St. John River was calledthe The warhoop of the Mohawksfell on Oangundy by the Indians of those days,and their startled ear pierced even at the present time theMalecites use the And a sharp flint tipped arrow name Oangundy. It was atwhat is now called old Sakotis' breast him, her St. Anne, N.B. opposite GrandIsle on this Ere Malabeam could run to side of the boundary line wherethe line of father was at rest. canoe laden Mohawksstarted with the Indian maiden Malabeam on their waydown the And bounding through thethicket on rushed a savage crowd river. Of Mohawks in their warpaint, with In the sweet days of summer five ziphoops fierce and loud hundred years ago 'And ere the orphaned maiden had Where the broad Oangundy swept on time to turn and fly in might below the ceaseless They bound her fast, allhope was torrent, which down the great passed, except the hope todie. falls bore Over the steep, with suddenleap, There by her slaughtered fatherthe full eighty feet or more. weary hours she passed There on the bank above, anIndian Till the sun went down, andthe lofty town arose. trees a gloomy shadow cast 203 Thinking of home and kindred, of the nearing the thrice doomed town friends she could not warn Flow on, 0 mighty river, and bear the The murderous night, and the gory foemen down. sight,wouldgreetthe morrow morn. But littlecared the Mohawks, the wind might wail or sigh But one who knew her language said, The moon might hide her glory, the «As soon as the sun goes down clouds obscure the sky Your bark canoe shall guide us to With hearts intent on slaughter, with your father's town tongues on carnage fed Do this, your life is spared you, then They toiled, and still before them the wed a Mohawk brave strong armed maiden sped. Refuse, your doom istorture, or worse, to be a slave». And now the Indian village lies but a mile below Then said she, «I will guide you and A sound like muffled thunder seems wed a Mohawk brave on their ears to grow Though you have slain my father, I «What's that?» «'Tis but a torrent», need not be a slave the Indian maidetiaplied The stream is swift and broken, you «It joins the Oangundy, which here well might go astray flows deep and wide». Keep your canoes together, and I will lead the way». «Speed on a little further, the town is now hard by Just as the gloom of darkness spread Your toils are nearly over, and night over hill and dale still veils the sky Down the swift Oangundy the The town 'is wrapped in slumber, Mohawk fleet set sail but ere the dawn of light ThreehundredMohawkwarriors What stalwart men shall perish, what chanting a martial song warriors die tonight!» Theirpaddlesgleamedupon the stream as swift they sped along. But louderstill,and loudef,the sounds like thunder grew In four lines together, each to the As down the rapid river the swift next held fast flotilla flew The maiden in the center, V-great On either shore the foam wreaths canoe fleet passed j shone like a line of snow And he who knew her language a But all in front was darkness, 'twas line of silver drew death which lay below. As he bent to the forward paddle in the maiden's birch canoe. Then with a shout of triumph the Indian maiden cried The song was done, and silence fell «Listen, ye Mohawk warriors, who sail upon every tongue on death's dark tide Of warriors old, grizzled, and the Never shall earth grave hide you, or braves untaught and young wife weep over your clay Hatefilledevery swarthy bosom, Come to your doom, ye Mohawks, 209 204 -A( ind I will lead the way.» brought to their marriage the honesty of their souls, an indomitable courage, the ability to Then sweeping with her paddle one work with their hands, used to hard work in potent stroke, her last fields and home, and the disposition for a ,Down the fall her bark is borne, the happywife and good mother. Our French rdreadful brink is passed. Acadian women had a reputation for keeping And down the whole three hundred, a clean house and the progress of the spring with swift succession go and fall grand ménage dominated their con- Into the dark abyss of death, full versations for several weeks during the year. eighty feet below. There were houses with ceiling beams that had been scrubbed so much that their edges And many a day thereafter, .beyond were actually worn round! Dowries consisted the torrent's roar of household linens and utensils, blankets, a Theswarthy Mohawk dead were featherbed,livestock,and more rarely,a found upon the river's shore piece of land. By right, the cradle went to the But on brave Malabeam's dead face no oldest daughter in a family. (It is interesting human eyes were set to note here that there were no divorces). She lies in the dark stream's embrace, the river claims her yet. If the young husband was to be the inheriting son, the couple took up residence The waters of five hundred years with his parents.Little by little the mother- flowed above her grave in-law relinquished her duties as head of the But daring deeds can never die while household and eventually the older couple human hearts are brave made preparations for their retirement. After Her tribe still tell her story and round Madawaska was incorporated into a town, their council fires they would go to the town clerk and legally Bless her who died in the raging tide turn over the bien to their son, taking in turn, ek to rescue alltheir sires. a life support mortgage and makingspecific requests.This was written in English, which FROM FATHER TO SON they could not read, but their plow-calloused hand affixed an X to the paper, and it became The family, which was often very their most important document, to be put large, constituted the basic wealth of the away carefully in the coffredans la grande citizens. Because of their need for unity and chambre.It insured maintenance for the rest family solidarity, marriages were arranged by of their lives, while reassuring them that their the parents, who chose someone in a family precious land holdings would remain in the with whom there was a common bond of kin- family. ship, friendship or trust. When courting start- ed, it was done at home with close chaperon- Town records list the meager belong- ing of daughters and no prolonged visiting ings of these people and reveal how important periods.It was not unusual for a father to be it was to be assured of a funeral and sub- asked for his daughter's hand in marriage after sequent Masses. one month courting.The young man ex-- plained his financial position and receiveda For example, one can read: «Provid- tentative reply. Then shortly after, the two ed heir will make available (to the father) sets of parents agreed on the terms for the suitable harness, horse, buffalo robes and car- marriage contract.The pretty young girls riages, in accordance with the seasons, for the 2u 205 rurpose pf doing his necessary religious duties during which friends and relatives came to as long as he can manage a horse:that he say prayers, and a table was laid out with shall provide his mother with sufficient meat, food twenty -four hours a day. tea and snuff, and medical care; that he shall be sure to bring in a confessor in sickness or Thencamethemorningofthe old age; also, provide a sufficiedt piece of land funeral, the time for alter porter en terre. and manure to plant two bushels of potatoes Lacking other facilities, burial was done in yearly; provide tobacco and pipes at hisineces- winter as well as in summer, and many recall sity: alsoili sugar pot as long as he thinks it the funeral procession coming upon the grave proper to make maple sugar; provide the old half filled with nyirling snow during the harsh couple with suitable clothing and house-room Maine winter;Often memorial cards were in their ho.me. At their deaths, that they will made, with 'a, lock of hair tucked inside as a have a High Mass of Requiem, then six low souvenir. During the period of mourning, Masses in accordance with the rules of the which lasted a year, the relatives did not play Church of Rome. for the repose of their cards, attend public mtings, weddings or departed souls.Also, he is to give a two year any other fektivities, and they strictly ob- old heifer to his sister.» served'the custom of wearing black. We note here that a sort of matriarchy The front of St. David cemetery has a seemed to exist.The wife and mother was few wooden tombstones left, the inscription queen of the humble home.Her husband carved with a knife.Then there are °some nearly always asked her permission to go iron crosses with ornate scrollwork made by somewhere, never started any project without the blacksmith.oCi GU)) for «Here Lies», discussing it with her nor would he give an dates from Old Acadii. answer without consulting her first. Families were numerous, often having eighteento ON EST CATHOLIQUE twenty-one children. As family life revolved around the Growing old was an entirely natural seasons, so was it always in close union with and satisfying process.In no time at all,it the religious year. The Catholic faith was not seemed, the wheel had turned full circle and just a Sunday affair to our fathers.It was it was time to make provisions for old age and their strength, their perpetual help, their very death. way of life. On a wall of every home the long black crucifix had a place of honor. At its Hospitals being unknown, people died foot the family knelt together to say morn- at home, in their own beds.They were ing and evening prayers.Other wall decora- washed, dressed in their Sun best, and laid tions were religious pictures and the framed outsur les planches, ich re boards, coffin handles of departed ones. covered with a sheet. The coffinaker was notified.Vital Bellefleur, a carpe ter here, Sundaywas devotedtoattending was one such.Another was Mich 1 Morin. Mass and afternoon Vespers, and St. David Usuallymadeofpine,thecfinwas parishioners spent all day ill at ease in their fashionedafterthe generalbui of the best suits of drap de paysand robes de deceased; that is, if he were a tall man, a wom-b\ droguette pronounced drayette. Their an or a child.Some were made fancier, devotion to Notre Dame de L'Assomption with a widening at the shoulders and taper- dates to the very .first parish at Port -Royal. ing at the foot. A three-day wake was held; 206 Theoldcitizens who lieinthe was called the Holy Parade, and everyone at- cemetery would probably think that we have tended. It is said thOthe Indians dressed bril- lost all sense of piety today. They would find liantly, arnItill witiespears and muskets, as for that Latin has given way to the vernacular, a military parade. The elevation was saluted and many of their lovely customs have simply by a volley of artillery and they sang,0 Salu- vanished. tarts, Hostia. I heard an o1 ien1an recall that in the When the bishop came to confirm, the 1800's they had thepain beni.One of the people wouldbalisethe road where he was more proerous farmers would _bring to to pass. That is, they cut many small trees of church a loaf of bread on Sunday. The priest maple, beech, etc., bore holes in the ground at blessed it, then it was passed around. Every- intervals,and tampedthetreesin,thus one in turn, would take a pinch of it, cross making a lovely green passageway. All along, himself and eat.This. however, did not re- people knelt and made the sign of the cross as place Communion, which was not received the bishop and clergy went by. as often as it is today. On November 1, All Saints Day, the The period of Lent meant forty days town crier held an auction in front of the when meat was not eaten, and fasting and rigid church for Masses for the souls of the dead. discipline were strictly observed. There was An incongruous assortment of produce was no dancing; parties or drinking, and Holy brought in - pumpkins, poultry, headcheese, Week seemed far' away indeed. During Mass rag rugs,bolts of cloth,pigs, geese, etc. on Holy Thursday, when the church bells Articles were sometimes bought, then given tolled,it was said that «they had gone to back, for a Mass to be said «for the most Rome», to return on Holy Saturday. Then abandoned soul in Purgatory». came Easter, the greatest feast of the church, and everyone turned out intheir spring After the time of Advent came the finery.As on all Sundays, custom d;:tated revelry ofles fetes, withthe lumbermen that the men file out of the church first, then home after a long absence, often to find a the women and children. new baby in the cradle.Christmas was not given the general importance that it is to- Long ago,two outstandingfeasts day; certainly it had none of the commer-. were St. Marc's Day, andf(La Fete Dieu.» cial aspect.All the parish was present and On the former, the priest blessed a large beaming at Midnight Mass, and all went to bowl of assorted seeds.A man from each Communion, males before females.After- family brought home a handful, and everyone wards, there were homereveillons withwine, helped to separate them into various kinds, candy, fat pork,croquecignols,andtour- which were the first to be planted. Children tieres. sowed these while saying «Paters». Later the farmer would wear a long apron, gather the At New Years, the priest blessed the two corners to form a pocket for the seeds congregation, «Bonne, sainte et heureuse an- and sow them after having made the sign of nee, et le paradis a la fin de vos jours.» There the cross. was well wishing and hand shaking as people greeted one another on the church steps and On theFete Dieuthe procession of in every home the father blessed in turn, each theBlessed Sacrament had a special charm. It member of his household. Reprinted by permission of the author. 212 THE FRENCH IN VERMONT 1609 W 1976 by Peter Woolfson Burlington, VT The North American Experience The French Experience in Vermont The French presence in North America Any account of the French experience can be officially dated from July 24, 1534 at in Vermont must begin with the explorations Gaspe Harbor (in what is now the eastern part of Samuel de Champlain in 1609.Miriam of the Province of Quebec) where Jacques Chapin writes, «The first French contact Cartier and his men erected a thirty foot cross with Vermont occurred when Samuel de upon whose crossbars rested a shield deco- Champlain came up the Richelieu River to the rated with «fleurs-de-lis» and the inscription, Lake that bears his name.(1958, 22). «Vive le Roy de France.» ChaMplain, who had founded New France, may have also, in retrospect, sealed its doom. Explorers,missionaries and coureurs For when Chatri6lain,in supportof his de bols (fur traders) pushed that initial effort Algonkin guides, sprayed and killed three from the shores of the St. Lawrence through Iroquois chiefs with his arquebus, he sealed much of what is today Canada and the United in blood the undying enmity of the powerful States. No less than twenty three of the Iroquoisconfederacy whothenbecame UnitedStates were colonized by French invaluable allies of the English. pioneers or French Canadians (Maurault, 1950, 9). A remarkable number of cities were The Early Forts founded by these explorers and colonizer:: Biloxi (Mississippi), Chicago (Illinois'', Detroit Champlain, however, never revisited the (Michigan), Dubuque (Iowa), Duluth (Minne- Lake that bears his name.Settlements did sota), Mobile (Alabama), New OrleLns (Louis. not begin until. some fifty-seven years later iana),Niagara Falls (New York), Peoria when Sieur de la Mope, retracing Champlalon's (Illinois), Pittsburg (Pennsylvania), and St. route, built Fort Ste Anne on what ik now Isle Joseph (Missouri) to name some. La Motte.In the winter of p666, Father Dollier de Casson, a Sulpician from Montreal, The French experience goes deep into came to visit sick soldiers at the Fort.Th.. the sinews of American history. The Battle chapel that was built for him during his three- of BunkerHillisreallytheBattleof months' stayis purported to be the first «Boncoeur»Hill;thereare other French religious edifice in New England.(Wilson, names of national significance:Paul Revere 1953, 21).Since the fort was established and Faneuil Hall; the cradle of American in what was considered a no-man's land be- Liberty. tween the warring Indians, the establishment of villages was considered too dangerous Nevertheless, it was common for the soldiers to have small gardens - officers could keep 207 213 208 \ cows. Some of the soldiers eve g built summer abletorecruit two companies of French homes on their garden plots! (Pages from the Canadians to ,fightonthesideof the Past, 1961, 159). When the soldiers retired, Americans. In addition, James Livingston, around the ages of forty or fifty, they were under the orders of Benedict Arnold, recruit- allowed to settle upon and cultivate a piece of ed another troop of 100 to 150 men. When ground.Each discharged soldier was given a the war was over in41783,. theFrench piece of land forty arpents long and three Canadians who had.fought on the side of the arpents wide (an arpent is 192 feet). He was Americans were offered extensive tracts of also given cows, tools, and assistan5g in build- land on both the New York and Vermont mg ahouse. Thus, the colonization of sides of Lake Champlain.(Maurault, 1951, Vermont begin.. But this initial colonization 11).. The impact of this French Canadian im- was to be short-lived.Coolidge claims that migration, however, was not extensive: the when the French Were driven out by the census of 1790 which counted only heads of English in 1759, the French left no trace of `families lists only twenty-nine French families their' hundred and fifty years of occupation in Vermont - an estimated one hundred and oother tlian the mute and deserted ruins of fifty-three persons in a population of eighty their homes and military posts, surrounded by' thousand. (Huntley, 1940, 27). the cultivated fields whiclr represent civiliza- tion.»... (Coolidge, 1938, 301). Adams, of the The,Ftpineau Rebellions Vermont Archaeological Society, argue' that some of the French farms were remote Immigration into Vermont picked up enough to escape notice by the English.In some as a result of the rebellions of 1837-8. reality, he suggests the praience in The struggle was in essence, one between the Vermont was never totally discontinued; but English-speaking minority and the French- the past remains dim. speaking majority. - The imglish-speaking ol- igarchy controlled the government, whereas The American Revolution the French controlled the elected assembly. The French were more numerous but felt It is not until tie American Revolution powerless in their own affairs. Joseph Louis that immigration into Vermont appears again. Papinsau, Speaker for the Assembly, -looked The Continental Congress in 1774 invited to the American model for a more equitable Canada to be part of its confederation of governmental structure. The British govern- American provinces.However, Mgr. Briand, ment, fearing again the loss of control, de- Bishop of Quebec, and other notables de- clared' that the colonies could have neither clined the offer. They were dedicated to con- self.dovernment nor elected legislative solidating the position of the French Catholic councils. Papireau talked of revolution. His Church in a predominantly Engsh Protestant followers, KLes Patriotes», founded «Fits Je milieu.Nevertheless, the majority of Frencil la Liberte» Associations in imitation of the Canadians sympathized with the Americans; earlier American Revolutionaries. English- somuch so,thattheF.,glish governor speaking Lower Canadians,inretaliation, hesitated to raise a force of Frenilh Canadian organized their military groups.Riots soon troops, lest he provide training and arms for ensued. Papineau and his lieutenants, in order those who could become potential enemies. to avoid trouble, left MontreLl. Their actions In spite qf the fact that Bishop Briand for- were misinterpreted - and Papineau's arret t bade the AdmOstration of the sacraments to was ordered.He then fled to the United any Canadian rebel, Colonel Moses Hazen was States; several of his lieutetunts came to 21,4 209 \Vermont: Louis PermittoMiddlebury, void confusinnd to make desertion im- ThomasStorrowBrowntoSt.Albans, possible. In site of the mill recruiters' Etienne Rodier to Burlington, followed by propaganda, the workers did not find the Ludgar Duvernay who had firststopped American streets paved with gold.In 1880, briefly at Rouses Point. (Rumilly, 1958, 19). forexample,amillworkerreceivedthe princely sum of seventy-two cents for an Duvernay was a newspaper editor eleven and a half hour day!It was necessary he had been arrested in 1832 for publishing for an entire family to work in the mills in an article denigrating the legislative council order for a living wage to be made. More- in his newspaper, «La Minerve». He chose over, because of the health hazards of breath- Burlington, Vermont to practice an ,his ing cotton fibers, the average working life of journalistic skillsin the defense of French a mill hand was ten years or less! Canadian independence and liberty. He chose Burlington becauseitwas large 7,000 The 'depression of 1930 saw the end to people, had a university -- whose cornerstone large cotton and woolen mills in Ver:nont was laid by Lafayette in 1825and was near the mills in Winooski limped along, however, Winooski where several refugee Canadians until 1957.From that time on, more and were employed in the woolen mills.Thus More French Canadians came to Vermont to was established the first French Canadian work in dairy and lumber industries.. The newspaperintheUnitedStates,«te State has remained primarily rural nearly Patriote.» However!' theexperience_ was twenty-sevenpercentof Vermont's rural short-lived six months.Most of the fol- population are French-speaking --19% of lowers of Papineau were granted amnesty and the farm population is French-speaking as returned to Lower Canada to take up their well. lives where they had left them. According to the 1970 census, there are The Great Migration 42,193 people who claim that their mother tongue is French nearly 10% of the popula- .The greatest imigration of Canadian tion. The number of people who are descen- French to New Ens nd occurred between dants of French Canadian immigrants in the 1840 and 1930.T efirst migrants were state are, of course, much larger; the census seasonal workers who came to New England did not take account of French surnames or for the harvest season.But as land of good origins. qualitybecamescarce and familyfarms deteriorated, many. French Canadians came to Vermont in searchofbetterfarming conditions. Industrializationof Vermont picked up aftertheCivilWar. Bassett estimates that between 60,000 and 75,000 French Canadians came to New England ...between 1866 and 1873.In the month of April, 1873, alone, the trains coming from Canadacarried2300FrenchC Jnadians through St. Albans.On the thin'. of May, 1869,asingletraincarriedsix hundred French Canadians locked inside its cars to 210 References Bassett, T. D. S. Maurault, Oliver \o, 1952A French Twist to Vermont Society: 1951 Newcomen Lecture on the Franco - 1865-1880 Urban Penetration of American,Middlebury, Vermont. . A Rural Vermont. PhD. Dissertation Harvard. Pages from thWast July, 1951 «Peter Kahn's Travels in North Chapin, Miriam America» Vermont QuarterlyVol. 1958The French Vermonter,Vermont Life XXX, No. 3 159-171. Guy 0. Collidge Rumilly, Robert Sept.,1938 French Occupation of the 193 isto0 des Fran o-Americains Champlain Valley: 1609-1759.PVHS tisocket, RI:L'UnkinSaintJed!, New Series Vol. VI. No. 3 143,313. Baptiste d'Amerique. Huntley, Mildred Wilson, Fredrick R. 1940 The Canadian French of Franklin July, 1953«A History of Catholicism in County.Unpublished Master's Thesis: Vermont»Vermont Quarterly Vol, he University of Vermont. XXL.No. 3 211-219. Reprinted by permission of the author, 21G THE RAPID ASSIMILATION OF CANADIAN FRENCH IN NORTHERN VERMONT by Peter Woolfson The French Language with the folk speech of French Canada. (1975, 77). France, in signing the Treaty of Paris in 1763, officially washed its hands oLS New in reality, «jouil» has more relevance France.To all intents and purposes, social as a political symbol than it does as a de- and intellectual interactions with the Mother scriptive term.La revolution tranquilleof Country ceased.To some, this isolation has the 1960141preached the doctrine ofMaitre meant thecreationof alinguisticrelic: chez nous,«Masters in our own house».Joual «Plusieurs Quebecois se font grande gloire becameasymbol of Quebec's unique linguis- de parler la langue de Moliere en Amerique. tic identity and thus a potent indicator of a Quelle mire!disent-ils.» (Landry, 1972, new Quebec brand of nationalism.«Joual» 71). To speak of Canadian French as frozen has become a symbol of the Quebec separa- in the seventeenth century, is of course a tists.Militant Quebecois university students gross oversimplification. First of all, the isola-. at Laval refuse to speak anything else.But tion from France was never a total one -- the since itisa political symbol, itis not an CanadianClergy. was often reinforced by accurate term to-use as a description of the European French-speaking priests and nuns. dialect of Frenth spoken by the farmers and Besides, the Canadian Clergy felt its respon- workers of New En4 gland. sibilities to maintain standards of «le bon parler francais»intheir sermons, writings, There are several differences between and teachings:this meant standard European the French Canadian dialect of New England French.Moreover, as every linguist knows, farmers and workers and standard French. the only frozen languages are the dead ones: On the phonological leVel, there is a diphthon- living languages change, grow, add, borrow, gization of vowels - /per/ to /peyr/ «father»: and deptve. Where would hardly be able to some short tense vowels have become lax recognizehe dialect of Quebec as his own! /rit/ to /IV: short lai in final position has be- come /..1/«open o» as in /Kgnc) -1/«Canada»: In1960,«FrereUntel»,Jean-Paul /t/ and /d/ are often affricated to Its/ or /dz/ Desbiens. introducedthe term «joual» to before a high front vowel as in /ptsit/«petite». refer to the distinct working class or folk Orkin points out another noticeable charac- language of Quebec. Mark Orkin in his very teristicof Canadian French pronunciation: funny book,French Canalan, Me?defines «joual» as follows: Reduction forms the essence of joual. Consider ):1), way of The people's language of Kay example the first person pro- Beck. Thejoualissaidto noun. Everyone is familiar, derive from the popular pro- with the difference between nunciationofcheval.i.e.. the noisy bragging English ((ID horse,althoughitis.not andthequiet French oje» clear what a horse has to do whose lower case initial 211 212 letteroffersaglimpsein- expressionsare accepted as literary toawhole worldofself-' ones which have no particularbear- assurance.Jolla!, on the other ing on common speech. This conscious by revisionofthelocallanguae has hand, subjugates the ego 4 reducing it to a whispered«j» effected a few changes in dronunciation asin«j's'rai»(inCanajan: and choice of words.Such change is «Allbee»).«rvas aller cher- usually accomplished by attaching an cher» (in Canajan: AllgoC»). aroma of humor to thenonstandard (Orkin, 1975, 25-6). word and ridicule fo its userN This method necessitates the development There are also considerable changes in of a particular attitude on the part of grammar and syntax.One of the most the natives toward their speeth. The noticeableistheappearance of English priests, urban professional men, and structures and words which are used so ex- governmentalofficers,andschools, either tensivelyinthe language that itis some- newspapers, and radios, have all, times called «franglais.»,Thui we get ex- by example or crusading force, made pressions such as «J'ai reste mon chapeau thenativefeelthathistraditional a la maison» for «J'ai laisse mon chapeau speech is a brogue, a patois. It symbol- chez moio and «II a eu une nervous break- izes the uneducated «habitant»; a word down» for «II a eu tine depression nerveuse which isgaining, a derogatory signif- (Dube, 1971, 207). The Quebec government icance. The cure preaches: «You are has become so concerned about theamou*h no longer «habitants»; you are«cultiva- of English used in ordinary French conversa- teurs.» (Miner, 1939, 33). tion that it has published series of pam- ) phlets giving the standard French words for Tliisself consciousness about their dialect use in carpentry,,plumbing,mechanics, and is common among olderFranco-Vermont- sports like bowling. ers. The conflict between the two forms of language is reibforced by thelocal high if they Sociolinguistic Factors school French teachers,especially are of Franco-Americanextraction. It is their There has always been two kinds 4f duty to teach local children how to speak French in Canada: standard French and the good French.Even bilingual and bicultural local dialect. Horace Miner in his classic eth- specialistsare hard puf to dealwith the ,nography of French Canada, St. Denis writes: question.On the one hand, advocate's of transitional bilingual education, push the use of the home dialect in the early yearsof The schools try to ,lisseminate standard , French by eliminating not only English education but argue that the ultimate goat words but also. antiquated forms, local is to eventually replace it with Englishin the variations, and bad grammar. However, classroom. Other bilingual-bicultural experts French theteachersare daughters oflocal who advocate maintenance of the farmers and 'speak muchthe same language in the school argue the benefitsof dialect as their students. Such teachers sikaking a language `that has currencyin can correct grammar,and retard the Europe, Asia, and Africa.1Silingualism, for use of some of thewords and ex- them means bidialectalism,' a best,including pressions on the list of nonstandard abilitiesto speak, comprehend, read,and French forms but usually the substitute write French, particularly a standardFrench 213 which can be used to communicate through- al value, the French language soon deterio- out the Francophone world. Neither form of rated to a language used with the very old, bilingual-bicultural educationisgeared to (grandparents), and the very young (infants). maintain, intact, the French Canadian dialect in the home.The old stigmas, consciously The church, where once the battles of or not, remain. language were fought - (French the guardian of the faith) - was, in most cases, unable to Justas there are different styles of maintain its French services.In/1934, for French, there are different styles of English. example, Reverend Pariseau of St. Joseph's Each of us is multilingual to some extent: inBurlington appealed to Bishop Rice to that is, we have different styles and forms allow him to preach his sermons in English. of language which we use in different social The Bishop replied: contexts. However, if the dialects of English used in the home and community are so ad- The Frenchlanguageisand must vanced to be almost nonintelligible to out- always be the language of St. Joseph's siders,we may havetoconsiderthisa Parish. But due to the conditions that bilingualproblem aswell. Rowland about one-half of the members of the Robinson in his story,Uncle Llsha's Shop, parishdonotunderstandFrench gives us examples of Franco-Vermont English: enough so that they can profit from a sermoninthatlanguage, andthat «Ah,Onc'Lasha' You pooty bad about 80% of the parishioners are hole man. Haow you fell dat time you rather English-speaking people, I grant tink you dead? Wha' you tink you go? the special privilege that: a) Announce- A'nt you sorry you don't was been ments may be read in English, but mo' gooder?Wh' you tink you go, must be first read in French; b)In- hein?» (Robinson, 1933, 138). structions may be givenin English, butasermonin French must im- Itis no wonder, the child who must juggle mediately precedetheEnglish one. four different dialects, each to a large de- (Rogers, 1973, 10). gree, mutually unintelligible, opts for only one:the English dialect of his anglophone The erosion of French language services peers and classmates. continued to its inevitable conclusion. The experience of St. James Catholic Church in Economic Realities Island Pond is typical of many: In 1863, the Canadians of Burlington During a mission on June 14, 1940, Fath- organized a chapter of the Union St. Jean er Therier, pastor for 21 years, died. His Baptiste - the well-known mutual aid society death marked the end of bilingualism in whose chief purposes were to preserve the the parish. This was not just a local pat- French language and cultural traditions. The tern but one which had taken place in economic realities of American life can be hundreds of parishes in New England seen in their motto:«Au dehors, l'anglais and New York. (Carbonneau,1970,p.7). pour les affaires. mais a la maison, rien que du francais.»Outside. English for business, but -It was the local priest who kept the French at home, nothing but French.It was a dif- language traditions alive. But more often ficult dualism to maintain. Without function- thannot,French-speakingpriestswere 214 replacedby non French-speakingpriests, realities of the situation well: even in areas like Canaan wherethe popula- tion is heavily French. This has become an Withintheprojectarea,English is additional hardship for those older Franco- the principal language used for practi- Vermonters who want to have their confes- callyallpublicfunctionsincluding sions heard in French;and a hardship for town meetings, school instruction, so- parents who want to help their children with cial services, religious worship and in- their catechism, but who learned it in another struction, government operations, auc- language. tions, buying and selling in stores and shops, industries and daily work, recre- The parochial school followed the same ation and by the news media. pattern. St.FrancisXavierSchoolin Winooski reflects the trend. Richard Hatin, a The French language is not formally de- former student at the school, declared, «Ten nied for the public functions listed but years ago French was used in theclassroom over the years its use has diminishedin for half a day; then it was reduced to an hour these areas to the point of being at pres- a day, now French is an optionalsubject like ent not a viable means of satisfactory any other foreign language inthe school.» communication for most members of There are too few parents interested in seeing the originally French-speaking commun- their children learn French, and too few ity, and it is used publicly by the chil- teachers in the elementary parochial schools dren ofFrench-speakingparents, who can teach it.In addition, financial dif- among themselves when atplay or at ficultiesplague the parish school system: school. more and more of them areclosing -- more (Charland, 1973, 1). and more students are, as a result, moved into the public school systems where, except for a And so the language is rapidly being few placeslikeltanaan, Vermont, they have lost.There are few first generation Franco- even less French instruction at theelementary Americans who feel comfortable in French, level. and fewer second generation who can speak it at all. The monolingual French child is not prepared for the public school system. Added But the situation is not one without tohis natural timidity in entering a new remedy. A few years back instructors of the experience .is the bewilderment of incompre- College of Education at the University of hension and misunderstanding.Often, the Vermont alongwith Canan community child begins to resent his parents, since they ople decided to encourage Franco-Vermont did not prepare him for school by teaching Iii rents to become more involvedwith their himEnglish. He soonfindsitmore s hool system. They came to theconclusion comfortabletorespondtohisparents' that potluck dinners and discussion groups questions in English.He and his younger would bring people together. The final result siblings begin to play in English like they do was that there is more Frenchheard on the in school at recess.He has lost most of his streets of Canaan, today, than there w five «raison d'etre» for speaking French. years ago. Marcel Char land, former director of the But whatisultimately nee a ed is a U lingual Project in Island Pond sums up the reason for learning Frenchand mai taining it. 2O 215 Forxample, some of the young men of Canaan maintain their French because ithelps themindating French-Canadian girlsin Sherbrooke, Quebec. Bilingual-bicultural programs where one is taught notFrench, but in French and wh,re one is taught to feel positively about one's heritage and home, may, in part, reduce linguisticassimilation. But the ultimate realities are economic.Parents and children must be convinced that speakingFrench is economically viable.It is not so, as long as teachers are monolingual in Eng,lish,and only their classroom teacher aides arebilingual, if indeed there are any. 1.. 221 216 REFERENCES Carbonneau, John Miner, Horace 1970 Notes on the Centennial Anniver- 1939 St.DenisChicago: Phoenix Books sary of St. James Catholic Church in Island Pond,Island Pond, Vt. Orkin, Mark M. 1975 French Canajan, Me?Canada: Char land, Marcel Lester and Orpen Lim:ted 1973 Proposal for Continuation of Bi- lingual Program: Fiscal Year 1974, Robinson, Rowland Orleans-Essex North Supervisory 1933 Uncle Lisha's ShopRutland, VT; Union. the Tuttle Company A Dube, Normand Rogers, Ann 1971 Guidelines for the Teaching of 1973 The French Canadians in Vermont: French to Franco-AmericansPhD. Their History and Religion. Un- Dissertation:The Ohio StateU. published term paper. Landry, Louis 1972 Quebec Francais ou Quebec Que- becoisMontreal: Les Presses Libres. Reprinted by permission of the author. 4, 222 THE FRANCO-AMERICAN HERITAGE IN MANCHESTER, N. H. by Thaddeus M. Piotrowski, Ph.D. r PREFACE right-is entitled to a privileged position within the American commonwealth. In the continental There are three types of «French» people sense of the word, it was already «American» livinginManchester,N.H.today. These before it flowed from Canada to the United are: the French from France; the French-Cana- States. In fact, Senator Henry Cabot 1...odge of dians; and the Franco-Americans. This mono- Massachusetts, in a lecture before the Boston graph will generally concern itself with the City Club on March 20, 1908, would not even group which represents the largest French con- speak of the French-Canadians as «immigiants»: tingent in Manchester, the Franco- Americans- which happen to be overwhelmingly French- Later than any of these was the Canadian in origin. immigration of French-Canadians, but which has assumed such large The difference between the French-Cana- proportions, and has become a dians and Franco-Americans is that while tile strong and most valuable element former are still citizens of Canada possessing a of our population. But the French French heritage, the latter (who also possess a of Canada scarcely come within Fremth heritage) are not Canadian citizens (al- the subject we are considering be- though at one time they may have been) but cause they are hardly to be classi- rather they are American citizens. fied as immigrants in the accepted sense. They represent one of the BY way of definition, the Franco-Ameri- oldest settlements of this conti- cans are residents of the United States who, nent. They have been in the broad either by birth or the process of naturalization, sense, Americans for generations, are American citizens and consider-within the and th0,-foming to the United framework of our democratic pluralism-their States iserely a movement of French cultural heritage an integral component Americansacross an imaginary of the «American way of life.» They presently line from one part of America to constitute a minority group which has stemmed another. 1 from within. It does not exist in this country by reason of any treaty, or conquest, orterritorial In a research paper published in 1967 in aggrandizement, that is,itis not a minority Le Travailleur of Worcester, Dr. Robert A. group in the European sense of the word. Rather, Beaudoin showedthattheword «Franco- it results from the movement of individuals from American» appearedforthefirsttimein one section of North America to another whom L 'Avenir National (a French daily once pub- the bond of a common faith and a common lan- lished in Manchester) in November of 1897. By guage welded into a cohesive group. February of 1898 it was already in common usage although there was still some disagree- Therefore,itisno wonder thatthe ment surrounding the word. The name itself Franco-Americanethnicgroup--byhistorical adequatelyc: .racterizes these people's pres- 217 c: 2 2 3 218 ence in the United States as their migrationhere influence. The French-Canadian population of was just another episode of the approximately Manchester before the first half of the 19th two hundred years these French people collec- century was sparce indeed. This was partly attri- tively spent in Canada.After all, they were butable to the lack of transportation, (the rail- French fifteen centuries before becoming Cana- way between Montreal and Boston wasbuilt in dian. Thus, the phrase «Franco-American» is 1851until then business was done on horse- used by the French from France living in the back, as usual) but also to the New England United States as well as by the Americans of colonial antipathy, toward allforeigners and French-Canadiandescent.Inaddition,the Catholics. French spoken by the French-Canadian--Amer- icans approximates the basic French language After 1850, however, the French-Cana- as it is spoken in France. It can be said that dian immigration grew to such proportions as there is only one French grammar but many to influence every phase of Manchester's exis- local dialects. tence: political, social, economic, and religious. Regarding the last, the Jesuit Hamon states: At the present time, the total French- Canadian population of North America is about The rapidity with which it was evenly divided between Canada and the United accomplished, the facility with States, with approximately half of the Ameri- whichtheCanadians,trans- can proportion reing in New England. In planted on a strange soil, imme- the United Sta ,Franco-Americans claim a diately reformed the Catholic population of out oneto two million.2 mold of the parish that made them so strong in Canada, the energytheyusedtobuild AN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE churches, convents, to group to- gether and to organizeinto The largest city in New Hampshire was flourishingcongregations sus- originally called «Nuffield» because of the many tained interiorly by all that can chestnut trees located in the area. This name was nourish Christian piety, defend- followed by others until in 1810, under the in- ed against all pernicious influ- spiration of Samuel Blodget, the town of Derry- encesfromwithout by the field became the town of Manchester. At this forceof organization anda time the total population of the Queen City was press generally well directed 615. all of these elements of Catho- liclife organized in a quarter In 1831, the Amoskeag manufacturing of a century in the womb itself company bought up virtually all the landwhere of thecitadel of Puritanism the city now stands. The following year, the seems to indicate an action as streets of the town were laid out and lots were well as a providential mission offered for public sale. In 1846, Manchester be- which future alone will reveal came incorporated as a city and nine yearslater, in all its importance.3 the mill property alonecovering over 1,400 acres of landwas valued in excessof $ 662,000. The major reasons for the Canadian mi- gration to the United States were the follow- The initial rapid expansion of Manchester, ing: love of adventure, the precarious condi- however, was not due to any French-Canadian tions of Canadian commerce and industry, the 224 219 lack of public works, the shortage of employ- country. As early as 1870in a frantic effort to ment in rural districts, the difficulty of obtain- stem the emigration of its citizens and perhaps ing high priced farms, the lack of roads and to entice its lost flock to returnCanada began means of communication, the lack of education- offering 160 free acres of land to anyone who al opportunities for children, debts, poor crops, would settleit. This offer, however, did not distant markets, propaganda, and discrimina- apply to Canadians already established in the tion.4 Province of Quebec but only to immigrants, so that the exodus from Quebec to the U. S. con- Generally, the Canadians who came to the tinued for many years. The Province of Quebec States belonged to one of the three following also appropriated $ 60,000.00 for the task of re- categories:a) habitants, or those who came turning expatriated Canadians. From all of New solely for the purpose of making some money to England only 600 families were finally induced pay off their debts after whickki they would re- to return «back home» and of that number 300 turn to Canada; b) nomads, or those who moved resettled back in the States.5 aimlessly back and forth between the U. S. and Canada; and finally, c) the permanent residents, The efforts of the Canadian government or those Canadians who established domicile, were for the most part offsetby the glamorous startedorganizations,builtchurchesand propaganda campaign of the mill agents who schools, and were gainfully employed. conveniently «forgot» totell the prospective «operators»or mill workers--of the 72-hour Regarding the third category, a list of week, of the noisy and dangerous nature of their firsts would include: Louis Bonin, who bears the occupation, of the cotton dust, the humidity, distinction of being the first French-Canadian the heat, and the fatigue which caused -many to resident of Manchester--arrival date: 1833; Louis fall ill and some, especially the children, to die. Marchand and Sara Robert, who contracted the Neither did they tell them that the longest they first marriage (between French-Canadians) in could expect to work in the millsat least until the Queen City in 1839; the son of Mr. & Mrs. the nineteen hundredswas about ten years. Benjamin Chartrand who was thefirst *first 1,;eneration» French-Canadian to be born in Man- And still it is incredible that upon coming chester (1851); and finally, John Jacques, who here and being subjected to- these harsh condi- was the first French-Canadian to be interred in tions of existence, they con nued to stay on. this city (1853). Their wages, as the wages ofeir children after a few months of apprenticesh, we_eabout a By 1870 there were 2,500 French-Cana- dollar a day. Jacques Ducharme inThe Shadows diansinManchester'stotalpopulationof of the Trees,records a scrap of paper showing 23,536. In 1880 there number rose to 9,000, the budget calculations of one of these very first in 1887 to 12,770, in 1889 to 14,063, and in immigrants in Manchester: 1890 to 15,031which was one-third of Man- chester.(Forthe immigration Statistics by Wages$ 1.00 per day decades beginning with 1900 cf. section en- Five working in family titled,«InunigrationStatisticsForMan- 5x6 equals $ 30.00 week and chester, N.H.») $120.00 month Tenement $15.00 month Needless to say, the Canadian govern- Food $ 20.00 month ment did not sit by idly while this mass exodus Other items $ 10.00 month was emptying its chronically underpopulated Amount saved $75.00 month.6 225 220 The recruitingtechniques of themill and the grand procession«home».8 agents, because they addressed themselves to the economic interests of the people, proved to be In time, with the accumulation of hard- very successful. But it is thehardships endured earned capital, many French-Canadians broke the in the transit which offer us the greater insight cycle of poverty and branched out into privately into the determination of these hardy immi- owned businesses and professions or, they grants. Jacques Ducharme provides us with sev- achieved positions of authority within the mills eral examples of the method of transportation in themselves.It was a well-founded belief that the early days. Nicolas Proulx, the great grand- French-Canadians prefer and indeed do work bet- father of Mr. Ducharme, was commissioned by ter under the authority of one of their own. his mill superintendent Rirecruit some mill help from Canada. His efforts produced 40 girls and Thus even before the Civil War, Maurice boys who were sardined into old lumber wagons Mathon and Pierre Dorval opened their own gro- and .brought to Manchester. The entire trip took ceryistores. Joseph Bellefeuille was a restaurant only 10 dayswhich was fast even in those days. owner; Mr. Leblanc, a barber; and Joseph Duval, They would travel from early sunrise late into one of the first clerks to be hired by a largeMan- the night, sleep in barns or fields, and be some- chester store. Then too, sensing an unchallenged times greeted by angry townspeople who march- and therefore lucrative practice in Manchester, ed on them with guns and pitchforks. cam ctors and lawyers, as well as other profes- si from Canada to «serve their people». Dv, Another case involves Clovis Davignon who A..Tremblay, for example, settled here in 1866. came to Manche ;ter on foot torejoin his parents. had a little maney,» related young Davignon, As the French-Canadians prospered and de- cided to remain permanently in Manchester, many «and got as far as Newport. I met some French- Canadians at the station there, told them who I bought homes and land. The first property ever owned by a French-Canadian was on Concord St. was, and where I was going.They loaned me some money, and I went to Manchester.From It was the home of Joseph Berard who settled here there I followed the river. My money didn't last in 1850. 17 years later, Napoleon Du fort became long, and I worked on farms for my meals. I was the second homeowner in the city. But it was the about seventeen then, I didin'tinind sleeping out McGregor St. bridge of 1881 which brought the of doors every now and theno/ French together into what is known as the «Notre Dame» section of Manchester. By 1882, there Well it took young Clovis Davignon full were 10 French-Canadian familiesliving on the six weeks to get to this fair city where, after an west side of the Merrimack River . .. «and it was adventurous trip, a good beating from his father, natural that a people still interested in their native and a good night's rest, he got a job in the mills language should thus associate themselves togeth- the very next day. er, the .better to enjoy the advantageof mutual assistance and social contacts.» The immigration process itself was a recur- rent drama of distanced love seeking reunion. The The majority of the French-Canadians con- father, or elder child, or someone else would leave tinued to be employed by the mills which prosper- family and «fortune», procure a mill job, save ed by leaps and bounds. But in 1922 an awesome Over the money, and finally send for the others. notice appeared on the wall of the Amoskeag mill: years it became a familiar sight in manyNew Eng- land towns: the anxiously-pacing, foreign-looking NOTICE father awaiting his loved onc.;, the joyful reunion, IIP 221 Commencing Monday, February 13, SOCIETIES 1922, a reduction of 20% will be tb made in all hour and piece rates in all One significant French society, L'Union departments of the Amoskeag. At the StJean Baptiste, was founded in 1900.Though same time, the running time of the it was fundamentally a mutual aid group, it en- mills will be increased from 48 to 54 couraged and supported many worthy causes hours per week; in accordance with and was essentially the force rest, onsible for the the schedule posted herewith. rise and prosperity of most of tra.. budding French W.P. Straw, Agent 11 parishesinManchester.Besides guaranteeing sums of money to its members as a form of insur- The wage reduction was bad news indeed but ance in the case of illness or death, the Union's pro- it was the 54-hour week which infuriated the work- claimed objectives were: ers for some still recalled the Yuman tragedy of for- mer days and took this to be the first step in that a. To unite among themselves all direction. The strike which ensued lasted nine long Canadians months and forced some French-Canadians to go b. To furnish motives for fraterni- searching for employment elsewhere. Meanwhile, zation the company began a massive and somewhat suc- c. To cement union within the cessful recruitment campaign in Canada which par- family unit tially offset the threat of a general mill shut-down. d. To promote national and eco- nomic interests of Canadian In the end, the strikers agreed to work the people and society 54 hot Ps but for a higher rate of pay than originally e. To raise funds for welfare pur- promised. The Amoskeag had its last good year in poses by annual subscriptions 1929 with profits in excess of $1,065,000.00. In f. To engage all members in the 1930 its net loss was $1,345,000.00. practice of honor and frater- nity toward feftqw Frenchmen g. To prosper the undertakings of the THE FRANCO-AMERICAN HERITAGE Union through devotion to St. IN MANCHESTER John Baptist. The Franco-American heritage in Manchester L'Union was also concerned with provid- represents an attempt by the members of that eth- ing for young children schooling in the French nic group to re-establish cultural ties with their dis- language as well as preparing them for their First tant past and the land they were constrained,1.4 Holy Communion. It was and is also responsible leave behind. More than a means of achieving na- for the annual celebration of the feast of St. tional identitylt was a wayor perhaps the way John the Baptist which falls on the twenty- of establishing a personal identity within a foreign fourth day of June. This day is usually marked land. Thus, the French customs and traditions, the by extravagant bonfires,rallies: parades, ban- 1;* French organizations and institutions, the French quets and speeches by people of renown. The language and religion, were simply ways of affirm- first public celebration of this event in Manches- ing the fact that these people really and truly be- ter was held in 1871 in Faneuil Hall. The first longed in this «Great Society» of divergent origins. large scale celebration with all the festive trim- In this way did the Franco-Americans also contrib- mings occured in 1889. ute to the history and progress of Manchester, a city which also molded and shaped them. , 227 2 2 2 In general, Union Saint-Jean-Baptiste is more, over the years the A.C.A. has granted a fraternalorganization established to promote scholarships to students in excess of $341,700.00. the common good of the French popuktionin In monetary terms, as of December 31,1972, New England. Currently, L'Union isthelargest the success of the A.C.A. is'indeed impressive: Franco-American society in the U.S. registering 52,404 members and holding assets in excess of Insurance in Force $50,471,649.00 4,700,000.00. Benefits Paid to Date 19,394,134.00 %- Dividends Paid 1,908,813.00 In 1878 another mutual aid society was Total Assets 11,674,665.00 organized which was very similar to L'Union in Surplus 1,,146,156.00 its social functions. Called La Societe St. Augus- tin, it existed for seven years in the parish whose The A.C.A. and L'Union, althoughalike maintained name it bore. in many respects, have consistently divergent views on issues which at timeshave In the time span generally known as the proved to be a source of friction betweenthem. «Gay Nineties,» many such societies appeared For example, L'Union seems to be moreassimi- and disappeared. Their main objective was to lation-minded insistingas it doesonAmerican proffer financial aid to needy members but more citizenship as a prerequisite for membershipand significantly to promote Franco-American self- stressing the integrative aspects ofDrench and identity through the advancement of the French American cultures. The A.C.A., on theother culture in the Queen City. One such society, hand, willingly accepts both American andCana- founded in 1896 andoincorporated in 1899, was dian citizens and stresses, notassimilation, but actually a mutual insurance company (or afra- cultural distinctionthat is, the preservationof ternal benefit society) organized and operated traditional Canadian cultural components. under the laws of the State of New Hampshire. Thiswas.L'AssociationCana o-Americaine ( A.C.A.). The first president of heA.C.A. was DRAMA AND MUSIC CLUBS T. J. Biron, an overseer for t Amoskeag Manu- facturing Company. Its gent presidentis Aside from the above very utilitarian Gerald Robert, the son of another A.C.A. pre- French societies, there were and are anumber of sident, Adolphe Robert. organizations whose principal aim was andconti- nues to be to provide waysof meeting the ex- The A.C.A.which boasts over 27,000 pressive needs of the French populationin Man- members in 66 regional lodges throughout the chester. In the early days, due to thelanguage U.S. and Canada, and which publishes its own barrier as well as racial prejudice, theFrench French quarterlyispresentlyheadquartered were severely limited inth access to Man- (since 1930) on Concord street in Manchester, chester's cultural and onal centers. To N.H. This locationserves a multiplicity of the hard-pressed French mill-hand,whose leisure functions: as a reunion center; as an informa- hours were severely iimited, the formationof tion center: as a meeting-place for the discussion such societies was especially important. of questions of mutual interest, or simplythe memories of days gone by. But more important- Thus in 1870 a drama club by the name ly, the building houses a most uniquelibrary of Le Club Dramatique Canadien-Francaisde Manchester, New Hampshirethe first of its kind containingover30,000 volumes of widely sought-after Americana and Canadiana. Further- in the citywas formed under thedirection of 2 223 Dr. A. J. Tremblay. Among its accomplishments Several other clubs were established for were many operas presented at the Strand Thea- the same purpose as the Jolliet Club:The Cercle ter, the favorite one being «The Bells of Nor- National; Club Lafayette (a civic luncheonclub); mandy.» The Montcalm Club; and the Canadian Club to name but a few. All are nowpredominantly Four years later, the first public concert social organizations. of La Bande Canadienne was conducted by J. R. Lafricain. This musical group was later to be- come known as the «City Band.» SPECIALIZED SOCIETIES Other drama and musical groups followed Specihlized societies were establishedin including: Le Bijou (1879); Les Amateurs Cana- the form of military guards such as:the Lafay- diens (1880); Le Club Jacques Cartier ( 1890): ette Guard. 143il Regiment ofFranco-Ameri- L'Offenbach Musical Club (1894); the Orpheon can Volunteers of theUnited States Army (est. Society (1920); and Societe D'Operettes (1940) in 1887 and sponsored by the LafayetteClub); with an accompanying ladies auxiliary (1941). the Montcalm Guard established in1915 and Also deserving of mention isthe variety of sponsored by the Montcalm Club; and the Foch church choirs such as those of Saint Cecilia, Guard established in 1920. The poem below was St. John the Baptist, and Ste Marie. written by a Franco-American with a good sense of humor and appeared in one ofManchester's earlier newspapers. Many of its passagesrelate to NATURALIZATION CLUBS the Lafayette Guard. We find in the 1880's a proliferation of The Guard of Lafayette Naturalization clubs whose function it was to aid Frenqi-Canadian citizensintheirquest 'for My w'fe she say to me to-day americanization. The Jolliet Club, founded in you mak' mistake ol'man 1884, is one such organization having 9n addi- To join de Yankee harmy in de rank tional interest in literature. At onetime the of Honcle Sam; Jolliet Club was headquartered in the present De worl' is full of commotion since A.C. building but prohibition and financial hexplosion IA de Maine. strain forced it to seek a new home. The loca- And de dev's to pay in Cuba tion of the club changed several more times and de paymaster is Spain. until it finally settled in its present domicile on r-1 High Street. The naturalization service provided De Ian' of ma adoption is as good by the Jolliet Club ended in 1928, after which a home for me. date it was carried on by the Jutras Post of the As across de line in Canada, American Legion (founded in 1920 and named my native counterie. in honor of the first Franco-American to be Ma home, ma work, ma fren' areher% killedin the American armed forces) and by in fac' de hol' em set: St. Augustin church. Now the oldest as well So wat can I dout join de offlueo as the largest Franco-American civic, social club in Guard of La ayette! in Manchester, its membership listing displays the names of many prominent and influential I don't care for me for noboday men of the city. but stand up for de right 12z9 If Honcle Sam he send de word ical and coherent pursuit of a comtpon ideal in an' tink he's got to fight. America held in 1947. A musical festival, Federa- Good-by ma work on Amoskeag-- tion des Chorales Franco-Americaines in which 1 leave it quick you bet all local French singing groups participatedwas' An join de boy wit hutmos' joy held in Manchester in May of 1962. in Guard of Lafiyette. SERVICE CLUBS 0! Ai't it mak' sensation on de street of Manchester, The 1950's marked an observable trend W'en de horder come from Honcle Sam away from fraternal organizations toservice dubs. to march us down to war! The best example of the latter is Manchester's Noboday'll know dat dis is Joe Richelieu Club. Basically a sober, Christian, and from dear ol' Nicolet prayer oriented organization, theRichelieu's chief W'en off I march jus, still like starch aim is to promote personality develoOnent-through - in Guard of Lafayette! such means as.the club's annual project of spon- soring a summer outing for the children of St. Pet- Den Rosy dear don' drop dat tear, er's Orphanage. One structural difference between but cheer hup lak ma joy, a service club and a fraternal one liesin the length You know dat Maine went downin flame` of the term of club office. Thus, while the ser- wit all de sailor boy! vice club holds annual elections, an office in a So if de blame is place on Spain, fraternal club may be held indefinitely. an' Honc le Sam say «get»! Just wish us well and shoutlak hell PUBLICATIONS for Guard of Lafayette! In the sometimes vested interest of keeping Other diverse societies included: aPontifi- the Franco-American population abreast of Cana- cal Zouaves Society formed in1887; the Canadian dian news and conversely of keeping the Canadi- Building Company of Construction(1893); the ans informed of NewEngland news, several French Alumni of the Ancient Studentsof Hevey School newspapers sprang up in Manchester. 11924); and, of course, thevenerable «Snowshoe Clubs», the most prominent ofthese being the Al- La Voix du Peuple bears the distinction of pine Club which sponsoredthe Convention of being the first French newspaper published in Man- Snowshoers Union of Canadaand the United chester. Its founders were Dr.Tremblay and Ferd- States in Manchester in 1927and again in 1972. inand Gagnon.The newspaper, however, was short-lived (lasting only from February 25,1869 NOTABLE EVENTS to September 15 of the same year) because the French population of Manchester was not yet suf- Several nota' Events contributing to the ficient to maintain it.Before the end of 1891, spread of a French culture inManchester were: 13 other French newspapers met a similar fate. tire First Convention ofFranco-Americans of New Hampshire held in Manchesterin 1890; the estab- One publication which did survive until lishment of a French hour onWFEA radio in 1938 1949 was L 'A venir Canadien (est. 1889). Its name I now heard onWGIR); and the Comite D'Orien- was changed to L'AvenirNational in 1895. L'Ave- tation Franco-Americain devoted touniting all nir was succeeded by a newspaper calledL'Action. Franco-Americans of New England in themethod- 230 225 Today various societies continue to print Franco-AmericansettlementinManchester, their own publications suchas the A.C.A.'s had put it well: Quarterly and L'Union's (of Woonsocket, R.I.) L'Union. They at once entered freely and with zest into the public life of theirrespectivecommunity, POLITICS AND COMMUNITY AFFAIRS state, city, town or village, seek} ing and obtaining and always Upon arriving in Manchester the French increasing representation in the were not reluctant to participate in political municipal council, in the state elections and to run for political office. Ini- legislature, in Congress and in tially, this was very difficult since the strin- several instances at the very top gentnaturalizationlawsrequiredthemto of the ,state,_ The slties and Wait five years the `Priiiiege cdeitiZenship towns which they have created, and therefore franchise. Amongsome of the the parts which they have devel- more notableearlyFranco-American office oped, as well as their general holders of the cityare Abraham G. Grenier good standingareconvinced who, in 1882, was electedas the city councilor evidence of their adaptability, for Ward Three and Francis Xavier who joined intelligence, courage and deter- Mr. Grenier in a similar post. Bothwere Re- mination to secure for them- publicans. selves the advantage and influ- ence which they enjoy under In less than ten years there were two the aegis of the Star Spangled more French city councilors as well as four Banner.Allthis,withtheir Representatives on the New Hampshire State natural fecundity and willing- Legislature. In 1896, Henri J. Lemay became ness to multiply, undoubtedly the head of Manchester's Board of Education. affords ample promise of their And since 1917 all the city's mayors with the rapid and substantial advance- exceptionofJohnMonganwereFrench. ment. 12 The first one was Moise Verrette; thecurrent one is Sylvio Dupuis. THE FAMILY Other prominent Franco-Americansin Manchesterand itis impossible to list them The «natural fecundity and willingness to allinclude: Dr. Z. A. Lavoie, president of the.. multiply» of which Belcourt spoke was certainly Hillsborough County Medical Society; Arthur verycharacteristic of early Catholic Frenth E. Moreau, once a prominent Manchestermer- settlers in Manchester. Aside from the religious chant; Adolphe and Gerald-Robert, past and injuctions regarding procreation and the nat- present presidents of the AssoBifion Canado- ural tendency to perpetuate one's name through Americaine;JudgeAlfredJ.Chretien and progeny, the large Franco-American families Armand Capistran, past and present presiders (from 6 to 22, children) served a very pragmatic of the Manchester District Court the Most function: they assured a household of financial Reverend G. A. Guertin, Bishop of Manchester stability in the crucial years of re-settlement. To- from 1906 to 1935; and the Most Reverend day,astheFrench no longer occupy the Ernest Primeau,thecurrent Bishop of the bottom-most rung of the social ladder, such diocese. A. N. Belcourt, writing in 1923 of the families are the exception rather than the rule. Sat a St This is not to say that Franco-Americans English. Furthermore, many Irish practices, such tended to exploit their biological prowess and as the reverent bowing of the head atConsecra- their children for the sake of mere gain, for one tion followed by a sign of the.aross, irritated th can have a large family and love it too.Indeed, if former French-Canadians who by'custom and one were to state-in capsule form-thesingle, .tradition always looked directly at the host. most identifying characteristic of theFrench, Conversely, the Irish often looked askance at that indicator would be their extremely strong these «foreigners» who dared to confront the family tics. This can be seen especially well in divinity in such an oinsolent» manner. Franco-American holiday observanCes which are all family centered. The Christmas season, for With growing friction and consternation, example, is a time for general family reunions the French finally appealed for aclergAban of and great display _of familial affection. New their own ranks and so Fr. Levesque arrived in ---4----Yzaes ton, is highlighted by-the paternal bless- Manchester in 1849. But misfortunestrucOagain ing of the children by the father. The latter ex- for once during tilt liturgy, which was being ample provides us also with a clear indicator as celebrated on the second floor of an old wooden to the Franco-Amerien family structure:it is building, the floor collapsed laving the shaken patriarchal par excellence. parishioners in their carriages which were parked underneath. Needless to say, Fr. Levesque's stay was short-lived. After him severalother French RELIGION missionaries-the most notable of whom was Fr. IsidoreMoiseux '0856P-servedtheFranco- Perhaps the greatesesingle contribution bf American community. the Franco-Americaps to the city of Manchester is the Catholic parch and all it represents. For Finally in 1871, the French populationot .the French-even in this secular society-the par- Manchester numbering 2,500 people received a isinstitutes the focal point of thei existence: resident priest, Fr. Joseph-Augustin Chevalier, it is the extension of their individua i. cl family who was instrumental in building St. t,.Jgustin units. church located on the corner of Beech and, Spruce streets. The church was dedicated on the beginning there were no Catholic November 27, 1872% Some time liter more land parishes in Manchester at all. After 1839, Man- was purchased on Beech street forthe cemetery. ..itesterwas declareda mission andseveral priests--the first of whom was Fr. John B. Daly- Within a decade, the ever increasingenum- began making regular visits to minister to the ber of Franco-Canadian `immigrants in Manches- spiritual needs of local Catholics. In 1843, Fr. ter warranted the erection of another French NlcDonald was commissionedtobeginSt. parish. And so a small, unimpressive chapel was Anne's parish for the 500 some-odd Catholicsof built on the forested west bank of the Men imac the city. This event was certainly a boon to the River by Fr. J. D. Halde. The area itself was resident French populace as well as to the pros- destined to become the oNotre Dame» section pective French-Canadian immigrants who pre- of the city inhabited predominantly by the ferredto settle, ina place where they could French. The small chapel, bearing the name of practice their Sainte Marie, was later (1891) to be replaced by the great gothic church on the west side--a Unfortunately - -for the French-St. Anne's perpetual symbol of the unity, faith, and the church was founded by and for the Irish Catho- cultural heritage sif Manchester's Franco-Amer- lics of Manchester and the sermon wad alwaysin icans. With the purchase of a cemetery in 1881 asa 9 227 ( now Mount Calvary Cemetery bordering Goffs- CHURCH AFFILIATED INSTITUTIONS town Rd.) the parish ran into debt but was «saved» by Fr. Halde's successor, Fr.Pierre Itis important to point out that thq Hevey, the same who built the prese. tSte French parishes in the Queen City do more than Marie's one almost wantstosaycathedral. just minister to the spiritual needs of their con- stituents.Like their great predecessors of the The third parish which was founded with- middle ages, these churches are also social in- in the twenty year span between 1871 and 1891, stitutions providing quality care to the sick, the and was that of St. George on the east side of the aged, the orphaned, and to those inneed. city. As the French population increased (in 1891it was already over 15,000) several other In 1892, St. Augustin parish opened its parishes followed: St. Anthony (1899);Sacred St. Vincent de Paul Jrphanage. In the same year Heart (1911); St. Edmond (1912); St. John the Ste Marie opened its Asylum for the Aged and Baptist (1914): andSt.Theresa (1923-24). Orphaned, an institution administered by the These national parishes,stilloperative firing Sisters of Charity of St.Hyacinthe from Quebec. the grand total of the French parishein Man- Later the Asylum came to be known as St. chester to eight. Peter's Orphanage, and today it is a Day Care center. In 1888, Ste Marie's parish opened a To the Franco-American his parishis hospital which was later relocated and dedicated never merely a church.' Rather it is a means of in October of 1894 under the title of L'Hopital achieving national and personal identity. Among Notre Dame de Lourdes. This too was staffed by other things,it provides the French-American the Sisters of Charity. In 1911, a training school child with a school whose specific mission is to for nurses was added to the hospital and in the inculcate within him the Christian doctrine and 1950's other structural changes were made. Cur- French culture.Inlight of this,the recent rently the hospital is run under the auspices of a French opposition to the diocesan plan of saving lay Board of Directs the parochial school system by forming regional schools is quite understandable. In plain lan- An institution which deserves special men- guage, what this means is the closing of the al- tion is La Caisse Populaire Sainte Marie or St. ready weakened French parish schools. Mary's Bank located on the west side of the city. La Caisse Populaire was originally a parish or- In the majority of the eight French pa- ganization established by Fr. Pierre Hevey, the rishes several Masses are said in French today pastor of St. Ma, ie's church. In 1908, in an and church publications are printed in both effort to prevent his parishioners from squander- French andEnglish. Many of these parishes ing their hard-earned savings ia «get-rich-quick» maintain inter-parish French organizations such schemes and to promote the building of homes as the Ladies of St. Anne, the League of the and businesses, Fr. Hevey launched what was Sacred Heart, and the Children of Marie. The later to become the first credit union in the penny sales. beano gari-ie, parties, a.-.1 annual United States. Accredited on April 6, 1909 as carnivals also provide an opportunity for the St. Marie Co-Operative Association, the orga- French to gather socially. Finally, the Catho- nization did its business at various locations in lic War Veterans, although not a specifically the Notre Dame section of West Manchester. French organization, is a very popular as well as Finally an impressive granite structure was built influential group working within the Franco- on the corner of Amory and Main Streets to American parishes of Manchester. house it. In 1970 this building was replaced by 233 228 an equally impressive structure at 200 McGregor the first floor of the old structures were reno- St.Presently the second floor of La Caisse vated to provide more classroom space. The first Populaire Sainte Marie also houses the offices of true convent school in New Hampshire, Villa two other organizations: The AAA and the Uni- Augustina, was established in 1916 in Goffstown versityof New Hampshire, The Merrimack and was staffed by the Sisters of Jesus-Marie. Valley Branch. Other orders which taught in the French schools of Manchester include: the Sisters of the Presen- tation of Mary., the Sisters of Providence; and EDUCATION the Sisters of the Holy Cross. Butitwas intothe schools that the By 1947, there were over 5,000 children Franco-American parishes devoted most of their rolledinManchester'sFrenchparochial energy. The very first French parish in Man- schools. Originally, the entire school curriculum chester. St. Augustin set up a school in the con- was taught in French. Later, the French lan- vent of the Order of Jesus-Marie Sisters from guage was relegated to a half a day, and now it Sillery. Quebec in 1882. As it was the custom to is taught as a «foreign language.» School sub- teach the sexes separately, an old public school jects 3ften taught from Quebec textbooks, in- building was purchased nearby in MS for the cluded:Art; Music; Penmanship; Politeness; education of the boys of the parish who after 'Religion; French Grammar; History; Mathemat- 1889 were taught by the Sacred Heart Brothers. ics; Science; and English. In 1885 Sainte-Marie parish followed suit In recent years many French parochial and erected a school building (presently Holy schools in Manchester have shared the univer- Angels Academy) staffing itith the Sisters of saltragedyofallsuchprivateinstitutions Charity of St. Hyacinthe. One year later a boys' throughout the country: lack of finances, lack building was erected'.;11 Wayne St. When the of staffing, and sometimes, lack of students. For Sisters of Charity were forbidden to teach boys example, within the span of five years, St. in1890, the Marist Brothers of France were Edmond parochial school was forced to shut invited to continue the task in the school now down, St. John the Baptist school decreased the named in honor of Fr. Hevey. number of grades from eight to six, and St. Marie'sschoolmergedwith a non-French In 1899, St. George's parish founded counterpart, St. Patrick school. Also recently, school which in 1915 became a free school. In St. Anthony High School merged with two 1924, St. George High School for Girls came other parochial high schools, Bishop Bradley a;,d into existence and in the same year the Hevey Immaculata, to form the present Trinity High. schoolalso became a high school for girls. St. Marie's High School is now being utilized as Later, the school becameco-educational. a Regional Catholic Junior High. Another high school was established in 1933 at St. Anthony's parish. Once many of Manche.-er's second gener- ation Franco American students, aided by grants The parishes of St.Jean-Baptiste.St. and lolarships, were able to obtain higher edu- Edmond, Sacred Heart and St. Theresa all built cation in Canada, but their numbers now have their churches as two-storied structures with also dwindled. The third generation Franco- classrooms on the second floor. In the case of Americans for the most part--if they go for high- 4311 these parishes, as money became available, er education at all--enroll at the various univer- new churches were built and the old chapels on sity, colleges, and vocational training institutes 234 229 in the area. And what of those who over the years have sought fit to Anglicize or even translate Among the colleges of New England of their true names because of shame or Anglo- French background is Manchester's Notre Dame Saxon pressureor more precisely, because of College established in 1950 and staffed by the the shame caused by Angle-Saxon pressure? The Sisters of the Holy Cross, a predominantly following are but a few examples: French Order. Proulx to Prew Mayer M iet LANGUAGE Arsenault Snow Courtemanche Shortsleeve The story is often told of a young French Boisvert Greenwood boy who went to confession and, while declaring Leblanc / White his many sins, accused himself of stealing a Lamontagne Hill cheval (French for horse). The priest pried the Goddu Goodhue boy about the theft but the boy only repeated Dubois Wood that he had stoled a cheval. Finally, the matter Bourgeois Burgess resolved itself when it dawned on the priest Charpentier Carpenter thatallhis questions were impertinent since Pare Perry what iizt boy really stole was a shovel and not Levesque Bishop a cheval. That poor lad, it seems, must go to Letourneau Turner confession inevery language for the Polish, Dupont Bridge or Bridges the Germans, theSpanish, andallthe rest Gosselin Goslin abuse him in a similar manner. Morin Moore Berube Burpee or Burbee This story is included here to illustrate a Bourque Burke very simple but a very important point which is, Garneau Garner that the assimilation process in and of itself Lalibei .; Freeman necessarily produces certain conflicting situa- Michaud Mitchell' 3 tions which are unavoidable and sometimes tragic. The story of the boy stealing the cheval In Manchester too, the Frenchlike the ( or was it shovel?) is an amusing one and bears other ethnic groupshave had their bilingual no tragic consequences except perhaps to the problems,theirshare of discrimination and owner of the shovel (or was it cheval?). But name-calling from the ranks of those whose the tragedy of the first-generation child laughed parerts too were «foreigners.» But then, neither at by his peers. misunderstood by his teachers, can the French be absolved of similar guilt. Such and criticized by dim-witted adults, is a real is the nature of prejudice! live, recurrent tragedy where real tears flow. Arid the only sin of the child is that he hails Yet even those who 'resolutely adhered from two cultures and sometimes cannot think to their French heritage, culture, and language ')f both words at onrc- to describe an obje,:t or have had a difficult time in the land of White, express an idea. Thus, itis no wonder that we Anglo-Saxon, Protestantism. With the assault often find young men with accents so thick one of contemporaryradio,television,movies, needs a chain saw to cut through them, desper- newspapers, magazirres, school, and business, ately and in vain striving to hide their foreign it has been almost impossible, for instance, to origin or parentage which by all rational stand- preserve the native language such asitwas ards should be a source of pride and self-esteem. spoken «back home.» And let us be perfectly 235 230 clear about one thingI to use the strongest lywith Mr. Lemaire when he phrase known to contemporary America) the says that'there will always be language spoken «back home» even if «back French spoken in New England. home» isParis, was never «Parisian French.» Perhaps it will not be spoken as The myth of «Parisian French» is a mere contri- much as before, but it will be of vance designed to assail the colorful colloquial- better quality.' How can it be isms of Franco-Americans. And if one has ever otherwise when the whole histo- heard Franco-Americans indulge in their collo- ry of the United States is im- quialisms he no doubt would immediately sub- pregnated with French culture scribe to the myth. Franco-American colloquial- throughtheFrench origin of isms in reality are nothing more than the slur- 23States,theroleheld by ring-over of words which are written as the France in the War of Independ- oStratfordatte-Bowe» school would have it. The ence,the frameworkofthe following are some examples: Constitution inspired by eL'esprit deslois'of Montesquieu, the y ont for ils ont participation of French Canada y a it a in the Civil War, the close prox- thequiere theiere imity to the Province of Quebec, petit petit the progress of education which icitte ici is no longer the privilege of the moue & toile moi & toi elite but of the masses, the de- a ray la maison a cote de lamaison velopment of international tour- v'In voila 14 ism,thegeneraluseofthe radio, the pressure exerted by Moreover. staying on the amusing side of the Federal Government for the this tragedy, some of the early translations of knowledge of foreign languages, English by Franco-Americans are comical in- the foundation of Franco-Amer- deed. For example, they mistook the word lean Institutes, and finally, be- «dustpans» for «dustpants» and proceeded to causethe knowledgeofthe translate it as «pantalons de poussiere.» On the French language offers an outlet other hand, them is a story of an enterprising to our Franco-American youth Englishman who translated the French phrase to earn a living through teaching, ocinq heures dans quart» (a quarter of five) as interpretation, the common «five o'clock in a barrel!» market, diplomatic service, the peace corps, etc. 15 Finally we shall end with this sobering passage: RECENT DEVELOPMENTS Through evolution and time, the Franco-Americanelement has In recent years great efforts have been lost many of its characteristics. made to set up a French cultural program in the In reality, it may be said that the city of Manchester,ile State of New Hampshire, French language is almost lost and in other New England states. 16 for a majority of the children of the third generation. But what Due to the decline of French parochial about the fourth? I agree entire- schools and the limited French instru?tion given 236 231 in thestillviable ones, the Committee for foster a special interest in the historical and French Development has been centering its at- cultural backgrounds of these groups as well as tention on the possibility of utilizing the public the economic, political, social, and artistic life school system for this purpose. of the countries involved; and finally, to help establish and promote French language programs Three years ago (in 1971), Louisiana had in the state schools of New Hampshire. allowed French to be taught as a second lan- guage in its public schools. The school system Last year (in October of 1973) a confer- obtained financial aid from the State of Louisi- ence was held at the University of New Hamp- ana as well as $150,000.00 from Franceto help shire's New England Center to evaluate French promote a program called the «Council for the education at the university level. At this time, Development of French in Louisiana President Bonner had eNpressed a need for some- (CODOFIL). Because of the success of the one to teach a History of Quebec course in 1974 Louisiana project, a similar one had been pro- and Mr. Robert was asked to look into the posed for New England. It is appropriately call- matter. ed CODOFINE, the NE standing for New England. Furthermore, a student exchange program between U.N.H. and Canada was Also recom- The CODOFINE Association met at Notre mended and is currer 41), under deliberation. Mr. Dame College as recently as October, 1972 with William Bittenbender, the Chairman of the State representatives from Quebec, Louisiana, and all Board of Education, speaking in French ex- six New England states to discuss future goals pressed his support for a widespread effort to as well as funding measures for this endeavor. enhance both the French language and the On July11, 1973, by the invitation of the French culture in North America. Louisiana Commission, a luncheon was sched uled for the Governors and Congressional dele- Beginning in November of 1973, Channel gates from the New England states to see wheth- 9 (WMUR) of Manchester has been broadcasting er. federal funds could be made available to Soh* Canadienne a complete French pro- promote a Franco-American cultural program in gram presented each Sunday from 4:00 to 5:00. the Northeast. After this, a bill was introduced WENH TV also sponsors the program to the New Hampshire legislature and upon Rythmes twice a week. Plans are now being passing both houses the bill to promote such a made through the Federal Communications Com- program in the state was signed by Governor mission (FCC) in Washington to begin broad- Meldrim Thomson. casting all day French programs imported from Sherbrooke, Quebec. These programs are tenta- The constituency of the New Hampshire tively scheduled to begin in Julyof 1974 on Commission for the promotion of Franco-Amer- Channel 3, cable television. ican language and culture includes: Louis Martel from Manchester, President; Gerald Robert from The Manchester Union Leader has for Manchester; Maurice Lavoie from Nashua; Leo some time now been printing a weekly French G.Ouellettefrom Farmington; and Rene columninitsWednesday editions byMrs. Boucher from Somersworth. Marcelle Martel. Its duties include: to establish, maintain, A course entitled «Canada's Two Cul- anddevelopculturaltiesbetween French- tures» is currently being offered by the Merri- Canadians andFrench speaking Americans; to mack Valley Branch; and the U.N.H. History 237 2;2 Department is considering offering a course at serving food. the Branch tentatively titled: «Our Livesin the Past and Present: The French-Canadian-Amer- The second, the Canadian booth, fea- ican Experience.» This course will host a num- tured a theme of white and red withmaple ber of qualified lecturers on a variety oftopics leaf. The materials included folders,pamphlets, pertinentto Franco-American-Canadian stud- brochures, maps, and various information on huge ies. the Maritime provinces. There were also panels clvicting scenes from Canada,including And finally, the faculty of the Merri- the famous Royal Canadian«Mounties.» The mack Valley Branch is currently working on a Canadian Consulate in Boston had also pro- curriculum proposal which will include a «Re- vided a projector and carrousels offamous gional Studies» cluster. scenes and events such asfrom hockey games, the famous barrage of Manicouagan. andthe tulip gardens of Ottawa. THE INTERCULTURAL-ARTS FESTIVAL In1972 the theme of the Canadian design. In 1971 there were twoFrench- booth was white and red in maple leaf Canadian booths in Manchester's Intercultural- Informationincluded pamphlets, maps, and Arts Festival. The first was the Quebecbooth brochures on camping,fishing,sports,etc. whose theme was white and blue with«fleur There was an exhibit of rock and. mineralspeci- de lis». The materials displayed includedfold- mens collectedin Canada (courtesy of the variety of ers, pamphlets,maps,brochures,recipes, Canadian Consulate)as well as a illustrations, posters, etc. all supplied by the slides on Canada. A group of studentsfrom Ste of a Quebec GovernmentBureauinBoston. A Marie High School, under the direction valuable collection of photographs (courtesy of Sister of Presentation, gave a vivid historical the Ministry of Cultural Affairs of theProvince presentation of George Washington and the of Quebec) portrayed a variety of subjects, Marquis de La Fayette. Moreover, someeighty studies and scenes of everyday life in Quebec. grammar school studentsunder the direction of Miss Bernadette Benard presented a medleyof The ethnic food and specialties in the French folk songs. Quebec booth included «Soupe aux pois a la canadienne,»painsurlasole,tourtieres, All visitors were given small gold maple cretons, tartes au sucre, tartes a «laferlouche,» leaf pinscourtesy of the CanadianConsulate sucre a la crème, patisseries(eclairs, choux a la in Boston. creme Chantilly, millefeuilles), and cafe. Themusicalprogramfeatured«Le IMMIGRATION STAT'STICS Consensus» a group of young college students FOR MANCHESTER , N. H. from Quebec City and suburbs who presented arrangements of folk songs with piano,guitars, The statistical information below comes and flute. While here, these young peoplealso from the Population Division, Bureauof fhek participated in a short film in the studios of Census, Washington, D. C. By «foreignstock» '`\ foreign Channel 11 in Durham. is meant persons who were themselves born or were children of foreign or mixed There were no specific costumes, only parentage. The fluctuation between«foreign plain old-fashioned dresses worn by theladies stock» and «foreign born» reflects the method- 233 ology of the Census Bureau from decade to Foreign Born (France) 125 decade. Natives of Foreign or Mixed Parentage. - Canada-French 16,149 1970 Canada-Other 2,122 - France 187 Population (City) 87,754 Foreign Stock (City) 31,752 1920 Foreign Stock (Canada) 18,584 Foreign Stock (France) 227 Population (City) 78,384 Foreign Stock (City) 59,455 1960 Foreign Stock (Canada- Population (City) 88,282. French) 26,706 Foreign Stock (City) 38,784 Foreign Stock (Canada- Foreign Stock (Canada) 22,252 O ther) 3,683 Foreign Stock (France) 189 Foreign Stock (France) 120 Mother Tongue of Foreign Born (French) 5,095 1910 1950 Population (City) 70,063 Foreign Born (City) 29,708 Population (City) 82,732 Foreign Born (Canada- Foreign Born (City) 14,391 French) 13,720 Foreign Born (Canada- Foreign Born (Canada- 6,991 French) Other & Newfoundland) Foreign Born (Canada- 2,721 Other) 878 Foreign Born (France) 54 Foreign Born (France) 87 1900 1940 Population (City) 56,987 Population (City) 77,685 Foreign Born (City) 24,257 Foreign born (City) 17,396 Foreign Born (Canada- Foreign Born (Canada- French and New- French) 8,432 foundland) 13,429 Foreign Born (Canada- Foreign Born (Canada- 1,278 Other) English and New- Foreign Born (France) 61 foundland) 1,697 1930 Foreign Born (France) 53 Population (City) 76,834 Foreign Born (City) 21,944 Foreign Born (Canada- French) 10,696 Foreign Born (Canada- Other) 1,422 234 Footnotes Guide Canadien-Francais de 1.J. Laflamme, «The French Catholics in the United 9. Emile Tardivel, States,»Catholic Encyclopedia,1907,p.277: Manchester, NH.(Manchester, 1895), p. 267. The Franco- 2.The above information comes from the Language 10. SrFlorenceMarieChevalier, Resources Project; «French in New England -- A Socio- Americans of New England.An unpublished Ph. D. dis- Historical Portrait» by H. Lemaire for the Department sertation (Catholic University, Washington, D. C., 1972), of Health, Education and Welfare, 1963. p. 241. 3. E.: Hamon, S.J.,Les Canadiens-Franoais de la 11.The Saturday Evening Post,Oct. 31, 1936. Nouvelle-Angleterre,(Quebec,1891), y p. 3 and 4. 12. A. N. Belcourt,The French-Canadians Outside 4. «L'Abeilles» Sdminaire de Quebec, 1849, p. 4. Quebec.(Philadelphia, 1923), p. 7. 5.French Canadian Influence in Manchester Before 13. Jacques Ducharme,op. cit ,pp. 230-31. 1891.A dissertation by Wilfred Paradis, St. Anselm's College, 1949, p. 25. 14. Jacques Ducharme,op. cit.,pp. 237-39. 6. Jacques Ducharme,The Shadows of the Trees, 15.. Nerve B. Lemaire,The Franco-Americans in New ( New York; Harper and Brothers, 1943), p. 160. England.An unpublished manuscript prepared for the Language Resource Project of the Dept. of Health, 7. Jacques Ducharme,op. cit.pp. 38-9. Education, and Welfare, 1963, p. 7. (From the section on «General Comments»). 8.Ibid.p. 59. 16. With the exception of the last two paragraphs, the information presented below is based on a personal interview with Mr. Gerald Robert, president of the A.C.A. 240 a 235 REFERENCES Books Belcourt, A. N. Tardivel, Emile 1923 The French Canadians Outside Quebec. 1895 Guide Canadien Francais, Manchester', Philadelphia. N. H., 1894.Manchester, N. H. Ducharme, Jacques Throp, L. Ashton 1943 The Shadows of .the Trees.Harper and 1939 Manchester of Yesterday, A Hum Brothers, New York. Interest Story of its Past.Granite Sta Press, Manchester, N. H. Hanlon, E. 1891 Les Canadiens Francais de la Nouvelle- Verrette, Adrien Angleterre.Quebec 1931 La ParoisseSte Marie.Manchester, N. H. Published Reports 19: Sept.-Dec.Emigration des Canadiens- Grousse, Jacqueline Frar.79is vers Nouvelle-Angleterre, 1870-1910. 1970 L'Etat du Maine.Comparative Study Recherches Sociographiques, vol. V, no.3. of the Franco-Americans in Maine and Quebec. New. Hampshire. Quebec. Periodicals Les Douze Missionnaires de L'Est Robert, Adolphe 1851 «Pourquoi le Canadien-Francais quitte- 1950 «Positions Statistiques et Culturelles t-il le Bas-Canada.).LeCanadien Emi- de la Franco-Americanie.»Les Carnets grant.Quebec. Victoriens.Quebec. Robert, Adolphe Robert, Adolphe June 1937 «La Survivance de L'Esprit Francais July 25, 1918 «Une Nouvelle France dans la aux EtatsUnis».Le Canado-Americain. Nouvelle-Angleterre.» LeCanadoAmericain. Newspaper Articles Manchester Daily Mirror New Hampshire Sunday News Dec. 8, 1913 «Foreign Population as Divided April 6, 199"7, May 4 and 18, 1947. in Manchester.» Manchester Union Leader Feb.22,1932and December 31,1934. 236 Unpublished Material Lemaire, Herve B. Chevalier, Sr. 'Florence Marie 1963 The Franco-Americans in New The Franco-Americansof New 1972 England. A manuscriptforthe England. Ph.D.dissertation, Catholic Language Resource Project of the University, Washington, D. C. Department of Health, Education and Welfare. Houle, 0.M.I., Andre Laurent Checklistof Franco- 1955 Prelithinary `Moreau, Arthur J. American imprints in New England, French Blood in New Hampshire. A A dissertation, Catholic 1932 1780-1925. thesisinSociology. Dartmouth University, Washington, D. C. 7..ollege. Langlois, Mrs. Alfred Paradis, Wilfred H. Collection of Franco-American 1941 1949 French-Canadian Influence in Man- iFirstsa in Manchester, N. H., 1830- chester Before 1891. AMasters of 1941. Manchester, N. H. Arts dissertation. St. Anselm College. Reprinted by permission of the author. 242 A HISTORY OF FRANCO-AMERICAN JOURNALISM by Paul Pare Franco-Americans founded parishes, newspapers starting in 1839. Maine has had schools, mutual societies and newspapers- not twenty-one.Journalism constitutes the bulk necessarily in that order.If one were to ofFranco-Americanliteratureandthose determine which of these outgrowths of the Francos who did some writing, either fiction, Franco-AmericanimmigrationintoNew poetry, or historical works, were nearly all England exercised the most lasting influence, involvedin some waywith,a newspaper. it would be difficult to choose.Certainly Franco-American leaders were nearly always journalismcontributedasmuch asthe either 'clergmen or journalists.Most of the others; in numbers alone, newspapers testify time they complemented each other, working to the lasting presence of Franco-Americans hand in hand. Sometimes, one failed and the in this country. other took over; and, in some cases there was open disagreement between the two. Franco-American journalism has re- tained one overriding characteristic in its 130 Most newspapers lasted a short time years of existence: its militancy. From the but a small number survived for long periods start its publishers, editors, and writers used and became highly competitive with their their newspapers not only to instruct but to English-languagecounterparts. Although combat. The battle was fought against the En- most Franco-American publishers and news- glish in Canada, against the Americans and Irish paper people starved to death, a few acquired assimilators in the United States, against those themselves a fortune. Franco-Americans who gave in, and in some cases against their very own Church leaders. If the word osurvivance» has meant anything to Franco-Americans over the years,I Often, too often, Franco-Americans it is thanks to their newspapers. involvedinthenewspaperfieldfought amongst themselves on a wide range of issues With these general statements out of involving Franco-American life. It hasn't the way, let's take a look at a brief history of been uncommon to see a newspaper take on a this unique brand of journalism. First, let me point of view simply because a certain other saythat my sources have been Alexandre paper had espoused a different point of view. Belisle's Histoire de la Presse Franco-Ameri- Bitter feuds developed between editors and caine writtenin1911, Robert Rumilly's they lasted for years. Histoiredes Franco-Americains written in 1958, .R.J. Lawton's Franco-Americans of It was a journalism of ideas more than Maine published in Lewiston in 1915, a few a journalism of communication and informa- other works, and my own interviews with tion.In that sense it can be said Franco- persons involved withMaine'sFrench- American journalism never grew up. language newspapers. Franco-American journalistic efforts The firstnewspaper which can be are impressive. Francos founded close to 250 called Franco-American by the fact that it 237 243 238 was published in the United States andaimed Le Patriote Canadien was bilingual. at an American as well as Canadian readership Duvernay sought the aid ofAakericans in is Le Patriote Canadien.It was a weekly, fighting the English Canadians - an assistance thefirstissueappearinginBurlington, which never materialized. The paper was also Vermont, in August of 1839. anti-clericalattimes, the patriotes having blamed the Quebec clergy for the failure of It was born in the midst of an aborted the 1837 revolt. revolt. Its publisher-editor, Ludger Duvernay, was a frustratedpatriote. who along with a Duvernay's paper was published for small band of French-Canadians attempted to only six monthsIn that, it also led the way free themselves from what they considered forfutureFra co-American publications. tyranny on the part of the English in Canada in 1837. In 1842, nada declared amnesty for the 1837 exilees.Most of them returned to A few bloody battles in the Richelieu the homeland inclu ing Duvernay who went Valleyresulted in defeat for the French on to found La Societe SaintJean-Baptiste de patriotes. Those who weren'tkilledin Montreal.Duvernay's life is an interesting battle or executed afterwards were deported one. He played an important role inCanadian to Australia.Those who managed to escape history, having serveein Parliament, having found refuge in the United States from Maim. been a leaderin the Conservative Party, to Illinois. One of them, Robert Shore-Milnes having been arrested and jailed repeatedly for Bouchette, who published a newspaper in his anti-English views.The maple leaf as Quebec City prior to the 1837 incident, made symbol of Canada was his idea. his way to Portland. What he did after that is not known. Those patriotes of 1837 who stayed behind were to be joined years later by the In founding hi!, newspaper, Duvernay full-scaleimmigration of French-Canadians wrotethefollowing prospectus: 4Nous into New England.These were not n'aurons aucun management pour personne. political asylum but economic relief by leav- Nous denocerons tous les coupables sans ex- ing their country. One would not have dis- ceptions et sans egards...* With these words coveredathis from their newspapers, however, he set the tone not only for his own publica- since they were as politically and issue moti- tion but for most of the Franco-American vated as was Duvernay's publication. publications which were to follow. Much could be said at this point about Le Patriote Canadien had subscrib- Franco-Americans in the American midwest ersinNew York,Philadelphia,Boston, and their newspapers. A few commentaries Dubuque,St.Louis,Detroit,Milwaukee, will be enough for the purpose of this class. Chicago, New Orleans, Rochester, Buffalo, Albany, and many other American cities. In 1871 Chicago had 20,000 Franco- This testifies to the fact that the patriotes Americans, several French parishes, societies, of 1837 had found refuge in a large number and a few newspapers including L'Amerique ofplAs.The newspaper, however, was founded by Louis Frechette among others. banned in Canada and that contributed to its Frechetteis one of French-Canada's best demise. known poets. 244 - 239 This newspaper became Ilwolved in more than three years. the election campaign in 1868 won by Ulysses S. Grant.Frechette who was self-exiled to The fatherofFranco-American Chicago after his own political failures in Que- journalism is Ferdinand Gagnon.Before his bec. wrote up the campaign and participated arrival, most Franco-American publications editoriallyin behalf of Grant's candidacy. were feeble attempts with the possible excep- tion of Le Protecteur Canadien. Not only Chicago but many cities in the Midwest had sizeable Franco-American Gagnon was born at St. Hyacinthe, populations and along with them a good Quebec, in 1849. He was destined to become numberofFrench-languagenewspapers. a lawyer but decided to cut srt his studies Michigan had 16 newspapers, Illinois had 12, and immigrate to the United Stes at the age Minnesota had 10, and Wisconsin had one. of 18. He settled in Concord, N. Very few lasted for any consequential In 1869, Gagnon moved to Oanches- period of time.In 1910 there were only two ter, N.H. where he founded' with Dr. Al. left: L'Echo de l'Ouest of Minneapolis, Tremblay (Franco-American historical works Minn.. a weekly, and Le Courrier Franco- for some f,.arre reason very often refer to Americainof Chicago which was printed people by ineir first initials instead of by full oddly enough in Fall River,. Mass.This, by names.) La Voix du Peuple.This paper the way, was not uncommon. The costs of lasted seven months.When Gagnon moved printingoftenforcedsmaller newspapers to Worcester, Mass., in September of the same to give up their own printing plants.The year, the paper folded. healthier newspapers assumed the printing and by so doing were able to better survive Gagnon, up untilthattime,had 1 themselves.Many of the large newspapers doubts about the strength of the French- "S also turned to publishing books as an added Canadian immigration to New England. He source of revenues. thought it was a temporary self-imposed exile, not a permanent exodus,In the spring of Back in the eastern part of the United 1869, however, he witnessed in Worcester the States. a few newspapers appeared in New celebration of «la Saint JeanBaptiste», the York and Vermont around 1867.Le Pro- traditional French-Canadian and by extension tecteur Canadien founded by a merchant by Franco-American feast day which falls on the name of Antoine Moussette and a priest June 24th, and was so impressel that he named Zephirin Druon at St. Albans,t., in became convincedthatFranco-Americans 1867 was the first lasting Franco-American were here to stay. newspaper. In Worcester, he founded L'Etendard It played a major rolein making National, at the age of 20 with the help of a Canada aware of the Franco-American fact corporation composed of the early leaders of and was responsible for bringing French- this Franco-American city.His newspaper Canadian priests to New England parishes to was bought out in 1876 by a Montreal news- serve their fellow Catholics. The name itself, paper, L'Opinion Publique which published Protecteur Canadien implied a certain mili- L'Etendard National as a special New Eng- tancy: here was something to protect. some- land edition. thing to defend.The paper lasted slightly 245 240 Three years later, Gagnon joined with. both in Canada and in New England with Frederic Houde who had written for Le Pro- newspapers jumping into fight almost gleeful- tecteur Canadlen, of St. Albans, in launching ly. a new paper, Le Foyer Canadien.Some 18 months later, in 1874, Gagnon sold out to Riel made a visit to Worcester in 1874 Houde to start his own newspaper Le Tra- where he met with Ferdinand Gagnon and vailleur, which he directed for 12 years until Frederic Houde.Immediately the Franco- his death at a young age of thirty-seven. American press took sides, condemning Riel and his associates on one hand and hailing As publisher and editor of Le Tra-. him as a hero on the other. vailleur. Gagnoti became the leading spokeE- man ofFranco-Americans. Through his news- Newspapersalsodevotedcolumn papers and his numerous speakingengage- space to argue the merits of the benevolent ments, he molded public opinion inthe mutual ieties.Gagnon deplored the fact eastern part of the United States and in that the aual meetings of these societies Canada. were emphasng the insurance aspects of the societies and ne lecting the fraternal calling of At this time, French Canadian opinion the founding fathers. was not exactly favorable to Franco-Ameri- cans.It was popular to paint a dark picture Here we see the great split in Franco- of Franco-American life in New England's American societies which reached its peak mill cities.«Les emigres vont chercher le later in the twentieth century.Of course, chagrin et la misere sur la pretendue tere de newspapers took sides in the debate. lalitoerte,»wrote one French Canadian journalist. The division which began at this time developed between l'Union Saint Jean-Bap- Gagnon,byhispersonandhis tiste on one side and l'Association Canado- OwAlblications,first Le Foyer Canadiess and Americaine on the other.In broad terms, ter Le Travailleur was instrumental in fight- l'Union believed that cooperation with the ing these attitudes. Irish bishops was the best way to avoid their assimilative wrath while l'Association Canado- Graduallyothernewspaperswere Americaine preached resistance to the Irish started in New England. Alexandre Belisle's assimilators among the clergy and bishops HistoiredelaPresseFranco-Americaine from the start. In later years, [Union tried to mentions ten newspapers in 1874.Robert establish closer ties with France while [Asso- Rumilly inhis book Histoire des Franco- ciation believed Franco-American ties should Americains mentions seven existing that be strengthened with Quebec instead. 'time.These were mostly in Massachusetts, Vermont and in the Midwest. Newspapers throughout New England took sides and the battle at times raged fierce- The issues were not lacking. One of ly on the pages of the Franco-American press. them involvedLouisRiel who was half French and half Indian, and led a revolt Back in the late 1870's, ha:times hit of themet&in Western Canada against New England with the textile industry being theEnglishauthorities. Histrial,once seriously affected by the economic recession. apprehended, led to considerable controversy, Labor strikes also made their appearances at 246 241 This time in history. anticlerical moments of being a freemason and a Wandering Jew all of this in print. Canadian authorities thought the time was ripe to launch an effort to attract the There was, however, one issue on Franco-Americans back to Quebec.Farm- which everyone agreed: naturalization. All of lands near the Maine and New Hampshire the newspapers recommended that the im- borders were set aside for returning Francos. migrants become American citizens. Gagnon The Canadian government named Ferdinand prescribed naturalization for those who chose Gagnon asagent de repatriement. to stay.«The Yankees will always have the money, but we'll take over in politics,D was Althoughinappearanceacontra- the naturalization slogan.Once naturalized, diction. Gagnon's repatriation effort and his the Francos started looking around for a firm Franco-Americanism worked hand in political party to join. hand. He merely saw repatriation as a choice for Franco-Americans who had become dis- Atfirstunfamiliarwith American illusioned. He also saw it as a method of help- politics, they sheepishly followed their bosses ing his homeland, Quebec, reclaim some of its into the Republican Party, the party which former sons and daughters. advocatedtariffson foreigntrade. The Republican Party, therefore, was good for the OtherFranco-Americanjournalists Franco-American workers, so the industrial- didn't see it his way, notably the ediiiar of the ists said. . Jean-Baptiste anewspaper in Northampton, Massachusetts. A journalistic debate began on Those who lookedtotDemocratic the merits of repatriation, some newspapers Party found the door closed, anyway, that calling those Francos who returned to Quebec party being controlled by the Irish who were traitors while other papers used the same epi- not about to give up any of their newly ac- thet to describe those Francos who remained quired territory. in New England. The Republicans became increasingly The issue started a bitter feud be- pro-American and anti-immigrant and anti- tween two Fall River newspapers,L'Echo Catholic with the years and the majority of du Canada and L'Ouvrier Canadien. The the Franco-Americans left the GOP at the feud lasted long after the repatriation issue urging of their newspapersincluding had died.Repatriation apparently caused Ferdinand Gagnon'sLe Travailleur. Some more ink to flow than it did anything else. It newspapers remained faithfulto the Repub- was almost a total failure with only a small lican Party, especially in Rr )de Island, and number of persons opting for the return to here was somethingelsetofight about. Quebec. Uptonow,I'veusedthe word Not only didthe ink flow freely Franco-American but most of the people I've concerning issues but personalities became en- spoken of preferred to call themselves French- tangled in the polemics also.Honore Beau- Canadians even though theylivedinthis grand who publishedLa Republiqueat Fall country for years and for the most part were River in 1878 i cferred to Ferdinand Gagnon American citizens.This dual loyalty is in- ascroquemitaineGagnonwhile Gagnon conceivable today but then it made perfect accused Beaugrand who wasn't without his sense. 242 In 1873, the state of Missouri elected American flock.But as the immigrants in- a Franco-American to the U.S. Senate,Louis- creased in number, Canadian priests willing to Vital-Bogy. He used to say: de suis Canadien- immigrate with them became scarce. Francais, et j'en suis Fier; je suis catholique et j'en remercie Dieu; je su;, aussi citoyen de Franco-Americans, however, kept cette1, publique,etj'ensuisheureux.» demanding their own parishes and their own priests. The newspapers repeatedthese As the flow of immigration took on demands with regular insistence: and when- the proportions of a tidal wave, newspapers ever a bishop would refuse or whenever he popped up here and there throughout New would appoint a French or Belgian priest England. Increasing in scope also at this time instead, the newspapers embarked on a holy was the resentment of the Yankees andthe crusade to preserve the language and the faith, Irish who saw their domains .oeing invaded by and in that order since everyone subscribed to the French-Canadians.This served to unify the slogan: «Qui perd sa langue perd sa fol.» the Franco-American press which by this time could boast of about twenty periodicals. The first incident or «affaire» took placeinMillbury, Conn., then came Fall AllFranco editors and publishers River, Northampton, Detroit, Ware, Salem, agreed that Franco-Americans are entitled to Danielson, etc. The scenario is the same: A their rightful place in American life. parish with majority of Franco-Americans wants a Franco-American priest; the bishop, «Les Chinois de l'Est» is probably the almostalways anIrishman,refuses;the best known incident of Yankee bigotry at this parishionersgoonstrike,refusingto period but only one of many which illustrates contributefinTffelallyandinsome cases the anti-Franco feelings. refusing to participate spiritually in parish life; the appeal is then made to Rome which Although it was felt Francos deserved ignores the plea of the Franco-Americans; a place in the great Americansociety, that did after some time, the bishop gives in and ap- not mean that rightful place had to begained pointsaFranco-Americanpriest,orthe by paying the price of assimilation. The word parishioners give in and accept the Irish priest. «survivance» increasingly became the slogan of Franco-American newspaper people. The newspapers play a multiple role in all of this. At first, all cry out in indignation Writer after writer deplored the fact over the bishop's refusal, but as thegoing gets that Franco-Americans were losing ground rougher and some parishioners begin taking in the struggle against assimilation.The Fran- drastic measures, some of the newspapers cos were losingcommand of the French lad- start saying that perhaps someparishioners guage and the greatestassaults against the are going too far. Other newspapersrespond la:Iguage were being made in the churches and by asking if the publications calling for res- the greatest enemies of the language turned traint are traitors. Ahd so the debate goes on out to be the Irish bishops and the Irishclergy, between journalists, the real issue sometimes so it was felt in many Francocircles. being delegated to the background and ob- scured by rhetoric. Early in the immigration, the bishops could easily obtain French-Canadian priests The controversies aren'tlimited to who were willing to shepherd the Franco- one locality.All of New England follows the 2 4 8 243 latestdevelopmentsthroughitsFranco- lies. LeNationaiitalsoboasted the most American press. The newspapers taking part modern and complete printing plant.This in these issues at the end of the last century newspaper also had editions for Fall River were: and Manchester. Lenthier also purchased Le Travailleur,Ferdinand Gagnon's old paper. He boughtLe Courrierof Worcester,Linde- Le Messager,Lewiston, Maine pendanceof Lowell andLe Bourdonof Fall L'Independant,Fall River, Mass. River. Le Courrier,Manchester, N.H. La Patrk,Cohoes, N.Y. Besides thepurchases, Lenthier La Justice,Biddeford, Maine founded the following publications:Le Pro- Le Citoyen,Fall River, Mass. tecteur Canadienin Fall River, borrowing Le Defenseur,Holyoke, Mass. the name of the older St. Albans paper which Le National,Plattsburg, N.Y. had ceased publication several years earlier; Le Travailleur,Worcester, Mass., Le Canado-Americainof Holyoke,Le Foy- (which continued to be published under the er Canadienof Woonsocket,Le Guide du same name after Gagnon's death). Peupleof Haverhill,Le Drapeau National of Lowell,Le Jean-Baptisteof Cohoes, N.Y. There were other newspapers but these andLe Courrier du Connecticut. In all were the major ones. These newspapers were Lenthier by the early 1890's controlled 16 not all on solid financial ground. Many changed newspapers. hands frequently, some ceased publication on- ly to resume a few months later, when a new The presidential campaign of 1892, source of funds had ;-.en found. which saw the election of Grover Cleveland, a Democrat, accounted for much of this The two stro4est papers at this time journalistic growth 2t the time. Lenthier wereLe MessagerandLe Travailleur.Not campaigned heavily for Cleveland and made only were they financially sound but both had good use of his papers.The Democratic large circulations beyond their respective are^s Party,seeing in the Francos a potentially and they also enjoyed a good reputation. By large voting bloc, also made good use of his the way, exact circulation figures are extreme- papers. ly hard to document. The election fever had an effect on Despite their differences, the editors other Franco-American newspapermen. and publishers of a'l these papers met in 1887 Lenthier'sLe Nationalwas joined byL'Etoile for the second time and organized theAssoci- of Lowell and byL'Independantof Fall River ation des Membres de la Presse Canadienne- as daily newspapers.. Franraise des Etats-Unis.Note the wordCana- dienne-Franraise.In later years the organiza- This era was truly one of the few dur- tion changed that toFranco-Americaine. ing which it can be said that Franco-American journalism really prospered. The success was Le Natio.,,,/founded by Benjamin Len- mostly due to the unprecedented interest in thier Plattsburg, N.Y. and later moved to the Francos displayed by the American polit- Lowell, Mass. in 1890 became the first success- ical parties.After the election, however, ad- fuldaily Franco-American newspaper.All vertising revenues declined along wit!.the other papers were .ither weeklies or bi-week- political fervor and Franco newspapers found 244 themselves unable to continue at the same dueto improved economic conditions in pace. One by one, Lenthier's papersclosed Canada and a renewed interest on the part of down including Le Travailleur, originally Ferd- theCanadian governmentinkeepingits inand Gagnon's paper. citizens home. New frontiers were opened up in western Quebec and the Lac St. Jean According to L.A. Biron who worked region, the government making it very attract- for Lenthier in Worcester, Lenthier was a ive for the French Canadian to emigrate there «promoter».Biron was quoted as saying: instead of to New England. Farming had been «He must have made thousands, the money re-instituted as an honorable profession. paid by the Democratic Party.After the 1892 election, he went West...» Biron went Despite thesmaller flow of French on to found L'Impartialin Nashua, N.H., in Canadians to New England cities, news of 1898, a newspaper which lived on until the Quebec still attracted attention in Franco- early 1960's. American areis,,andNalmost as much pas- sionateinkflowedinFranco-American The high number of Franco-American journals during this especially lively political newspapers in a single city during thisperiod period in Quebec as did during the early years and inthe years until the mid-twentieth of immigration. centuryisnot unusual. Over the years, Manchester has had a total of 36 newspapers, Franco-Americans in Maine, although not all publishing at the same time, of course; somewhat isolated from the mainstream of Lowell has had 24; and Fall River has seen 22 Franco activityin the remainder o'f' New newspapers come and go, to name afew England, nevertheless participated in the great Franco-American cities. Francopastimeof founding newspapers. Over the years, Maine has seen 22 French Newspapers were the only representa- language newspapers come and go. Biddeford tives of what we now refer to as the news has had nine Franco papers and Lewistonsix. media. They were also one of the few sources Augusta, Van Buren and Sanford have given of entertainment. birth to one each, while Waterville produced two. It cost relatively little to start a news- paper.Keeping it going was the problem. The first Franco-American newspaper in Maine appeared in Biddeford in May of ThoseFranco-Americanpublishers 1870, two years after Le Protecteur Canadien who had th it coin printing plants found it of St. Albans, and four years before Ferdinand advantag; keep the presses running as Gagnon's Le Travailleur. many hotn.,f the day as possible. Why not print anothc newspaper? Another edition? TheBiddeford paper was named The major elnital expenditure had already L'Emigre Canadien and was published by been made and another publication would Leon Bossue dit Lyonnais who at the age only mean added revenues.Thus went the of 14 started his journalistic career by pub- logic which led to this proliferation of news- lishing a paper in Quebec City.In his life- papers throughout NewEngland. time, he either founded or was associated with a total of 12 newspapers (some of them In the mid-1890's, the wave of French in English) in New England, and New York Canadian immigrants was reduced to a trickle State and in Quebec.His Biddeford paper, 250 245 started relatively early in his career, was a paper lasted only a few weeks, others that weekly. It lived six weeks. it was published for two years.In any ev- ent, two years later,he was writing for The second wasLe Messagerof another Biddeford paper L'Observateur which Lewistonwhich wastheoldestFranco- was founded byJ.S. Bourdon and Alfred American newspaper in existence when it Bonneau. L'Observateurlasted three died in 1968,havingbeenpublished years. continuously for 88 years.The story of Le Messager will come later. Afterleavingthispaper,Ledoux founded a magazine named Le Figaro Illus- The year 1880 saw the start of two tre in 1895 which featured humor and large newspapers inthestate.Le Messager in engravings.Alexandre Belisle in his Histoire March and Le Cri d'Alarme in November. de la Presse Franco-Americaine calls it a very The latter was published in Biddeford by attractive magazine. The first issue appeared James Smith and is presumed to have been in December and that was also the last. He a Protestant newspaper.It lived only a short then worked for newspapers in Montreal and time and very little is known about it. Woonsocket andlaterbecameactivein politics. Next was Le Courrier de Lewiston. published in Lewiston in January of 1885 by In 1897 at the age of 22, he became Emile H. Tardivel who had been ociated the youngest member of the United States earlier with Le Messager. Le Courrier de diplomaticcorpswhennamedtothe Lewiston lasted no longer than a few weeks. American consulate at Trois-Rivieres, Quebec. At 29, he was named consul in Bordeaux, Tardivel later in life turned to politics France.After that his life is unknown since and the practice of law. He was elected to the his only biography was printedin1919. New Hampshire legislature and at one time Obituary details might be available by further worked with a Boston law firm. researchingthe newspapersinBiddeford. Urbain Ledoux was involved with Biddeford also saw L'Ouvrier Cana- threenewspapers in Biddeford which ap- dien in 1895. Some sources say it was called peared in rapid succession between 1893 and L'Ouvrier Catholique.It was published by 1895. A self-made man, Ledoux was born in a corporation known as Primeau and Haswell Canada of parents who had immilrated to the and the paper had Philippe Masson as editor. United States during the Civil War and who This paper appeared for about one year. had returned to Quebec in 1872. Three years later the Ledonx family moved to Biddeford. A very colorful figure who lived only Urbain was one year old.Part of his educa- briefly in Maine at this time was Jean-Baptiste tion was obtained at the «College Sainte- Rouillard. In1896,hewaslivingin Marie» in Van Buren. Biddeford where he launched L 'A merique, the state's first French-language daily news- At the age of 17, he founded Lit:- paper.It lasted only a few months since in dependance in Biddeford. That was in 1893 December of the same year Rouillard moved whichis when Len thier's journalistic em- to Lewiston where he founded a weekly pirestartedto crumble insouthern New La Republique. This one was also destined England. Some authors say that Ledoux' to have a life span of only a fewmonths. 251. 246 Rouillard became well known in other La Justicelasted nearly as long as parts of New England where he was a journal- Le Messager.Its life span was from 1896 ist and political eccentric. An entire chapter to 1949. could he written about Rouillard who served in the Civil War and later preached his dream Maine's best known Franco-American of independence for Quebec. He was proba- newspaper,Le Messager,was founded in bly the first separatist. 1880 by J.D. Montmarquet and Dr. Louis J. Martel. Montmarquet had previously worked In 1897, a Waterville doctor by the with Ferdinand Gagnon onLe Travailleur, name of Avila 0. Boulay founded a weekly and Dr. Martel became known as another with the name of LaSentinel le.which lived Ferdinand Gagnon and for some time was about a year.Dr. Boulay later moved to Van consideredanofficialspokesman forall Buren where he wrote for LeJournal du Mad- Franco-Americans in New England in the awaskawhich was born in 1902. same way that Gagnon exertedhis leadership in earlier years. This northern Maine newspaper was published by a corporation and the business Dr. Martel not only founded a news- end of the newspaper was in the hands of paper, he was instrumental inorganizing St. Atty. Levite Thibodeau.This man, with Peter's Parish in its early years, in founding hardly any knowledge of the. English language several fraternal and cultural societies and St. had enrolled at Ricker Classical Institute in Mary's GeneralHospital,thestate'sfirst Houlton and after graduation had apprenticed Catholic hospital.Dr. Martelserved in the in a law office in Caribou. Thibodeau was the Maine legislature in 1889 and for several years second French resident of the St. John Valley was municipal physician inLewiston. He died to be admitted to the Maine bar. in 1899 at the age of 48. Le JournalduMadawaska did Prior to that, in 1884, management of relatively well and publication continued until the newspaper was confided to a corporation 1906.When it died, circulation was about which includedbesides Dr. Mart _I,Regis 3,500. Provost, Pierre Provost, Louis Provost, and Hubert Delorme.That year the newspaper One year before the Waterville paper became a bi-weekly. was founded, AlfredBonneau startedLa Justicein Biddeford.Bonneau's journalistic One of the earlier editors was L. career started in Lowell, Mass.Later he moved Desaulniers who died in a rather dramatic to Biddeford, foundingL'Observateurand way in 1887 when both he andhis wife were thenLa Justice. poisoned as a result of a druggist's mistake. Bonneau was both proprietor and After Dr. Martel died, the paper was editor of his publication which along with purchased from the corporation by Jean- Le Messagerwas the most influentialin the Baptiste Couture who remained publisher and state.Bonneau surprisingly was a staunch editor until 1950. Republican,a fact which must nothave worked in his favor in heavily Democratic For many yearsLe Messagerwas Biddeford. printed in a small wooden building on Lincoln Street near the canal where most Franco- 252 247 American stores were located in those days, in adherents throughout the state. His followers proximity to Le P'tit Canada and the large were called ACouturistes.* textile mills. Le Messager along with its counter- In 1909, the newspaper was moved to parts throughout New England were responsi- a new four-story brick buildinf on Lisbon ble for the contributions to Franco-American Street built by Couture. This is probably an literature which do exist.It was the news- indication that the newspaper had beena papers who inspired the writers, encouraged successfulventure and the move further their work, gave them an outlet and published indicates that with prosperity Francos moved their writings.Most newspapers including further away from their P'tit Canada and Le Messager featured serialized stories ofa established themselves on an equal footing romantic nature, many of them written by with their neighboring Anglo businessmen. staff writers or by someone in the community The Couture family lived in the same build- with writing abilities. The storieswere called ing on the upper floors. feuilktons. One of the best-known feuil- leton writers was Louis Tesson whose stories Jean-Baptiste Couture was bornin appeared in Le Messager and some Canadian Quebec City in 1867, one of nineteen chil- publications. Among the ones he wrote for dren. His father, Olivier Couture, was a school Le Messagerwere «line ldylle Acadienne» teacher at a time when this occupationwas and «Le Sang Noir». almost exclusively the domain of religious women and men. The younger Couture was Le Messager published both on the apparently destined to be a teacher also since pages of the newspaper and in book form he studied at a normal school but Inter he several works of Lewiston Franco-Americans learned the printer's trade at L'Evenement such as La Jeune Franco-Amerkaine by Al- in Quebec. He stayed there for five years and berte Gastonguay in 1909; Au Fil de la vie by then moved to Lewiston. Joseph A' Girouard in 1909 and Fragments de Reyes by the same author in 1933; Canuck by At the age of 19, he started work at Camille Lessard in 1936; Memoires d'un Sol- Le Messager apparentlyinthe composing dat Francais de 1914 a 1919 by Jules Savarin room. Five years later he had purchased the and published in 1928. newspaper. Hisfather-in-law,Narcisse Brunelle, a well-known and prosperous baker Camille Lessard who wrote a novel in town, might have loaned him themoney to entitledCanuck wroteforLe Messager buy the paper. under the pen name of Liane. For years Le Messager wastheonlyFranco-American When he became editor, Couture left newspaper with a women's page or society the composing room in the hands of his page entitled «Chez-Nous.4 and written by brother-in-law, Arthur Brunelle, who worked Miss Lessard. for the newspaper for more than 25years. A nativeof Lac Megantic,Miss Jean-BaptisteCouture became the Lessard was a school teacher who immigrated soul of Le Messager, his name being as well- to Lewiston in1904.She worked in the known throughout Maine at the beginning of textile mills for four years and one day re- this century as was the name of his publica- plied to an article which appearedin Le tion. His crusades against assimilation found Messager.Jean-Baptiste Couturewas so im- 253 248 pressed with her letter that heoffered to print also charged the FrenchDominicans with complex vis-a-vis their a weekly columnwritten by her. Her colurnil having asuperiority was known as des Chroniques duMercredi». French-Canadian brethren and theirFranco- Two years later she joined the staff on a per- American flock. manent basis.She married and lived in Cali- fornia up until her dtath-in 1972. The Dominicans were alsoaccused of having demolished the first St.Peter's Church In 1911, Miss Lessard wroteabout her and having started the constructionof a new literarybeginningsattherequestof one at the samesite in order to avoid having Little Canada), to AlexandreBelisle who was compiling his to build another churchin Le history of the Franco-American press.She serve the growingFranco population. wrote : Messager also claimed the Dominicans were more interested inbuilding their monastery i:L'encouragement donne a ma pre- than in the construction ofschools for Franco miere composition m'ayantdonne dela youths. hardiesse je mg! mis a l'ouvrage etle soir de retour de la manufacture jepassai des heures It's understandable that in theface of wanted to a ecrire, rayer ou ajouter cequi me semblait allthis criticism the Dominicans le plus convenable. Oh! la tfiche futrude et, defend themselves. Theyfollowed the habits quand je me relis aujourd'hui, quede fautes of the times which dictatedthat if one didn't founded another je trouve dans ces essais! agree with a newspaper, one newspaper to oppose it. «Personnepour meclinger,top pauvre pour poursuivre mesetudes on faire The Dominican Courrier du Maine !'acquisition de volumes quim'auraient aidee, was publishedby Henry F. Roy who was j'etais livree h suivre monimagination du organist at St. Peter's Church.He later wrote !Inspiration de ma petite cervelle. a book aboutthe controversy of the times entitled Le Dernier Mot, publishedin 1925. oEt bien souvent mesfaibles ailes Le Courrier du Maine lasted assuch for six se Font fermees et ma pauvreplume est allee months. The chronologyof events which fol- se briser sur matable, mais malgre tout, des lowed its demise are unclear.A short while encouragements ici et la mestimulant, je later, it seems, those involvedwith Le Cour- continual a ecrire, sans aucuneremuneration vier started publication of LePetit Journal, pour le seulplaisir d'ecrire. J'aime tantcab> a Sunday paper,which some authors refer to as Le Petit Courrier. AnotherLewistonnewspaper,Le also Courrier du Maine was founded in 1906.A The publishers of this newspaper weekly, it is said to have beeninspired by the printedtwoFrench-languagenewspapers St. Peter's which made their appearancein 1911. La Dominican Fathers who served edited by Parish. Revue was an Augusta newspaper J.E. Croteau and a Watervilleweekly by the At this time, the Dominicanswere same name wasedited by Alfred Langlois. Lewiston and ap- being accused in print offavoring the appoint- Both papers were printed in ment of an Irish bishop tothe see of Portland parently did not last long. Bishop O'Connell who hadbeen to replace of 'tamed archbishop inBoston.Le Messager During this period the influence 254 249 French-Canadian newspapers in Maine, include: especially in Lewiston and Biddeford, was being felt, certainly to the disadvantage of the Louis N. Gendreau who as a young Franco-American press. man establisheda newspaperL'Etoile de rt:st inCoducook, near Sherbiooke, Que- For example, Lewiston had a repre- bec, and moved to Lewiston in397. He sentative ofLa Nesseof Montreal in the was the business manager forLe Messager person of Gedeon Vallee, a local businessman. a good number of years but was better known He worked for the Montreal paper from 1906 as a musician and trumpetist. He and others to 1910 and is credited with having obtained organized the St. Dominic Band and later the 2,000 subscribers during this time. Fanfare Ste Cecile, and the Orpheon, a men's choral society. In later years,La Pressemaintained a series of correspondents in Lewiston. One Arthur Brunelle, Jean-Baptiste of those was Charlotte Michaud who served in Couture's brother-in-law, mentioned earlier, that capacity for 25 years.Miss Michaud who worked in the composing room for more alsoworkedfortheLewistonEvening thr.li 25 years, was also an accomplished iournal, and later for the Portland Press violinist and composer as well as a musical ar- Herald. When hired by the Journal her assign- ranger. ment was to cover everything and anything pertaining to Franco-American life in Levis- Henry diVitry, who moved to Lewis- ton-Auburn, presumably to attract Franco ton from France was one of the most literary readers from the French-languageLe Mes- of the writers affiliated withLe Messager. sager. His stay was relatively brief. Her father, Leonard Michaud, was a Atty. Francois-Xavier Belleau, who writer forLe Message,and the fact his daugh- served in the U.S. Diplomatic Cobs and later ter worked for the Journal must have made in the Maine legislature, was never on the staff for an interesting family situation. Even to- of thenewspaper but contributed many day, Miss Michaud, who is now retired, iscon- articles. siderei; by some Francos assome sort of trait- or for her work with the Journal, especially Atty. P.X. Anger, a well-known civic among those whose families were affiliated leader, also contributed a number of articles with Le Messager. for Le Messager. Leonard Michaud wrote a series of Le Messagerlike its counterparts in exposes or«articles de fond»forLe Mes- other New England cities attracted a nucleus sager.During the first World War, he wrote of a cultural elite either to its staff or as a series of articles under the. title of«Le Botn- contributors. These were professional people, hardier». Thiscolumn traced the exploits of many of them musicians as well.It can be Franco-Americans serving in the U. S. Army said that if Lewiston ever produced a true in Europe. French culture both literary and musical, it is largely due to the presence ofLe Messager. Other persons affiliated withLe Mes- Amerand who lefttheir mark during this Theownerhimself,Jean-Baptiste period between 1900 and the early 1920's Couture, was not only a patron of the arts but 250 a practitioner of many artistic pursuits.He of Waterville or Msgr. F.X. Trudel of Old founded «Le Club Musical et Litteraire» Town.The Francos lost.Rome elevated with the collaboration of other Franco civic Louis S. Walsh to the see of Portland. Maine leaders, he had a good singing voice, and at the time had 80,000 Franco-American staged and sang in many operas presented by Catholics and 35,000 Irish Catholics. the Club.In his spare time, he translated some of the Gilbert and Sullivan operettas One of Walsh'sfirstactsWas to into French. circulate a petition in protest of the spoli- ation of churches in France. The petition He was an ardent patriote fighting senttobedistributedamong Franco- with every strogm: his pen the assimilation Americans was written, inEnglish. Le of his fellow co-Americans. In this Message, wrote that the incident was only sense Le Messager was acrusading news- a sample of things to come. paper. Franco-Americansthroughout New For many years the Franco-American England and their newspapers got their wish press in Maine had no worst enemy thanthe in 1907 when Georges Guertin was named Irish bishop of Portland. Like everywhere bishop of Manchester, N.H.The Franco- else, the Irish bishop's goal was to make the American press was jubilant. Church as acceptable as possible to the Americans. The Church, therefore, had to BishopWalsh,however, gavethe become as American as possible. That Maine newspapers less joy. In Waterville, he meantnonationalchurcheswherea forced 1,200 Franco-Americcans to join the language other than English was spoken or new Irish parish created by hispredecessor. preached, and no bilingual parochial schools. The Francos refused to change pariih, vow- ingtoforever remain faithfultotheir Bishop William O'Connell decided in original parish and never to set foot in 1906 to divide the Waterville parish, St. Sacred Heart Church.Bishop Walsh also Francoiii de - ,es. The new parish thereby placed restrictions on the use of French in created included 1,150 Francos and 250 parochial schools. Irish Catholics but the Bishop ordered the new parish to be known as an Irish parish, Gradually, Walsh named Irish pastors and al Eng;:511 language parish. to parishes founded byFranco-Americans where Francos were still in the majority. Maine's two leading papers La Jus- This was the case in Dexter, Caribou, Farm- tice and Le Messager fought the Bishop's ington, South Brewer, Orono, South Ber- plan and won a partial victory when the wick and Sanford. Each time this occurred, Franco-Americans were allowed to remain Franco-American leaders protested in print with the older parish. witharticleafterarticle,editorialafter editorial, but the bishop still had his way. The same year, 1906, Bishop O'Connell was sent to Boston where he later In 1907, Waterville hosted a conven- became Cardinal. Maine's Franco-American tion of Maine's Franco-Americans. A total press started a campaign to have aFranco- of 10,000 persons participated. The rhetoric American named then next bishop of Port- was inflammatory.Parallels were drawn be- land.They favored Rev. Narcisse Char land tween the situation inMaine then and in 256 251 Quebec in 1837. Walsh wasn't intimidated. Maine Savings Bank. The bankers testified New incidents flared up in Lewiston, Bidde- that the corporation sole set-up was a better ford, Waterville and in Skowhegan where he credit risk. prevented the opening of a French parochial school. The committee report was unanimous: ought not to pass.It was a defeat for the A peakwasreachedduringthe Franco-Americans of Maine. Corporation Sole controversy which started in 1909 and dragged on for several years. The Francos retaliated by withholding Entire books could be written about the their financial support from their parishes controversy.Briefly this is what happened: and another attempt was promised for the next session of the legislature. Maine law made all Catholic Church property in the state the personal property Walsh responded by placing an inter- of the bishop of Portland. What that meant dict, a step in the process of excommunica- was that the bishop could take some Franco- tion, against the six members of «Le Comite American funds or an institution built by Permanent de la Cause Nationale». Included Franco-Americans and turn it over to the were Godfroy Dupre, Dr. Georges Precourt, Irish. Albert Be land, a merchant, Dr. Albert May- nard, Alfred Bonneau, editor of La Justice, Franco-Americans formed «Le Comite all of Biddeford, and Jean-Baptiste Couture Permanent de la Cause Nationale».The of Lewiston purpose was to have repealed the Corpora- tion Sole Lawpassed in the late 1880's. The news of the interdict was carried by everyFrench-language paperinthe Godfroy Dupre, a Biddeford lawyer, United States and Canada.Some editors prepared a bill to be introduced in the Maine advised the group to give in to the bishop; Legislature replacing the Corporation Sole others counseled that the battle be con- with the parish corporation.The latter tinued.Maine's papers, Le Messager and would place church properties in the hands La Justice were united in their stand against of the corporations formed by each parish. Bishop Walsh. The bishop was obviously opposed. In Waterville, Dr. J.L. Fortier who had Jean-Baptiste Couture was elected to supported the Franco-American campaign to the legislature in 1909 to serve in the 1910 change the Corporation Sole law, died and session. He was to sponsor the bill changing was denied a church funeral by Bishop the Corporation Sole law.Both Le Mes- Walsh.The only thing the bishop would sager and La Justice backed the new bill permit was a brief service at the home of the and both sponsored a statewide petition deceased doctor. His widow was quoted as drive which produced 7,500 signatures in replying to the bishop's action with the fol- favor of the change. lowing words: «Mon marl a fait sa vie sans l'eveque, it ira bien au del sans lui.» Bishop Walsh himself testified when the bill reached the committee hearing stage Franco-Americansthroughout New along with two Maine bankers representing England became united against Walsh after the Van Buren Banking Institution and the this incident.Societies from all over paid 252 for funeral masses for Dr. Fortier in other about. Subscriptions increased and with dioceses and a New England-wide fund was them advertising revenue. started for Le Comite Permanent de la Cause Nationale. At least Le Messager became pros- 4 perous during the corporation sole At this time, the Franco-American controversy.This is when the newspaper press throughout New England became anti- was moved to new quarters on Lisbon clerical especially against-e Oblates who Street.La Justice may not have been as preached submission to .at bishop in re- prosperous since its editor Alfred Bor aeau treatsinnorthern Maine and the Marist held on to a variety of other jobs including Fathers who took over St. Jean-Baptiste serving as agent for the Grand Trunk Rail- Parish in Brunswick at this time. road in Biddeford. Rome finally spoke on the matter in Although it is not documented it can 1911 offering a compromise which was very be suspected that Le Courtier .du Maine similar to the corporation sole. published by the Doriinicans and the two La Revue papers in Augustaand Water- During the legislative session held in ville which were born during the peak of the 1913, another bill abolishing the corporation corporation sole controversy were founded sole was filed in Augusta. In the meantime to give the other side of the coin, to combat the six members of the «Comite» were still the influence of La Justice and Le Mes- under interdict. sager. A compromise came out nf the com- It probably wouldn't be fair to claim mittee offering a set-up still similar to the that the editors of the two leading papers, corporation sole except that laymen would especially Jean-Baptiste Couture,' prolonged be involved but they would be chosen by the controversy in order to serve tfitkr own the clergy and the bishop. This passed, but financial gains.But it can be said that the the proposal was still a far cry from what conrovery and others which were to follow the«Comite»hadoriginallyproposed. certainly did not hurt business. Today, the corporation sole still exists and the Bishop of Portland still owns most of As far as the newspaper situation in the church property in the state. New England was at this time, 1910, there were seven dailies and 20 weeklies. The six members of the oComite» which was disbanded because of a lack of The start of World War I added a new funds, submitted to the bishop, one by one dimension to Franco-American journalism. and the interdict was lifted.Only two re- Anglo-Americans had acquired a new taste fusedto submit, Atty. Dupre and Jean- for tolerance for ethnic differences but this Baptiste Couture. was quickly replaced as war broke out with a distrustof everything foreignespecially TheincidentalthoUghlongand newspapers printed in any language other draggedout,servedtostrengthenthe than English. Franco-American newspapers in Maine.It gave their editors 'something to write about A News service was formed in Wash- and it gave their readers something to talk ington with the help of federal dollars.It 258 253 carried the name «Foreign Language for wards the foreign language press did not. Or- American Unity.»Although it served as a ganizations like the Daughters of the Ameri- newsservice,historians have calledthe can Revolution and the League of Women Vot- organiriadn-litore of a propaganda machine ers adopted resolutions declaring that there is and a method of surveillance of foreign-lan- room for only one language in the U.S., the guage newspapers. The federal government language of the Declaration of Independence. also named racial advisors during this period for each ethnic group including Franco- The New York Times, today known Americans:/7 for its liberal point of view, immediately af- ter the war, proposed that newspapers writ- Franco-American newspapers respond- ten in languages other than English not be al- ed by doubling their efforts to prove their lowed in U.S. Post (Offices. By refusing them patriotism. Names of Francos serving in the right to use thitountry's mail service, the the armed forces were printed for everyone foreign-language papers would die, it was be- to see. The press was out to prove that the lieved.Luckily, the plan never materialized, distrust on the part of the American govern- and the Franco-AmericAn press survived. ment was unfounded. In 1923, the Franco-American press in For decades the immigrants had re- Maine found itself with a brand new issue, a ferred to themselves as Franco-Americans, brand new controversy, again involving the and not French-Canadians as their fathers Irish bishop of Portland. had. Most of them were naturalized citizens and an increasing number were That year, Bishop Walsh created a new natives of the American republic. earish in Lewiston, its population composed of Franco-Americans, 80 per cent, and other Duringthewar and immediately Catholics, mostly Irish, 20 per cent. Bishop thereafter there developed a tendency to Walsh named an Irish pastor and the new pa- fear bilingual education and attacks on the rish was to be known as Holy Cross. Franco-American. parochial school system were common throughout New England. The Franco parishioners wanted Sainte- The Franco-American press devoted con- Croix and had hoped for the eveptual found- siderable column spaceforthedefense ation of a bilingual parish school, hopes which of bilingual schools. vanished with the name Holy Cross. Le Mes- sager agreed and another campaign was start- Thisbattlewasalosing oneas ed by Jean-Baptiste Couture. state after state passed strict laws govern- ingtheteaching of content matterin It should be noted here that during the languages other than English.The press. long struggle to have the new parish known however,is credited with having delayed as a French one, the residents of Lewiston some of these measures and in some cases triedrepeatedlyto obtain support from with having softened the tone of the n v L'Union Saint-Jean-Baptiste d'Amerique, but teaching laws. Only in recent years has the without success.As expected, Le Messager trend towards bilingual education developed added the name of L'Union Saint-Jean-Bap- as a favorable one. tiste to its list of enemies of the people, the Franco-American people, that is. The war ended but Anglo hostility to- 254 Louis-Philippe Gagne joined the staff bitter than any seen up until then in New of Le Messager atthis time and began England. Not only did it place the Francos writing about the Sainte-Croix controversy. and the Irish bishop as antagonists but it His name was to become with the years as created a severe split among the Franco- closely linked to Le Messager as was Jean- Americans. Baptiste Couture's. Anewspaper,LaSentinellewas The controversy raged on and off founded in 1924 in order to do battle with until1925 when Bishop John Murray was the -Irish bishop of Providence, Msgr. Hickey. named to succeed Bishop Walsh who had La Tribune of Woonsocket sided with the died the previous year. Bishop Murray asked bishop. Not only did a duel of words come fur some time to study the situation in about between the two newspapers as the Lewiston and promised to provide some controversy wore on but the two largest remedies. Le Messager went along and Franco-American mutual societies became started publishing articles proposing a «wait involved. and see» attitude. L'Union Saint Jean-Baptiste, head- In 1926, Bishop Murray named Rev. quarted in Woorsocket, favored the bishop J.AlfredRene,aFranco-American, as while l'Association Canado-Americaine, with pastor of Holy Cross and the bishop recog- headquarters in Manchester, N.H., sided with nized the parish as a French one, approving La Sentinelle. The Manchester-based society the name Sainte-Croix.This was a major and the sympathizers with. the views express- victoryfortheFranco-Americanpress. ed in the pages of La Sentinelle became known as «Sentinellistes». In the meantime a new crisis had developedinRhodeIslandwherethe What also became involved here were Irish bishop had started a drive for the the fundamental theories of each society. construction of diocesan English-language L'Union believed in the necessity of severing high schools.He taxed each parish and the ties with Canada while l'Association Ca- since the Franco-American parishes weren't nado-Americaine as its name implies favored too fond of the idea and their commitments strengthening those ties.Even after the to the drive were the lowest, the Bishop Rhode Island controversy was over which started taking money from the individual wasn'treally untilthe early 1930's, the Franco-American parish treasuries for his differing opinions remained and the debate high school drive. went on between the two societies. Franco-Americans rebelled, some of As expectedtheFranco-American them filing civil suits against the bishop for press took an active (fart in the debateand takingthe parish funds.The Diocese of one of the most influential advocates ot sev- lch Island did not have a corporation sole ering those ties with Canada was Georges s, and each parish treasury was 'in- Filteau of Lewiston who wrote for Le. Mes- dependent of the bishop.The bishop res- sager. ponded by excommunicating the leaders. Filteauhadworked for Le Petit This controversy. much simplified in Journal, the successor of the Dominican- theaboveparagraphs,was much more inspired Le Courner du Maine. His tenden- 2G0 255 des were aimed more at submission to the American and they ushered ina new feeling ecclesiasticalauthoritiesandonemust which was quickly pickedup by the younger imagine his discomfort when hisnewspaper generation of Francos. Le Messager attacked Bishop Walshwith such ardor. It can be argued that when these words were written ina French-language During the Rhode Island controversy newspaper in Lewiston, Maine, a newspaper Le Messager remained remote andpaid it which did not shy away from fightingfor very little attention. But as the debate arose the rights of Franco-Americans, the Franco- between the two schools of thoughtas ex- American press had reached its maturity, it pressed by the mutual societies, Filteau's had declared its independence from the writings on the subject became widelyread French-Canadian press whichup until then and widely respected. offered no distinguishing differences. Filteau deplored the excesses of what This maturity was late inarriving he called canadianism and fought against considering that the Patriote Canadien of ocette mentalite d'exil».He wrote in Le Ludger Duvernay first appeared in 1839. Messager the following: The Franco-American press in 1924, when Filteau wrote his declaration of indepen- oEnpretantsermentaudrapeau dence, had only another thirtyor so more toile,nousn'avonspas jured'oublier years to go before it would start feeling the notre langue, nos traditions ou notre foi, symptoms of an early death.Maybe the car on ne nous le demandait pas.Nous declaration of independence pronounced by avons cependant pris l'engagement solen- Filteau and others precipitatedthepre- nel de renoncer a tout attachementau Ca- mature death. nada, une colonie de l'Angleterre, ounous ne voulions plus vivre. In any event, Filteau attracted much attention to himself and a fewyears later, oNos anciens patriotes de 1880 sont in 1930, when the officers of l'Union Saint grandement reaponsables dece qui nous Jean-Baptiste started looking fora new vice- arrive aujourd'hui.Its ont plus ou moths president,Filteau's 'name was placed in fausse notre mentalite et c'estgrace a eux si nominationandhereceivedthepost. nous sommes encore, par ie coeur, presque Filteau worked under Elie Vezina who for aussi Canadiens qu'Americains.II est plus many years ruled over l'Union as a dictator. temps que jamais de changer notre mentalite Under Filteau, l'Unionwas modernized con- et nous n'y arriverons qu'en renoncant radi- siderably. calement au Canada, d'une maniere morale autant que pratique. In 1931, Wilfred Beaulieu foundeda newspaper in Worcester and named it Le oCela ne nous empecherapas de gar- Travailleurafterthepaper launched 57 der un respectueux souvenir de la patrie de years before that by Ferdinand Gagnon. nos ancetres, et dialler de temps en temps Beaulieu's paper was a militantone. Having faire one pieuse visite la-bas.» been involved personally in the Rhode Is- land controversy, Beaulieu promised to fight These words were written in 1924, the first against assimilation.Gradually it they were the sentiments ofa young Franco- became involved with French issues and 261 256 causes, leaving aside Franco-American mat- It can be said that during this time and dur- ters. ing the years W. follow until the early 1950's Le Messager was the strongest Franco news- The paper still existstoday as a bi- paper, both financially and inthe measure of monthly and Beaulieu writes a veryintel- its influence. lectual commentary which is aimed more at an international readership than at a Franco- The paper'as still owned by Jean- American one.It is the only Franco-Ameri- Baptiste Couture who remained greatly in- can newspaper in existence today. volved with its publication until his death in 1943 at the. age of sennty-six.In the An incident in 1932 gave Le Mes- 1930's, Le Messager employed over twenty sager an opportunity to regain some of its persons full-time and many part-time per- militant crusading aspects of an earlier age. sons. Circulation reached over 7,000. During thestate election that year the Democrats throughout Maine won heavily. Couture was a man with %ision and The Republicans demanded an investigation founded central Maine's first radio station, into voting irregularities they alleged had WCOU in Lewiston.Later his son, Faust, taken place in Aroostook County among founded WFAU in Augusta, WLOB in Port- theFranco-Americans of theSt. John land, and WGUY in Bangor. River Valley. After the elder Couture's death, Faust Le Messager protested and promised Couture and his brother, Valdore, took over in print:«Votants de langue francaise de the direction of the paper. In fact, the paper l'Aroostook, vous serez venges un jour ou actually chrmged hands in 1941 when Faust l'autre de l'insulte que les republicains vien- bought it from his father, two years before nent de vous fake.» the death of the elder Couture. The incident was used by the Demo- During World War H, Couture saw crats throughout New England and that year military service abroad and Valdore took inthe general election,it was clearly a over.It appears Valdore was not a very Democratic victory and never . before had good businessman and the paper started los- Franco-Americans elected so many of their ing money during the mid-1940's. own to various governmental posts inall of the New England states. During the Second World War, anoth- er wave of ultra-patriotism sweptthe land The depression brought hard times to and from Washington there came an organi- most Franco-American areas and among the zation known as the Common Council for first to suffer were the Franco newspapers. American Unity.This was a sort of wire Many of them closed and the remainder saw service aimed at providing news of the war themselves become weeklies and bimonth- toforeign-language newspapers including lies in order to survive. Franco-American papers. Theexceptionwas Le Messager Everywhere in Franco-American life, which became a dailyin 1934 with the efforts are made once again to prove one's Frenchman Henri diVitry as editor-in-chief patriotism.Georges Filteau, formerly with and Louis-Philippe Gagne as news director. Le Messager and now secretary general of 257 I'Union Saint Jean-Baptiste was the first to Press (later to become the UPI) which they preach patriotism. translated and to a French-language wire service out of Quebec for a brief period of During the war, the assimilation of time. Franco-Americans reached epidemic propor- tions and the first to suffer from the loss of In 1953, the corporation launched an a working knowledge of the French language English-language Sunday paper, called the were the newspapers.Although many still Androscoggin News which lasted only eleven spoke French, the number of persons able months. That was long enough however to to read French decreased with every year cause a financial drain which was to start the and every obituary. downfall of the paper. In1942, Rhode Island which had In 1954, Beauchamp and Ladouceur boasted of having dozens of Franco news- were bought out and Romeo Boisvert be- papers had none. There were only a handful came general manager.Ladouceur went to leftinall of New England. In1943, work for the Portland Guy-Gannett news- L'Etoile of Lowell, one of the oldest Franco papers and for a while wrote a French-lan- papers and one of the most influential, ceased guage column ther as a daily and started appearing only three times a week. Editor-in-chi was Louis-Philippe Gagne who became the paper's soul in much L'AvenirNationalof Manchester, the same way Jean-Baptiste Couture used to started appearing five days a week.Lint- be associated with it. Gagne wrote a column partial of Nashua, N.H. became a bi-weekly. called «L'Oeil» and had a radio news com- The only dailies were Le Messager of Lewis- mentary program on WCOU. He was one of ton and L'Independant of Fall River.In the most astute political -commentators of Maine, La Justice of Biddefordwas a weekly the day and displayed a great wit. and destined to die in 1949. Both Boisvert and Gagne were in- In 1950, the Couture brothers sold volved in politics during this period. Gagne Le Messager to a corporation formed for was mayor of Lewiston and Androscoggin the purpose of continuing the publication. County Commissioner while Boisvert served The Couture brothers devoted their energies as mayor and in the Maine Senate from 1960 to the system of radio stations, known as the to 1970. Lobster Network. The paper became a weekly in 1957 The corporation was headed by Atty. as circulation dropped and the financial Edouard Beauchamp and Guy Ladouceur. mistakes of the past started bearing fruit. Ladouceur was invol :EA in the writing of the Some of those mistakes included the ill-fated paper as well as in itpl ef4 iction and hired a Sunday paper startedin1953 and the Montreal newspaperman, Jacques Fortin, as borrowing of large sums in 1954 to buy out editor-in-chief. Fortin remained only a short the shares owned by Beauchamp and Ladou- time and returned to Canada. ceur. The new corporation went at it in a The only state-wide organization of big way.They subscribed to the United Franco-Americans, 263 25 ti Franco-Americaines» founded in Lewiston in Worcester. The paper has been concerned the early 1920's, became involved in the last with news of France more than of New years of Le Messager.It was instrumental in England or Quebec for the past several years raising considerable amounts of capital among and callingita Franco-American newspaper Francos throughout Maine to help Le Mes. is stretching reality a bit. sager survive, but the amounts were never enough and many Francos lost a considerable And then,there was Observations, sum in the venture. a bi-monthly bilingual newspaper published in Lewiston from June to December of 1972. In 1966, Boisvert and the corporatiol The paper was owned by Caxton Publishing sold the paper to Albert Rowbotham of the Inc. which included among its directors Donald Central Maine Press who published it for a few Dugas of Lewiston, former director of the months.Roger Saucier was editor and Jean Lewiston Bilingual Program in the city's public Gastonguay wrote copy which consisted most- school system.Editing the French part of ly of translations. The last issue of Le Messager Observations was Paul M. Pare who also wrote appeared in early 1967. for the Lewiston 'Evening Journal.The edi- tor of the English section was Sandra Shaw In the last years of Le Messager, the Wilhelm. MessagerPublishingCo.,. a subsidiary, was doing very well.It printed eight other news- This paper did not owe its start to any papers, including a French language paper for fervor on thr part of Franco-Americans.A Lawrence, Mass., another for Berlin, N.H., and group of liberal Anglos were interested in start- La Floride Franraise as well as some English ing an alternative newspaper in the Lewiston- papers such as Maine Labor News. Row- Auburn area and they felt that in order to be botham kept on printing some of these while truly an alternative voice in the community, others sought out new printing plants. that voice had to be bilingual. TherewereotherMaineFranco- The French section of the paper was Americanpaperswhichmadebriefap- probably more militant than any other Franco- pearances. Replacing La Justice in Bidde- Americannewspaper had everbeen. It ford when it died was a publication printed criticizeda number of institutions for not by Eugene Hamann who had been with Le responding to the needs of Francos or for Messager earlier. The name of his paper is not denyingtherightsofFranco-Americans. known to this author.Sanford also had a paper called La Justiceinthe 1940's and Thepaperattemptedtopromote Waterville had a French language paper in the what could be called Franco culture, printing 1950's for a short time. New England wide. originalworks, recipes,localhistory, and there were twenty papers in 1948.In 1963. articles in Franco-American French as opposed the last meeting of «L'Alliance des Journaux to standard French. Franco-Americains» was held.It had seven member newspapers and most were about to By its very nature, Observations was die. doomed to die from the start.The English part was very liberal, even radical, while the After Le Messager closed in1967, French part maintained a certain moderation there was only one Franco paper, Le Tra- through its militancy. The traditional and con- vailleurpublishedbyWilfredBeaulieuin servative F ranco was reading an English section 264 259 which offended him while the liberal Anglo decline and theassimilation processwas was receiving a newspaper half of whichwas speeded up in the last printed in a language he could two decades by tele- not read. vision itself. With assimilationcomes the loss of proficiency in Frenchand with that the The paperwas aimed at a young lack of interest in theforeign-language com- readership and this createdproblems since munications media.Of course, this isa the great majority of itsFranco readers Aere viciouscircle; not young. without a foreign-language The younger generationof media, assimilation proceeds Francos, although vitally at a faster rate interested in things of speed and with assimilationdisappears the Franco, has lost for themost part the ability need for a foreign-language media. to read and write in French,while retainingan ability to understand and speakthe language. Throughout its history Franco-Ameri- can journalism was bogged down in its Observations was anachronistic elitist in preoccupations.The journalists themselves that it attempted to revivea militancy among and the intellectuals they a people who nearly unanimously believe were surrounded by that belonged to a cultural elite andthe news- the period of discriminationand fanaticism papers reflected this. on the part of Anglo-Americans isover. French-Canadiansarevery class The experimentwhich was Observa- conscious and this trait was carriedacross the tions proved thatamong Francos in Maine border into the United Statesduring the im- there is a great thirst fora medium of com- migration. Newspapers perpetuatedthis class munication, for something whichis French. consciousness. That medium may notnecessarily be journal- ism. Article after article dealt withthe hap- penings and events affectinga small segment Faust Couture recentlystated in a of the Franco population. conversation that he is convinced There was hardly that the any popular news and the great workingclass foreign-languagenewspaper in this country masses were neglected. is dead. He added that ifhe were going to do anythingFrench inthe communications Whether or not doctor so-and-so media today, he would was do it on television. decorated by the Frenchgovernment, wheth- er or not this society and that societycan get Television does not require theowner- along and whether ship of the medium like or not a certain parish had a newspaper does; a French name or an Englishname, it didn't television has its audiencealready carved out: matt-t much to the vast majority television is acquiring of Francos a social conscience; and who were1 -wer class workin:1, people air-time pre - is currently availableespecially on o. with simply making educational television. a living. The in-fighting betweennewspapers, Getting back to the Franco-American betwecil societies, between the press, however. it might be good Franco-Ameri- to examine can leaders and the Irish clergy.pi cbably some of the causes of the decline inorder to bored others who avoid repeating them. were turned off by the constant repetition of controversyafter con- troversy. Assimilation is the primecause of this 265 260 Another factor which precipitated the declinewas the myopic viewof many publishers, editors, and writers who believed that simply because their product was in French it was good and therefore deserved the support of the Franco-American popula- tion. Most Franco publications were of good quality but it was easy for Franco news- paper people to slip into a false sense of security simply because their writings were in French and therefore, it was felt, deserved the support of the Franco-American popula- tion. Nevertheless,theFranco-American press has had no parallels among the many ethnic groups who chose the United States as their new home. And if this brief work on the Franco- American press can be written today in 1973 and read with interest in 1973 some 134 years after Le Parriote Canadien was first printed in Burlington, Vt., it is largely due to genera- tions of newspaper people who preached with every stroke of the pen that a people should not have to deny part of itself in order to be accepted into the mainstream of American life. 5) America has promiseil libt.ty to its immigrants. If it has delivereditto the Franco-Americans. it is thanks to their less which at times did not fear advocacy and militancy. Reprinted by permission of the author. 266 BILINGUAL LIVING by Normand C. Dube Mr. and Mrs. Leblanc (a fictitious 3.People live in communities where family) live in a New England community religious bonds (catholicism) are strong and whose population is 40% Franco-American. where civic (Lions, Rotary, Jaycees, American They have three children. Legion) and fraternal organizations (K.C., Daughters of Isabella, Club Richelieu) provide At home, the parents often speak much of the Franco-American social experi- French amongst themselves.One can soon ences. predict the topics of conversation: relatives, a trip, the weather, an anniversary, family The Leblanc famil y is the prototype activities or a homespun story. One can also of this culture - that is, a way of life which is predict the topics of conversation in English: the result of the daily influences described. work; purchases, state or national news or a chat with a stranger. A BILINGUAL EFFORT The three children, Marc, Suzanne Since approximately 1970, the and Colette speak French also.Yet, today, familiesinthis New England community theirconversations are ofteninEnglish. have seen some changes occuring in their Mostoftheirlinguisticexperiencesare elementary schools. Thes_ changes stem from in English: at school, gt the theater, in stores, niitiam:NI and state efforts to adjust education and in sports. to..e. cnild'l environmental experiences. There are, however, situations when But they are also the result of the French is the language used for communica- willingness and interest of parents like the Le- tion.One can soon surmise habits tvhei blancs, school administrators and teachers in selecting French or English in a conversation. wanting for their children an education based up r. in their K languagepreferences»and The Leblanc family is 5ilingual.Bi- «culturalperceptions*:anAmericanism lingualism is an important facet of the family which includes their ethnic identity. culture in this communicAlong with the language factor, the culture is also made of One thought should be cleared at this otherconsiderations,su-hasgeography, point. The curriculum which existed six years economics and :7,3cial living. ago is still being used.It ha:. a good founda- tion.It has been modified, or supplemented, 1. People's, lives are influenced by only in areas where language and cultural two countries: the (Inked States and Canad: needs contribute to the educational benefit of the child. 2. Traditionally, rAfople were depend- ent, to a large extent, on the paper industry. Thus, where parents encouraged their lumbering, the potaio crop. shoe factories, child'slearning,theystilldo. However, and small beaesses, for their livelihood. throughmeetingsbetweenparentsand 261 267 262 teachers, the assistance given the child is more participatesinthebilingualprojectby specific: the purchase of magazines, the crea- writing some of the bulletins, by giving a help- tion of cultural games or the participation of ing hand at some of the conferences and by parents and students in planned trips outside gathering information for some of there- of the immediate area. search in the project. Where the child learned colors and Theadministrators,as mentioned numbers, he still does.However, teachers before, were the first to support the program. now make conscious efforts to select ex- They made the initial request to Washington; amples familiar to student - bricks, a church, they selected a staff whose competence sup- potatoes, a deer - rather :Nan beginning with ported the needs of the project; and, they unfamiliar objects. encouraged the participation of parents and teachers. Where the child was exposed to valua- ble educational experiences, such as reading The administrators (3), 6 Board of about George Washington, he still is.How- Education members from the area, and one ever, other experiences are selected whose representative from a nearby college have the values are geared to support the motivation financial responsibility of the project. Thcy of the child to learn and his pride in his own can also approve or disapprove the program social behavior:reading about Ti-Jean or offerings as suggested by the staff. ajournalistsuchasFerdinand Gagnon. The students contribute to the project A BILINGUAL PROGRAM by expressing their physical, intellectual and emotional needs. These needs are reflected in The bilingual program, begun in 1970 their behavior. The adult observer can evalu in the Leblanc community depends upon the ate their motivations, their interests and their effort of the whole population. At each social preferences through such activities as level (parents, adminstrators, teachers and singing, speaking, dancing, counting or read- students) the different groups have had to ing. give of their time and knowledge as defined by their role in the project. From theverybeginningof the project, the teachers have demonstrated them- The program, approved by clear- selves to be devoted toleir work.Their sighted administrators, had to be approved by influence has been unique to the success of the parents.The latter understood the im- the program.Much of their time has been plications of such an approval. They organ- spent in workshops, courses offered and the ized into an Advisory Council whose members development of materials made necessary represent the school system in the project. because of the nature of the project. As il- lustrated on many occasions, the enthusiasm The role of the parents is to respond and the student-interest of the teachers seem to the purpose of the program, which is an to be limitless. education to help the students integrate into their American environment and still share WORKSHOPS in the legacy of their French heritage. The teachers, in order to be knowl- The Advisory Council, to this end, edgeable of current innovative trends or to 2 6 263 focus on general topics of particular impor- The courses have given the teachers tance, took part in regional conferences. Here thenecessaryimpetustosupporttheir are a few examples of workshop topics made decision to introduce bilingual education in available to them: their classroom.They have also provided them with the stimulus to evaluate their cur- A. Learning Centers riculum, the resources available for instruc- B. Modern Math tion and the countless options of educational C. Behavioial Objectives process from which to choose. D. Social Studies E. Bilingualism MATERIALS F. The Teaching of English G. Ti.e organization of a program in The language orientation of the bi- French lingual project required the definition of new educational objectives and the creation of All of the workshops were part of the new terms, games and activities to meet these teachers' in-service training.The choices of objectives. topics for workshops were initiated by them. It was in this framework that the COURSES teachers committed themselves to the educa- tional behavioral objectives found in the pres- For six years now, the teachers have ent teachers' guide. The objectives as in the had an ongoing program of self-improvement. sample below are those which have been in- The desire to better understand their com- tegrated into the curriculum. mitments to their students resulted in course offerings geared to their own professional development, to an understanding of some of the learning processes and to the structuring ofbilingualcurriculumintheir schools. Here are a few examples of the cours- es intended to meet these needs: A. Specialized Education for the Bilingual Child B. Acadian History C. Learning Process in Education D. French Composition E. Contemporary Trends in American Education F. Classroom Management in a Bi- lingual Classroom G. Learning to read French H. Integrating Content in the Bi- lingual Curriculum 1. Structuring Contemporary French Grammar in the Bilingual Class 264 LE PROGRAMME EN FRAKAIS (K-5) Les Mathematiques Nivea u Les objectifs de comportement: maternelle - 5e annie 0 1 3 4 5, X Ordonner des objets de 1 a 10. X Ordonner des objets de 1 a 50. X Decrire les symboles geometriques (cercle, carre, triangle). X Ordonner des objets de 1 a 100. . . Decrire un objet d'apres sa valeur monetaire, X temporelle, spatiale, lineaire ou climaticue. Make une distance ou un poids d'apres le systeme metrique (metre ou kilometre, gramme ou kilogramme). X Decrire une pantie d'un tout en fraction (une moitie, un quart X ou un tiers). X Comparer deux phenomenes semblables en graphique. X Les dimensions spatiales , Les Arts X X Decrire un dessin. X X X X Fabriquer un objet d'artisanat. Demontrer une coordination physique. 1 Decrire un objet d'apres sa couleur. Creer une peinture originale. S'exprimer par la peinture d'illustration. Nommer les fournitures artistiques, Appliquer les concepts artistiques: dimension, propOrtion, perspective. X Identifier des objets d'art de la region. . X X Illustrer tiois recits ucompositions. X X Creer la mise en scene pour 3 contes. Classifier des objets dans une des categories suivantes: peinture, sculpture, modelage et architecture. 270 265 La Musique Niveau Les objectifs de comportement: maternelle- Se armee 4 5 X X X X X X Chanter 7 ou 3 .chansons X . Distinguer les notes basses hautes. Battre la mesure A 2 et A 4 temps X X Demontrer le rythme de la musique. X X Interpreter la musique par le mime. X Identifier une marche, une dance, une berceuse. X Werke une marche, une dance, une berceuse. X Nommer des instruments de musique. X Identifier les sons des instruments A cordes. _ , X Identifier les sons des instruments A vent. Identifier une fanfare, un orchestre «pop» et une symphonie. Les Sciences Sociales Raconter une histoire culturelle. X X Wake la fonction d'un objet. X Nommer les emotions. X X Decrire les activites dans une situation. .. . - X X Raconter l'histoire de l'Acadie. X Decrire la geographie du Maine. Werke les mOyens de communication. X Werke un evenement culturel. _ Resumer la lecture d'une biographie. X ._.._ Decrire des situations historiques, geographiques et sociologiques. X X Decrire la fonction scientifique de phenomenea etudies. Comparer les ressemblances et les differences entre deux X situations culterelles...... _ X Decrire un paysage humain et naturel. X Associer un climat avec une region geographique. X Distinguer une region urbaine d'ur,e region rurale. X Associer des situations economiques avec une region. X Associer des situations politiques avec une region. _ ...... Associer des situations sociales et culturelles avec une region. X 271 266 Les Skills 5e armee Niveau Les objectifs de comportement: maternelle - 5 - 0 1 2 3 4 _ .. X Demontrer les commandements donnes oralement. X Discerner les sons /a/e/i/o/u/ Discerner les sons /4/e/i/cll X /e(p/le Discerner les sons /z/h/u/t/r/i / /d/g/s/on/ou/ch/ . . Discerner les sons la/au/di/t.u/s/ X /ai/oi/eu/k/ X Nommer des objets et des lieux d'apres desillustrations. X X Employer des mots dans une phrase orale. X Mink les mots etudies. Lire les mcts etudies. ..._ X Associer une phrase avec une illustration. . X Lire les phrases a haute voix. Indiquer la comprehension d'une lecture. Interpreter l'intonation d'un texte. . X Copier les mots etudies. X Copier des mots dans une phrase. Ecrire des mots dans une dictee. X X Faire les accords grammaticaux etudies. e . , X Ecrire une composition a 3 paragraphes. L The guide also includes suggested materials and activities to meetobject- ives.Many texts for both English and French were written.Other texts and audio-visual aids were purchased in the content ofobjectives to be taught. Below is a sample objective with suggested activities to meetthat objective. 272 267 EXCERPT FROM THE FRENCH CURRICULUM GUIDE L'Objectif de comportement en Behavioral Objective in Mathematics for the Mathematique d la cinquiEme armee fifth year ObjectifComparaison en graphique Objective:Graphic comparison A lafin de l'annee, l'eleve pourra At the end of the year the student will comparer un paysage naturel ou humain be able to compare two sets of statistics avec un autre qui a rapport a l'etude de which relate to a study of North America so l'Amerique du Nord de telle sorte qu'etant thatgivenstatisticsofaphenomenon donne les statistiques d'un phenomene (eco- (economic orsocial),he will be ableto nomique ou social),it pourra le comparer compare it with another similar phenomenon avec un autre phenomene semblable en gra- using graphs. (Three different cases). phique. (Trois cas differents). Activites suggerees Suggested Activities Activite no. 1: Activity no. 1: Le professeur ecrit au tableau ou sur The teacher writes on the board or un transparent un certain nombre de statis- on a transparency a certain number of stati tiques comme les suivantes: tics like the following: LA NOUVELLE-ANGLETERRE (NEW ENGLAND) Notnikdel'Etat La Population (Name of State) (Population) Connecticut 2,875,000 Maine 989,000 Massachusetts 5,383,000 New Hampshire 681,000 Rhode Island 898,000 Vermont 405,000 Source:Nouveau PetitLarousse, 1968. L'eleve dolt observer que le tableau: The student must be able to observe that the table: a)decritun phenomene,c'est-A-dire,la a) describes a phenomenon, i.e., population; population; b) co arela population d'un etatavec b) compares the population of one state with celle cies au tres; that of the others; c) definit lesMats comme etant ceux de la c) defines thestatesas those of New England; Nouvelle- Angleterre; 273 268 d) donne la source des renseignements. d) gives the source of the information. D'apres ce modele, relive doit imiter le for- Usin'this model, the student must imitate mat du tableau.II choisit une region geo- the format of the table. He chooses a geo- graphique pour son enquete comme: graphic region for his study, such as: a) les provinces du Canada; a) the provinces of Canada; b) les six plus grandes villes de l'Amerique b) the six largest cities of North America; du Nord: c) les six plus grandes villes dans l'e tat du c) the six largest cities in the stateof Maine. Maine. Activite no. 2: Activity no. 2: L'eleve recoit une feuille sur laquelle The student receives a sheet with a estpolycopie un graphique semblable au copy of a graph similar tothe one following: suivant: 1/2 1/2 5 1/2 6 0 1/2 1 1/2 9 1/2 3 4 ETATS (STATES) r- Connecticut 1 Maine Massachusetts New Hampshire Rhode Island Vermont 27 269 Those who have contributed to the materials undertook an enurrnous task; today,some 1,300 students are being influenced by their work. More than 800 families now support the bilingual program because of their professional efforts. The teachers also worked out a schedule for the programs (K-5) in English and in French toinclude art, math, language skills, social studies. The following outlines the schedule for the program in French. SUGGESTED SCHEDULE FOR THE .WEEK Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday 8 :30 - 9 :00 PROGRAM IN ENGT "H 9.00 - Math rir isic Math 9 :30 in French 'n French in French 9 : 30- 9 : 50 Recess 9 :50 PROGRAM IN ENGLISH 10 : 30 1.i: 30 - Language Art Language Art Language 11: 15 Skills in in French OEMs in in French Skills in French French French Lunch 12 : 45 - Social Socia: Social Social Social 1 :15 Studies in Studies Studies Studies Studies French in French Iin irench in French in French 1 :15 WINNII.-.- PROGRAM IN ENGLISH .dlamma 1: 30 1 : 30 - Recess 1 : 50 1 : 50 - PROGRAM 1N Ei TGSH a- 2 : 45 275 270 A BILINGUAL PRODUCT students achieved at the average and above average level in reading., 91% scored average Thus, since 1970, families like that of and above average in math. the Leblanc, benefit from a program based upon their aspirations and way of life thatis a The third grade students maintained bilingual and bicultural education. similar achievement level with 78% and 90% scoring average or above average in reading Itis too early to measure) the full and math respectively. impactof the program. There are, however. certainindicationsof changesoccurring. In reading, 73% of the fourth grade studentsratedatthe average and above Beforethebilingual program was average level.Seventy percent of the same begun. test results indicated that some 40% students ratedatthe average and above of the stt. ents achieved lower than national average level in math achievement. norms in reading on standardized tests.Score keeping in English and math was begun for all * * * project students in 1970. * In French, the Common Concepts Reading and math scores have been TesthasI yen usedtomeasure student closely followed and analyzed to assure that achievement in the First Grade only.The thosestudentsinvolvedinthebilingyal average has always been above the National program have scores comparable tothose of norm in the pre and post tests. students elsewhere in the nation. The Metro '70 Achievement Test has' been usedto *** measure any progress or regress;on. The test is administered twice during theyear, in As compared to 1970, the program September and in May. has Made the following differences: *The Primer level of the Metropolitan A. No child has had less instruction in Achievement Test was administered toall the amount of content studied under the bi- kindergarten students in the project to assess lingual program. their readiness skills. Ninety-seven percent of the students tested received average, above B.All of the students are learning average and superior scores inreading readi- more French ness and 96% of these studentsreceived average, above average, and superior scoresin C. Individualattention givento math. students has increased. Grade one students were alsa given D. Some of the weaknesses in the cur- the Metro '70 Primary I level test. The major- :icuium have been identified and studied. ity of students ( 82(7, ) demonstrated average or above average results in reading.Eighty- E. Teacher preparation, both personal one percent of the students maintained an aad professional, has accelerated. averageor acove average score in math. F.Active participation of parents in Ninety percent of the second grade schoi activities has been more defined and 276 271 has increased. G.Evaluation procedures are more flexible, more precise and better understood through theuse of behavioral objectives. H. The curriculum,through the materialswritten,reflectsthelinguistic behavior of the population concerned. I.The content taught also includes situations and experiences reflecting Franco- American culture. EPILOGUE This outline of the bilingualprogram in the Leblanc Community might leave the impression that the taskis an easy one. Yet, the work is never done! The content and the process of educa- tional activities have to be constantly evalu- ated. Both must reflect a regional culture yet extend to thatiiversa:-, , which is beyond parochialism. Public and professional interests have to .be coordinated.But also, respect for minority identity and majority perceptions must be maintained in the balance of freedom of expression. Finally, in a 'd out of the classroom, everyone must share in expressions of thought and in a way of life which constantly require a spirit of commitment. The challenge of suchan undertaking is for people like the Leblancs whowant to know themselves and want nothing better than to participate fully in their American iy oflife:4 *** 277 Results of Metropolitan Achievement TestsTotal Reading, Total Mathematics, 272 Language, and Spelling Scores During FourYears of Project Operation SS Stanine GE Grade Score SS StanineGE SS Stanine GE SS Stanine GE 7 - 28 7 - K Total Reading 27 6 - 29 Total Math 26 6 - 27 6 - 30 7 - 5 1.8 42 6 2.040 5 1.9 1 Total Reading 38 5 1.8 39 1.9 Total Math 42 5 1.8 41 5 1.843 5 5 2.857 6 3.1 2 Total Reading 52 5 2.6 54 7 3.3 Total Math 55 4 2.5 61 6 3.065 4 3.1 61 5 3.3 3 Total Reading 57 6 4.2 Tptal Math 71 5 3.875 :.'.9 73 5 4.5 Language 69 5 3.567 6 4.1 Spelling 63 5 68 5 4.3 4 Total Reading 80 5 4.7 Toti.1 Math 77 5 5.0 Language 73 5 4.8 Spelling 0 Results of Common Concepts ForeignLanguage Test During Four Project Years YEAR PRE POST DIFFERENCE 197 -197 42 49 7 9 197 -197 52 61 7 197 -197 53 60 197 -197 50 59 9 Each year, some 150 first grade students in the project wereadministered the Common Concepts Foreigo The test consists of 80 Language Test.The test is usually used nationally at the Junior-Seniorhigh Level. questions each to be answered fromfour pictorial responses. On both the pre and post tests.the project students have achieved above National norms. 1 278 CAJUN FRENCH AND FRENCH CREOLE: THEIR SPEAKERS AND THE QUESTIONSOF IDENTITIES 1 by Dorice Tentchotf The curious tourist's request «show Broussards, among these,are Cajuns, i.e. me a Cajun» can present the Louisianian descendants of people whoonce lived in with a perplexing problem. Who indeed is Acadia. The others, he will discover,are a CAjun and how can he be identified? The English, German, Spanish, and French in traveller might first be givena comfortable origin.We will further assume that the chair and a good history book. As he reads, visitor is a French speaker himself.He he will learn about a group of French peo- finds that with some effort hecan under- ple who settled in Acadia in the early 1600's. stand the speech ofsome of his new ac- He might learn something of their life there. quaintances.Other speakers are almost He will certainly find ample descriptions of totally incomprehensible to him.They their persecution by the English and of are not speaking French though he recog- their expulsion from this New World colo- nizes a word here and there.He finds ny. The period ofLe Grand Derangement that all are indf -.i Catholic and that their will be recounted. He will read howan un- domestic cuit,i.leis superbbut is not certain number of refugees found theirway French. Instead he is offeredfile gumbo to Louisiana via circuitous routes. Ques- and rice.He has not only never tasted tions about their ancestral existence in it before, but the wordsfileandgumbo France before any of these events and ab- are not part of his French vocabulary. out their reasons for migrating to Acadia will probably remain unsatisfied.In any Perplexed, but intriguedand case, he will be more curious about how persistent, he repeats his question: «Who many there are today in Louisiana and is a Cajun?» How is it to be amwered?We why they are called Cajuns. suggest that delving into historical origins and observing traditional behaviorare tilt The tourist is now moreeager than the only methods availableto us for ever to set out and n.eet the people With proceedingwith ourtask:hie:It:dying his new fund of information feels members of an ethnicgroup. confident about his abilities identify them.They are French speakers; they There is another way of approach- are Catholic and their food habits will be ing this matter, a way whichmay be more familiarly French. He makes the acquain- useful than others.It is a simple and tance of aTaylor,aSche'naider,a direct one and it doesmore justice to Castille, a de la Houssaye,a Ougas and a sociocultural reality. The direct criterion Broussard. of ethnic group membership is ascription andself-ascription(Barth 1969:13). We will assu.ne that he isa good Applied to our case, the suggestionmeans student and learned from the history that Cajuns are those whoso identify bookthatonlytheDugas andthe themselves and whoare accepted as such 273 279 274 by others.Acceptance of this criterion becameth..native language of many will be helpful in accounting for a great Africans on both sides of the Atlantic as deal of behavior as it is actually found in well as on islands in the Indiln Ocean. Acadiaiia. French Creole and all of the Creole But what does it mean to be a language.; that emerged during this period Cajun?Most outsiders tend to perceive of expanding Western European com- Cajuns as, a monolithic group, having in merce have certainimportant character- mind some stereotype image.Natives istics in common. A largely European themselves have a very different model vocabulary (either Portuguese, Dutch, of their own community. It is composed French or English) is used with phono- of a complex of groups and individuals, logicaland grammatical structures of of crisscrossing and attimes shifting many African languages(Dalby 1971). identities.These distinctions are based ticadi- ontheirknowledgeof geographical, Insome communitiesin social,racial,speech and generational ana both the CajunFrench and the differences as well as on differences" in French Creole are spoken. Though the historical origin.From a native point distinction between them iswell rec- of view the term «Cajun* has varying ognized and of great importance social- referential and semantic content depend- ly, in certain contexts the two areregard- ing on who uses it and the context of its ed as closelyrelated.3 For this reason, use., the term «French» is Sometimesinclusive of both. Before describing the native Louisi- anian's use of this term, itis useful to Thewidest,mostgeneralizing begin by defining a few terms.The meaning of the label «Cajun» is «anative «French language* will here refer to all who is a French speaker.*In this case speech varieties whose basic grammatical «French» stands for both the Cajunand resources derive from continentalFrance. the Creole languages. In contrast to A «dialect» is one variety of a language «Cajun* are the labels «American» or spokeninagiven geographicalarea. «Englishman» terms often used at There are many dialects of French spoken semantically identical and therefore inter- in widely scattered parts of the world. changeable. This is reasonable given the Cajun French is one of them.It is not in history of the area and the still important itself uniform but varies from parish to French-Anglo-Saxon boundary bisecting parish and from town to townwithin the State.Either of the terms refers to Louisiana.In what follows, one variety all outsiders-English speakers - with of Cajun French Ls refelizdto.2 whom one may have contact. The language known to linguists as Since the term denotes Olt native «FrenchCreole*hasverydifferent who is a French speaker*, it is notsurpris- the origins. It developed during the 17th ingthat black speakers of either century in the course of contaLibetween French dialect or tie French Creole are French-speaking Europeans and Africans, often identified as Cajuns. SomeAfro- both on the west coast of Africa andin Americans so identify themselves. Thisis the French colonies in the NewWorld. It interesting for many reasons. It does not 2 OP 275 appear to be the case that outsiders in- French speech to delineate the boundaries clude black French speakers under this of the group can still be found among rubric. To the outsider, that an individual residents in some communities. However, is black suffices as identification in the the situation has changed enormously in same way that the term «Cajun» implies recent years.Ethnic realignments have an undifferentiated population. taken place which reflect the impact of national,socialandpoliticaldevelop- There are other aspects of this to ments.Younger blacks in the smallest be considered. Southern Louisiana is villages have acquired a strong sense of one of the only areas in the United States identity with Afro-Americans and with in which mulatto groups have historically the national black movement. Such in- been accorded a relatively higher status dividuals do not refer to themselves as by the local white dominant class (Smith Cajuns.if they are speakers of French or and Hitt 1952). Elsewhere, the offspring Creole theycallthemselves «Creoles». of mixed unions have always been regard- They then further' distinguish themselves ed as «black» ina rather remarkable (nEg Creoles) from black Americans (neg denial of biological fact. The expression imericains). The term «Cajun» may have «free men of color» seems to be limited negative connotations and contrast with in use to Louisiana.It is a literal transla- «white» which has positive connotations. tion of the French gens de couleur libres widelyusedbeforetheCivilWar. By the same token, writes in the Throughout the remainder of the United small communities have responded to the states the equivalent term is «freedmen.» sweeping economic, social and political The expression gens de couleur is in cur- chanties of recent years.With their im- rent usage. Most «blacks» in the area are proved economic positions, and with the gens de couleur claiming a white ancestor incursionof outside values and view- within living memory. points,theblack-white dichotomy so widespreadelsewherehasfirmlyen- Itis apparent that in some local- trenched itself ' ocally. ities, relations between whites and blacks have been close for a prolonged period of The use of the term «Creole* by time.Frequent, informal, daily contact the native populationiscomplex and between them was a necessary and ac- appears to vary from community to com- cepted ingredient of living.This was munity.It refers universally throughwit especially so for children who spent much the region to one of the local languages of their childhoods together. known also as francais nil or jest nig, «nigger French,» gumbo, or descriptively In the face of an often rejecting and as vi: Creole is spoken in some hostileoutsideworld, French-speaking communities by most blacks as well as members of both races experienced a by many whites. For a few older persons common level of identity. So strong was of both races,itis an only language. thi; identity that it over-ruled in part the Creole, as a term designating a language, racial cFstinction so fundamental in the contrasts- with Heal French», or le bon United States. francais,i.e.the local dialect French. The use of the sole criterion of It has already been mentioned that 281 276 black Creole speakers may identify them- designations, and other factors need to selves as Creoles.4So, however, do some be thoroughly chee ed andcorrelated to white French and Creole speakers.There term usage. The context inwhich labeling are apparently twosomewhat different takes place is also significant.It may be meanings to the term. My data indicates thecasethatthe apparent variation, that the semantic difference may it part which neither constitutes a taxonomy nor be accounted for by the difference in a paradigm, isbased on differences be- historical origin of those using it. Some tween individual cognitivemodels in the white and black French or Creole speak- community. Those interested in follow- ers use the term«Creole» to mean «all ing in greater detail the range ofproblems the native speakers df French,» black and involved here arereferred to Wallace white.In this instance it is identical in (1966), Tyler (1969), Blumer (1972), semantic content to the term «Cajun» as Swartz(1960),Rosaldo(1972),and described above. However, white speakers Sankoff ( 1971). make a further distinction: whites are Cajuns and blacks are Negroes. «Cajun» Just as an examination of identity in this contrast set becomes a secondary terms indicates that a variety of concepts categorywiththemeaning"white». exist with regard to group boundaries, so individual membersof the community Other speakers of French rise the vary from one anotherwhen viewed from term Creole in another way.It is an the outside.The range of personalities, identity label but in this case it is used to of individual experience, of socialposi- distinguish descendants of «real French- tions,is as complete within Acadiana as men» who came toLouisiana direct de la elsewhere in the United States. France, from «Cajuns» who arrived via Acadia.«Creole» here is in contrast to ?What is perhaps striking are the ((Cajun».To claim a «real Frenchman» unexpected contrasts to be found every- as an ancestorgives one special status in where. They are a cor.,*.ant reminder of the eyes of the community. Hereindeed the degree of change this area has under- isanecho of thepast, when such gone and the rapiditywith which it has «Creoles» had high status and sat in the occumd. There is a marked contrastbe- seats of power. tween generations. A brilliant younglaw- yer and accomplishedmusician may :lave There are as well narrower, more parents who cannot read. Illiterateadults specificlabels abusivein nature used proud refer to a literate grandparent within the group that are apparently em- who taught youngsters the catechism in ployed and familiar to those in a quite l'rench.It is like being shuttled back and restricted locality. forth in a time machine. The uses of «Cajun» and «Creole» fly:re is also the contrast betwe:.an cannot be understood .o mean twuiS- current social position andformer back- Crete categories of persons standingin a ground: here, a millionaire who of neces- one to one relationship toeach other. sity signs his checks with a special mark Much remains to be investigated. and drives a shiny Cadillac; there, a force- Features such as the age and social posi- ful and successful power-wielding poii- tion of the speaker, more refined racial tician a veritable Mayor Daley of the 277 village - with not more than a fourth grade It is a revelation to slowly become education.Conversely, a knowledgeable aware of the adaptation of illiterates in retired school teacher- the master of all this era of the printed word. They have linguistic variants in the region- is tucked for instance, devised ingenious systems for away in a little house on the levee of the correlating phone numbers and names bayou, seemingly forgotten and unap- that handily function without a flaw, preciated. Many are uncannily gifted mathematical- ly.If you have never been shopping with In a crumbling, unpainted structure an illiterate in a supermarket, it is hard to so tiny you are amazed to discover three understand. They do not need cash rooms within, lives an ancient, snowy- registers. Their heads are as quick and as haired black couple.They can only be accurate. describedasgenteel,truearistocrats. Their French is as close to literary as can Finally,therearethechildren be found in the village.In one of these growing up with rock and roll, exposed rooms you are served ademitasseof through the media to the values and inky Cajun coffee with formality and ex- undercurrents in a world become small. quisite attention to details of etiquette. The outside woad impinges a little more Voices are modulated and leisure seems to every day.Over time, the incursion has he the stuff out of which life is made. been massive. Technologicaland The crack in the wall that lets in the day- economic changes and the rapid develop- light and the pile of rusted junk cars just ment of all systems of communication to the right of the doorway are forgotten. have revolutionized life throughout the Nothing less than a colonial palace hung region.Most men nowadays are away with tapestries is a fit setting for such an from home at least as much as they are occasion. present.Shift work on dredges and oil rigsis available outside.Many women A short distance away in a beautiful have jobs.Television sets are common- ante-bellum home complete with classical place and cars a necessity. Greek columns, lives an elderly plantation 01%. owner.4 maid in uniform answers the Yet,thereiscontinuity anda door and leads you solemnly intoa powerful sense of belonging in the village. splendid study where the old gentleman Family relationships and a community of sitsin somewhat sullied jean coveralls. known individual personalities are an ef- The two large brass spittoons on eler fective force against fragmentation. The side of him are used at frequent inte children are enveloped by it.It is still a in the course of the interview. Though `lie world of personal not bureaucratic corn- haslivedheresinceearlychildhood, muLication. inheriting his father's fortune, he is an outsider,,ndspeaks no French. His How reasonabletoassume that concerns are mundane, narrowly limited speech in such a setting is uniform.In tothe growing of crops for profit and a community of perhaps 500 persons getting tne «right man» into office. The all well known to each other, one could contrasts ar. seemingly endless. sensibly expect that speech would be homogeneous.Instead, other languages arecurrentlyinuse: Cajun French, 283 278 FrenchCreole and English. Indeed, an etiquette involved in using it. variants of each of these are alsoin evidence. Itis, for instance, considered bad taste to speak Cajun ,,French to a French What does such linguistic variety Creolespeaker,ifone knows Creole. mean? What functions can it serve? How Only a nez retrousse will do so. If it hap- do people talk to and understand each pens, itis meaningful.It puts social other?These are questions which have distance between two people.However, long interested linguists. Some have only blacks, who do not want to identify them- recently been investigated. Though much selves with Cajuns, may well speak Creole has been learned, the surface i§) barely to Cajun French- sp "akers, even when they scratched. are competent in Cajun French. In the community, not everyone BilingualCajun French and Creole speaks all three languages.Some speak speakers tend to use Creole as the lan- two and understand thethird; others guageof intimacy. usband and wife speak only one and understand two, and switch to Creole when are alone or so forth.' There is great variation in the when they are relaxed and at home with productive (speaking) and receptive (un- )theis who understand it. They may ex- derstanding) competencies of individuals. change a few remarks to each other in Yet speech is not chaotic. There are rules Creole in the course of a Cajun French which govern the use of the different conversation in which they are partici- languagesinthecommunity. The pants. The proper use of the two linguists' assumption is that the selection languages becomes a more sensitive issue of language in any given instance is not between individuals of higher social rank. random butmeaningful. Individuals In an observed verbal exchange between choose from their options deliberately two, wealthy and locally influential men, with an ert4,in mind.Their choice is one a Cajun French speaker, the other a controlled by tlr linguistic competen- Creole speaker, English was the language cies as well as by their hearers and by resorted to.The Creole speaker felt it commonly accepted socialconstraints. demeaning to speak Creole in these cir- cumstances. The other thought it some- To begin with, the languages are what patronizing to use Cajun French. ranked interms of prestige: English, Social equals need an «equal* language as Cajun French and Creole, in descending a medium of communication.What is order.But this is a simplification. The unusual in the community is the lack of ranking of English over Cajun French correspondence between language com- holds true in situations of contact with petency and social status. The only ex- outsiders and it is true for children who planation for this appears to be rapid identify more with the outside world. social change. The common observation that parent_ speak to their children in English reflects In a familysetting,Englishis concern.They realize that English is a almostuniversally spoken to cnildren, sine qua non in the woLd at large. Within tiough French or Creole continues to the local adult community, Cajun French be used between patents.In the middle remains the prestigious language. There is ofig French or Creole conversation with II I 279 friends, a parent may turn to, a small child expressed by the use of the appropriate lan- and reprimand. him in English. Many guage.For the black trHingual speaker, children,however, do learnto speak however, solidarity within the black com- French or Creole.Itis a part of their munity is always expressed by Creole. Bi- environment from birth.Some learn to lingual French-English and Creole-English speakitduring adolescence from their speakers may employ English on some oc- peers in school. This is particularly true casions for purposes of rapport as the ex- of the Creole and particularly true for ample of the interaction between two prom- males. In this setting, where it is spoken inent men illustrates. in a notably rape' staccato, it acquires the status of a secret language which teachers What happens when people with dif- ordinarily do not understand.It is the ferent linguistic competencies interact? language of symbolic familiarity fog the Well, it happens freqntly and Cajuns are peer group. The use of Creole by adoles- highly verbal people. Iagine an afternoon cent girls marks them as tradit;onal or on thegalriof a mode t house. Present are «old fashioned» in the eyes of boys, who an or lady, who is monolingual Creole prefer to associate with English-speaking specr, her daughter-in-law and an older girls. femal 'friend both Cajun French speak- ers nd myself.Throughout the visit, Elderlymarried couples can be the main topic of conversation isle vieux found who donotspeak the same temps. Talk is constant. Indeed, sociabil- language. Over the years, each spouse has ity is expressed largely verbally through the continued to use his maternal tongue- medium of narrative, banter, jokes, etc. one Cajun French, the other Creole. Each has a perfect receptive competence in Transcription of a conversations the other's language, but seldom, if ever, speaks it.It is pethaps easier to explain F speaker 1: /sit, topeux faire du wiski du why the Cajun French speaker does not riz, uh Madame use Creole.It is much more difficult to C speaker:Oh, au'. understand why the Creole speaker does F speaker 1:Mais, moi j'etais tout pitite not use French. Social prestige is not the quand papa faisait du wiski.S'est only motivating force involved in language biers malheureux t 'a pas eu parler Fa use. 'vek papa. C speaker:Mo et mo garcon no lusl false The category «social rapport» is du yin quand no reste dans bois. meant to deal with those situations within Interviewer:Avek quol? the community in which a multilingual C speaker:'vek des mares. speaker addresses an individual who does F speaker 1:Vous oubliez la rerette, Y AS? not have a productive competence in the C speaker:Oh, non. Mo peux fai fa toujous. speaker's most familiar language. In that Mais na pi des mares. Latin& passe case,the speaker switches to another nous chasse you des mares. No p.'s language. Thus, a white tri-lingual speaker trouver nilpar. will use French or Creole to establish Interviewer:Des mai es samages (pa poussent? social rapport ,depending on the linguistic C speaker: Yapli de ca. competence of the addressee.In these F speaker I :J'me rappelle quand petals instances, group solidarity would also be pitite, uh, nonk vieux nonk 280 --faisait dot yin. I'vendait fa a But there are no more blackberries. tout que'qu'un. Last year we looked for black- F speaker 2:Isais pas siWatt d'vin ou berries. We didn't find any any- d'wiski, mai frappelle (v)war fa. where. C speaker:Nouso. no mette les mares a Interviewer: Wild blackberries that gro bain pot gres. Etats bien puteye. C speaker: There are no more of those. Pi, no meth ca tremper dans pot F speaker: I remember when Iwas small, gres. La, quand ye te GONE, le uh-uncle-old uncle -- made wine. tout fait caler. He sold it to everyone. F speaker 1:Oh, c'est comme fa vous F speaker 2: I don't know if it was wine conne quand c'est bon? or whiskey, but I remember seeing C speaker:Oui. Et la, ye te... that. F speaker:La, quand iicalent, et pi, i're- C speaker We put the blackberries in a trontent en lair encore la,vous stoneware pot. They were well. les remasse? mashed. Then we put them to soak C speaker: Ott!. in the stoneware pot. When they F speaker 1:La, vous les me &its des had all disappeared, they had all bouteilles et les bouches? sunk. They had altogether sunk. C speaker:Non, non, non. To me les-to F speaker 1: Oh, is that how you know fais-i' fo to COOL ye. La, quand when it's good? va commancer-li vattravailler C speaker: Yes, and they were... encore. Li va travailler. To va wa F speaker 1: So, when they sink and then a comme dit vieux - to va wa les rise up again, you take them out? alles. les allant! ca va et fa went C speaker: Yes. comme ca. Quand ye va refer F speaker 1: So, you put them in bottles travailler, to peux met tout ye dans and cork them? le JUG. Mais, la, to prend un ti C speaker: No, no, no. You put them mo(r)ceau d 'bar, o un ti moceau 7 you make -- you must COOL d'linge. To bouche li bien. To them. When they start it will mare sera serre. Pi la, laisses li work (ferment) again. It will work. jus to percois li traivaille pli. You will see it. As old -- says, you'll see the comings and the Translation goings. It comes and it goes like that. When they stop working, you F speaker:Here, you can make whiskey can put all of them in a jug. But from rice, uh Madame --? then, you take a little piece of net- C speaker: Oh yes. ting, or a little piece of cloth. You F speaker: But. I was very little when cork it well. You tie it very tight. papa made whiskey. It's too bad Then you leave it until you can see you couldn't talk to papa about it. it is no longer working. C speaker: My son and I, we made wine when we lived in the woods. Intheaboveconversation,the Interviewer: With what? Creole and Cajun French speakers simply C speaker: With blackberries. converse, each understanding the others F speaker 1: You forget the recipe, Yes? and each speaking in her own language. C speaker: Oh no, I can always make that. As is evident, English words occur within .4 281 French or Creole sentences. Another com- Itisparticularly\`141terestingto mon feature of multilingual conversations observe that the Creole spker switches in the community is the occurrence of to French forms when she quotes French English phrases within French sentences speakers in the course of ner narration. or vice-versa.For instance, consider the The most immediate way to distinguish following: the Creole from the French is to note the C speaker:Mals mo delivrais un ta, form of the first person singular: iin un ta. de a bebe. Et mol tout seul. Pas French and m in Creole(jeand mo); in personne avek. the third person singular,1 (I)in French F speaker1: Ma maman aussi. and Ii in Creole. Also, third person plural F speaker 2: You see.It was Dr. in French' is Vs) andyein Creole. --,my doctor, and he was in the se:vice quand Il est ne. S -. Creole speaker:Mais, 1 dit, vcus C speaker:Mo laissais pas mo peux pas fai(re)que'q'chose? Mo dit, oui, laissais parien,toconnals, dansle mo peux fal(re), mais ca mo peux fal(re) chemin. la, mo fera pas ca. Mais, 51 vous crol vous peux fal(re) que'q 'chose, 1 dit, na jush mni Or et -- qul va conne.Je vous promais, 1 dit. que jamais -- ni mol va jamois di F speaker:Oh, mais the (r). Mals, plus a rien a personne si que'q 'chose Don't feel bad,die dit, ca veux mean arrive. Mo dit, mo pas pou(r) ca. t 'est toujours jeune. Translation Translation C speaker:But he says, can't you C speaker:But I delivered many, do something? I say, yes, I can. But that many little babies. And all alone. P'o one ( which) i can do, I won't do. But, if you was with me. think you can do something, he says, F speaker1: My mother, too. there is just me and who will know. I F speaker 2: You see it was Dr.--, promise you, he says, that never will -- my doctor, and he was in the service when nor I ever say anything to anybody if he was born. something happens.I say, I'm not for C speaker: 1 didn't leave I that. didn't ;eave anything, you know, in the s' way. ...---, ispuzzling. If the Creole "speallZer caswitch to French, why does or she not dso throughout the conversa- tion? There is no sure answer to this. She F speaker: Oh, but dear. But don't simply never usesit except to quote.. feel bad. she says, it means that you!e However, her degree of competence in always young. Frenchisprobably quite limited. It would be difficult for her to talk freely So far, itis virtually impos:;ible to and express herself naturallyiv! French. know un what such switching between She is also a wonfn without social pre- languages within one sentence depends. tentionsandth situationdidnot compromise her ininy way. 1' e I 27 2S2 There are ample indications that other. many Creole speakers have definite limita- tions in their ability to switch to French Thereisan enormous linguistic at will.When a Creole speaker is placed variation in use. What does it mean when, in a position in which he is obliged to in one village such a frequently used ex- speak Creole and feels compromised by pression as, «I have to go now», is said as: it.interesting conseuences may follow. Feeling uncomforta because of the 1) Pal pour aller asteur,2) ifaut je socialconnotations ed by Creole va asteur,3)1 faut mo va asteur, 4) mo speech. such an individual, if he is enter- gain pou cowl asteur. prising, may sometimes create entirely newlinguisticforms. For instance: The first and the fourth examples are the most distantinthat the speaker ('.jun French:leur char«their car» using number 1is not likely to ever use CreoleFrench:ye (tchen) char number 4. However, in grammatical «iheir car» structure,they are verysimilar: rai New Form:yeur char«their car» «I have»,mo gain«I have, »pour aller «to go,»pou couri «togo». Numbers 2 The Creole speaker, in an attempt to speak and 3 are identical except for, the first Cajun French, has created something which person singular. People who use number is neither French nor Creole. It appears to Ialso use number 2.Those who use be a compromise between the two: theye number 3 also use number 4. There is a of Creole and theleurof French.It also slight semantic difference between num- et:akin:sly approximates the English «your ber 1,«I have to,» and number 2 «I car» which of course does not mean the must».The same difference is true for same thing. The target I guage in this case numbers 3 and 4. remains strangely ambiguous. This indicates that social value is In another example attachedtoselecteelinguisticforms.. These «markers» (linguisticfeatures Cajun French: eac'est pureux«this which are selectively loaded with social belongs to both of them» meaning) distinguish Creole from Cajun Creole French:c'est pou ye tousles French. Grammatically, in certain instan- deux -this belongs to both of them» ces. the .differences are minimal.The New Form:c'est pou les deux Creole markers here are the first person d yeux «this belongs to both of them». singular mo and the formsgainandcouri. Thed'yeu.vseems to be a compromise Another example of such a linguis- between the Creoleyeand the French tic marker: eux.However, the situation is ambiguous again.The new form.d yeux,meaning 1) ca ina?«what's the matter? 28 283 number 2 is not infrequent. Likewise, the the English speech of whites. In neither individual using number 1 will not use num- case is it standard. Are there more than ber 3, though number 2 will be used alter- three co-existent systems?What is the nately with number 1. Number 3 has the relation between the English and non- highest social value, number 1 is the Creole English speech i, the community?Is it form: and number 2 apparently an alter- feasible to propose that there is a range of nate form. dialects, each with its own grammar, all having standard English as a ta.get? How There is much controversy in linguis- doesone theoretically copewith tic circles today about the meaning of such sentences that are composed of lexemes variation and about how to approach it the- and grammatical features from both the oretically. Variation is apparently found in English and non-English languages? The every known linguisticcommunity. Studies situation is complex and no ready answers made during the past decade have demon- are available. strated that such variation is not only ubi- quitous, social, and functional, but is sys- What is the process that gives rise tematic and regular in nature. Controversy to so much variation? On what does it has arisen as to how to best conceptualize depend? Isthere a directionto the and describe it.One school of thought process?If so, what is it?These are maintains that variation is found in the per - questions linguists pose. They are raised forme of the members of every com- iwre because they are pertinent t9. South munity even though they all share one basic Louisiana where the linguistic situation is grammatical system. Rules have been for- as heterogeneous as is the social. The two mulated to describe the variation within arerelated. Language use appears to this single system ( Labov 1966; Shuy et al depend on social values, attitudes, and 1967; Sankoff and Cedergren 1971; Ceder- change. gren 1973).Another school of thought contends that observed linguistic variation Boththelocal French and the derives from the existence of more than a French Creole are spoken, not written, single grammar in the linguistic community. languages. This is to say nothing remark- 1 he variation. it is maintained, can best be able about them.All human languages described as a scale or continuum with each until very recently have been oral. Both gradation representing a particular dammar are,however,languagesaboutwhich ( DeCamp 1971; Bickerton 1973a, 1973b). much has been written.Excellent as it may be in other respects, much of what is How should the South Louisiana contained between the covers of books on linguistic community be approached? Are the subject of these languages is biased. It there three distinct grammatical systems: is written from an elitist point of view. The one for Creole, one for French, and one local speech is examined from the vantage for English? Or do the French Creole and point of the literary French standard of the the LouisianaFrenchcompriseone day (whether 19th or 20th century). system containing variables?Though it has not been discussedinthis paper, Differences from the standard are English speech is not uniform either. The noted and interpreted as «mistakes» due to English speech of Afro-Americans in the ignorance, or as «corruptions» of the community is recognizably different from «pure» French language. Adjectivessuch 2 8 9 284 as «quaint» and «simple» often describe the values inherent inits own diverse both people and language. One may well cultural heritage.It brought to the at- ask «quaint» to whom, and «simp'e» by tention of the world a long neglected and what criterion?Frequently forms are relatively unknown group. Through the found tobe whatis called «archaic». efforts of tCODOF1L the problems and Surely it is a misnomer to label a speech the future well-being of this group are form «archaic» when itis currently in now the concern of many, both at home use. The forms are not obsolete to those and abroad. using theta However, some of the fundamental Features of Creole speech have difficulties involvedin maintaining the often been correlated with anatomical and culture have yet to be dealt with. The mental characteristics of the black people. -greatest emphasis sofar has been the Thisistotallyunfounded. Linguists standardization of the language.This today accept as axiomatic that the speech policy merits closer examination. A pilot of any ethnic group is completely un- study conducted in 1969 (Savells 1969) relatedtothephysicalandmental indicatesthatthereisan underlying attributes of its members (Wolfram 1971). reason for the reluctance of French-speak- I ing parents to wholeheartedly support bi- Languagesdonotexistinthe lingual programs in the public school:.. abstract apart from the human beings who The reluctance is due totheir recognition speak them. They die wiith their speakers. of the considerable differences between There is much evidenee of a strong at- the localdialectsandtheFrench tachmenttotheFrench and Creole presented to their childreinin the school. languagesamong the people of South Proponentsofthebilingual programs Louisiana. Theselanguages andthe must ask themselvesifthe people of purposes which they serve are unique, not Acadianaaremotivatedtolearna quite like speech anywhere else.They standard French at the expense of their have been, and still are for many, the sole native dialects. Is it the wish of the native mediumfortheexpressionofthe speakers that the Creole be .completely mundane matters of dailylife, for the ignored and summarily dismissed?Have recollecti?n of the past, for dreams, for they been asked?Little, it seems, can be laughter and sorrow, for intimacy and accomplished without genuine motivation "'comradeship, and for the commu.fication at a grass roots level. of matters of life and death.But grave problems exist.Concern or the future Not very long ago the French and of the languages is widely expressed and French Creole languageswere banned justified. fromtheschool groundsthroughout Acadiana by official decree ang offeners Major difficulties stand in the way punished. This is vivid)), remember by of the true renaissance and future growth many.The timidity, self-c ssciosness, of the Cajun culture. The Council for andlinguisticinsecurity foun among the Development of French in Louisiana, many Cajuns canbetracedtothe in the few years of its viistence, has made ignorance and insensitivity of the policy- up an admirable beginning.It brought to makers of that day.Is the stress that is the state of Louisiana a new awareness of currentlyplaced on imported French 29u 285 . speechcontributingtothatSense of what groups and4hichindividuals speak insecurity?In all fairness, the question what languages and what dialects:to must be rked and it should be publiclyti whom, in what contexts, and under what 44444raired. circumstance? There is not N published zie). source which contains answers tothes6-7* ,Thoughit may please them to queMions. The boundaries a the speech think otherwise, the future of the French communities have yet to be chartered. language is notin thehands,of L'Academie Francaise alone. It is as well Related to the current stress on stan- in the hands of the Many diverse popula- dard French speech is the stress on French tions around the world who speak it. association, Coupled with it isan apparent Beside the possibility of failure, there is lack of attention focused on the teachin3 another danger involved in the imposi- of Cajun culture in the schools. The history tion of alien forms on a people:the . of the Cajuns of Louisiana is a part of the danger of creating a cultural imperialism. history of the, New World. Cajun culture is the result of centuries of adaptation to an Itis remarkable to note that in environment unlike that of France. The spite of the rich local history and culture, very identity of Cajuns is rooted in experi- no developed literature exists in either the ence on this side of theAtlantic. Louisiana French or the French Creole. There is nig even a published dictionary! Histories of the Cajun people that Yet, itis widely recognized that people continue beyond Le Grand Derangement do not create freely and build on their needifm.be written. Careful, compardtive traditions in a language that is not their and historical documentation is required. own. Cajun culture cannot be expected Cajun cuisine has become famous. Research to flourish in continental French literary s needed to document other facets of, the. style. .r.r.t) culture: oral, literature, architecture, tech- nology, kinship systems, folk medicine, As long ago as 1934, George Lane dance, huMor, etc. Bits and pieces about (1934) wrote that alinguistic 'atlas of these subjects can be found scattered haap- Southern Louisiana was anecessity if haardly in a vast literature varying in qual- linguistic research was to proceed in an ity and authenticity. organized manner.A"preliminary survey was subsequently /conducted. To my Finally, it is often argued that eco- knowledge, however, this report was never nomic development can only be had at the published. A short paper based on expense of cultural integrity. Cajuns, it is personal acquaintance with the substance maintained, must be integrated into and of the survey concludes that an atlas and assimilated by the dominant Anglo-Saxon adictionaryof the Louisiana French culture if they are to progress. With the de- would be of great interest (von Wartburg mise of the «melting pot» notion, much of 1942). Neither of these is as yet a reality. the bite is gone from this contention. Most of us today recognize that it neither corres- A proper survey today requires ponded to a realistically attainable social even more and different kinds of info.:ma- order nor to a desirable one. The minority tion.Linguists are interested in establish- group movements of the past two decades ing the sociolinguistic patterns of speech: have demonstrated the contrary. Cultural 291 286 integrity and economic developments cal. tongue. We are all sorely in need ofa new .and do go hand in hand. What is needed is a understanding of the values inherent indi- renewal ur pride in the local culture, in versity in all areas of human life. Diversity, the local languages. in any case, seems to bean inevitbble in- gredient of any social alder.It indicates We all have a long way to go in at- perhaps a universal human desirefor ex"'- taining a true appreciation of the meanings - pression and a liuman quest formeaning and subtle nuances embodied in a mother and identity in the scheme of things. NOTES 1. The fieldwork constituting,the basis of 4. This question was addressed in a paper thisstudy was made possible by a National presented at thel 57 Annual Meetings of the Institute of Mental Health predoctoral fellowship AmericanSocio calAssociationby Kara *(5 FOl MI-145251-02). My debt to the people of .RousseauSmit andVernonJ.Parenton: Acadiana is personal and deeply felt.I also wish «Cultural Patternof Colored Creoles: a Study tothankJayEdwards ofLouisianaState of a Selected Segnt of New Orleans Negroes Universityandhiswife.Anne,fortheir With French Cultural Orientations». invaluable comments on an earlier version of this paper. 5.Since no standard orthography exists for either the Louisiana French or the French 2 Much of the data on which the dis- Creole and to did readers with a knowledge of cussion is based is limited to research carried out French, French orthography is used as much in a small rural area of Acadiana.No claim is as possible throughout the transcriptions. made that any descriptive statement can he \5" generalized or applied to all of French-speaking Louisiana.Indeed, it would be strange ti.this were possible since the region presents a rich. diversified,complex picturewith respectto language and culture. Custom differs from locality to locality. 3. For adiscussion of the mutual influences and interpenetrations of the French and French Creole and of the impact of English on bothlanguages,seeRaleighMorgan Jr. «DialectLevellingin Non-English Speech of Southwest Louisiana.» inTexas Studies in Bi- lingualipffGlen G. Gilbert,ed. Walter de Gruyt r and Co.. Berlin, 1970. 0 292 287 BIBLIOGRAPHY Barth, Frederick Applied Linguistics, Urbin LanguageSeries.es. 1969 Introduction.In Ethnic Groups and '1 Boundaries. Frederick Bart:,, ed. Boston: Lane, George, S. Little, Brown and Company. pp. 9.38. 1934 «Notes on Louisiana French.» Language 10: 323-333. Bickerton, D. 1973aOn the Nature of a Creole Continuum. Rosaldo, Michelle Language 49: 640-670. 1972«Metaphorsandfolkclassification.» 9: 1973b «Quantitative yersts dynamic Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 28: paradigms:The case of Rtinirt*I.» InNew 83-?9. Ways ofAnalyzing Variation :in,English. 7 Charles-James N. Bailey and.itoger,W. Shuy, Sankoff, Gillian eds. Washington: Georgetowit, U.niversity , 1971 Quantitative analysis of sharing and Press. pp. 2344. variability in a cognitive model.» Ethnology 10: 389408. Blumer, Herbert 1972 «Symbolic interaction.»InCulture and Sankoff, Gillian and H. Cedergren Cognition. James P.Spradley, ed. San 1971.Some results of a sibcio-linguistic study Francisco. Scranton,London, Toronto: of Montreal French». InLinguistic Diversity Chandler Publishing Company. in anadian. Society. R.Dannell,ed. Edmonton: Linguistic Research, Inc. Cedergren, H. 1973 «the social dialects of Panama.» Unpub- Savells, Jetald O. .. blished Ph.D. dissertation, Cornell University. '1969 Parental attitudes toward bil' giial programs of instruction in the elementary Willy, David K grades: a pilot study in three selected com- 1971 «Black through White: Patterns of ccm- munities in South Louisiana.» Unpublished munication in.Africa and thearew World.» M.A.Thesis,Louisiana StateUniversity. InBlackWhite Speech Relation? ips. Walt Wolfram and Nona H. Clarke, eds. Washings Shuy, R. et. al. ton: Center for Applied Linguistics, Urban 1967«Linguistic correlates of social strat fi- Language Series, pp. 99-138. cationinDetroitspeech.» Coopers ve Research Report 6: 1347. DeCamp, D. 1971«Toward a generative analysis of a post- Smith, T. Lynn anti Homer L. Hitt Creole speech continuum.»InPidginization 1952 «The People of Louisiana.» Baton and Creolization of Languages.Dell Hymes, Rouge:LouisianaState University Press. ed.London: Cambridge University press.pp 349-370. Swartz, Marc 1960 «Situational determinants of kinship . Labov, William terminology.» Southwestern Journal of 1966 «The Social Stratification of Englishin Anthropology 16: 393-397. New York City»: Washington: Center for 4 293 It a ) 1. es 14, 288 e-1"7tc Stephen A. 1969 «Context and variatioltin Koya kin Ip .terminology.»InCognitive Anthropology. Stephen A. Tylered. New Yorkjiliolt, Rinehart, and Winston. pp. 487.503! Von Wartburg, W. . 1942 «To what extent is an atlastf to4isiana Frencli pcissible and desirable? »Amerivan A Councif of Learned Societies..' Bulletin 34: 655-661. )1 Aallace, Anthony F. C;... 1966Culture and Personality.Slew York: -\. , Random House. Wolff Walt 1971 «Black-White speech difference's revisited. InBlackhite Speech,fitationships.Walt Wolfram and Non HACIarke, eds. Washin'- ton: Center for Applied Linguistics, Urban 1 S. Language Series. pp. 139-161." . , Repriinted b), permission of the author. I-. ti 10 el 294 * LA CUISINE CHEZ NOUS Par Soeur Marguerite Cyr Des peuples d'origines, de cultures et de l'honneur comme eutrefois. croyances totalement differentes se rencr- trerent,it y a trois cents ans, sur les rives La «maftresSe de rnaisoft», c'estbsurto-ut rocheuses du Nouveau Monde.Nous pour- comme «CordonBleu»li faut la (Werke. films done dire avec sincerite que la Cuisine, Elle prepare des mets delicieux inspires par ses Chez Nous, n'etait ni francaise, ni anglaise. bonnes vieilles recettesElle.n'a pas besoin de livre, ni de mesure. Elle4ait utiliser les mille C'etait plutot le respect du pass4, et un petits Hens qui sont a sa disposition, et elle le t desir honnete de creer des combinaisons mer- fait avec simplicite et bon gout. e .Neilleuses avec les aliments qu'on avait en a- bondance, tels que le lait, le beurre, les oeufs, CHOWDER les legumes, la viande, ainsi que les fruits sauvages. Ily a longtemps, sur les 'cotes de Bretagne, le cri «Faites.,la Chauttiere!» re- Nos anceties mangeaient des «plogues» sonnait a l'approche d'une flotille de Oche. trois fois par jour excepte le dimanehe. Ce On allumait des feux de camp sur la plage et. jour IAit y avait du bon pain de menage.Il on mettait l'eau a bouillir dans de grandes midi, j repas se composait d'une soupe, du chaudieres. En debarquant, cheque pecheur lar14 die et des patates. Pour dessert, it y avait deposait une .prise ou deux dans la marmite, de Nta melasse ou du, sirop d'erable.Le sok. les femmes y ajoutaient pommes de terre, encore du lard sale, des patates a «Barnard»; oignons, carpotes et lard sale. Et lorsque le' du lait caille et du sucre d'erable. tout avait mijote, on celebrait «La Fête du ,potage.» 'Les Bretons apporterentleurs II yawaitdesfruitssauvagesen chaudieres, en Acadie. Ce mot se transforma quantite:fraises, framboises, mores, merises, bientot en «chbwder» et designe fmaintenant cerises, bleuets,et pommes. Au printemps, la soupe plutot la marmite. l'erable donnait sa seve precieuse qui devenait un sirop ou cru sucre delicieux. LA SOUPE 11 fallait vendre devproduitsr de la ferme Des potages onctueux et parfumes se pour se procurer du the, qu cafe, des epices, et servaient souvent a la 'able du colon; c'etait de la melasse.Le t1W etle cafe etaient alors un repas complet... Nout avons conserve reserves pour des fetes speciales, et la famille cette tradition chez nous car la soupe etait acadienne buvait de l'eau, du lait et du petit- toujours bien epaisse, bien substantielle, car tail. on y mettait de la viande, du riz, de I'orge -- un peu de tout. Pour faire une bonne soupeit Chez nous, lei bowies vieilles recettes fallait un bon bouillon que yon preparait la ne dispaPaissent pas; elles sont transmises de veille: un gigot de mouton ou de boeuf, generation en generation.Les plogues, le recouvrir d'eau froide, amener a ebullition; boudin,lescretons,latourtiere,sont faire cuire a petit feu jusqu'A ce que la viande 289 295 1' rr , 290*. devienne tendre.Le lendemain, on enleve la soirs,itfaait frire des tranches plitates graisse et, on mgt le liquide dans tin pot de dans la gyaigse de grillades avec; des oignonS faience, ono le r_Acgovr'e dun tinge pour empe- tranches,et,lesaniangeait avec des jrillacles de cher is fermentatidq. lard. Le.nom est devenq célèbre chez nous, et encoreaujourd'hui, lorsqu'on fait (uire 'des «CRETONS DE CHEZ ISIOU,» patates dans la graisse, on appelle celA «des patates a Balnard»... 2 livres de panne* 3 livres de pore hache LE PAIN DE CHEZ NOUS 2 petits rogtions de pore 2 tasses d'eau bouillante . Depuis que nos ancietres Acadiens op- 1 tasse d'Agnoti hache prirent files Indiens comment cultiver le ble 1 c. a table de sel d'Inde, et en fake une farine, le pain de ble.o, 1/4 c, a tire de poivre d'Inde est devenu Mare. De meme pour le 2 gousses d'ail, Acrasees 14.Le «Johnny Cake», le «Boston Brown 1 feuille de laurier Bread» et les` 291 C .trois foisvpai jour... On les faisait avec de la Manger lesingredients sech etles farine de «lzugophit» (buckwheat) sarrasin. Il laisser reposer. Battre un oeuf et .intorporer: failait conseiVer une grande quantite de farine pour en avoir ,squill la prochaine moisson. 1 t. de petit-lait Les recettes etatent variees - plogues minces, 2 c. a the de beurre fol ,Au plogues levees, plogues au lait-beurre, plogues c. A table de melasse lu Nit, etc.Les plogues.sont populaires au- jourd'hui comme autrefois et en voyageant Y ajouter les ingredients secs, battre, on en trouve un peupartfut. mettre au four pendant 20 minutes. .,Couper en morceau de 2 pouces. a a 1.t. de farine de «buckwhit» 1 Cde farine blanche 1 t. d 'eau Detremper comme faut, ajouter un peu de sodaetWeauqui a bouilli. Faire cuire dans une poele ce fonte. «JOHNNY CAKE» Pain de ble d'Inde ti Un pain 'de ble d'Inde ,qui est devenu célèbre, c'est le «Johnny Cake.»L'origine remonte aux temps otl nos ancetres devaient aller d'un village A l'autre a pied. C'etait l'af- *ire d'une journee. La mere faisait des petits idsins de ble d'Inde et elle remplissakt la besate de son maxi qui les mangeait en route. C'etait des galettes pout la «journee.»Une bonne 4 dame dont le marl s'appelait S Tamiser: 1t. de farine I 1/2 t. de sucre 1/4 c. a thiwilksel 1/2 c. kthe de soda 1 c. a the de poudre a pate 1 c.athe defarinede tole dfnde t 2 9 7 t LOUISIANA'S CREOLE-ACADIA CUISINE by Ernest Gueymard 4 Louisiana, unlike Gail!,is divided cuisine ,had gained some renown, even in into two parts, the North and the South. the days of Mark Twain who spoke of the saltwatei pompanb 'as being «delici us as Culinarily ;peaking, this makesisense. the less criminal forms of sin.» Anglo-Saxon North ,Louisianais not at home with the brown goux, nor jambalaya But before we lose our balance over and crawfish etouffee.But Soutlii,louisi- the charms of South Louisiana's larder and ana's Cajun country and Nouvelle Or- what we do' with it, let's briefly examine leans have a way all their own with herbs the word Creole, about which there are and spices, gravies, fish courtbouillons, gum- someMisconceptions. And we'll examine bos and French drip coffee. . the word Cajun, too. Indllsections where the Gallic There are several definitions, but influencehaspenetrated,onefinds basically most agre that a Creole is a white Louisiana Creole-Acadian cuisine, which / descendant of an original Louisiana settler, .sometimes. is ineptly called French. This is especially a French or Spanish settler. The in encl. because South Louisiana cookery is WM isthe French translation of the different,partlybecause of itsrather Spanish word criollo, first used in the 16th generous isinsharp century by Spaniards to distinguishtheir contrastto the someat bland dishes own ,pureblooded children from those rof 'foundinLouisiana'smother country, mixed blood, that is, a Spaniard and a non- France, , Spaniard, born in the colonies. The state's indigenous cuisine too Of course, Cajun is the corruption of long has been a sort of stepchild to world Acadian, the 'French who were, residents of gastronomy, but happily this situation is Acadle,now' Nova Scotia,and who ar- changing. Newspapers and magazines rived in Louisiana beginning in the 1760's round the world are devoting more at- -following eviction by the English. These tention to Louisiana food and the state's Acadians had come from various sections tourist industry is growing.The result: of France originally. Louisiana cookery getting -its share' of attention. Food writers often ivake an exagger- ated distinction between -called Creole Perhaps the bigge t freent shot in cookery and Cajun cookery.This can be the arm was Time-Life Foo s of the misleading because basically the two are World publication, «Am,an Cooking: double first cousins and are the same in Crile and Acadian.» many respects, being a happy fusion of the food tastes of numerous peoples, not Of course, long years ago Louisiana only French and Spanish.' 'ft 292 293 wever, there are sortie differences, eve!, Creole horses. th Creole uisinileaningmore to haute cui- si e and pertitps ?little less seasoning. While This feeling may be illustrated in the jailnbalaya and gumbo wouldbe very at home view of some old-timers in the heavily- in both kitchens, flambeed dishes; for in- French populated areas who have not yet stance, are more popular in Creole cookery accustomed themselves to this «foreign and boudin rouge (blood sausage) Alight be influence» - that is, the influx of people to the piece de resistance in, say, Mamou. South Louisiana from Anglo-Saxon regions. Some writers, not specific about the InWorld WarIIone Louisiana *difference, settle for something lace this: French grandmother raised Cain when her «Cr'eole cuisine is city stuff and Cajun eook- granddaughter married a northern soldier erybelongs in the colintryge boy stationed in a South Louisiana military camp.Later, when the warriage,went on But enough of this divisive talk. This the rocks and her Ube came home, granny is mostly semantics. South Louisiana cook- exclaimed: d never did believe in mixed ery, Creole and Acadian, in all its forms marriages». stacks up mightily to the lofty French cui sine, and to the Louisiana palate, it issup- And another grandmother with close erior, naturellement. tiesto Neu Orleans commented when askedabout New Orleans family named 'fp our way of thinking this cooking Johnson. «Oh,» she said, «you mean those has a cultural connotation, bringing to mind «Americans.»;And soit goes. Native a way of life, a certain joie de vivre, 1 toler- South Louisianans cherish their Latin back- ance not found in every clime. This frame ground and this includes familiarity with a of mind is best expressed in a South Louis- great number of succulent dishes. iana French expression faitesrouler le bon temps (let the good times roll on).Voila! Cooking customsofthe various This feeling has spread to transplanted resi- nationalities inthecolonialperiod dents from other sections who before too eventually «married.»Although the basic ilong, are hopelessly converted even to contributions were initially by the French, strong coffee. South Louisiana cookery influences include the Spanish, Negro slaves, Indians, German The food likes of the various nation- settlers, Italians who came much later, and alities that found their way to South Louis- from just plain Americans who moved iana eventually merged into one over is long South. period and out of this mélange evolved what we know today'as Creole-Acadian cuisine. The French who came here directly from France or from the West Indies, In both New Orleans ,nd all over brought with them the ancient culinary south Louisiana ItheretheFrench knowledge of their homeland as did the influenceis apparent, things Gallic are Acadiang,alsoFrench, who brought a more or less exalted, even today. The word somewhat similar but hardier cuisine from Creole has come to signify the best and in Canada. the Creole tradition, one speaks of Creole A beans, Creole mustard, Creole pralines - 294 It is said that the French emphasized The Indians gave us file, powdered home-grown vegetables, sauces,. and a love sassafras leaves, used as a flavoring and of onions, including the shallot. They liked thickening agent in gumbos. lettuce too. (The lettuce today in France, incidentally, is hard to beat.) Now just what is this Creole-Acadian cuisine? How is it different from the cook- Tile Spanish lent a pungedv in their ery of other lands? Well for onething, the use of chili, peppers, pimientos, tropical use of herbs and spices israther unique. spices and herbs. The prevalence of parsley Perhaps the best way to define the term ;s in South Louisiana cookery is credited to todescribesome traditionalSouth the Spanish.Italians showed us how to Louisiana dishes. make a good tomato sauce. Germans gave a robust tone to some dishes, including One of the distinguishing character- andouille. a smoked pork sausage, which is istics of this .cookeryisthe foundation also French: mixture we call a rout; oil or butter cooked with flour in thai dear old iron Let'snotminimizethe culinary skillet untilit's brownish.The roux not contributions of the Indians which were only adds color, but tastes as well, and is not limited to use of Indian corn and wild used'in making gravies% stews and gtunbos, fruits. They made bread from maize and among other things. also from powdered dried fruits.They know how to barbecue and fry fish well. .There's one cardinalprinciplein South Louisiana the roux must be dark .A popular Indian dish was sagamite, and must be cooked slowly. a kind of pap made from maize and some- timescooked withbeans andmeats. The strong feeling foraown gravy TheearlyFrench 'explorers,including as opposed to a white gravy can beillus- LePage du Nate; have left us a vastly dif- trated in a comment made by a native in ferent picture to that taught the average describing a woman whose grooming was school child. The Red men did not mainly all bad - hair stringy, no makeup, ill-fitting spend their days finding people to scalp. garments. The critical comment went Beans wereastaple crop when Pierre something like.this: «Why she looks like a LeMoyne,' Sion; O'Iberville established the woman who would make gray gravy!»No first French 4ttlement in the Mississippi epithet could be more abrasive than to Valley. accuse a woman of tiis «crirne.» The Indians developed many varie- Hovolong should a roux be cooked? ties of corn.Only recently an Associated That depends. Some say 20 to 30 minutes Press dispatch told of the research by is sufficient.Others. wouldn't settle for George Wells Beadle, retired president,of anything less than an hour, and a New the University of Chicago, who says that Iberia friend devotes about four hours to the Indians had developed' some 300 types this preliminary task.Surely, these four of corn by the time Columbus reached hours must have included browning the America.Du Pratz gave them credit for onions. development of the melon and the pump- kin. Speaking of onions, South Louisiana 3,0 295 storekpers usually classify them as white lucky and this was followed by café au onion, How onion, Creole onion (the red- laic for breakfast. Also, coffee off and on dish ones), green onion and shallot. (Green during the day. onions and shallots are different).You'd have to hunt all year and into the next to Some Louisianians prefer medium or find a typical South Louisiana Gallic cook light roast and others are reduced to vari- who would use the word scallion, a word so ous decaffeinated coffees. Dripolators and often thrust on us Southerners by writers - percolators, or the vacuum method, are all even in the very marvelous book, «Ameri- put tousein making coffee.Instant can Cooking: Creole, and Acadian.» is also used ( a venial sin to a loyal French- man). The old black cast iron skillet is an important part of the batterie dcuisine. In Civil War days coffee addicts were Someone has said that in Old Louisiana reduced to parching sweet potatoes as a when a girl received her dowry a black iron substitute.Necessity is the mother of in- skilletalways went withthe arriage vention, ma chere, but what a substitute! dot. (Incidentally,this ancientrench custom of a dowry still prevails in est If you are having a fall meal, say Baton Rouge Parish where a perpetual fun dinner, coffee traditionally is served at the wasestablishedbythephilanthropist, - close of the meal, not during the main Julien .Poydras, for the benefit of needy course.Maybe during the meal with a brides). sandwich or a light snack, but if you serve it with dinner the only explanation is that Some cooks prefer skillets made of your Latin blood has e-ini out - you're a other metals, but try convincing a 1 ause- Yankee or something ev worse. wife from Marksville or Breaux Bridge or Pierre Part to change. Incidentally,if',.314 go to France and want some black coffee, don't ask Another fixture in South Louisiana for a demi-tasse.That's American.Just kitchens isthe French drip coffee pot. say Café or Café noir or perhapsjust Usually nothing but dark roast coffee - the Noir. Ifyou wish cream,sayCafé kind that stains the cup - is used. Some creme. areas use an auxiliary ingredient, chicory, especially New Orleans.It is said that one InthistreatmentofLouisiana ounce of chicory per 16 ounces of coffee Creole-Acadian dishes, it should be pointed will enhance the flavor, but alas, coffee out that all South Louisianians don't agree manufacturers run the gamut, sometimes on how to cook the same dish, nor are the even up to 20 per cent. Chicory is cheaper ingredients always the same. However, than coffee-that might explain these there is one area in which there is complete flights of fancy.However, chacun a son agreement - I never knew a Frenchman who gout. didn't love to eat. In the South Louisiana home or Take the grillades.(Actually, the yesterday, and to some extent today, you word designates grilled meat.)The most always started the day off with a pot of popular way to prepare this dishis to steaming black coffee - in bed if you were brown veal or beef cutlets, make a roux, 296 add onions, salt and pepper, green pepper, The Acadianboucherie,when the thyme, sometimes tomato, water and then porker squeals his swan song, is still popu- «just cook down» until tender. A popular lar over South Louisiana - about the time West Baton Rouge cook limits the amount when cane grinding starts and the frost is of tomato - «just a tablespoon of paste to on the pumpkin.Neighbors often lend a give it a glow». hand in the hog butchery and as a reward usually go home with a fresh h,am or at In some areas,breaded veal cut- leastsome scraps for sausagemaking. letsarecalledgrenadesor betterstill, cotelettes de .yeaupanties,orgrillades Inthe French country one finds paikes. boudin bithc,andboudin rougeor blood sausage. The meat in this sausage can In the Breaux Bridge area, a well- be any ctitlof the hog.Sometimes it is known cook explained that she always the scraps, the head and the feet.The marinatedhergrilladesinvinegar for better.. cuts arc used for roasts, rib chops, about two days.This method apparently etc. One St. Martinville store owner says is employed to tenderize the meat. Unlike that for sausages the meat is boiled, ground some other areas, Ole never uses flour for coarsely, then cooked green onions, parsley the gravy. «Nevair». and sometimes garlicare added. Next cayenne pepper and salt, cooked rice and Grenadesget along admirably with the mixture is stuffed in pork casings. The good old grits.In the Baton Rouge area it water of the boiled stock is used as a thin- is popular to serve this dish «after the fodt- ning agent if needed. This is the recipe for ball game» because it can all be prepared in boudinblanc. Forboudin rouge,the; advance. added ingredient is the porker's blood. Salt is added to keep the blood from coagula- Speaking of grits,authoress Mary ting. For 100 pounds of sausage, you can Land writes amusingly of this Louisiarl use from one to two gallonsof blood. staple in her recent book, «New Orleans Cuisine».She says that there is an old A completely different sausageis saying in Carolina which goes Me this: andouille,very popular in the Mississippi «Never call it hominy grits, or you will give River parishes of St. James, S14:41ohn and Charlestonians fits». You'll also give some St. Charles.You'll find it also' in some Louisianiansfitstoo, although you do other sections, Out not everywherein sometimes run into that «hominy grits» Louisiana. The early German settlers, and crowd, (In New Orleans). late tbe French, in St.John and St.Charles, seem o have introducedandouilleto There's a little trick you can play on Louisia a. However,andouilleexisted your northern visitor.Serve him boiled or in France at this time and long before. The baked grits and listen well. Nine out of ten Germans are go cod sausage makers and ap- times he will say «Please pass me some parently they carried their home customs more grit» - minus the «s». To allLoui- to the new land. sianians, North and South, grits. is a collec- tive noun and so one should say, «the grits. Andouilleis now sold commercial- is good». lyanditspreparation has come under stricter regulations.In the old days, it is 392 1 297 said, justabout everything except the sometimes even yams.The stomach is son' was thrown in.And usually the browned and then sty:med. parts used were not the good cuts. Into the casings went mostly scraps, fatty pieces,. One of the most popular of all stomach ''rings, the liver, the heart, and Creole-Acadian dishes is gumbo. How it even grow id up intestines. «And the Lord evolved in the New World is an interesting knows what else», one native pointed out. story. The meat is always chopped, not It has been said that the Louisiana ground. The famous food writer, Waverly Frenchman puts everything into the gumbo Root, says that the name derives from the but the Creole. Latin inducere, which means «to intro- duce».For andouille the ingredients are The word for okra in Congolese is pushed or «introduced» in the casings. quingombo. When the slaves arrived in Louisiana, they continued to eat stewed To make andouille,one of the okra.The dish they made came to be lasting contributions of the early Louisiana called gombo, even when other available settlers on the German coast (COte des ingedients 'such as shrimp, oysters and Allemands), the sausage is smoked in top- crab, were added. When okra was not used, less and bottomless barrels and hung over- the dish was still called gombo, or its En- head.Palmetto leaves used to be placed glish equivalent, gumbo. over all.A good art ouelle maker has his wood preferences for smoking and many The evolution of gumbo may have likepecan and hackberry. Sometimes been influenced when the French found bagasse( what'sleft of the sugar cane that in Louisiana they could not duplicate stalk after grinding) is thrown on the smok- allof theingredients for their famed ing fire to give flavor, or even cane syrup. bouillabaisse.>> Andouille is eaten as a sort of Okra is the thickening agent. When hors d'oeuvres (good with beer or a hi-ball) no okra is used, the Louisianafile provides or as meat for a meal, but better still as a the thickening agent.Apply the file at flavoringagentingumbos,especially about the time you turn off the fire, other- chicken gumbo, io which file is added. wise the gumbo will be a fiasco very ropy. The word file comes from the French verb Hog killing time nets the owner a filer, to twist.If you let it cook, it will variety of meats the boudin, bacon become stringy. This explanation is by the (petit sale), ham (jambon), sausage (sau- late Dr. W. A. Read in his study of African cisse), and hogshead cheese (fromage de words that have made their way into Loui- Cochon, ou tete fromagee), and cracklings siana French. (gratons). There are two other meanings of Nothing of the porkerislost gombo inLouisiana. The word is ap- not even the stomach.A delicious dish plied to a heavy, sticky soil; also to the isthestuffed ponce, sometimes called Negro. French patois. chaudin. The stuffing usually includes ground pork, bread and assorted seasoning, There's no end tothedifferent 31)3 298 South Louisiana gumbos - the ingredients country. This isa Spanish-Creole dish couldincludeshrimp,combinations of made with rice and other ingredients which ,'crabs, oyster,chicken,sausage, duck, squir- range from any seafood, ground meat, ham, rel, or what-have-you.Gombo z 'herbes duck, crawfish, sat-Age, chicken, turkey - employs six or seven vegetables and was a even cowpeas. In this latter case it's called mainstay during Lent. If it wasn't a day of jambalaya aux congris. Sometimes to- abstinence, a piece of salt meat was always matoes are usedfor flavor and color. used. OneSouthLouisianiandescribedthe contents of gumbo as «just about every- In the strict observance of Lenten thing short of sweeping up the kitchen days of abstinence- and today, too, for floor». that matter - some housewives would «re- inforce» the gumbo, that is, make it more There are many schools of thought nutritious, by dropping in raw eggs which in jambalaya-making but most agree that would quickly poach in the gumbo liquid. the dish is better if you add raw rice to the A family from Broussard still follows this other ingredients rather than cooked rice. custom today.Another adds, eggs, but hard-cooked ones. A variantwouldbesomething jocularly called «dirty» rice.Perhaps the Along with gumbo, various soups chopped chicken livers and gizzards added arean importantpart of the Creole- to the rice contribute to the «dirty» look Acadian cuisine today. A popular dish is of this dish, which, incidentally, is usually fresh corn and tomato soup. If you lived served more moist than the jambalaya. But along theMississippiorother streams jambalaya or «dirty» rice - they're both that provided shrimp, there was nothing yummy-yum good! better than to add river shrimp to the suur. Theinroadsofindustryalongthe Shellfiskisvery !To)? a part of Mississippi with its accompanying pollution South Louisida cookery, especially craw- have just about ruined this supply, how- fish (crayfish if you're from the North - ever. thatis,if you live north of Alexandria, cs La.Crawfish used to be a seasonal dish, Let us not leave this soup category but now the crawfish are grown commer- before commenting on a dish strangely cially and the availability has been greatly called maquechou, which is Indian-style extended. They were even on the market stewed corn and tomatoes, to which shrimp last Christmas. was often added.This is just about the same as corn-tomato soup, without the Crawfishbisque(labisque d'ere- water. In former days in many French pisse) is as popular as ever in Louisiana and homes soup found its way to the table one doesn't have to go far to find crawfish almost daily. There was great variety here in stews, pies, or just fried. The piece de includingwhite bean soup, and turtle resistance,we believe,istheso-called soup - you name it, they had it. crawfishetouffee (smotheredcrawfish), said to have been started commercially by On a par with gumbo inhe eyes a Breathe Bridge, La. restauranteur, Mme of a South Louisiana Frenchman is jam- Harris Champagne who said that one day balaya - «jumbalaya» if you're from the she didn't have enough time to make a 3 j 4 299 roux and so she combined onion, butter Oyster soup is delicious and is usual, and crawfish tails and sauteed all.She ly made with milk and cream, but in the likeditbetter than with the flour, as in old Creole cuisine, the soup was also made crawfish stew.She put this on her menu without the dairy product. Some soup fan- and soon the idea spread. ciers use clam juice to compensate for the lack of good oyster water. Bottled oysters The etoufeeisservedoverrice sold in the supermarket are washed in com- which South Louisiana folks dearly love. pliance with health laws and this can be They like potatoes, too, but rice comes detrimental tO flavor. first, and like soup, it used to be eaten daily in the French homes. Crab boils, with beer as the beverage, are popular all over South Louisiana. The Fresh and salt water fish are plenti- meat of the crab is quite a luxury item fulin Louisiana and the Creole-Acadian these days and, of course, should never be kitchens make the most of them.Spicy frozen for best results.Frog-legs are wel- sauce piquante, heavy with tomato, finds come in some homes, not all.The old its way not only over fish, but with chick- story about how they jump in the pot en and other meats, including even squir- while being cooked is not just fable.As rel. Fish courtbouillon, with red fish a child I used to squeal with delight when or red snapper,is deep French country they did. fare. One of the most typical of Acadian ShrimpisamainstayinSouth dishes is coush-coush, a sort of fried corn- Louisianaandisservedstewed,fried bread eaten as a cereal with milk and sugar, or stuffed and often used to season vege- or with syrup. tables.Shrimp Creole is a mainstay in Creole-Acadian cuisine. Eggplant, squash and mirliton (vege- tablepear)lendvarietyto the South Many old wives' tales have developed Louisiana cookery. There are many ways over food poisoning, partly because of the to prepare these.Our choice is stuffed lack of refrigeration.This especially ap- mirliton.This delightful vegetable came plied to milk and seafood. An uncle firmly to Louisiana from the West Indies.Mir- believed that mixing raw oysters with a liton is the name of the vegetable in Hai- whiskey highball would quickly put you tian-French. Itiscalledchayotein under the sod. Spain. Oysters abound in Louisiana coo.,- Crisp fried eggplantslices are an y, but their use, especially in the old days example of distinctive South Louisiana where proper 5efrigeyation was lacking, was cookery. A unique touch isto lightly limited to areas nar where they were sprinkle sugar over the slices before serving. found. The most celebrated oyster dish in Magnifique! the haute cuisine would probably be Oys- tersRockefeller and the most popular A typical Creole-Acadiandishis would probably be au naturelle on the half- bourn!( boiledbeef)usingbtisketor shell. soup meat. This dish is often accompanied by vegetables cooked along with the meat. 3(15 la 300 Or perhaps the meat is served only with a farmers train hogs for this task, but dogs horseradish-tomato sauce. Game birds have are used too. from the early days been an important item in Creole-Acadian fare, including the The truffles, which havea nutty dove, the elusive snipe and quail (bob- flavor, were sort of dark tan in Natchi- white). toches -in Europe you have the black 'truffle of some regions in France and the Duck dishes - goose too - have held white truffle of Italy. H. Payne Breazeale a high spot in Louisiana cookery.The says that many years have passed since they marshes seem to beckon to these winged hunted truffles - it seems that the time was visitors. from the North. The mallard duck usually after a spring rain when the dogs is regal fare. were able to get a scent.Trufflesare costlya small one about one inch by two One species thatis definitely not sells retail for around $4.00. The Breazales popularis the poule d'eau (pronou*d used them to flavor gravies.Often you as pool doo). This is the water duck truffle a turkey and you do this by insert- whose (flesh h:is a fishy flavor.Howkver, ing slivers of the truffle between the skin the clever cook can minimize objectionable and the meat of the turkey. They impart flavors. a deliciousflavor to a creamed sauce. A story made the rounds in Baton The French influence in food is very Rouge about a newcomer from the North much evident at Natchitoches,unlike,most who unwittingly chose poule d'eau as areasiv North Louisiana.One of the her principal supper dish for a large func- dishes that has become synonymous with tion. To this day they still talk about Miss the name Natchitoches is the meat pie, a X's faux pas. (One last comment on poule delicious indivickal pie of beef and pork. d'eau just don't pull the trigger while This, however, sounds more English than hunting -let him go on his merry fishy French. hunt). An institution in Louisiana, is the A dish popular on many tables- Poor- Boy sandwich. One would not sometimes called «soul food» - is red beans think this exactly fits in the category of and rice.The beans are usually cooked Creole cuisine, but it really does and dates with a generous cut of salt meat or ham- to the Creole French.In French pour- bone.It is on the regular menu of many boire means tip or more precisely, ngtney South Louisiana families. with which to drink to the donor's health. Delivery boys and just plain beggars would The truffle, a black subterranean knock at the back door of a New Orleans edible fungus, is not really included in ihe convent and ask for a pourboire. The category of Creole cuisine, but the truffle Sisters didn't believe in drinking and had did once grow in Louisiana. For this4ttle little money, so they giKe out sandwiches culinary morsel we are indebted to the instead, and what sandwiches - a whole Breazeale family of Natchitoches. On the small loaf of French bread sliced horizon- brks of a stream where there were oak tally, and filled with whatever was in the tfees the family often hunted foruffles, larder. English-speakingbeggarssoon using dogs. In Europe, traditionally, fit kfound out about these pourboires and 3 1) 6 %Nur imagined that they were for «Po' Boy's*, and sugar.Itis a sort of a s«pick up» which of course, they were.Today the drink, something to serve instead of coffee Poor Boy sandwich is filled with just about. when friends drop by.- Port and sherry are anything, sliced beef, often with gravy, or also served, but cherry bounce, very well oysters or any kind of meat. Poor Boys are named,isconsidered something special. popular over the entire Southweit. An unusual wine tale'is related by a A delightfulFrench customthat Baton Rougean. It is a true story, avers an used to prevail in the Creole homes was oldfriend,adescendantof oneof the coup de milieu, when sherbet or a Napoleon Bonaparte's soldiers who made flavored ice was served in the middle of an their way to Louisiana following Waterloo. extended meal.This was taken as an aid It concerns five transplanted Frenchmen to digestion and to provide a little break in who wished to return to France for just the dining. This custom was not universal, one visit before they died. Each of course, and was limited to the more a wish that they be buried in their ne affluenthomesandtoanniversaries, homeland, Louisiana.All went well on dinners and banquets. the sea voyage, they met distant' kin and werewinedan.1dinedextensively4 in In theNorthof Franc,g. (in France, but on the long sea voyage return- Normandy) one finds a delightful variation ing, one of the five died aboard ship. they serve Calvados (Apple Jack Brandy). The customiscalled a trouNormand. Consternation setin- howcduld The idea, or rather excuse, was that the they get the body back to Louisiana for spirits made a trou (hole or gap the interment! They rubbed Gallic heads throatto make way for more foo,to together and suddenly one of them. came come. A Louisiana variant in Creoleew up with an ingenious plan - and it word. Orleans is something called «Creole beer», They simply deposited the poor soul in consisting of brandy, champagne, .ginger a large barrel of French wine.A good ale, and crushed pineapples. preservative, because when the ship pulled into the Port of New OrlFans;.the remains Beverages inthe South Louisiana of their podeparted was in tip-top shape. home include wine, but ffee and And he happily goo)be buried in the soil iced tea are favorites. «We used to drink a of Louisiana. lot of root beer and lemonade when we tere growing up», one South Louisianian A popular Yuletide drink in.Soutt. confided. «Also some whiskey, too, yes.»». Louisianaiseggnog. In some French homes they have not capitulated to the Another drink, tres distinguie,is universally popular rich, cold southern egg- the mint julep- Bourbon whiskey over nog. Instead, a less rich hot drink, akin to crushedice, mint and sweetened water. a Tom and "'Jerry,is served.Fruit cake This probablyis more Old South than and other traditional Christmas cakes, and Creole. other sweets also make the rounds. In the realm of spirits, we want to In the line of desserts, perhaps the mention cherry bounce, a potent drink most Creole of dishes would be crêpes. made of wild cherries, Bourbon whiskey The beignet, a fritter or doughnut, is quite (4 3 0 7 302 tasty.Fig ice cream was popular, also Adherence tothe sometimes rich almond nougat and pecan pralines.On South Louisiana cookery is great - that is if, Twelfth Night in many homes all over the youdon'tweakenwithheartburnor state otieis served King's Cake.In New culinary mishap. It was William Makepeace Orleans, especially, King's Cake is on the Thackeray who found New Orleans k A dish perennially popular is. bread pudding. In some areas the dish is en- hanced by pouring over a butter-sugar - Bourbon *hiskey sauce. Less popular today but superior in every way is floating island (lie ftottante). N Time changesIIof our lives and many of the old food customs are disap- pearing. More wives are working today and the old adage tha«slow cookery is good cookery» sometimesas flown out of the ( window. Among the changes is the old insti- tution of ithe.bountifuPSunday dinner. A friend once remarked sadly that her little kw would grow into manhood without ever really knowing what Sunday dinner meant. A sad commentary indeed. Today in Louisiana there seems to be a resurgence of things French, thanks to the efforts of the Council for the Develop- ment of French in Louisiana (CODOFIL). Let us hope, irt addition to a re-birth of la langue franraise, the culinary traditions as exemplified in Louisiana's unique Creole- Acadian cuisine will remain with us for all time. Reprinted by permission of the author. z vieAt NI PR I... 1. i / 308