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Food Additives Tutorial Program for technical & production managers in food industries

By: Hameed Haghani Haghighi The Vice- Chancellor’s Office in Food & Drug Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences MAR. 2015 [email protected] [email protected]

1 Food Additives

• Introduction • Why Are Food and Color Ingredients Added to Food? • What Is a ? • What Is a Color Additive? • How Are Additives Approved for Use in Foods? • Types of Food Ingredients • Additional Information • Questions and Answers

2

Food Additives Introduction

• For centuries, ingredients have served useful functions in a variety of foods. • Our ancestors used salt to preserve and fish, added herbs and spices to improve the flavor of foods, preserved fruit with sugar, and pickled cucumbers in a vinegar solution.

3 Food Additives Introduction

• There are thousands of ingredients used to make foods. • (FDA) maintains a list of over 3000 ingredients • many of which we use at home every day (e.g., sugar, baking soda, salt, vanilla, yeast, spices and colors).

4 Food Additives Introduction

• Today, consumers demand and enjoy a food supply that is flavorful, nutritious, safe, convenient, colorful and affordable. • Food additives and advances in technology help make that possible

5 Food Additives Introduction

• concerns about additives, because they may see the long, unfamiliar names and think of them as complex chemical compounds. • In fact, every food we eat - whether a just-picked strawberry or a homemade cookie - is made up of chemical compounds that determine flavor, color, texture and nutrient value.

6 Food Additives Introduction

• All food additives are carefully regulated by federal authorities and various international organizations to ensure that foods are safe to eat and are accurately labeled

7 Food Additives Why Are Food and Color Ingredients Added to Food?

• To Maintain or Improve Safety and Freshness: Preservatives slow product spoilage caused by mold, air, bacteria, fungi or yeast. • In addition to maintaining the quality of the food, they help control contamination that can cause foodborne illness, including life-threatening botulism. • One group of preservatives -- antioxidants -- prevents fats and oils and the foods containing them from becoming rancid or developing an off-flavor. • They also prevent cut fresh fruits such as apples from turning brown when exposed to air.

8 Food Additives Why Are Food and Color Ingredients Added to Food? • To Improve or Maintain Nutritional Value: Vitamins and minerals (and fiber) are added to many foods to make up for those lacking in a person's diet or lost in processing, or to enhance the nutritional quality of a food. • Such fortification and enrichment has helped reduce malnutrition in the U.S. and worldwide. All products containing added nutrients must be appropriately labeled.

9 Food Additives Why Are Food and Color Ingredients Added to Food? • Improve Taste, Texture and Appearance: • Spices, natural and artificial flavors, and sweeteners are added to enhance the taste of food. • Food colors maintain or improve appearance. Emulsifiers, stabilizers and thickeners give foods the texture and consistency consumers expect. • Leavening agents allow baked goods to rise during baking. • Some additives help control the acidity and alkalinity of foods, while other ingredients help maintain the taste and appeal of foods with reduced fat content.

10 Food Additives What Is a Food Additive? • In its broadest sense, a food additive is any substance added to food. Legally, the term refers to "any substance the intended use of which results or may reasonably be expected to result -- directly or indirectly -- in its becoming a component or otherwise affecting the characteristics of any food." This definition includes any substance used in the production, processing, treatment, packaging, transportation or storage of food.

11 Food Additives What Is a Food Additive? • The purpose of the legal definition, however, is to impose a premarket approval requirement. • Therefore, this definition excludes ingredients whose use is generally recognized as safe (where government approval is not needed), those ingredients approved for use by FDA or the U.S. Department of Agriculture prior to the food additives provisions of law, and color additives and pesticides where other legal premarket approval requirements apply.

12 Food Additives What Is a Food Additive? • Direct food additives are those that are added to a food for a specific purpose in that food. • For example, -- used in salad dressings, chocolate milk, bakery fillings, and other foods to add texture -- is a direct additive. Most direct additives are identified on the ingredient label of foods.

13 Food Additives What Is a Food Additive? • Indirect food additives are those that become part of the food in trace amounts due to its packaging, storage or other handling. • For instance, minute amounts of packaging substances may find their way into foods during storage. Food packaging manufacturers must prove to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) that all materials coming in contact with food are safe before they are permitted for use in such a manner.

14 What Is a Color Additive?

• A color additive is any dye, pigment or substance which when added or applied to a food, drug or cosmetic, or to the human body, is capable (alone or through reactions with other substances) of imparting color. • FDA is responsible for regulating all color additives to ensure that foods containing color additives are safe to eat, contain only approved ingredients and are accurately labeled.

15 What Is a Color Additive?

• Color additives are used in foods for many reasons: • 1) to offset color loss due to exposure to light, air, temperature extremes, moisture and storage conditions; • 2) to correct natural variations in color; • 3) to enhance colors that occur naturally; and • 4) to provide color to colorless and "fun" foods.

16 What Is a Color Additive?

• Without color additives, colas wouldn't be brown, margarine wouldn't be yellow and mint ice wouldn't be green. • Color additives are now recognized as an important part of practically all processed foods we eat.

17 What Is a Color Additive?

• FDA's permitted colors are classified as subject to certification or exempt from certification, both of which are subject to rigorous safety standards prior to their approval and listing for use in foods.

18 What Is a Color Additive?

• Certified colors are synthetically produced (or human made) and used widely because they impart an intense, uniform color, are less expensive, and blend more easily to create a variety of hues. • There are nine certified color additives approved for use in the United States (e.g., FD&C Yellow No. 6. See chart for complete list.). • Certified food colors generally do not add undesirable flavors to foods.

19 What Is a Color Additive?

• Colors that are exempt from certification include pigments derived from natural sources such as vegetables, minerals or animals. • Nature derived color additives are typically more expensive than certified colors and may add unintended flavors to foods. • Examples of exempt colors include annatto extract (yellow), dehydrated beets (bluish-red to brown), caramel (yellow to tan), beta-carotene (yellow to orange) and grape skin extract (red, green).

20 How Are Additives Approved for Use in Foods? • Today, food and color additives are more strictly studied, regulated and monitored than at any other time in history. FDA has the primary legal responsibility for determining their safe use. • To market a new food or color additive (or before using an additive already approved for one use in another manner not yet approved), a manufacturer or other sponsor must first petition FDA for its approval. • These petitions must provide evidence that the substance is safe for the ways in which it will be used. • As a result of recent legislation, since 1999, indirect additives have been approved via a premarket notification process requiring the same data as was previously required by petition.

21 How Are Additives Approved for Use in Foods?

• Under the Food Additives Amendment, two groups of ingredients were exempted from the regulation process. • GROUP I - Prior-sanctioned substances - are substances that FDA or USDA had determined safe for use in food prior to the 1958 amendment. • Examples are sodium nitrite and potassium nitrite used to preserve luncheon meats.

22 How Are Additives Approved for Use in Foods?

• GROUP II - GRAS (generally recognized as safe) ingredients - are those that are generally recognized by experts as safe, based on their extensive history of use in food before 1958 or based on published scientific evidence. Among the several hundred GRAS substances are salt, sugar, spices, vitamins and monosodium glutamate (MSG). Manufacturers may also request that FDA review the industry's determination of GRAS Status.

23 How Are Additives Approved for Use in Foods?

• When evaluating the safety of a substance and whether it should be approved, FDA considers: 1) the composition and properties of the substance, 2) the amount that would typically be consumed, 3) immediate and long-term health effects, and 4) various safety factors. • The evaluation determines an appropriate level of use that includes a built-in safety margin - a factor that allows for uncertainty about the levels of consumption that are expected to be harmless. • In other words, the levels of use that gain approval are much lower than what would be expected to have any adverse effect.

24 How Are Additives Approved for Use in Foods? • Because of inherent limitations of science, FDA can never be absolutely certain of the absence of any risk from the use of any substance. • Therefore, FDA must determine - based on the best science available - if there is a reasonable certainty of no harm to consumers when an additive is used as proposed.

25 How Are Additives Approved for Use in Foods?

• If an additive is approved, FDA issues regulations that may include the types of foods in which it can be used, the maximum amounts to be used, and how it should be identified on food labels. • In 1999, procedures changed so that FDA now consults with USDA during the review process for ingredients that are proposed for use in and poultry products. • Federal officials then monitor the extent of Americans' consumption of the new additive and results of any new research on its safety to ensure its use continues to be within safe limits.

26 How Are Additives Approved for Use in Foods?

• If new evidence suggests that a product already in use may be unsafe, or if consumption levels have changed enough to require another look, federal authorities may prohibit its use or conduct further studies to determine if the use can still be considered safe. • Regulations known as Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) limit the amount of food ingredients used in foods to the amount necessary to achieve the desired effect.

27 Types of Food Ingredients

Types of What They Do Examples Names Found Ingredients of Uses on Product Labels

Preservatives Prevent food Fruit and Ascorbic acid, spoilage from jellies, beverages, citric acid, sodium bacteria, molds, baked goods, cured benzoate, calcium fungi, or yeast meats, oils and propionate, sodium (antimicrobials); margarines, erythorbate, slow or prevent cereals, dressings, sodium nitrite, changes in color, snack foods, fruits calcium sorbate, flavor, or texture and vegetables potassium sorbate, and delay rancidity BHA, BHT, EDTA, (antioxidants); tocopherols maintain freshness (Vitamin E)

28 Types of Food Ingredients

Types of What They Do Examples Names Found Ingredients of Uses on Product Labels Sweeteners Add sweetness Beverages, baked Sucrose (sugar), with or without goods, glucose, fructose, the extra calories confections, , table-top sugar, mannitol, corn substitutes, many syrup, high processed foods fructose corn syrup, saccharin, aspartame, , acesulfame potassium (acesulfame-K), neotame

29 Types of Food Ingredients

Types of What They Do Examples Names Found Ingredients of Uses on Product Labels

Color Additives Offset color loss due to Many processed foods, FD&C Blue Nos. 1 and exposure to light, air, (, snack foods 2, FD&C Green No. 3, temperature extremes, margarine, cheese, soft FD&C Red Nos. 3 and moisture and storage drinks, jams/jellies, 40, FD&C Yellow Nos. conditions; correct , and 5 and 6, Orange B, natural variations in pie fillings) Citrus Red No. 2, color; enhance colors annatto extract, beta- that occur naturally; carotene, grape skin provide color to extract, cochineal colorless and " fun" extract or carmine, foods paprika oleoresin, caramel color, fruit and vegetable juices, saffron (Note: Exempt color additives are not required to be declared by name on labels but may be declared simply as colorings or color added) 30 Types of Food Ingredients

Types of What They Do Examples Names Found Ingredients of Uses on Product Labels Flavors and Spices Add specific flavors Pudding and pie Natural flavoring, (natural and fillings, artificial flavor, and synthetic) mixes, cake spices mixes, salad dressings, candies, soft drinks, ice cream, BBQ

31 Types of Food Ingredients

Types of What They Do Examples Names Found Ingredients of Uses on Product Labels Flavor Enhancers Enhance flavors Many processed Monosodium already present in foods glutamate (MSG), foods (without hydrolyzed soy providing their own , autolyzed separate flavor) yeast extract, disodium guanylate or inosinate

32 Types of Food Ingredients

Types of What They Do Examples Names Found Ingredients of Uses on Product Labels Fat Replacers (and Provide expected Baked goods, Olestra, , components of texture and a creamy dressings, frozen , formulations used to " mouth-feel" in , confections, , replace fats) reduced-fat foods cake and dessert modified food , mixes, dairy products microparticulated egg white protein, , xanthan gum, whey protein concentrate

33 Types of Food Ingredients

Types of What They Do Examples Names Found Ingredients of Uses on Product Labels

Nutrients Replace vitamins , breads, Thiamine and minerals lost in cereals, , hydrochloride, processing macaroni, riboflavin (Vitamin

(enrichment), add margarine, salt, B2), niacin, nutrients that may milk, fruit niacinamide, folate be lacking in the beverages, energy or folic acid, beta diet (fortification) bars, instant carotene, potassium breakfast drinks iodide, iron or ferrous sulfate, alpha tocopherols, ascorbic acid, Vitamin D, amino acids (L-tryptophan, L-lysine, L-leucine,

L-methionine) 34 Types of Food Ingredients

Types of What They Do Examples Names Found Ingredients of Uses on Product Labels

Emulsifiers Allow smooth Salad dressings, Soy lecithin, mono- mixing of peanut butter, and diglycerides, ingredients, prevent chocolate, egg yolks, separation margarine, frozen polysorbates, desserts sorbitan Keep emulsified monostearate products stable, reduce stickiness, control crystallization, keep ingredients dispersed, and to help products dissolve more easily

35 Types of Food Ingredients

Types of What They Do Examples Names Found Ingredients of Uses on Product Labels

Stabilizers and Produce uniform Frozen desserts, Gelatin, , Thickeners, texture, improve dairy products, guar gum, Binders, " mouth-feel" cakes, pudding carrageenan, Texturizers and gelatin mixes, xanthan gum, dressings, jams whey and jellies, sauces

36 Types of Food Ingredients

Types of What They Do Examples Names Found Ingredients of Uses on Product Labels pH Control Agents Control acidity Beverages, frozen Lactic acid, citric and acidulants and alkalinity, desserts, acid, ammonium prevent spoilage chocolate, low acid hydroxide, sodium canned foods, carbonate baking powder

37 Types of Food Ingredients

Types of What They Do Examples Names Found Ingredients of Uses on Product Labels

Leavening Agents Promote rising of Breads and other Baking soda, baked goods baked goods monocalcium phosphate, calcium carbonate

Anti-caking Keep powdered Salt, baking Calcium silicate, agents foods free- powder, iron ammonium flowing, prevent confectioner's citrate, silicon moisture sugar dioxide absorption

38 Types of Food Ingredients

Types of What They Do Examples Names Found Ingredients of Uses on Product Labels

Humectants Retain moisture Shredded coconut, Glycerin, sorbitol marshmallows, soft candies, confections

Yeast Nutrients Promote growth of Breads and other Calcium sulfate, yeast baked goods ammonium phosphate

39 Types of Food Ingredients

Types of What They Do Examples Names Found Ingredients of Uses on Product Labels

Dough Produce more Breads and other Ammonium Strengtheners and stable dough baked goods sulfate, Conditioners azodicarbonamide, L-

Firming Agents Maintain crispness Processed fruits Calcium chloride, and firmness and vegetables

40 Types of Food Ingredients

Types of What They Do Examples Names Found Ingredients of Uses on Product Labels

Enzyme Modify , Cheese, dairy Enzymes, lactase, Preparations and products, meat papain, rennet, fats chymosin

Gases Serve as propellant, Oil cooking spray, Carbon dioxide, aerate, or create whipped cream, carbonation carbonated beverages

41 Food Additives-Additional information is available from the following organizations

: Food and Drug Administration www.fda.gov Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition (CFSAN) www.fda.gov/Food 5100 Branch Parkway College Park, MD 20740-3835 Color additives information www.fda.gov/ForIndustry/ColorAdditives Toll free information line: 1-888-SAFEFOOD (723-3366) U.S. Department of Agriculture Food Safety and Inspection Service www.fsis.usda.gov Food Safety Education Staff 1400 Independence Ave., SW Room 2932-S Washington, DC 20250-3700

42 Food Additives-Additional information is available from the following organizations • Food additives information www.fsis.usda.gov/Fact_Sheets/Additives _in_Meat_&_Poultry_Products/index.asp • Meat and Poultry Hotline: 1-800-535-4555; TTY: 1-800-256-7072 Email: [email protected] • Food and Nutrition Information Center www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/ USDA Ag Research Service 10301 Baltimore Ave. Beltsville, MD 20705-2351 301-504-5719 Email: [email protected]

43 Food Additives-Additional information is available from the following organizations • International Food Information Council Foundation www.foodinsight.org 1100 Connecticut Ave., NW Suite 430 Washington, DC 20036 202-296-6540 Email: [email protected] • American Dietetic Association (ADA) www.eatright.org 216 W. Jackson Blvd. Chicago, IL 60606-6995 312-899-0040 • The Food Allergy and Anaphylaxis Network (FAAN) www.foodallergy.org 11781 Lee Jackson Hwy. Suite 160 Fairfax, VA 22033 1-800-929-4040 Email: [email protected] • Institute of Food Technologists www.ift.org 525 West Van Buren Suite 1000 Chicago, IL 60607 1-800-IFT-FOOD (438-3663)

44 Food Additives Acidity regulators

• Acidity regulators, or pH control agents, are food additives added to change or maintain pH (acidity or basicity). They can be organic or mineral acids, bases, neutralizing agents, or buffering agents. • Acidity regulators are indicated by their , such as E260 (acetic acid), or simply listed as "food acid". • Commonly used acidity regulators are citric, acetic and lactic acids.

45 Food Additives anticaking agent

• An anticaking agent is an additive placed in powdered or granulated materials, such as table salt, to prevent the formation of lumps (caking) and for easing packaging, transport, and consumption. • An anticaking agent in salt is denoted in the ingredients, for example, as "anti- caking agent (554)", which is sodium aluminosilicate, a man-made product. This product is present in many commercial table salts as well as dried milk, egg mixes, sugar products, and . In Europe, sodium ferrocyanide (535) and potassium ferrocyanide (536) are more common anticaking agents in table salt. 'Natural' anticaking agents used in more expensive table salt include calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonate. • Some anticaking agents are soluble in water; others are soluble in alcohols or other organic solvents. They function either by absorbing excess moisture, or by coating particles and making them water repellent. Calcium silicate (CaSiO3), a commonly used anti-caking agent, added to e.g. table salt, absorbs both water and oil. • Anticaking agents are also used in non-food items such as road salt fertilisers , synthetic detergents,and in manufacturing applications.

46 Food Additives anti-foaming agent

• A defoamer or an anti-foaming agent is a chemical additive that reduces and hinders the formation of foam in industrial process . • The terms anti-foam agent and defoamer are often used interchangeably. Commonly used agents are insoluble oils, and other silicones, certain alcohols, stearates and glycols. The additive is used to prevent formation of foam or is added to break a foam already formed. • In industrial processes, foams pose serious problems. They cause defects on surface coatings. They prevent the efficient filling of containers. A variety of chemical formulae are available to prevent formation of foams.

47 Food Additives antioxidant

• An antioxidant is a molecule that inhibits the oxidation of other molecules. Oxidation is a chemical reaction involving the loss of electrons or an increase in oxidation state. • Oxidation reactions can produce free radicals. In turn, these radicals can start chain reactions. • When the chain reaction occurs in a cell, it can cause damage or death to the cell. Antioxidants terminate these chain reactions by removing free radical intermediates, and inhibit other oxidation reactions. They do this by being oxidized themselves, so antioxidants are often reducing agents such as thiols, ascorbic acid, or polyphenols.

48 Food Additives antioxidant

• Antioxidants are used as food additives to help guard against food deterioration. Exposure to oxygen and sunlight are the two main factors in the oxidation of food, so food is preserved by keeping in the dark and sealing it in containers or even coating it in , as with cucumbers. • However, as oxygen is also important for plant respiration, storing plant materials in anaerobic conditions produces unpleasant flavors and unappealing colors.Consequently, packaging of fresh fruits and vegetables contains an ~8% oxygen atmosphere. • Antioxidants are an especially important class of preservatives as, unlike bacterial or fungal spoilage, oxidation reactions still occur relatively rapidly in frozen or refrigerated food. • These preservatives include natural antioxidants such as ascorbic acid (AA, E300) and tocopherols (E306), as well as synthetic antioxidants such as propyl gallate (PG, E310), tertiary butylhydroquinone (TBHQ), butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA, E320) and butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT, E321(.

49 Food Additives antioxidant

• The most common molecules attacked by oxidation are unsaturated fats; oxidation causes them to turn rancid.Since oxidized lipids are often discolored and usually have unpleasant tastes such as metallic or sulfurous flavors, it is important to avoid oxidation in fat-rich foods. Thus, these foods are rarely preserved by drying; instead, they are preserved by smoking, salting or fermenting. • Even less fatty foods such as fruits are sprayed with sulfurous antioxidants prior to air drying. Oxidation is often catalyzed by metals, which is why fats such as butter should never be wrapped in aluminium foil or kept in metal containers. • Some fatty foods such as olive oil are partially protected from oxidation by their natural content of antioxidants, but remain sensitive to photooxidation • .Antioxidant preservatives are also added to fat-based cosmetics such as lipstick and to prevent rancidity.

50 Food Additives antioxidant TBHQ

• TBHQ is a highly effective antioxidant. In foods, it is used as a preservative for unsaturated vegetable oils and many edible animal fats. It does not cause discoloration even in the presence of iron, and does not change flavor or odor of the material to which it is added. • It can be combined with other preservatives such as butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA). • As a food additive, its E number is E319. It is added to a wide range of foods, with the highest limit (1 gram/kg) permitted for frozen fish and fish products. Its primary advantage is enhancing storage life. • It is used industrially as a stabilizer to inhibit autopolymerization of organic peroxides. • It is also used as a corrosion inhibitor in biodiesel. In perfumery, it is used as a fixative to lower the evaporation rate and improve stability. It is also added to varnishes, lacquers, resins, and oil field additives

51 Food Additives antioxidant BHA

• Butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) is an antioxidant consisting of a mixture of two isomeric organic compounds, 2-tert-butyl-4-hydroxyanisole and 3-tert- butyl-4-hydroxyanisole. • It is prepared from 4-methoxyphenol and isobutylene. It is a waxy solid used as a food additive with the E number E320. • The primary use for BHA is as an antioxidant and preservative in food, food packaging, animal feed, cosmetics, rubber, and petroleum products. • BHA also is commonly used in medicines, such as isotretinoin, lovastatin, and simvastatin, among others.

52 Food Additives anti-foaming agent

Polydimethylsiloxane is a widely used antifoaming agent.

53 Food Additives antioxidant PG

Propyl gallate, or propyl 3,4,5- trihydroxybenzoate

54 Food Additives antioxidant TBHQ

IUPAC name 2-(1,1-Dimethylethyl)-1,4-benzenediol Other names TBHQ(i) E319

55 Food Additives antioxidant BHA

2-tert-butyl-4-hydroxyanisole and 3-tert-butyl- 4-hydroxyanisole (E320)

56 Food Additives- Annatto -Bixin • Annatto sometimes called roucou or achiote, is derived from the seeds of the achiote trees of tropical and subtropical regions around the world. The seeds are sourced to produce a carotenoid- based yellow to orange food coloring and flavor. Its scent is described as "slightly peppery with a hint of nutmeg" and flavor as "slightly nutty, sweet and peppery“. • In commercial processing, annatto coloring is extracted from the reddish pericarp which surrounds the seed of the achiote (Bixa orellana L.). Historically, it has been used as coloring in many cheeses (e.g., Cheddar, Gloucester, Red Leicester), cheese products (e.g. American cheese, Velveeta), and dairy spreads (e.g. butter, margarine). Annatto can also be used to color a number of non-dairy foods such as rice, custard powder, baked goods, seasonings, processed potatoes, snack foods, breakfast cereals and smoked fish. It has been linked to cases of food-related allergies.

57 Food Additives- Caramel • Caramel is a beige to dark-brown confectionery product made by heating any of a variety of sugars. It is used: • as a flavoring in puddings and desserts • as a filling in bonbons • as a topping for ice cream and custard • The process of caramelization consists of heating sugar slowly to around 170 °C (340 °F). As the sugar heats, the molecules break down and re-form into compounds with a characteristic color and flavor. • A variety of candies, desserts, and confections are made with caramel: brittles, nougats, pralines, crème brûlée, crème caramel, and caramel apples. Ice sometimes are flavored with or contain swirls of caramel.

Caramel of sucrose; all brown color is caramel a result of browning, as sucrose is normally colorless A crème caramel flan that is topped with caramel sauce

58 Food Additives- β-Carotene

• β-Carotene is a strongly colored red-orange pigment abundant in plants and fruits. • It is an organic compound and chemically is classified as a hydrocarbon and specifically as a terpenoid (isoprenoid), reflecting its derivation from isoprene units. β-Carotene is biosynthesized from geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate. • It is a member of the carotenes, which are tetraterpenes, synthesized biochemically from eight isoprene units and thus having 40 carbons. • Among this general class of carotenes, β-carotene is distinguished by having beta-rings at both ends of the molecule. Absorption of β- carotene is enhanced if eaten with fats, as carotenes are fat soluble.

59 List of colour retention agent Food Additives Colour retention agents

• Colour retention agents are food additives that are added to food to prevent the colour from changing. • Many of them work by absorbing or binding to oxygen before it can damage food (antioxidants). • For example, ascorbic acid (vitamin C) is often added to brightly coloured fruits such as peaches during canning.

E number Common name Max permitted level Sources Application

Standard 1.3.1 - Food Wine, sparkling wine and GMP Additives (Australian) fortified wine

E300 Ascorbic acid Fruit and vegetable- based drinks, juices and 0.03% (w/w), or 0.02% The Miscellaneous Food baby foodsFat-containing (w/w) depending on the Additives Regulations cereal-based foods matrix 1995 including biscuits and rusks

60 Food Additives The outdated, but historically-important industrial synthesis of ascorbic acid from glucose via the Reichstein process.

61 Food Additives- sequestrant

• A sequestrant is a term for a food additive. Sequestrants improve the quality and stability of the food products. Sequestrants form chelate complexes with polyvalent metal ions, especially copper, iron and nickel, which serve as catalysts in the oxidation of the fats in the food. Sequestrants are a type of preservative. • The name comes from Latin and means "to withdraw from use"[citation needed]. • Common sequestrants are: • Calcium disodium ethylene diamine tetra-acetate (E385) • Glucono delta-lactone (E575) • Sodium gluconate (E576) • Potassium gluconate (E577) • Sodium tripolyphosphate • Sodium hexametaphosphate (E452i) • Sodium and calcium salts of EDTA are also commonly used in many foods and beverages.

62 Food Additives- emulsifier-1

• An emulsifier (also known as an "emulgent") is a substance that stabilizes an by increasing its kinetic stability. One class of emulsifiers is known as "surface active agents", or surfactants. • Examples of food emulsifiers are: • Egg yolk – in which the main emulsifying agent is lecithin. In fact, lecithos is the Greek word for egg yolk. • Mustard – where a variety of chemicals in the mucilage surrounding the seed hull act as emulsifiers • Soy lecithin is another emulsifier and thickener • Pickering stabilization – uses particles under certain circumstances • Sodium stearoyl lactylate • DATEM (Diacetyl Tartaric (Acid) Ester of Monoglyceride) – an emulsifier used primarily in baking

63 Food Additives- emulsifier-2

• Detergents are another class of surfactants, and will physically interact with both oil and water, thus stabilizing the interface between the oil and water droplets in . • This principle is exploited in , to remove grease for the purpose of cleaning. Many different emulsifiers are used in pharmacy to prepare such as creams and lotions. Common examples include emulsifying wax, cetearyl alcohol, polysorbate 20, and ceteareth 20. • Sometimes the inner phase itself can act as an emulsifier, and the result is a nanoemulsion, where the inner state disperses into "nano-size" droplets within the outer phase. • A well-known example of this phenomenon, the "Ouzo effect", happens when water is poured into a strong alcoholic anise-based beverage, such as ouzo, pastis, arak, or raki. • The anisolic compounds, which are soluble in ethanol, then form nano- size droplets and emulsify within the water. The resulting color of the drink is opaque and milky white.

64 Mechanisms of emulsification

A number of different chemical and physical processes and mechanisms can be involved in the process of emulsification: • theory – according to this theory, emulsification takes place by reduction of interfacial tension between two phases • Repulsion theory – the emulsifying agent creates a film over one phase that forms globules, which repel each other. This repulsive force causes them to remain suspended in the dispersion medium • modification – emulgents like acacia and tragacanth, which are hydrocolloids, as well as PEG (or ), glycerine, and other polymers like CMC (), all increase the viscosity of the medium, which helps create and maintain the suspension of globules of dispersed phase

65 Food Additives – Flavor-1

• Flavor (US) or flavour (UK) is the sensory impression of a food or other substance, and is determined mainly by the chemical senses of taste and smell. The "trigeminal senses", which detect chemical irritants in the mouth and throat as well as temperature and texture, are also very important to the overall Gestalt of flavor perception. The flavor of the food, as such, can be altered with natural or artificial flavorants, which affect these senses. • Flavorant is defined as a substance that gives another substance flavor, altering the characteristics of the solute, causing it to become sweet, sour, tangy, etc. • Of the three chemical senses, smell is the main determinant of a food item's flavor. While the taste of food is limited to sweet, sour, bitter, salty, umami (savory), pungent or piquant, and metallic – the seven basic tastes – the smells of a food are potentially limitless. A food's flavor, therefore, can be easily altered by changing its smell while keeping its taste similar. Nowhere is this better exemplified than in artificially flavored jellies, soft drinks and candies, which, while made of bases with a similar taste, have dramatically different flavors due to the use of different scents or fragrances. The flavorings of commercially produced food products are typically created by flavorists.

66

three principal types of flavorings used in foods, under definitions agreed in the E.U. and Australia Type Description Flavoring substances obtained from plant or animal raw materials, by physical, microbiological or enzymatic processes. They can be either used in Natural flavoring substances their natural state or processed for human consumption, but cannot contain any nature- identical or artificial flavoring substances. Flavoring substances that are obtained by synthesis or isolated through chemical processes, which are chemically and organoleptically identical to Nature-identical flavoring substances flavoring substances naturally present in products intended for human consumption. They cannot contain any artificial flavoring substances. Flavoring substances not identified in a natural product intended for human consumption, whether or not the product is processed. These are typically produced by fractional distillation and additional Artificial flavoring substances chemical manipulation of naturally sourced chemicals, crude oil or coal tar. Although they are chemically different, in sensory characteristics are the same as natural ones. 67

Food Additives – Flavor-3

Chemical Odor Diacetyl Buttery Isoamyl acetate Banana Benzaldehyde Bitter almond Cinnamaldehyde Cinnamon Ethyl propionate Fruity Methyl anthranilate Grape Limonene Orange Ethyl decadienoate Pear Allyl hexanoate Pineapple Ethyl maltol Sugar, Cotton Ethylvanillin Vanilla 68 Methyl salicylate Wintergreen Food Additives – Flavor-4

Acid Description This amino acid's sodium salt, monosodium glutamate (MSG), is one of the most Glutamic acidsalts commonly used flavor enhancers in . Mono and diglutamate salts are also commonly used.

Simple amino acid salts typically combined Glycine salts with glutamic acid as flavor enhancers. Nucleotide salts typically combined with Guanylic acidsalts glutamic acid as flavor enhancers. Nucleotide salts created from the breakdown of AMP. Due to high costs of production, Inosinic acid salts typically combined with glutamic acid as flavor enhancers. Nucleotide salts typically combined with

5'-ribonucleotidesalts other amino acids and nucleotide salts as69 flavor enhancers. Food Additives – Flavor-5

Acid Description Gives vinegar its sour taste and distinctive Acetic acid smell Found in oranges and green peppers and gives Ascorbic acid a crisp, slightly sour taste. Better known as vitamin C. Found in citrus fruits and gives them their sour Citric acid taste Not found in fruits, used as a substitute for Fumaric acid citric and tartaric acid Found in various milk or fermented Lactic acid products and give them a rich tartness Found in apples and gives them their sour/tart Malic acid taste

Phosphoric acid Used in all cola drinks to give an acid taste

Found in grapes and wines and gives them70 a Tartaric acid tart taste Food Additives – Flavor-6

• In 2011, about US$10.6 billion were generated with the sale of flavors; the majority of the flavors used are consumed in processed and packaged food. • Artificial strawberry flavoring, being the easiest to create, is manufactured by vaporizing the strawberry natural flavoring.

71 Food Additives -Flour treatment agents-1 • Flour treatment agents (also called improving agents, bread improvers, dough conditioners and dough improvers) are food additives combined with flour to improve baking functionality. • Flour treatment agents are used to increase the speed of dough rising and to improve the strength and workability of the dough. • While they are an important component of modern factory baking, some small-scale bakers reject them in favour of longer fermentation periods that produce greater depth of flavour. • There are wide ranges of these conditioners used in factory baking, which fall into four main categories: bleaching agents, oxidizing and reducing agents, enzymes, and emulsifiers. These agents are often sold as mixtures in a soy flour base, as only small amounts are required.

72 Food Additives -Flour treatment agents-2 • Flour bleaching agents are added to flour to make it appear whiter (freshly milled flour is yellowish), to oxidize the surfaces of the flour grains, and help with developing of gluten. • Oxidizing agents are added to flour to help with gluten development. They may or may not also act as bleaching agents. • Originally flour was naturally aged through exposure to the atmosphere. • Oxidizing agents primarily affect sulfur-containing amino acids, ultimately helping to form disulfide bridges between the gluten molecules. • The addition of these agents to flour will create a stronger dough.

73 Food Additives -Flour treatment agents-3 Common oxidizing agents are: • various flour bleaching agents • azodicarbonamide (E927) • carbamide (E927b) • potassium bromate (E924, the component which gives bromated flour its name, used mainly in the U.S. East and Midwest, acts as a bleaching agent, banned in some areas) • phosphates • malted barley • potassium iodate

74 Food Additives -Flour treatment agents-3 • Reducing agents help to weaken the flour by breaking the protein network. This will help with various aspects of handling a strong dough. The benefits of adding these agents are reduced mixing time, reduced dough elasticity, reduced proofing time, and improved machinability.[1] • Common reducing agents are: • L-cysteine (E920, E921; quantities in the tens of ppm range help soften the dough and thus reduce processing time) • fumaric acid • sodium bisulfate • non-leavened yeast • ascorbic acid

75 Food Additives- Glazing agent • Natural glazing agents have been found, usually in plants or insects. In nature, the agents are used to keep the moisture in the organism, but science has harnessed this characteristic by turning it into a glazing agent that acts as a coating. • The glazing agent is made up of a substance that is classified as a wax. • A natural wax is chemically defined as an ester with a very long hydrocarbon chain that also includes a long chain alcohol. • However, in a wax there have been many different chemical structures that can be included in a definition of a wax, such as: wax esters, sterol esters, ketones, aldehydes, alcohols, hydrocarbons, and sterols.[2] • Examples are: • Stearic acid (E570) • (E901) • Candelilla wax (E902) • (E903) • (E904) • (E905c), Crystalline wax (E907) • (E913)

• Oxidized polyethylene wax (E914) 76 • Esters of colophonium (E915) Food Additives- preservative-1

• A preservative is a substance that is added to products such as foods, pharmaceuticals, , biological samples, wood, etc. to prevent decomposition by microbial growth or by undesirable chemical changes. • In general preservation is implemented in two modes, chemical and physical. Chemical preservation entails adding chemical compounds to the product. Physical preservation entails refrigeration and drying. • Artificial preservatives are man-made. They are used in foods, cosmetics, and many other products. • Artificial preservatives reduce the risk of foodborne infections, decrease microbial spoilage, and preserve fresh attributes and nutritional quality. • Some physical techniques for preservation include dehydration, UV- C radiation, freeze-drying, and refrigeration. Generally both chemical preservatives and physical preservation are combined.

77 Food Additives- preservative-2-Antimicrobial additives E number chemical compound comment

used in acidic foods such as jams, salad E201 – E203 benzoic acid, sodium benzoate dressing, juices, pickles, carbonat ed drinks

E214 – E219 hydroxybenzoate and derivatives stable at a broad pH range

E270 lactic acid -

used in meats to prevent E249 – E250 nitrite botulism toxin

E251 – E252 nitrate used in meats

propionic acid and sodium E280 – E283 baked goods propionate

E220 – E227 sulfur dioxide and sulfites common for fruits

common for cheese, wine, baked E200 – E203 sorbic acid and sodium sorbate goods 78 Food Additives- preservative-3- Public awareness of food preservatives

• Public awareness of food preservatives is uneven. Americans have a perception that food-borne illnesses happen more often in other counties. • This may be true, but the occurrence of illnesses, hospitalizations, and deaths are still high. • It is estimated by the Center for Disease Control (CDC) that each year there are 76 million illnesses, 325,000 hospitalizations, and 5,000 deaths linked to food-borne illness. • In the U.S., the FDA standards do not currently require fruit and vegetable product labels to reflect the type of chemical preservative(s) used on the produce. • The increasing demand for ready-to-eat fresh food products has led to challenges for food distributors regarding the safety and quality of their foods.

79 Food Additives- stabilizer

• In chemistry a stabilizer is a chemical which tends to inhibit the reaction between two or more other chemicals. • It can be thought of as the antonym to a catalyst. • The term can also refer to a chemical that inhibits separation of suspensions, emulsions, and foams.

80 Food Additives- stabilizer-1

Some kinds of stabilizers: • antioxidants, preventing unwanted oxidation of materials • sequestrants, forming chelate complexes and inactivating traces of metal ions that would otherwise act as catalysts • emulsifiers and surfactants, for stabilization of emulsions • ultraviolet stabilizers, protecting materials, especially plastics, from harmful effects of ultraviolet radiation – UV absorbers, chemicals absorbing ultraviolet radiation and preventing it from penetrating the materials; principally the same as sunscreens – quenchers, dissipating the radiation energy as heat instead of letting it break chemical bonds; often organic nickel salts, e.g. nickel phenolates – scavengers, eliminating the free radicals formed by ultraviolet radiation; often hindered amine light stabilizers (HALS)

81 Name NaturalSweetness by weight sugarSweetness bysubstitutes food energy Energy density Notes Brazzein 800 Protein Curculin 550 Protein Erythritol 0.7 14 0.05 Glycyrrhizin 50 0.6 0.55 1.075 E422

Hydrogenated starch hydrolysates 0.9–0.4 1.2–×0.5 0.75

Inulin Isomalt 0.65–0.45 1.3–0.9 0.5 E953 0.4 0.8 0.5 E966 Mogroside mix 300 Mabinlin 100 Protein 0.9 1.7 0.525 E965 Malto-oligosaccharide Mannitol 0.5 1.2 0.4 E421

A protein that does not taste sweet by itself but modifies taste Miraculin receptors to make sour things taste sweet temporarily

Naturally occurring sweetener Monatin isolated from the plant Sclerochiton ilicifolius

Protein; the sweetening Monellin 3,000 ingredient in serendipity berries

Osladin Pentadin 500 Protein

Sorbitol 0.6 0.9 0.65 sugar alcohol, E420

Extracts known as rebiana, Truvia, PureVia; mainly Stevia 250 containing rebaudioside A, a steviol glycoside

Tagatose 0.92 2.4 0.38 monosaccharide82 2,000 Protein; E957 Xylitol 1.0 1.7 0.6 E967 Artificial sugar substitutes Name Sweetness (by weight) Trade name Approval Notes Acesulfame potassium 200 Nutrinova FDA 1988 E950 Advantame 20000 FDA approved in Mexico, Alitame 2000 Australia, New Zealand Pfizer and China.

Aspartame 200–160 NutraSweet, Equal FDA 1981, EU-wide 1994 E951 Salt of aspartame- 350 Twinsweet E962 acesulfame FDA Banned 1969, Sodium cyclamate 30 approved in EU and E952, Abbott Canada Dulcin 250 FDA Banned 1950 Glucin 300 Neohesperidin 1500 E959 dihydrochalcone Neotame 8000 NutraSweet FDA 2002 E961 P-4000 4000 FDA banned 1950 FDA 1958, banned in Saccharin 300 Sweet'N Low E954 Canada Canada 1991, FDA 1998, E955, Tate & Sucralose 600 Kaltame, Splenda 83 EU 2004 Lyle Food Additives-Gelatin • Gelatin is a mixture of peptides and proteins produced by partial hydrolysis of extracted from the skin, bones, and connective tissues of animals such as domesticatedcattle, chicken, pigs, and fish. • During hydrolysis, the natural molecular bonds between individual collagen strands are broken down into a form that rearranges more easily. Its chemical composition is, in many respects, closely similar to that of its parent collagen. • Photographic and pharmaceutical grades of gelatin are generally sourced from beef bones.

84 Food Additives-Pectin

85 Food Additives-Guar gum

Guar gum, also called guaran, is a galactomannan. It is primarily the ground endosperm of guar beans. The guar seeds are dehusked, milled and screened to obtain the guar gum.[1] It is typically produced as a free-flowing, off-white powder.

86 Food Additives-carrageenan

There are three main commercial classes of carrageenan: •Kappa forms strong, rigid in the presence of potassium ions; it reacts with dairy proteins. It is sourced mainly fromKappaphycus alvarezii. •Iota forms soft gels in the presence of calcium ions. It is produced mainly from Eucheuma denticulatum. •Lambda does not gel, and is used to thicken dairy products.

87 Food Additives-carrageenan

88 Food Additives-xanthan gum

• Xanthan gum is a secreted by the bacterium Xanthomonas campestris, used as a food additive and modifier, commonly used as a food thickening agent (in salad dressings, for example) and a stabilizer (in cosmetic products, for example, to prevent ingredients from separating). • It is composed of pentasaccharide repeat units, comprising glucose, mannose, and glucuronic acid in the molar ratio 2.0:2.0:1.0. It is produced by thefermentation of glucose, sucrose, or lactose. After a fermentation period, the polysaccharide is precipitated from a growth medium with isopropyl alcohol, dried, and ground into a fine powder. Later, it is added to a liquid medium to form the gum.

89 Food Additives-xanthan gum

90 Food Additives-Humectant-1

• A humectant is a hygroscopic substance used to keep things moist; it is the opposite of a desiccant. It is often a molecule with several hydrophilic groups, most often hydroxyl groups; however, amines and carboxyl groups, sometimes esterified, can be encountered as well (its affinity to form hydrogen bonds with molecules of water is the crucial trait). • They are used in many products, including food, cosmetics, medicines and pesticides. • Humectant is a substance that is used to keep products moisturized and affects the preservation of items, which can be used in cosmetic products, food and tobacco. • Humectant-rich formulation contains simple alcoholic sugar that can increase skin hydration and helps to remove and reduce thickness of skin.

91 Food Additives-Humectant-2

• Examples of some humectants include: • Propylene glycol, hexylene glycol, and butylene glycol • Glyceryl triacetate • Neoagarobiose • Sugar alcohols (sugar polyols) such as glycerol, sorbitol, xylitol, maltitol • Polymeric polyols such as polydextrose • Quillaia • • Aloe vera gel • MP diol • Alpha hydroxy acids such as lactic acid • Honey The thorny dragon features hygroscopic grooves • Lithium chloride between the spines of its skin to capture water in its desert habitat.

92 Food Additives- thickening agent-1

• A thickening agent or thickener is a substance which can increase the viscosity of a liquid without substantially changing its other properties. Edible thickeners are commonly used to thicken sauces and without altering their taste; thickeners are also used in paints, inks, explosives, and cosmetics. • Thickeners may also improve the suspension of other ingredients or emulsions which increases the stability of the product. Thickening agents are often regulated as food additives and as cosmetics and personal hygiene product ingredients. • Some thickening agents are gelling agents (gellants), forming a gel, dissolving in the liquid phase as acolloid mixture that forms a weakly cohesive internal structure. • Others act as mechanical thixotropic additives with discrete particles adhering or interlocking to resist strain. • Thickening agents can also be used when medical condition such as dysphagia cause individuals difficulty when swallowing. Thickened liquids play a vital role in reducing risk ofaspiration for dysphagia patients.

93 Food Additives- thickening agent-2

• Many thickening agents require extra care in cooking. Some lose their thickening quality when cooked for too long or at too high a temperature; on the other hand, cooking starches too short or not hot enough might lead to an unpleasant starchy taste or cause water to seep out of the finished product after cooling. Also, higher viscosity causes foods to burn more easily during cooking. • As an alternative to adding more thickener, recipes may call for reduction of the food's water content by lengthy simmering. When cooking, it is generally better to add thickener cautiously; if over- thickened, more water may be added but loss of flavour and texture may result. • Gelling agents are food additives used to thicken and stabilize various foods, like jellies, desserts and candies. The agents provide the foods with texture through formation of agel. Some stabilizers and thickening agents are gelling agents.

94 Food Additives- thickening agent-3

• Typical gelling agents include natural gums, starches, , - agar and gelatin. Often they are based on polysaccharides or proteins. • Examples are: • (E400), sodium alginate (E401), potassium alginate (E402), ammonium alginate (E403), calcium alginate (E404) - polysaccharides from brown • Agar (E406, a polysaccharide obtained from red ) • Carrageenan (E407, a polysaccharide obtained from red ) • Locust bean gum (E410, a polysaccharide from the seeds of the tree) • Pectin (E440, a polysaccharide obtained from apple or citrus-fruit) • Gelatin (E441, made by partial hydrolysis of animal collagen)

95 Food Additives- EDTA

• Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid, widely abbreviated as EDTA , is an aminopolycarboxylic acid and a colourless, water-soluble solid. Its conjugate base is named ethylenediaminetetraacetate. • It is widely used to dissolve limescale. Its usefulness arises because of its role as a hexadentate ("six-toothed") ligand and chelating agent, i.e., its ability to "sequester"metal ions such as Ca2+ and Fe3+. • After being bound by EDTA, metal ions remain in solution but exhibit diminished reactivity. • EDTA is produced as several salts, notably disodium EDTA and calcium disodium EDTA.

96 Food Additives-Firming agents

• Firming agents are food additives added in order to precipitate residual pectin, thus strengthening the structure of the food and preventing its collapse during processing. • Typical firming agents are: • Calcium carbonate (E170) • Calcium hydrogen sulfite (E227) • Calcium citrates (E333) • Calcium phosphates (E341) • Calcium sulfate (E516) • Calcium chloride (E509) • Magnesium chloride (E511) • Magnesium sulfate (E518) • Calcium gluconate (E578) • Magnesium gluconate (E580)

97 Food Additives-

• A dough conditioner is any ingredient or chemical added to bread dough to strengthen its texture or otherwise improve it in some way. • Examples of dough conditioners include ascorbic acid, monoglycerides and diglycerides, ammonium chloride, enzymes, DATEM, and calcium salts such as calcium iodate. • Less processed dough conditioners include sprouted- or malted-grain flours, soy, milk, germ, potatoes, gluten, yeast, and extra kneading. Malted, diastatic flours are not typically added by manufacturers to whole wheat flours. • Lecithin added at a rate of 0.25-to-0.6% of the flour weight acts as a dough conditioner. Based on total weight, egg yolk contains about 9% lecithin. Monoglycerides and diglycerides replace eggs in baked goods. • Lecithin, monoglycerides, diglycerides, and DATEM are considered emulsifiers. They disperse fat more evenly throughout the dough, helping it to trap more of the CO2 produced by yeast. Emulsifiers tend to produce a fine grain, larger baked volume, and improved slicing.

98 Food Additives-Olestra

• Olestra (also known by its brand name Olean) is a fat substitute that adds no fat, calories, or cholesterol to products. • It has been used in the preparation of otherwise high-fat foods such as potato crisps, thereby lowering or eliminating their fat content. • The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) originally approved olestra for use as a replacement for fats and oils in prepackaged ready-to-eat snacks in 1996, concluding that such use "meets the safety standard for food additives, reasonable certainty of no harm". • In the late 1990s, Olestra lost its popularity due to side effects, but products containing the ingredient can still be purchased at grocery stores in some countries.

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