Proceedings of the American Association for Public Opinion Research

At the Third International Conference on Public Downloaded from Opinion Research, Eagles Mere, Pennsylvania, September 12-15, 1948

FOREWORD http://poq.oxfordjournals.org/ The third international conference on public opinion research marked the establishment on a permanent basis of two professional societies, one domestic, one international, which had their inception at the first conference at Central City, Colorado, in the summer of 1946. This report of the pro- ceedings of the American Association for Public Opinion Research, severely condensed though it be, documents the progress that has been made during the two years since the first of these meetings was held. Even more than at AAPOR Member Access on March 8, 2016 Williamstown, Eagles Merc showed a responsibleness of mind in appraising problems, methods, and techniques, and in accepting the obligations of com- petence that rest upon professionals whether they arc serving private clients or the public and whether they are interested in the development of abstract knowledge or in practical administrative service. Only such conferences in which theorists, technologists, and practitioners consider their problems with complete frankness and severely critical thoughtfulness will enable any one of these groups to make its maximum contribution.

CLYDE W. HART President, American Association for Public Opinion Research, 1947-48

Editorial Note: The following reports repre- many other* who assisted in the preparation sent 1 rather severe condensation, necessitated of this record. For the most part, speakers' by budgetary considerations, of the full pro- remarks are presented in direct discourse, ceeding, of the conference- All remark, have rlther than indirect> j,, order to ^ been compressed considerably, and it has un- , _ ...... , , , , . . Whenerein r possible, participants have been fortunately been necessary to leave out alto- , , r^ gether many valuable comments from the "ked to check over *<= remlri" »«"»"««> » floor. Thanks are due to the volunteer reporters them. but *•>>* h« not Pr°Ted feasible in a who kept a record of the various sessions and few cases. The editors regret any inaccuracies in many cases wrote up the reports, and to the which may have inadvertendy crept in. 788 PUBLIC OPINION QUARTERLY, WINTER 1948-49 OPENING SESSION OF THE CONFERENCE (Sunday, September 12, 1948) Chairman: Clyde W. Hart, President of the American Association for Public Opinion Research (AAPOR). Opening Remarks: Jean Stoetzel, President of the World Association for Public Opinion Research (WAPOR).1 Address: "The United Nations and Public Opinion." Benjamin A. Cohen,

Assistant Secretary-General for Public Information, the Downloaded from United Nations. Five-minute Statements on "Frontiers of Public Opinion Research," by: Leif Holbai-Hansscn, Norway; Louis Moss, England; Jorge Mendez Munevar, Colombia; Roy Morgan, Australia; Fred

C. Danforth, U.S.A.; and Lawrence E. Benson, U.S.A. http://poq.oxfordjournals.org/

The Chairman welcomed those pres- official and working languages for ent, especially participants from foreign WAPOR, which might be taken up countries, and expressed thanks to the more formally at subsequent meetings Rockefeller Foundation, which had en- of the world body. At the suggestion abled many of the foreign delegates to of Mr. Cohen, a personal translator attend. He then outlined the history of was assigned to the member who did AAPOR and WAPOR, from the First not follow the discussion in English.

International Conference on Public Dr. Stoetzel then proceeded with his at AAPOR Member Access on March 8, 2016 Opinion Research at Central City, remarks. Colorado, in 1946, through the Wil- liamstown Conference of 1947, down JEAN STOETZEL (French Institute of to the present meeting. Following this, Public Opinion, Paris):' The present he introduced Dr. Jean Stoetzel, Presi- meetings offer a rare opportunity for dent of WAPOR, who, having been members of the opinion research pro- elected to this post in absentia, had been fession all over the world to meet each unable to attend the Williamstown other and to "talk shop"—to satisfy meeting in the previous year. 1 At the Williamstown meeting in 1947 Before proceeding to his opening the name of the world body had been decided remarks, Dr. Stoetzel pointed out that as World Congress for Public Opinion Re- since the meeting included members tearch. At the present meeting the word from all countries, it would be neces- "Congress" was changed to "Association," sary to decide on a working language, and this designation will be used throughout in order to avoid confusion. A report of the and to arrange for translations if nec- meetings which took place under the auspice* essary. After some discussion, it was of the World Association at Eagles Mere will agreed to use English at the present be published separately by WAPOR. meeting, as only one member did not 2 It should be repeated that the remarks understand this language. Dr. Stoetzel attributed to speakers in these Proceeding! represent condensations, not quotations. Direct emphasized, however, that this decision discourse, rather than indirect, is used in the did not prejudice the rules regarding interest of saving space. PUBLIC OPINION RESEARCH CONFERENCE 789 their curiosity regarding many points of media of communication, among in the field. The informal discussions other difficulties, but also because of at Eagles Mere will certainly be as cynicism regarding the work of inter- valuable as the formal discussions. national organizations and the tend- Public opinion research is now a truly ency to emphasize the dramatic dis- international field of endeavor, and is agreements, rather than less sensational being conducted in perhaps more than points of agreement. The UN therefore 20 countries, as well as by some inter- makes a special effort to disseminate national agencies, such as UNESCO. objective and complete facts with re-

These studies in various countries have gard to issues arising in it. Without Downloaded from contributed to the awareness that there these, a healthy public opinion is im- are certain common problems which possible. must be faced by all those in the opin- Informational work, such as this, ion research profession. In order to often comes very dose to education. In attack these problems effectively, how-

order to understand current reports, http://poq.oxfordjournals.org/ ever, further cooperation is needed on people must also know something about two fronts: there must be more and the problem at hand. The UN there- closer international cooperation in pub- fore has frequent occasion to analyze lic opinion research, and there must be the press, radio, books, college courses, more interchange and cooperation etc, in various countries in order to among the various human sciences. find where special informational efforts Both the international barriers dividing are needed in order that the people human scientists and the lines prevent- concerned may form a national opinion ing exchange between the various social on international issues. at AAPOR Member Access on March 8, 2016 studies must be broken down if opin- Development of a national public ion research is to help solve some of the opinion on these issues is important world's pressing problems. It is to be because it is mainly through their re- hoped that this conference will further spective governments that people can both these objectives. have their desires implemented. Fur- thermore, there are cases where UN, by BENJAMIN A. COHEN (Assistant Sec- emphasizing the duty of every individ- retary-General for Public Information, ual to share the responsibility for pre- the United Nations):2 The United Na- serving peace, has helped to bring tions is interested in public opinion about an opinion favoring a change in from two aspects: it is an agency which national policy. Too often people have helps mold public opinion, and at the thought that peace is merely the ab- same time it is vitally interested in sence of war, instead of a dynamic what the peoples of various nations arc state. thinking. International opinion has also devel- In order to play this dual role—of oped which has been strong enough to both leading and following public opin- influence the action of Great Powers. ion, UN must start by seeing that peo- The settlement of the Soviet Union- ple are adequately informed. This is Iran controversy, when expressions particularly difficult at the present time, from almost every country indicated not only because of illiteracy and lack that the public would not countenance PUBLIC OPINION QUARTERLY, WINTER 1948-49 a breach of peace, is a case in point. usefulness of polls is limited, however, Other instances where international by the fact that some of the techniques public opinion came into play involved applied in this country—such as filter the voluntary withdrawal of British questions used to test knowledge on a and French troops from Syria and Leb- given subject—arc not understood by anon, the truce in Palestine, and the respondents abroad. Dutch-Indonesian conflict. The type of international poll which As public opinion can be the most would be of most use to UN would be powerful weapon for peace, UN spends one on current issues, designed to deter-

considerable effort in analyzing it. It mine how many people are concerned Downloaded from is the first international organization to with the problem, and in what ways arrange for regular opinion surveys. they think it could be resolved. In other This analysis is carried out at head- words, to detect those imponderables quarters in Lake Success and in the in political thinking which are particu- UN's Information Centers, which are larly decisive with regard to interna- located in Washington, Mexico City, tional issues. http://poq.oxfordjournals.org/ Rio de Janeiro, London, Paris, Geneva, In this and other ways public opinion Prague, Copenhagen, Warsaw, Mos- research can help find a solution to cow, New Delhi, and Shanghai. Still some of the ills of mankind and can other centers are being planned in bring the world a little closer to the Cairo, Buenos Aires and Teheran. goal of peace. These offices study representative news- papers, radio programs, books and THE CHAIRMAN (after thanking die other media in their respective areas principal speaker of the evening): The at AAPOR Member Access on March 8, 2016 and cable a summary to UN head- Program Committee for this conference quarters. The central office then ar- was forced to work on the quota sys- ranges the information by topics and tem, and the quota for the remaining prepares a world opinion summary, speakers of the evening called for one which is issued daily when the Assem- each from Europe, Great Britain, South bly is in session, and otherwise weekly. America, and Australia. In addition, This survey was originally intended for we have asked Dr. Philip M. Hauser, the use of policy officials in the UN Chairman of the Committee on Stand- Secretariat only, but numerous requests ards, to select two representatives from from delegates of member nations, and the United States by a process as near from press correspondents and radio to random sampling as possible. (Dr. commentators, have increased the edi- Hauser, after threatening to stir up all tion until now several thousand copies participants in a large bowl in order to of every report are distributed. make his selection completely random, Public opinion polls are used by UN finally agreed to use less rigorous in two connections: to check on its methods.) evaluation of world opinion through other sources, and to detect blind spots LEIF HOLBAK-HANSSEN (FAKTA, Oslo, in people's knowledge, which either Norway): In addition to technical UN or one of its affiliated organiza- problems, the polling profession must tions should endeavor to correct. The face certain ideological problems. If PUBLIC OPINION RESEARCH CONFERENCE 791 it is to justify itself fully, opinion re- JORGE MENDEZ MUNEVAR (Bogoti): search must contribute toward making Public opinion research in Latin Amer- the life of the citizen a better one, as ica is still in its early stages, but it can well as merely serving as an aid to make an important contribution to current, established institutions. Some democratic life in many of die Amer- of the ways in which this contribution ican republics. Perhaps, most of all, it might be made are by: (1) Helping to can help bridge die gap between die identify the propaganda to which peo- hidierto widely separated "masses" and ple are exposed; (2) Giving people a "classes." A real public opinion in more direct part in government by many republics does not yet exist— Downloaded from allowing them to make opinions on public affairs being left almost exclu- issues known between elections; and sively in die hands of a small, highly- (3) In general serving as an organic educated minority. Opinion research part of the political system. For in- can assist in broadening die base of stance, when a legislative body seems democracy by convincing ordinarily http://poq.oxfordjournals.org/ to rule against public opinion, some apadietic people diat what diey diink device should be found to clarify the really counts—diat every citizen must issues and to reconcile the desires of concern himself widi public questions. the people and their representatives. Public opinion research, in short, ROY MORGAN (Australian Public Opin- should never be allowed to serve the ion Polls, Melbourne): The opinion re- interests of the demagogue, but should search profession should concentrate on serve the interests of the general popu- pushing back several of die frontiers lation. It is to be hoped that this and at AAPOR Member Access on March 8, 2016 which it now faces. future conferences will assist in bring- The mathematical and technical fron- ing about this state of affairs. tier is one of die most exciting. Widi constandy improved mediodology, die Louis MOSS (The Social Survey, Lon- accuracy of predictions will be in- don): One of the major tasks facing creased. Even more important is die opinion research is that of enabling die possibility of measuring attitudes which peoples of various nations to under- do not as yet exist; i.e., of evaluating stand each other. The profession is not latent attitudes on important issues. yet entirely ripe for this task; mediods Third, bodi public leaders and die of world surveying must be improved media of information should be edu- gready before a significant contribution cated to die significance of public opin- can be made. Furthermore, it is impor- ion. In diis connection, adequate inter- tant that all the human sciences work pretation of survey findings by polling togedier on die task of interpreting agencies is particularly important. Their nations to each odier. Our present day significance should be made clear to research methods do not give a total newspaper editors who handle diem, understanding of what goes on in peo- and to die public Finally, die role ple's minds. We must know why people which public opinion should play in diink as diey do, in addition to know- connection widi politicians should be ing what diey diink. Otherwise, we arc merely studying symptoms. carefully defined, since die process of 792 PUBLIC OPINION QUARTERLY, WINTER 1948-49 making democracy increasingly real are reported. Clients frequently get depends in large measure on the nature litde benefit from surveys because they of this relationship. (Dr. Hauser then do not understand them, and conse- announced, at the request of the Chair- quently arc unable to act on the basis man, that the best applicable sampling of the findings. methods had resulted in the selection of Fred C. Danforth and Lawrence E. LAWRENCE E. BENSON (American In- Benson to represent the United States stitute of Public Opinion, Princeton): in this brief round-up of "Frontiers of On the basis of the most recent opinion-

Public Opinion Research.") testing methods it is apparent diat the Downloaded from participants in this meeting are ready FRED C. DANFORTH (Central Surveys, for adjournment, and I shall therefore Shenandoah, Iowa): The development keep my remarks for later. of more perfect methodology is ad- mittedly a major problem facing pub- (After official announcements by the http://poq.oxfordjournals.org/ lic opinion research, but too often the Secretary-Treasurer, the meeting was client is lost sight of when poll results adjourned by the Chairman.)

EXPERIENCES WITH PROBABILITY SAMPLING IN PRIVATE AGENCIES (I)* (Monday, September 13, 1948)

Chairman: Philip McCarthy, Cornell University. at AAPOR Member Access on March 8, 2016 Participants: Russell H. Collcy, A. S. Bennett Associates, Inc.; Raymond Franzen, New York City; Roc Goodman, Survey Research Center, University of Michigan.

THE CHAIRMAN: The objective of those term "precision sampling," by which working on the development of proba- is understood: "A process of sampling bility sampling is to devise a method in which each individual or unit in whereby the judgment of opinion and the universe has a known mathematical market surveyors is eliminated as far chance of being selected for die pur- as possible. This method of sampling pose of observation." has shown certain advantages and cer- The principal reason for using pre- tain disadvantages to date; the usual cision sampling is to rule out unfore- criticism is that it's too expensive. Our seen sources of bias in the selection of purpose this morning is to find out respondents. On a quota sample certain something about the experience private biases are apt to creep in, even though agencies have had in using diis new the interviewer has religiously followed tool. the quotas as to income, age, race, etc These biases reflect human tendencies

RUSSELL H. COLLEY: Instead of "proba- •Reported by William A. Reynolds Na- bility sampling," I prefer to use the tional Broadcasting Company. PUBLIC OPINION RESEARCH CONFERENCE 793 to which the interviewer may succumb But once the basic sampling materials if left to her own devices: tendencies to have been obtained and processed, the exclude the less personable, accessible, cost of administering precision sam- or articulate respondents. If the ex- pling is little more than quota sam- clusion of such groups is apt to have pling. Therefore, we decided that we a serious biasing effect on the subject would make an investment in basic under study, the researcher would do sampling materials and amortize that well to consider precision rather than investment as future clients utilized the quota sampling. sample. I shall describe one such na-

There cannot be any hard and fast tional sample used in surveying the Downloaded from rules as to when to use precision sam- shirt market. pling, quota sampling, or some other In theory, the cities to be used in method. I would consider the following such a survey should be selected by criteria as conditions favorable to the probability alone. Actually, we found

use of precision sampling: (i) The lack that considerable judgment had to be http://poq.oxfordjournals.org/ of up-to-date, reliable information about used. A sample representing New Eng- the universe, (2) Universality of the land, for example, must include the phenomenon under study; certainly a city of Boston. precision sample would be more seri- The principal question we ran into ously considered on a survey of con- then was the method of selecting fam- sumer opinion as to men's shirts, which ilies or individuals within cities. I don't are worn by 99 per cent of the men, know of any one method that can be than in a study of the attitude of tele- applied to all cities, and in our own vision set owners, who represent about work we evolve a variety of methods at AAPOR Member Access on March 8, 2016 1 per cent of United States families, to suit varying conditions. In cities over (3) The complexity of the problem; 50,000 the Bureau of Census has desig- the more complex the problem becomes, nated each block with a number and the greater is the need for precision shows each block on a map. The sam- sampling, (4) The degree of precision pling process is to make a random se- desired. lection of these designated blocks. In Once it has been decided to use pre- large metropolitan areas a minor varia- cision sampling, two questions arise: tion was used. Instead of a straight How can a national precision sample systematic selection of blocks, a random be set up and administered, and can it selection was first made of census tracts. be done within reasonable limits of Blocks were then selected within these time and cost? census tracts. In cities under 50,000 it I don't know of any one system was necessary to do much of the basic which can be made to work in all types groundwork which the Bureau of Cen- and sizes of cities and rural areas. In sus had done for us in larger cities. the last few years, A. S. Bennett As- This meant obtaining an up-to-date sociates has used many different meth- street map of the city and designating ods of precision sampling for a variety each and every block with a number. of problems in consumer and dealer The next step was to send interview- survey work. We have found that pre- ers to the selected blocks to make a cision sampling is expensive to set up. precount of the dwelling units. This 794 PUBLIC OPINION QUARTERLY, WINTER 1948-49 count was given in the last census, but Finally, interviewers were given copies the data are now dose to ten years of maps and directions showing ex- old. Then we secured, in as many acdy where interviews were to be taken. cases as possible, the actual name and I have a lot of confidence in pre- address of each householder who was cision sampling, built up over a period to be interviewed. This allowed no of many years in which I have seen question or confusion in the interview- the results check out time and time er's mind as to which family to select again, almost perfectly, with known for an interview. data. At the same time, I don't neces-

The next problem to face was that of sarily believe this type of sampling Downloaded from call-backs. Are the people found at should be used to the exclusion of home sufficiently different from the other methods. We have too much not-at-homes to have a biasing effect talk of quota sampling versus pre- on your survey? This depends on the cision sampling. This smacks of cult- subject matter. On some studies it ism. It seems to me that, as professional might be very serious; on others, not research men, we should decide when http://poq.oxfordjournals.org/ so serious. We followed the practice that to use a shovel and when to use a hoe. no alternate family could be substituted Let's pick our tools for the job to be until an evening or Saturday callback done. had been made. A dozen callbacks during the day on a working wife RAYMOND FRANZEN: The following re- would not find her in, but if an evening marks are based on an observed tend- or Saturday callback failed to find the ency among private agencies to change original family at home, the interviewer their sampling methods—not because at AAPOR Member Access on March 8, 2016 was permitted to take the house next of demonstrable faults in the previous door. methods, but because of demonstrable Rural sampling is anodier problem. benefits from the new methods. In the Too many practitioners have slighted recendy completed Magazine Reader- rural interviews because of incon- ship Survey, for example, the proba- venience and cost. But area sampling bility and quota samples gave similar has made rural interviewing practical, results, but the probability sample precise, and, many people are discover- showed additional advantages which ing, not so costly as they thought. made it the more desirable. A word about how our rural sample What are some of these advantages? was set up. Some 3000 non-metro- In the first place, in the probability politan counties were stratified by the sampling we know the mathematical 8 major types of farming areas. Then, variance, and hence can tell how much about 50 counties were selected at confidence to place in trend lines. random within the strata, and county An even greater reason for using highway maps showing the actual probability sampling is that it facilitates location of farm and rural non-farm obtaining an accurate economic cross- dwellings were obtained. Each county section. When we use "A," "B," "C," was divided into thousands of tiny and "D" economic groups we know areas, every area was designated and a that there are many cases of misdassifi- random selection was made of the areas. cation and borderline instances. With PUBLIC OPINION RESEARCH CONFERENCE 795 a probability sample we know that we within households. A cheaper method have the correct economic distribution. is simply to tell the interviewer to talk Third, this method helps take the to the male head of the household in burden of proof of validity away from one sub-sample and to the female head the agency and puts it where it should in another sub-sample, etc Finally, we be—on the interviewer. Once correct must experiment with other than geo- instructions have been issued, it is up graphical factors as a basis for stratify- to the interviewer to follow them. ing (while, of course, keeping selection Fourth, use of probability samples random within cells). Stratification by tends to increase the integrity of inter- education, type of building, etc may Downloaded from viewers. Since they are assigned definite make it possible to conduct a survey homes or persons to visit, they don't with a smaller number of cases. have to tour the city looking for an individual to fill up a quota. Field ROB GOODMAN: When an organization personnel should be expert interviewers has decided to use probability sampling http://poq.oxfordjournals.org/ —not expert hunters. it presumably has already recognized Fifth, probability sampling makes it that a somewhat cosdy survey operation easier to locate bias. If, for example, we is involved. Recognition of die costs arc selecting members for a panel and of probability sampling means that encounter a number of refusals in the these costs must be studied in order diat original sample, we can then compare as much as possible may be secured for known characteristics of those who re- the funds expended. fuse with the characteristics of those There are, of course, two ways to get who participate. the "most for die money." One way is at AAPOR Member Access on March 8, 2016 Finally, probability sampling can to limit costs by the use of efficient pro- yield a mathematical regression which cedures; the second is to secure a can be used for predictive purposes, even maximum product, that is, in the case outside of the material studied in the of surveys to secure a maximum survey. amount of information from the study. On the other hand, we must not ig- The key to an efficient survey opera- nore certain difficulties and unsolved tion with probability sampling is flexi- problems presented by probability sam- bility. The design should permit die pling. We don't know to what extent use of essentially die same interviewing clustering of interviews can be accom- staff on a wide variety of surveys. Since plished. How many blocks in one tract for most surveys costs are lower when can be used? On this point we will have interviewers are employed locally, the to experiment and see how much clus- sample design would also be such that tering can be done and still yield ac- essentially the same sample points can curate results. We are also uncertain be used several times. of the best procedures for selecting die The usual procedure in selecting actual individuals to be interviewed. sample points is to establish strata con- One practice which has yielded good taining primary areas which are as results is to select households at the much alike as possible. The primary time the initial inventory of the area areas may consist of counties, groups is made, and then specify individuals of counties or parts of one or more 796 PUBLIC OPINION QUARTERLY, WINTER 1948-49 counties. There are numerous criteria views in the selected sample point is by which the primary areas may be doubled also. By use of a technique of grouped into strata. For example, pri- this kind the sample points will con- mary areas may be classified according sist of a sub-set of those used on other to the size of the largest center. Then surveys and the usual efficient field strata may be established in which each operation can be maintained at each primary area contains a city of over locality included in the survey. 200,000 population; other strata con- This notion of flexibility is readily taining cities of 100,000 to 200,000; extended to sampling within the se-

40,000 to 100,000; and so on. In addi- lected localities. Towns and villages are Downloaded from tion, sub-groupings may be made on selected within each, sample blocks are the basis of geographic location, per chosen, and listing sheets are drawn cent native white, or other variables. Up for each selected block. The listing Moreover, studies of different methods sheets show all of the addresses of of stratification have indicated that

dwelling units within each block, listed http://poq.oxfordjournals.org/ there are usually a number of methods, in a prescribed sequence. Blocks are any one of which will yield substan- defined in such a way that a relatively tially whatever gains there are to be de- small proportion of the addresses in any rived by a stratification procedure. block is used on any one survey. The Fortunately, the use of geographical listing sheets are kept on file in the location together with size of largest office and sample addresses can readily center seems to offer a satisfactory sys- be selected for subsequent surveys. By tem of stratification for a wide variety applying a number of statistical devices of surveys. It is therefore possible to to these listing sheets, it is possible to at AAPOR Member Access on March 8, 2016 select a set of sample points (primary continue using the same blocks until a areas) which can be used in several high percentage of the addresses have studies. Such a design has considerable been used up, since avoidance of ad- flexibility also. Suppose, for example, dresses first selected at random need that a particular survey is planned in not detract from the randomness of which interviews are to be obtained later selections. only in cities of over 5,000. Quite ob- The second principal means for en- viously, all sample points containing no suring economy is to extract maximum such cities would be dropped out for information from the survey. If proba- this survey. In addition a portion of the bility sampling is employed, it may be sample points containing cities of 5,000 found possible to study inter-relation- to perhaps 15,000 would probably be dropped because the use of a uniform ships and cross-tabulated data about sampling rate would yield too few inter- which information is urgently needed. views for efficient operation in every one In other words, the use of probability of them. By combining two strata con- sampling permits an intricate survey taining relatively small proportions of operation. Furthermore, the use of city dwellers, and selecting one of the probability sampling presupposes em- sample points at random to represent ployment of a properly designed ques- both strata, the sampling rate within tionnaire and well-trained interviewers. the selected sample area can be doubled. By the combination of these factors a Hence the expected number of inter- near maTimiim amount of reliable in- PUBLIC OPINION RESEARCH CONFERENCE 797 formation can be secured from each if he experiences a refusal is definitely a interview. departure from the probability method. As a matter of fact, when highly With reference to the remarks of the objective techniques are used, costs of second speaker, it is my feeling that analysis arc ordinarily increased as the permissible extent of clustering is much as—or more than—the inter- not a matter of belief but of the de- viewing costs. For example, cost data velopment of a sample design in which of the Survey Resrarch Center show the optimum extent of clustering is that direct field costs vary from one- determined. In addition, ratio and re-

fourth to one-third total survey costs, gression estimates can be used in non- Downloaded from and total sampling and supervisory probability samples as well as with costs, including permanent staff, rarely probability samples, and the usefulness amount to as much as one-half of the of various factors for stratification pur- total cost of a survey. This is in con- poses must depend on the total survey trast with many survey organizations design. in which field costs constitute a large http://poq.oxfordjournals.org/ percentage of total costs. RAYMOND FRANZEN: I agree with Dr. The trend toward the use of highly Hauser on most of the points he has developed survey techniques seems to raised. It is true that regressions can parallel the increasing demand for in- be used in quota sampling, but usable tricate findings of a known degree of correlations with demonstrable cross reliability. If either field costs or costs validation are not as sure to appear. On of analysis are boosted out of propor- the matter of clustering I agree in gen- eral, but here one eventually comes to a tion to each odier, the total amount of at AAPOR Member Access on March 8, 2016 information obtained for a dollar spent point where a judgment must be made, is likely to suffer. If advanced field and it's a matter of getting the best techniques are utilized, extensive anal- possible evidence on which to base such ysis is required if full advantage is a judgment. to be taken of the great amount of in- ARNOLD KING (National Analysts): formation obtained. At the same time, There is a need to alert the public to the analysis is hardly worth while if the fact that there arc some agencies sufficient funds have not been spent purporting to use probability sampling to make sure that the probability sam- which are not in fact doing so, and in pling has been rigorously applied. such cases the probability of selection cannot be stated. Another general mis- PHILIP M. HAUSER (University of Chi- apprehension is that stratification can- cago): It seems to me that the sample not be carried out in probability sam- described by the first speaker was really pling. Actually, of course, it can be not a probability sample at all and I done and afterwards we still know the would like to take issue with the idea probability of selection. In addition, we that the probability method is not ap- can take a probability sample and plicable to the selection of cities. There weight it by quotas and groupings are methods of using probability sam- without losing its benefits. pling for this purpose, and they need With regard to the geographical not be more expensive. Also, permitting versus the socio-economic factor in the interviewer to take the next house stratification, our experience has shown 798 PUBLIC OPINION QUARTERLY, WINTER 1948-49 that the geographic method tends to be sample, but complete purity is difficult more satisfactory, because then known to achieve and is ordinarily not re- economic and social data can be used quired. For a survey which does re- at the estimation level. quire a pure probability sample it is best to secure the services of a special- RENSIS LIKERT (Survey Research Cen- ized sample statistician or else to con- ter): In spite of its advantages, there sult one of the sampling experts at the is no question that the probability Bureau of the Census. sample costs more. The design, the in-

terviewing, and the procedure for locat- FREDERICK F. STEPHAN: The services of Downloaded from ing the respondent are all more ex- competent statisticians are needed not pensive. We have found that 20 to 30 only in the sampling problem but also per cent of the field cost of the survey is on other phases of the planning, execu- devoted to getting in contact with the tion and use of surveys. Perhaps it is not respondent This does not mean that altogether fortunate that the energies probability sampling is inefficient, but of statisticians are being increasingly http://poq.oxfordjournals.org/ it does mean that it is more economical absorbed by the problem of sample to administer a fairly long question- design, since problems of interpretation naire, since this brings down the cost and of communicating survey results of each question. are, if anything, more vital at the present time. Whenever possible, the FREDERICK F. STEPHAN (Princeton Uni- statistician should follow a survey right versity) : Mr. Colley referred to a survey through to the stage of interpretation done for a shirt company. I would like

and recommendation. at AAPOR Member Access on March 8, 2016 to ask first whether it was possible to persuade the client to state definitely LEIP HoLBiEK-HANSSEN (FAKTA, Oslo): how much precision he needed for his So far nobody has mentioned the prob- purposes, and secondly how the client lem of "time sampling." Isn't it true and the agency reacted to the increased that many people think differently from cost of using probability methods. one day to the next—especially on some subjects? When our main job is to RUSSELL H. COLLET: It is usually diffi- study changes, wouldn't it then be more cult to persuade the client to commit of a probability sample if we distributed himself on just how much reliability is the interviews evenly throughout the needed for every question on a six- days and weeks of a period of about page questionnaire. The customary at- six months and even analyzed some titude is: "We want all the information moving averages? we can get," With regard to the added cost, the sampling added only about THE CHAIRMAN: Of course we arc all 10 per cent to the cost of the whole concerned with time sampling, and I survey, and the added cost of callbacks think the discussion thus far has shown came to another 10 per cent This was only that we are more worried about not considered excessive by the client other factors. in view of the increased reliability. In connection with a comment made RENSIS LIKERT: Research on the influ- earlier, we admit that the sample used ence of the time factor tends to show in this survey was not a pure probability that some attitudes are fairly stable. For PUBLIC OPINION RESEARCH CONFERENCE 799 example, even after a price break re- keeping trend data on expectations of spondents' economic plans and expecta- war. Fluctuations in these expectations tions continued substantially as before. can be fairly closely related to specific events, showing that with respect to HERBERT STEMBER (National Opinion political questions the time factor can Research Center): NORC has been be of substantial importance.

EXPERIENCES WITH PROBABILITY SAMPLING

IN PRIVATE AGENCIES (II)* Downloaded from (Monday, September 13, 1948) Chairman: J. Stevens Stock, Opinion Research Corporation. Participants: Matilda White, Market Research Company of America; Herbert Hyman, National Opinion Research Center; Philip M. Hauser, http://poq.oxfordjournals.org/ University of Chicago.

MATILDA WHITE: At the Market Re- dwelling units than are actually within search Company we have run across a the area. The most glaring errors of number of practical problems in con- this type can be detected by checking nection with probability sampling. all work against up-to-date maps. These fall into two groups: (1) Select- The second set of problems is con-

ing sampling households in the field cerned with obtaining full answers at AAPOR Member Access on March 8, 2016 without bias or error, and (2) Obtain- from all of the sample. Of course, the ing the required information from the person to be interviewed must be found, maximum number of these households. and found at a time when he is willing The first problem has been solved by to respond; when full attention cannot a complete listing of all houses within be given to the questionnaire, a callback the sampling area. While this is ex- is required. Our experience has been pensive, once done the job needn't be that in urban areas respondents in two- repeated, and the original cost of the thirds of the households are successfully listing can be spread over a number of contacted on the first call, and 85 per surveys. Also, in this type of listing the cent by the second. In rural areas 85 per interviewer no longer has the problem cent of the respondents have been avail- of selection since we choose the sample. able on the first call. We have also found This method of prelisting requires that 5 per cent of the homes originally careful instruction and supervision of listed proved not to belong in the sam- the interviewers. Not content with tak- ple at all, either because the apparent ing listings from the mailboxes, direc- dwelling units proved not to be dwell- tories, or other sources, we go directly ing units, or because they were unoc- to the household. cupied at the time. Errors made by Here there are two possible sources originally listing office buildings as apartments should not be corrected by of error: (1) Failure by the inter- viewer to list all dwelling units, and •Reported by Raymond Fink, Opinion Re- (2) Listing by interviewer! of more search Center, University of Denver. 8 oo PUBLIC OPINION QUARTERLY, WINTER 1948-49 substitution; these addresses must be an original 15 to 6 per cent in recent excluded entirely. years. It seems to us that the necessity for callbacks to prevent bias is' often exag- HERBERT HYMAN: I want to discuss the gerated. Instead of callbacks we tried a problem of field staff performance as system of substitution in the field, but it affects the quality of the probability this proved inadequate. We also found samples actually obtained. Such sam- that the interviewing expense involved pling presents complex problems re- in substitution is as great as the cost of quiring a high degree of skill on the making complete callbacks. In addition, part of the interviewer. Downloaded from we are not entirely convinced of the uni- A recent letter from one of our versal value of callbacks. Whether to staunchest interviewers assigned to an use them or not depends on the prob- area sample describes the hardships he lem. In comparing those respondents encountered while in the field. In cov-

reached on first calls with those inter- ering his assigned segment he encoun- http://poq.oxfordjournals.org/ viewed on callbacks we found responses tered insane asylums and impenetrable to many questions very similar. Some- wilderness where farms should have times there was a change in the total been. From his letter he sounded some- of only 1 or 2 per cent, or none at all. what discouraged. Yet the average in- This, of course, was not the case when terviewer is not nearly as loyal or as a question concerned the employment experienced. Therefore errors may of women, where the change in results easily be introduced. I can illustrate varied from 16 per cent at the first call die types and magnitudes of these er- to 22 per cent of the total sample—or a rors from various surveys done by at AAPOR Member Access on March 8, 2016 net bias of 6 percentage points. NORC: The interviewer will have greater 1. In one community survey involv- success if first calls are timed properly. ing listing of all dwelling units in It is unwise to give the interviewer a given blocks, we found an underlisting specific number of times he is to make in poor blocks approximating 13 per a callback. This tends to lower his cent of all die dwelling units. morale by implying that he will fail a 2. In another survey where the in- certain number of times. terviewer was supposed to select every ndi house, from such listings, mere A problem greater than callbacks U examination indicated that for 3 per getting the respondent to complete a cent of die dwelling units selected, the long questionnaire. On this we found interviewer had been unable to count the key factor to be in getting the co- properly and had selected the wrong operation and confidence of the inter- household. viewer. Our main effort has been not 3. In addition, the use of diesc listings only in educating the interviewer but for die selection of new samples of in emphasizing to him that the job can households for future surveys was im- be done. Largely as a result of this, the paired since we found diat 10 per cent percentage of incomplete returns we of die entries contained clerical errors have experienced for any reason (in- such as vague addresses and illegible cluding respondents never found at writing. home and refusals) has been cut from 4. In another survey we were able PUBLIC OPINION RESEARCH CONFERENCE 801 to ascertain whether the interviewer among interviewers under direct super- actually did choose the households in vision. However, even widi supervision, the prescribed fashion or whether he hidden errors or biased selection oc- covertly biased the selection. This check curred. This biasing behavior is related was made by completing two equiva- to deeper motivations rather than to lent listings, one by the office staff and carelessness. Aids in controlling such the other by the interviewers. In this bias include (a) Double procedures way a bias in the interviewers' samples where one interviewer does listing, and in the direction of selecting wealthier another the interviewing, (b) Altered households could be demonstrated. sample designs, so as to remove nui- Downloaded from 5. Selection of individuals within sances to the interviewer and improve households was also subject to error. In- his morale, (c) Empirical studies of dividuals were supposed to be selected interviewer sentiments leading to bet- systematically following an enumera- ter knowledge of the reasons for error tion of all adults within the household. and improved procedures. For example, http://poq.oxfordjournals.org/ Merc examination of the enumeration some interviewers remarked in their sheets indicated that the Interviewers report forms that they could not see the were unable to follow the instructions importance of the procedures they were correctly in 4 per cent of the cases. supposed to follow. In remarking on 6. Clerical errors in enumeration, their main difficulties, it was observed e.g., inadequate entry of age or sex or that most interviewers did not mention number of calls, were found in 35 per the phases which were most subject cent of the entries on the enumeration to error, and the particular interview-

sheets, impairing their usefulness for ers who made most errors were less at AAPOR Member Access on March 8, 2016 future sampling or for checking on the aware of difficulty. Interviewers there- interviewer. fore must be trained to develop insight 7. In one survey where eight pairs and to understand the reasons why it of interviewers worked in the same is necessary to follow specified pro- segments, the average difference be- cedures. tween pairs in the number of calls per completed interview was 1.03 indicat- PHILIP M. HAUSER: In response to the ing that interviewer performance may Chairman's request, I am going to give determine the apparent non-availability an outline of a probability sample that of respondents. is 99 and 44/100 per cent pure. The control of interviewer errors in In a probability sample every item in probability sampling lies in adminis- the population has a known chance of trative procedures of supervision, train- being selected. It is not necessarily true ing, selection, and the like. The anal- that each item has an equal chance of ysis of factors relating to such errors selection, but if the probability of selec- is in progress, and some answers will tion is known, the sample is under be forthcoming in papers by Man- control. heimer and McRae. I can briefly men- Sampling in the AT&T survey previ- tion some tentative findings. ously described is in an ideal setup, In surveys without direct supervision, since there is a listing of the total clerical errors, as pointed out, ran very population. Random sampling from a high, whereas they were negligible complete list is probability sampling 802 PUBLIC OPINION QUARTERLY, WINTER 1948-49 and all standard probability sampling city blocks and clusters of farmsteads formulae are applicable. in rural areas for enumeration. To design a national sample one In every step cases are drawn ac- should first decide on the primary cording to the principles of probability, sampling unit. Next, the modes of and the formula for the measure of stratification should be determined. error varies with the design. A mathe- There should be as much homogeneity matical statistician is needed to de- within the strata as possible, while termine the optimum allocation of within the primary sampling unit there sampling units. Only the mathematical

should be as much heterogeneity as statistician can outline this procedure, Downloaded from possible. although not always with set rules. Questions may arise as to the best For further information a publica- modes of stratification. Some judg- tion entitled "A New Sample of the ment is needed in this • determination, Population" by Hansen and Hurwitz

but this judgment does not in any may be obtained from the Bureau of http://poq.oxfordjournals.org/ way affect the selection of cases. Judg- the Census. A bibliography and reprints ment should be used in setting up the are also available at the Bureau. New strata, but random sampling methods books on sampling will appear shortly: should be used in the selection of sam- one by Stephan and McCarthy, another pling units from each stratum. by Deming, and a third by Hansen, In sampling, one may consider that Hurwitz, and Madow. every single county or combination of counties in the United States is in a THE CHAIRMAN: At the Opinion Re- "box" from which drawings are made. search Corporation we have been in- at AAPOR Member Access on March 8, 2016 Once the counties have been stratified, terested in the problems of cost. In primary units from every stratum may 1937 we tried to find out why inter- be drawn at random, using no judg- viewers took so long to do a job. First ment at all. This is a restrictive, yet we attempted to reduce travel costs by random, sample design. assigning four contiguous blocks in- From these primary sampling units stead of one, but we had exactly the sub-samples can be drawn by further same cost per block as with the original stratifying the county sampling units method. by cities, industrial areas, etc.; and ele- Recently we made some experiments ments from each county primary sam- in area block sampling which consisted pling unit can then be drawn at random of sending out four sets of interviewers to represent that county. Information with matched samples of blocks. The about the composition of the sample first set of interviewers was assigned does not have to be known in advance, quotas; the second set was given pre- since the sample gives the answers. selected houses but was allowed to One can also enumerate city blocks select individuals within the houses by or rural townships completely, but since quotas; the third set was given a this is usually too inefficient or costly, method for randomized selecting of one can sub-sample these areas, stratify- individuals within households but was ing by whatever characteristics are allowed to choose any house in the available. This leaves the researcher block; and for the fourth set both with clusters of dwelling units within house and individual were preselected. PUBLIC OPINION RESEARCH CONFERENCE 803 We found that preselecting indi- number of interviews is needed if more viduals increased costs 13 per cent net, than one interview per household is and preselecting households increased made. An alternative procedure is to costs 10 per cent net. Yet all four select one individual at random within samples were indistinguishable with each sample household. I'd also like respect to results. to ask Miss White whether or not her callback system on the same block in- CLYDE HART (National Opinion Re- volves any additional cost. search Center): About a year ago NORC went into probability sampling MATILDA WHITE: It does not as com- Downloaded from to overcome some of the difficulties re- pared with substitutions made in the ferred to. Since our people had experi- field. In other words, if a given number ence only in quota sampling, we sent of cases is required for the block, call- four of them to Washington where they backs do not appear to add materially

learned little that was helpful in the to the cost of obtaining them. http://poq.oxfordjournals.org/ field. They found a memorandum written by Matilda White on her HERBERT HYMAN: Administrative prob- first set of field experiences to be most lems are not solved by culling out inter- useful. viewers. The natural mortality rate among interviewers approximates 100 PHILIP M. HAUSER: The staffs doing per cent. Culling them out means that this kind of work in Washington are the initial investment made in the in- very small and overworked, and a terviewers has been lost. It is better to great deal of the material necessary for determine what demands will be made at AAPOR Member Access on March 8, 2016 describing their activities has not yet on the interviewer and then set up a been written. The best persons to con- system to prevent the selection of poor sult are those actually engaged in field ones. operations. In designing surveys one should de- FRANK CHOKEL (Opinion Research Corporation): Our turnover of inter- crease the necessity for the enumerator viewers is not 100 per cent We keep to use his judgment. In the Census, a record of interviewers and they are field workers are given addresses and rated. We have experimented, using maps. They may interview the person every device at our disposal to expose coming to the door, but they also list cheaters. When we ran tabulations the other members of the household. "with" cheaters and "without" cheaters, The universe is then split into two however, none of the results varied by groups: the first consists of the people more than 1 per cent. When an inter- who came to the door, and the second viewer is rated as "suspicious" it is is the remainder of the universe. A usually discovered that he is a cheater. random sample is then taken of the The most valuable are those trained in second the field and well indoctrinated. We correspond frequently with interview- ROE GOODMAN (Survey Research Cen- ers throughout the country to keep ter): Hauser's technique is ideal under them interested. If paid well they do a some conditions, but a larger total better job. 804 PUBLIC OPINION QUARTERLY, WINTER 1948-49 OPINION RESEARCH AS AN AID TO PUBLIC RELATIONS PRACTICE (Monday, September 13, 1948) Chairman: Albert D. Freiberg, The Psychological Corporation. Participants: Fred L. Palmer, Earl Newsom and Company; Carolyn Crusius, Elmo Roper; Lc Baron Foster, Opinion Research Corporation.

THE CHAIRMAN: This morning we have tate the study of public opinion in mo- Downloaded from with us experts who represent three tion. Such series as the Link Barometer areas with which our discussion will be are helpful in detecting seasonal trends. concerned. Mr. Palmer is a practitioner More such research (conducted with of public relations, Miss Crusius is an greater frequency) would allow a more

experienced research technician, and systematic comparison of opinion data http://poq.oxfordjournals.org/ Mr. Foster is a specialist in reporting with economic data. Second, there is the results of research for the use of need to develop indices which will public relations practitioners. indicate the "climate of public opinion" at any given moment. The Fortune FRED L. PALMER: The dose connection "Consumer Outlook" is a move in this between public opinion research and direction, and ORC's "Collectivist Ide- public relations should be recognized. ology in America" took another step The one involves measurement and by attempting to measure how far left analysis of opinion, and the other con- or right various elements of the popu- at AAPOR Member Access on March 8, 2016 sists of the art of helping people deal lation might be in the realm of politi- constructively with the force of public cal ideas. Indices for measuring the opinion. While public relations is more public desire for security as compared an art than a science—part of the art with the values of work, enterprise, of leadership—its future depends to a and independence would be valuable large extent on the progress of public in this connection. Third, there is need opinion research. The public relations for a central agency supported by lead- counselor must understand the opinion ing research and public relations organ- of his publics if he is to help an enter- izations, and by various industries and prise deal with public attitudes. Re- institutions, to accumulate, centralize, search is accordingly a valued tool for and compare a great quantity of public public relations firms. For example, opinion data, and to undertake "pure Earl Newsom and Company has research" in the general interest. worked with Elmo Roper on many In conclusion, the public relations public opinion problems including profession would profit from experi- those of the Ford Motor Company and mentation with new techniques, espe- Standard Oil of New Jersey, companies cially techniques for simple and cheaper which have placed high value on stud- ways of quickly testing opinion, and ies of employee attitudes. doing so frequently. Especially valuable to public relations practitioners would be a wider use of CAROLYN CRUSIUS: In my opinion, Mr. continuing series of questions to facili- Palmer's most important challenge to PUBUC OPINION RESEARCH CONFERENCE 805 us is the need for more research into single study, and maybe it is beyond research, particularly the kind that will public opinion research really to an- allow better appraisals of the meaning swer some of them- But certainly diere of our results. For example, consider a is widiin die framework of public basic problem to public relations: what opinion techniques, if imaginatively does it mean when a person says he is applied, a good possibility of building favorably or unfavorably disposed to- up some real knowledge of die work- wards a company, or industry, or move- ings of this abstract diing called "good ment? What will he do as a result of wilL"

his attitude? Downloaded from Good techniques have been devel- LE BARON FOSTER: Widi regard to the oped for reporting the percentages of application of research to policy and ac- different kinds of people sitting on dif- tion, perhaps some illustrations from ferent sides of an emotional fence with our experience will be helpful. respect to corporations. Good tech- 1. Identifying the Target. Top ad- http://poq.oxfordjournals.org/ niques have been developed for report- ministrators often find it hard to visual- ing up-surges and down-surges of emo- ize what really counts widi their pub- tional attitudes toward corporations, lics, and sometimes extensive advertis- and the reasons for them when the up- ing or public relations campaigns arc surges and down-surges arc occasioned launched widi no objective evidence by dramatic enough happenings. Good diat they are pointed at the right tar- techniques have been developed for gets. The Association of American finding out what people want, what Railroads, after an ORC study, shifted they have done, and how they react on from its 1941 strategy of telling die at AAPOR Member Access on March 8, 2016 matters concerned with their regular public diat die government was unfair lives and thinking. in subsidizing competitors of die rail- But consider just a few questions roads to die dieme diat die railroads that still remain unanswered: (1) How were helping win die war. At die start much actual interest is there anyway in of die campaign 50 per cent favored any given company or organization; government operation of die railroads or in the way businesses as a whole in wartime; diis figure dropped gradu- conduct themselves? (2) How much ally to 15 per cent by 1944. can any organization count on a per- 2. Shaping Policy. For years die son who says he approves of it, and American Medical Association opposed how likely is he to stay diat way, if he plans for die prepayment of medical reads or hears something to the con- bills on an insurance basis, fearing diat trary about the organization? (3) What such plans would take die control of is die relative long-term effect on an medical practice out of die hands of organization of a dramatic business die doctors. When a survey showed an personality as compared to an enlight- insistent public demand for insurance ened program? (4) What is die maxi- of medical risks, die Association devised mum attention a company can expect plans under die control of die doctors if its products are never seen as such by to meet die demand, instead of resisting the public, or never get into the home? it. Also, die trend in business is toward Such questions are not easy of solu- giving die public relations man an in- tion, nor can diey be answered in any creasing voice in top policy decisions. 8o6 PUBLIC OPINION QUARTERLY, WINTER 1948-49 3. Setting the Themes of the Cam- get any impressions if it had to wait paign. Important for success is choos- for all the facts. ing themes of high importance to the audience rather than those of particular LE BARON FOSTER: I wonder whether interest to you. a clearing house or central agency (as 4. Pretesting Materials. Without test suggested by Mr. Palmer) would pro- results it is anybody's guess as to duce the hoped-for results. whether any one method of getting across ideas really works. A small re- FRED L. PALMER: Such an organization search expenditure may pay great divi- could certainly obtain trend data, the Downloaded from dends. collection of which no single existing 5. Auditing Campaign Results. Good research organization would be willing public relations work sometimes goes to finance. unrecognized because no audit is taken to demonstrate what was accomplished. THE CHAIRMAN: Perhaps AAPOR http://poq.oxfordjournals.org/ The railways' wartime campaign is one might help sponsor trend studies and of many illustrations where the audit assist in setting up a clearing house. paid off. If public opinion research is not FRANK LANG (Association of Casualty called upon more frequently by top and Surety Companies): It would rep- management, the chances are that it is resent a step in the right direction if because we have not shown how re- public relations and opinion specialists search findings can be put to practical would learn more about the businesses use. they are assisting and study their par- at AAPOR Member Access on March 8, 2016 ticular problems in more detail. This FRED L. PALMER: I agree heartily with would help diem present their findings Carolyn Crusius as to the high value to top management in a form that of probing techniques. A public rela- might be more readily comprehended. tions firm has to tell clients "to do something," and so naturally has to go RICHARD W. DITTMER (Opinion Re- in for interpretation—successful inter- search Corporation): Is it preferable pretation. One caution must be ob- for pollsters, or for the public relations served, however. Reasons given by re- counselor to present survey findings to spondents in surveys may not be the top management? real reasons. Accordingly, qualitative analysis is of high importance. It is FRED L. PALMER: Cooperation between also equally important to educate the bodi groups may be best. In general, client. researchers and counselors are each In planning information campaigns, likely to have a particular field of ex- it should be remembered that it is im- pertness, and this should be taken into possible to set all the facts before the account in determining the manner of public. Pouring out facts may smother presentation. out attention. In the development of public opinion, presentation should be MAX BARIOUX (Service dc Sondages et dear and simple, should deal with the Statistiques): Poll-taking itself may significant. The public would never best be described neidier as art nor as PUBLIC OPINION RESEARCH CONFERENCE 807

science, but as using a camera. The JULIAN WOODWARD (Elmo Roper): The clarity of the picture presented largely difficulty of such a procedure is that the determines the excellence of the survey. validity of free association methods is hard to establish. Louis HARRIS (Elmo Roper): In addi- tion to the functions which have been WILLIAM A. YOELL: I was referring to described, public relations firms have a procedure for establishing objective the task of assisting corporations in facts, not to depth interviewing as some redefining their place in the broader use it

context of business and social organiza- Downloaded from tion. Consequently, research should not THE CHAIRMAN: The facts obtained overlook investigation of these long- will, of course, differ with the methods range social problems. used. Years ago Sir Isaac Newton formulated the third law of motion— WILLIAM A. YOELL (New York City): for every action there is an equal and Studies giving more attention to the opposite reaction. Psychology is also a http://poq.oxfordjournals.org/ totality of the respondent's experience field of scientific endeavor and has its and personality would also be valuable. laws. The weakness of depth inter- Knowledge of how factory workers viewing may be summed up by the spend the full day, for example, proves "first law" of psycho-dynamics, which valuable in analysis of workers' atti- is: "The deeper you dig, the higher you tudes toward management. have to pile it." at AAPOR Member Access on March 8, 2016 NEW DEVELOPMENTS IN INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS RESEARCH (Monday, September 13, 1948)

Chairman: L. N. Lascau, Director of Employee Research, General Motors Company. Participants: Ralph L. Mason, Standard Oil Company of New Jersey; Rensis Likert, Survey Research Center, University of Michigan; Paul Grabbe, formerly consultant, American Telephone and Telegraph Company.

RALPH L. MASON: I am not a research tion with a specialist, such as a labor expert, but I should like to review our economist who would analyze our set- company's experience in connection up, and (3) Educator conferences. We with employee attitude surveys. decided to use all three approaches, and At the end of the war, we decided started by engaging Elmo Roper to we wanted to get a check on our over- formulate the questionnaire for our all employee relations policies. There first attitude survey, which was con- were three approaches that we might ducted at our Baton Rouge plant in have used to obtain this information: 1945- (1) Attitude surveying, (2) Consulta- At the outset we realized that th<—— 8o8 PUBLIC OPINION QUARTERLY, WINTER 1948-49 wasn't much use in conducting attitude management We found that they research if we didn't do something didn't feel they had an adequate pay about the findings. Also, we felt it differential over those they supervised, necessary to let those who were can- and also that the channels of com- vassed know the results of the survey. munication were not as open as we Lastly, we wanted to be sure that the had thought they were. employees' bargaining agency knew All in all, it is our company's feel- what we were doing and why, so we ing that the surveys gave a good pic- called in the representatives of the ture of the feeling of our employees, union and showed them the question- and we plan to continue them.

naire. The only group canvassed in this Downloaded from initial survey was the wage earner RENSIS LIKERT: Industrial relations group. We made it clear that we had when they are a problem are a no intention of trying to pin anything symptom of poor management. The on anyone, but rather that we would best prevention is intelligent and com- study the over-all findings and then see petent management. Therefore, how what could be done about it- The final does one assure the type of management http://poq.oxfordjournals.org/ report of the survey was submitted to that will do the best job? Survey re- the union group. search techniques provide an extremely The following are the areas we ex- powerful research tool for attaining this plored in this questionnaire: (1) Atti- goal. tude towards the company and its The assumption we make is that management, (2) Attitude towards wherever people are engaged in a task supervisors, (3) Attitude towards pay, that has a common objective, certain

(4) Attitude towards company plans basic principles of organization and at AAPOR Member Access on March 8, 2016 and policies, and (5) Attitude towards management arc applicable. In order the work. to ascertain these principles, we must In another plant, the Baytown Re- study operations that are high in pro- finery of the Humble Oil k Refining ductivity and see how they differ from Company, an attitude survey included comparable operations that are low in not only wage earners, but supervisors, productivity. We must do the same for clerical workers, and the technical operations that differ in job satisfaction. workers as well. Our survey results In other words, we are trying to find indicated a desire for greater oppor- out what kinds of supervisory practices tunity for promotion, and showed that and what kinds of organizational struc- certain groups were concerned about ture yield a high level of productivity, salary and administration. Also, where and a high level of job satisfaction. we had thought that our salaries for We began to study this problem two technical employees were on a pretty or three years ago. The first investiga- sound basis, the survey indicated that tion was made in the home office of the these employees were not convinced Prudential Insurance Company. There that they were being paid as well as we found a situation where several other technical groups. groups of employees were doing exactly Another problem disclosed by the the same kind of work. Aptitude tests survey was to get the supervisory em- showed no difference among these ployees to feel that they were a part of groups, yet there were differences in PUBLIC OPINION RESEARCH CONFERENCE 809 productivity. We interviewed groups collar workers, (2) The larger the work of employees with both low and high group, the lower the level of employee levels of productivity, using general morale, (3) Supervisory practices affect questions such as: How do you do your morale. work? How do you feel about it? etc What do the employees say about We also surveyed the practices of the management? First of all, where man- management. agement deals with employees so as to Another concern investigated was a give them real opportunities to partici- large utility company. Here it was not pate, you get a higher level of morale. possible to get satisfactory measures Secondly, when the worker's sense of Downloaded from of productivity, so we used morale and security is increased, higher morale job satisfaction as a basis for making results. comparisons among employees. We interviewed a sample of employees, PAUL GRABBE: I was originally asked administering five different question-

to come into the AT&T as a consultant http://poq.oxfordjournals.org/ naire forms. We then tabulated a sam- because as an outside observer I might ple morale score, marking off the be able to suggest improvements in groups with low and high morale, and employee relations. The research which interviewed workers to determine what was conducted to formulate suggestions was causing the low morale or the high started with the middle level of man- morale. agement—i.e., with sub-department In some managements one finds that heads—and proceeded down into the the supervisors are putting more pres- ranks. While dealing with middle man- sure on the employees under them, be- agement we found it quite possible to at AAPOR Member Access on March 8, 2016 cause management has been putting understand each other by means of pressure on the supervisors for produc- questions and answers, but the lower tion. Employees in these situations tend we went in the hierarchy, the less ef- to have few chances to make decisions, fective words seemed. Our question- and are restricted in how they make ing techniques were no longer effective. them, etc. Also, these managements We therefore developed a pictorial in- tend not to be interested in the indi- terview in which responses were vidual, as such, but in getting the work charted on an abstract scale, using done. We have found this situation to morale as an indicator, and were re- be associated with low production. On lated to respondents' jobs. This tech- the other hand, some managements nique proved to have a high reliability place emphasis on a happy working sit- and the quantitative results gave valu- uation; sore spots are sought and ironed able leads. out. Here more opportunities for initia- Having completed this operation in tive are given, and the management interviews with the rank and file, it makes it clear that suggestions and occurred to us that a variation of this criticism are welcomed. We found this technique might be used for gauging situation to be associated with high pro- the effectiveness of communication duction. within management. Hitherto every- In the utility company study, we body, myself included, had viewed the found that (1) Blue collar workers are problem of communication largely in less satisfied with their jobs than white terms of channeling up to higher man- 8io PUBLIC OPINION QUARTERLY, WINTER 1948-49 agement an accurate picture of the achieve in employee relations must be needs and the reactions of the rank and brought about through changes at all file, and then channeling back to the levels of management. Therefore we rank and file die intentions and poli- are not seeking mediods which would cies of higher management. But diis put management on die defensive. We appeared to be an over-simplification. need to develop ways of analyzing data Good communication should also mean somediing like die procedures used by diat management lets the rank and psychoanalysts. We made one study to file know its reaction to their needs, determine employee reactions to die

and what it (management) is prepared working situation, and spent a year Downloaded from to do about them. Also, this concept of studying die 175,000 replies. For ex- communication omitted die middle ample, we made a sample count of die range of management. We dierefore reasons employees mentioned for lik- applied the same pictorial interview ing or disliking dieir jobs, and dien technique to middle management— classified diesc according to die divi- http://poq.oxfordjournals.org/ embracing five levels above die rank sion. In diis way we were able to locate and file, and found diat a different out- more accurately die factors affecting look seemed to prevail at each level of employee morale—i.c., if, for instance, management. If more refined work die term "supervision" appeared more could be done on diis score, we might often in die responses from one divi- find that certain ideas are held by peo- sion dian in die whole group, we ple as a characteristic of die level diey looked for positive supervisory prac- occupy, and diat some tendencies in- tices in diat division, or negative if die crease as you go up die management term appeared less often. We are anx- at AAPOR Member Access on March 8, 2016 ladder, such as die tendency of die in- ious to receive criticisms from anyone dividual to project his own fears into interested, and would be very glad to his view of conditions on die rank and give a fuller description of our system file level die farther he is removed to anyone who would like to have it. from personal contact widi people on diat level. GEORGE HAUSKNECHT (Bureau of Agri- In conclusion, communication in cultural Economics, Department of Ag- industry is a much more complicated riculture): Any job situation is going affair dian students of industrial rela- to yield a certain number of dissatisfied tions have generally recognized. The people. Sometimes tius dissatisfaction problem goes beyond die conception is die result of a feeling of non-recog- of merely channeling certain informa- nition, or odier reasons pertaining to tion down from die policy level and in die individual. Or again, it can be die turn channeling certain information up result of the social situation. Certainly from die rank and file level. It's a bodi types of causes should be investi- question not of one big gap to be gated. bridged, but as many gaps as dicre are management levels. THE CHAIRMAN: The question might be formulated as follows: How can THE CHAIRMAN: At General Motors, one distinguish between die subjective we operate on die idea diat die only aspects of die job and diose which are improvements we are ever going to objective? How far should industry go PUBLIC OPINION RESEARCH CONFERENCE 8n in making job satisfaction its goal, thing that must not be lost sight of is when this involves changes in the the need for explaining satisfactorily social situation? the motives of management for making the survey. The individual must know RENSIS LIKERT: In our studies we have why his opinion is being sought. tried to determine first the general factors of major consequence in con- RENSIS LIKERT: It is also important to nection with any kind of organized interpret survey results to management; human activity, and secondly the spe- merely providing a set of figures isn't cial factors which apply to particular sufficient. Management will ask, "What Downloaded from activities, such as heavy industry, sales, do they mean?" office operations, etc But far more knowledge about human activity is ARTHUR KORNHADSER (Wayne Univer- needed before we can write a general- sity): In studies of this type, manage-

ized theory of management—a for- ment and the employee directly con- http://poq.oxfordjournals.org/ mula, if you will. cerned are not the only considerations. Aren't some of the most serious and H. H. REMMERS (Purdue University): important problems the ones that have In studying industrial relations at Pur- to do with the organized groups' rela- due, we have used the technique of tions—i.e., with unions and their lead- measuring reciprocal empathy. This ers and with topmost business leader- consists of measuring each group's at- ship that is often remote from the areas titudes toward relative issues and also immediately under study? How arc at AAPOR Member Access on March 8, 2016 asking each of the two presumably the employees oriented toward the opposing groups to fill out the scale as union, and toward the union's proper they think the opposing group would role vis-a-vis management? How far do these employees feel that certain of fill it out. Thus we obtain a quantita- the management functions should be tive measure of the "gap" between the performed by the union (or by the two groups with a respect to the various union with management)? How far attitude variables in question and have do they feel that certain management a benchmark from which to compute prerogatives should be further "in- changes in attitudes as affected by fringed upon"? We must realize there procedures designed to narrow the are some conflicting interests here, and "gap." Psychologically, the technique that we are facing problems that go is closely analogous to that used in a beyond finding out what particular em- number of studies concerned with ployees and members of management "faking" scores on interest and per- think. If this broader kind of study is sonality inventories. not feasible for commercial research, then it is the responsibility of those of DILMAN M. K. SMITH (Opinion Re- us operating in universities, in a some- search Corporation): In various types what detached position, to undertake of attitude tests, using self-administered it questionnaires, we found that there must be some manner of guaranteeing RENSIS LIKERT: That is a very impor- anonymity to the respondent. Another tant question in our democratic society. 812 PUBLIC OPINION QUARTERLY, WINTER 1948-49 Certain groups must determine their to evaluate the effect of different social roles toward each other. structures on social aspirations.

DILMAN SMITH: M. K. We are doing RENSIS LIKERT: In connection with Mr. some study along this line. Smith's statement, I would like to know ANDREW G. BATO {Fortune Magazine): more about his study on the relation of There is also the problem of technologi- unions to management cal developments which affect an indi- vidual's attitude toward his job by Dn-MAN M. K. SMITH: We have no making his specialized skills obsolete. statistical results to present at this time, Downloaded from In general, people can adjust themselves but so far have found two principal to such situations, but it's manage- areas in which unions and management ment's job to make such adjustments may conflict and in neither area does as painless as possible. rank and file union membership sup-

port the expressed views of their labor http://poq.oxfordjournals.org/ Louis MOSS (Social Surveys, London): leaders: (1) The desire of the union to It seems to me that direction of union step into certain management func- activities in this country (U.S.A.) is tions, (2) The tendency of the union beginning to emphasize purely mone- to engage in political activities. A third tary considerations less, and social se- area of misunderstanding is based on curity aspirations more, although this management's misconception that labor may not be a permanent trend. tends to believe the union more than I would like to see comparative in- management. Our findings to date are dustrial relations studies made, for quite conclusive: on a pronouncement at AAPOR Member Access on March 8, 2016 example, in the textile industries of the on economic affairs, union members U.S., Great Britain, and Poland, be- give greater credibility to their own cause here you have three different company's statements than they do to types of social systems. We must learn their own union's.

STANDARDS IN PUBLIC OPINION RESEARCH (Monday, September 13, 1948) Chairman: Philip M. Hauser, Chairman of the Standards Committee of AAPOR; Professor of Sociology, University of Chicago. Participants: Leland DeVinney, Rockefeller Foundation; Frederick F. Stephan, Princeton University; Robert Williams, Elmo Roper; Percival White, Market Research Company of America.

THE CHAIRMAN: The problem of stand- opinion research is still as much an ards is not peculiar to this Association; art as a science. Some aspects of it are numerous professional and business governed by rigorous scientific proce- groups have had to face it. Research dure, but others arc based on the ac- standards are particularly difficult to cumulated experience, judgment, and establish in this field, however, since ability of the survey director. PUBLIC OPINION RESEARCH CONFERENCE 813 Since its very first meeting, the As- tations of survey techniques and accept sociation has been struggling with the only such assignments as can be per- problem of establishing minimum re- formed within those limitations. search standards. Differences of opin- 4. Fully and truthfully describe to ion have been marked, but the very the client the methods and techniques fact that representatives of commercial used in the performance of a research research, universities and government project. have been able to come together to 5. Hold confidential all information discuss the problem augurs well for the obtained about a client's business and future. markets. Downloaded from The AAPOR Committee on Stand- 6. Search for and be receptive to new ards helped to arrange this panel in and improved techniques in the pro- order to encourage discussion of cer- fession of marketing research. tain aspects of the problem of standards 7. Encourage and participate in the which will come up for consideration exchange of ideas and experiences rela- http://poq.oxfordjournals.org/ before the business meeting tomorrow. tive to general marketing research At the present time, the Association techniques with other organizations is confronted with two proposals pre- adhering to this code of ethics. pared by individuals in the field of 8. Participate in and contribute to public opinion and market research. the work of societies, schools, and other These proposals have been submitted organizations interested in the im- to this Association, to the American provement of research standards. Marketing Association, and to the 9. Exercise care in the acceptance of Market Research Council. They con- assignments and clients with a view at AAPOR Member Access on March 8, 2016 sist of two parts: (1) A code of pro- toward the maintenance and advance- fessional practices, and (2) A set of ment of the highest standards of mar- minimum standards for reporting sur- keting research. vey results. "B. This organization will not: The proposed code of professional 1. Knowingly allow its creative pro- practices reads as follows: fessional services to be hired in any "I. CODE OF PROFESSIONAL PRACTICES case where price, rather than quality, is the only consideration. Toward the goal of maintaining sound practices in the profession of 2. Knowingly deviate from estab- marketing research and the confidence lished research standards or indulge in of all those who recognize the value of questionable research practices in order research, we subscribe to the principles to 'prove' a case. expressed in the following code. 3. Authorize its name to be used in published survey material without prior "A. This organization will: examination and approval of the ma- 1. Strive at all times to maintain the terial to be used. highest research standards. 4. Release to any client or other 2. Endeavor always to preserve a organization confidential research find- thoroughly objective, impartial and un- ings paid for by another client without biased attitude in our work. the latter's specific authorization. 3. Be constantly mindful of the limi- 5. Knowingly interpret survey re- 814 PUBLIC OPINION QUARTERLY, WINTER 1948-49 suits nor tacitly permit interpretations THE CHAIRMAN: Perhaps Mr. DeVin- to be made inconsistent with, or not ney would enlarge on his original re- substantiated by, data available. mark to die effect diat he could see no 6. Accept business from competitive reason eidier for opposing or endorsing companies where the confidential na- these proposals. ture of the relationship will be im- periled. LELAND DEVINNEY: Quite tentatively, 7. Accept confidential information I would define my feelings as follows: offered by present or former staff mem- What is die point of telling die public bers of other research organizations." tJhat opinion researchers intend to be Downloaded from reasonably honest and reasonably com- (The Chairman then asked the panel petent? Certainly tiere can be no ob- members to comment on these pro- jection to diese two qualities, and diere- posals, and in particular to state fore I do not sec how die proposals whether in their opinion the proposals

can be opposed. On die odier hand, if http://poq.oxfordjournals.org/ should be adopted by AAPOR.) adopted, diey would tend to be mean- PERCIVAL WHITE: Having had a hand ingless. in preparing these proposals, I am Odier questions also arise. Is AA- naturally prejudiced in their favor, and POR a trade association, or is it a therefore should perhaps withhold com- professional association? How would ments until later. the code be enforced widi respect to business organizations, or widi respect LELAND DEVINNEY: AS one not directly to individuals? concerned with public opinion research, at AAPOR Member Access on March 8, 2016 I cannot sec how anyone can oppose PERCIVAL WHITE: Those of us who these proposals, but on the other hand worked out diese proposals didn't diink I see no reason why the Association it necessary to stress diat die profession should adopt them. as a whole was honest; we were radier looking for a way to keep out dis- ROBERT WILLIAMS: In my opinion, the honest practitioners. The code was important point is not whedier these drawn up widi die needs of market particular proposals are adopted, but research radier dian public opinion re- whedier constructive dunking on die search in mind, and dicre is no reason subject is stimulated, as a result of why AAPOR should adopt it ready- which some definite positive action will made. Perhaps AAPOR would do well be taken by diis group. to adopt only diosc provisions which FREDERICK F. STEPHAN: There is some appear to be useful and practicable in question as to whedier diese proposals view of its special needs, and dien let really fill die needs widi respect to anodier set of principles grow by ac- standards which were mentioned at cretion. Williamstown last year—and of course diey were not drawn up widi diese ROBERT WILLIAMS: Regarding die ques- specific points in mind. Until it can be tion of whedier AAPOR is a trade or determined whedier diey really fill die professional organization, I would say needs of die Association it would be it is more similar to die professional premature to endorse diem. type, because it is made up of individ- PUBLIC OPINION RESEARCH CONFERENCE 815 uals, not of organizations. Hence the 5. The time the field work was done. second part of the proposals—standards 6. Whether personal or mail inter- for reporting results—may be appli- views were used. cable to the Association. The first part, 7. Adequate description of field staff on the other hand, deals with practices and any control methods used. of business organizations, and may "B. The main body of every report of therefore be unsuitable. a survey should contain: FREDERICK F. STEPHAN: There is some 1. Questionnaire and findings. question as to whether the organization 2. Bases of percentages. Downloaded from and the profession have matured suf- 3. Distribution of interviews." ficiently to adopt a set of standards. The proposals say that we should strive LELAND DEVINNEY: Agreed that these to achieve the highest research stand- proposals represent a useful beginning ards, but there is as yet no general toward defining standards in the opin- http://poq.oxfordjournals.org/ agreement as to what these standards ion research profession, but the ques- are. There is also lack of agreement on tion of enforcement is still a thorny what constitutes bias, and as to the one. Certainly a differentiation should Limitations of various survey tech- be made between setting up standards niques. Adoption of a set of general for individuals, and defining trade as- principles would not solve these prob- sociation policy. The latter should, of lems, but would merely point up the course, have teeth for enforcement. necessity of working towards a solu- tion of them. ROBERT WILLIAMS: The purpose of this at AAPOR Member Access on March 8, 2016 organization, as stated in its constitu- THE CHAIRMAN: The sense of the tion, is "to encourage the development Standards Committee is that we must of the highest professional standards take some beginning step toward es- in public opinion research." We should tablishing a yardstick of quality, even therefore make some move toward de- if a tentative one. With this in mind, fining what it is that we arc going to perhaps it would be best to discuss the encourage. proposed standards of reporting. These read as follows: FREDERICK F. STEPHAN: If we look at "II. STANDARDS OF PRACTICE TO BE USED the experience of the Psychological IN THE REPORTING OF SURVEY RESULTS Association we sec that they have been "A. Every report of a survey should struggling with this question for a contain an explanation of the following long time and are only now coming to points: grips with some of the basic aspects of it. The real formulation of standards 1. The purpose of the survey. 2. For whom and by whom the sur- in the opinion research profession will vey was conducted. come not through formal statements, 3. General description of the uni- but through discussions at meetings, verse covered. in professional publications, and so 4. The size and nature of the sample forth. One danger of a set of formal and description of any weighting meth- standards that are not based on long ods. experience is that shady characters may 8i6 PUBLIC OPINION QUARTERLY, WINTER 1948-49 make it clear to the public that they and then do everything in its power to conform to the letter of the law, and see that these are generally accepted at the same time engage in slipshod by individuals in the profession. Mini- research. In effect, formal standards mum standards may be enforced by could be used as a screen to mask poor emphasizing that those who do not research. live up to them cannot be considered as being in good professional standing. PERCIVAL WHITE: Those who drafted However, the problem of encouraging die proposals in question did not en- high standards should be clearly di- visage a system of policing to enforce vorced from the problem of policing. Downloaded from them. They were regarded more as an As an organization of individuals, effort to formulate principles generally AAPOR is in no position to bring held by those in the profession than direct pressure on business firms which as a legal code. Perhaps Art Dougall, appear to be guilty of unethical prac- who has worked with us on the prob- tices. Most professional associations http://poq.oxfordjournals.org/ lem of developing a set of standards, help develop high standards and then would be willing to say a few words on rely on the mechanisms of public opin- the subject. ion and social pressure to make their member* live up to them. Associations ARTHUR B. DOUCALL (Stewart, Dou- of doctors and lawyers are an excep- gall, and Associates): We realized, in tion, since they exclude violators, but working on this code, that it was diffi- their problem is also a different one. cult to enforce technical standards and On the other hand, if AAPOR merely therefore we concentrated on formulat- stresses general standards and keeps at AAPOR Member Access on March 8, 2016 ing general standards. Merely as a clear of enforcement, this policy may matter of good business any organiza- be taken as a tacit admission of the tion must have principles for which it intention to do nothing. stands, and therefore AAPOR should give considerable attention to develop- PERCIVAL WHITE: It seems to me that ing a set of precepts of this type, AAPOR may be showing itself poor whether or not it wishes to adopt this at public relations in dealing with the particular code. present problem. Depending on the outcome of our discussion, a copy editor writing a headline for a story about it THE CHAIRMAN: The question of stand- might choose one of three headlines: ards is one that is hard to drop without (i) AAPOR ADOPTS PROFESSIONAL STAND- action once one has tackled it. Even if ARDS, (2) AAPOR REJECTS PROFESSIONAL these proposals should be adopted as a STANDARDS, or (3) AAPOR FAILS TO AGREE first step, the question then would be, AS TO THE FEASIBILITY OF ADOPT1NQ PRO- "Where do we go from here?" I should FESSIONAL STANDARDS. like to hear the opinions of the panel on what the next step should be. FREDERICK F. STEPHAN: While we may be interested in what appears in the LELAND DEVINNEY: AS a program for paper tomorrow, it is still what hap- further action, this organization should pens to professional standards in the continue to seek answers to the ques- long run that concerns us most. Our tion, "What are the best standards?", discussion should certainly not be un- PUBLIC OPINION RESEARCH CONFERENCE 817 duly constricted by considerations of FRANK LANG (Association of Casualty public relations. 8c Surety Companies): It is important that information regarding survey CLYDE W. HART (National Opinion methods be available to all interested Research Center): Discussion of stand- persons. Too many people believe that ards started at the first meeting of this polling involves some sort of magic, an group at Central City, and has had a impression unfortunately supported by turbulent history. Last year at Wil- a few practitioners. Therefore, it is vital liamstown, however, it was firmly de- that information concerning survey cided that AAPOR was to be an or- procedure be made available as a basis Downloaded from ganization of individuals, with no for interpretation particularly in the authority over organizations repre- case of two different surveys with vary- sented through members of their staffs. ing results on the same question. Accordingly, we must limit ourselves to those contributions which can be HERBERT WILLIG (National Better made by individuals toward building Business Bureau): The Better Business http://poq.oxfordjournals.org/ up a body of standards. We cannot Bureaus have, in effect, already been consider enforcement when it comes to enforcing certain minimum standards practices of organizations. in the survey field. Several commercial enterprises making use of improperly- PAUL TRESCOTT (Philadelphia Evening conducted surveys for advertising pur- Bulletin): With regard to standards of poses have already agreed to desist. The reporting, such as those proposed, BBB is ready to cooperate with any newspapers have a special problem. In

reputable research organization in en- at AAPOR Member Access on March 8, 2016 the limited space available they cannot forcing basic standards regarding the give all the necessary background in- misuse of legitimate findings in ad- formation about surveys which the pro- vertising and the use in advertising of posals specify, but must restrict them- questionable research data. selves to the most newsworthy aspects within the available column-inches. RENSIS LIKERT (Survey Research Cen- The same problem would be faced by ter): If the opinion research profession opinion researchers writing for news- really employs the scientific method, the papers. The Bulletin does, however, problem of standards becomes far eas- make a full description of its survey ier. The essence of science is verifiabil- methods available to those who wish ity; therefore if information about re- to inquire about them. search methods is available, science tends to police itself. The future of ROBERT WILLIAMS: Standards of pres- standards in this field depends in large entation should certainly apply to the measure on whether a firm scientific original presentation of material, rather foundation is used in opinion research. than to popular write-ups. It is the sur- vey director who should keep these THEODORE LENTZ (Attitude Research practices in mind when passing his Laboratory, St. Louis): We must not material to the editor. Interested mem- forget our responsibility to the public bers of the public should then be able to on whom the research is done. There consult the original report if they so is a danger in concentrating exclusively desire. on the problems of the pollsters and 8i8 PUBLIC OPINION QUARTERLY, WINTER 1948-49 those of the client, and using the people tion. If the proposed code of standards merely as means to ends. applied primarily to organizations, then AAPOR—as an association of indi- WILLIAM LYDGATE (American Insti- viduals—can endorse it, but cannot tute of Public Opinion): AIPO has adopt it. It can merely be a springboard recently published a pamphlet which for a statement adapted to the Asso- sets forth the research methods to ciation's special needs. which its surveys conform. The pro- posed code of standards is useful as a beginning, but it should be made far THE CHAIRMAN: AS a matter of fact Downloaded from stricter as time goes on. this is similar to the stand taken by the Standards Committee. The proposals CORNELIUS DUBOIS (DuBois & Com- have been regarded as a useful begin- pany): A distinction might well be ning, but not as an instrument that can made between endorsement and adop- be taken over ready-made. http://poq.oxfordjournals.org/

PUBLIC OPINION RESEARCH IN THE SERVICE OF THE LOCAL COMMUNITY*

(Tuesday, September 14, 1948)

Chairman: Richardson Wood, New York City.

Participants: Dean Manheimer, American Jewish Committee; Edward Suchman, at AAPOR Member Access on March 8, 2016 Cornell University; Hugh Parry, Opinion Research Center, Univer- sity of Denver.

THE CHAIRMAN: In order to set the outside the formal government. You stage for a discussion of the ways that can think of it in terms of primary jobs, opinion research can be of service to or the reason for existence, and second- the local community, we must first de- ary, or service, jobs. Then come tax- cide what we mean by the expression supported services and privately sup- "community." The pattern of com- ported agencies, such as newspapers, munity structure may be easier to un- radio, churches, and dubs. derstand if one studies a fairly simple Local polls find their work in the case: e.g., a gold-rush mining town. It relationships which exist with these takes a job to make a town. Something various jobs. must be there to attract people in the first place—in this instance gold. After EDWARD SUCHMAN: Perhaps the prob- the prospectors arrive, people who sell lem under discussion can be formulated to prospectors soon make their appear- by asking how polls can be put at the ance. The prospectors find dieir market service of the community, and how the outside the community; the later ar- community can be persuaded to do rivals find theirs in the community. something about poll findings. Let us Then you get some form of local gov- • Reported by Jane Shepard, Washington ernment and finally, social agencies Surveyi, D.C PUBLIC OPINION RESEARCH CONFERENCE 819 postulate a municipal Department of these practices. From the data accumu- Public Opinion, whose job it is to serv- lated we were able to form hypotheses ice the officials of the city and the as to the reasons for farmers' resistance various agencies, and which has a staff to adopting superior techniques. We to conduct community research. What plan to set up a program to overcome problems would it face? this inertia in which local community Some experiences which Cornell has leaders themselves will have full con- had may throw some light on these trol, and to study its effects five years questions. In Ehnira, New York, for later. example, we embarked on a study of We have used both open-end ques- Downloaded from inter-group relations, the purpose of tions and check-lists in probing atti- which was to help groups in the com- tudes toward the community. In one munity live together more peacefully. survey we asked: "How do you feel In the course of this study we became about your community? Is it a good involved in investigating why and how place to live, a fairly good place, or not http://poq.oxfordjournals.org/ people vote, since voting is a phe- good at all? Why?" And on the second nomenon related to group conflict, panel interview in Ehnira we presented and people arc more likely to express a check-list of community services and their disagreements during an election asked how much need there was for period. We are studying how people each service on the list. The answers come to make up their minds for whom gave a good picture of the principal to vote, by setting up a panel and in- needs and problems of the community. terviewing each panel member several Coming back to our hypothetical De- times to find out if he changed his partment of Public Opinion, here are at AAPOR Member Access on March 8, 2016 mind during the election campaign, some of the functions that could be and if so, why. This procedure makes discharged by such an official agency: it possible to identify various types of (1) Study of economic factors: buying group pressures to which voters are habits; source of income, etc; (2) exposed. Following the election, we Evaluation of community services; (3) hope to be able to frame an action Study of community issues, including program aimed at specific sub-groups, political disagreements; (4) Study of based on a knowledge of the existing community problems: delinquency, tensions in the community. group tensions, public health, housing; How can these findings be used? and (5) Study of community public One way is to set up a community relations, ascertaining what kind of council made up of civic leaders who reputation a community has, and die will have the support of the commu- importance of this reputation for eco- nity in putting the program into effect. nomic welfare. A different type of community sur- vey was made in Odessa, N.Y., where DEAN MANHEIMER: The experience of we wanted to find how to prevail upon the American Jewish Committee, in the people to adopt the best farming and course of its work in combatting preju- home-making practices. Here we in- dice, indicates various ways in which terviewed all of the members of a farm community studies can be useful to community to determine their current national agencies. practices, and their attitudes toward Most national studies have been of 820 PUBLIC OPINION QUARTERLY, WINTER 1948-49 limited usefulness in studying prejudice of data. Not only should attitudes of on the community level for the follow- the majority group be studied, but it ing reasons: (1) There are not enough is also important to discover what the cases to make possible a study of prob- minority groups themselves consider lems on a local community level; (2) their own problems to be. In addition, Misleading interpretations arc made be- information should be collected on all cause anti-Semitism is often not clearly aspects of objective discrimination, such defined in the minds of the survey as in housing and employment, and all directors; (3) Very often stereotypes visible signs of tension should be re-

regarding minority groups have been corded. Finally, all pertinent facts about Downloaded from the sole type of question used in a sur- the community in question should be vey. However, stereotypes taken by gathered to make possible a more mean- themselves do not give a true indica- ingful interpretation of results. tion of prejudiced attitudes; (4) Inter- The questionnaires used not only pretation of national trends in anti- contained items on prejudice but also Semitism is difficult, since events which questions to test certain hypotheses, http://poq.oxfordjournals.org/ affect anti-Semitism are usually of local such as relationship between personality rather than of national character. characteristics and anti-Semitism, and In studying anti-Semitism, and preju- between associations with minorities dice against other minorities, the AJC and prejudices, to name a few. has investigated three areas: (1) Peo- We now have plans to make several ple's willingness to discriminate against community surveys of this nature each minority groups; (2) The wishes with year, and after a few years to do repeat

regard to social distance between mi- studies in the same places. In that way at AAPOR Member Access on March 8, 2016 nority and majority groups expressed we will have comparisons of prejudice in terms of social and employment con- levels between communities and also a tacts; and (3) The image people have time trend for each community studied. of minority groups and the stereotypes To date we have tested three com- they apply to them. munities, but only one survey has been We constructed a questionnaire to completely analyzed. From those sur- cover these three areas and used scaling veys we hope to get data which will techniques to test whether the items enable us to work out better techniques held together. The scaling techniques for combatting anti-Semitism, and used not only give assurance that the through a comparison of the back- items all measure one variable, but also ground characteristics of different com- enable us to single out the most preju- munities we hope to develop hypotheses diced and least prejudiced respondents. of the social settings in which inter- Since answers to single questions are group understanding can be accom- never reported, it is possible to ask plished. These studies also have im- "loaded" questions, so as to invite mediate applications. For example, we statements of prejudice. Experience has can act as an information bureau to shown that if non-loaded questions are help local minority leaders understand asked, people tend to give the expected the problems of their groups. This proj- democratic answer. ect is still in the experimental stage, and A community survey of anti-Semi- it is hoped that as the study develops it tism must make use of several sources PUBLIC OPINION RESEARCH CONFERENCE 821 can be made increasingly useful to survey revealed, among other things, those interested in fighting prejudice. that the city government itself was one of the worst offenders in hiring prac- HUGH PARRY: I would like to discuss tices. It also related certain social prob- some of the problems of the community lems to the rising tax rates, and made audit type of survey. We have made recommendations for action. three surveys of this type so far: two on Such a survey presents special prob- level of information, and one on inter- lems of public relations. For example, group relations. it is probably unwise even to mention

The first survey on level of informa- local organized "hate" groups by name. Downloaded from tion was on tuberculosis, made in co- Newspapers thrive on conflict, and will operation with the National Tubercu- tend to publicize these relatively in- losis Association. This body wanted to significant groups to the exclusion of find out whether their educational cam- the more important findings. In the re- paign had had any impact and whether port of the committee in question, some http://poq.oxfordjournals.org/ they were using the most effective tech- a per cent of the content was devoted niques. T.B. is, in effect, one of the to local "hate" groups. Nevertheless, main industries of Denver, and we con- one newspaper devoted 38 per cent of sequently expected that the level of its news accounts to this minor point; information regarding it would be very and then editorially attacked the com- high. Actually we found the level of mittee for causing conflict. The main information very low, and recom- findings of the report—existing dis- mended changes in the educational crimination in employment, housing, techniques being used. recreation, and the like—were almost at AAPOR Member Access on March 8, 2016 The second survey on information completely overlooked. attempted to establish to what extent Don't make your release to the press the University of Denver was identified in the form of a hundred-page book, as with the community. We found that the committee did. It is best to give a the people of Denver knew very little 15-20 page outline condensation of the about the University. They felt some report, and to allow seriously interested vague goodwill toward it, and were persons to get the full report separately. interested in education in general, but Then there is the problem of getting they had little specific information. money. If possible, get financed by The third survey was a community some philanthropist or foundation hav- audit of Denver in the field of inter- ing little vested interest in the com- group relations. This study had one munity. Perhaps the major question in special aspect of interest in that we this type of survey is how to get a com- worked as part of a committee of local munity to support the research. Almost citizens. The study combined attitude any study of inter-group relations very measurement with factual information soon begins to touch on the sins of the and was sponsored by the city of Den- respectable; so in a sense you are asking ver. Its purpose was to provide guid- many leading citizens to pay for their ance for a permanent committee to own execution. investigate inter-group relations, and A final survey of inter-group rela- also to provide information on which tions, just now completed, obtained re- to base an educational campaign. This sults similar to those reported by Dean 822 PUBLIC OPINION QUARTERLY, WINTER 1948-49 Manheimer. We found that prejudiced they should be interested in conditions persons seem to be of two kinds: (1) which promote a healthy labor market; People whose aggression is general— what happens to the worker while he's almost "free-floating"; and (2) People away from his job is important In de- who channel their aggressions against termining what he does on the job. a particular group. Additionally, we Merchants are interested in the growth noted two very different types of anti- of the market. Social agencies and tax- Semitism. On the one hand, we found ing bodies have to justify themselves. it in an unrestrained state among the It would seem that all these groups

lower-income, poorly educated people. should share the cost. Downloaded from On the other hand, prejudice in the better educated groups is not only JULIAN WOODWARD (Elmo Roper): In "politer" and better rationalized, but the city of Louisville we are conducting it seems to differ in kind as well as in a series of polls sponsored by the mayor degree. and paid for by the city. Last spring http://poq.oxfordjournals.org/ we made a study of tax issues, and we THE CHAIRMAN: NOW that the panel have just recendy made a survey to members have outlined various aspects find out what people think of their of community research, I'd like to turn school system and to learn how diey this session into a sort of Ways and react to certain policies of the school Means Committee and get a show of administration. One of these latter is hands on some questions. Is local poll- die question whether the sexes should ing a good idea? In cities of a certain be segregated in die high schools. This

size is it useful to have continuous local is an example of a city using polling at AAPOR Member Access on March 8, 2016 polling? (The show of hands was techniques as a regular adjunct to city unanimously in favor.) administration. Now, if it is a good idea, through what agency should it be done—news- EDWARD SUCHMAN: It would be a big papers, universities, or special groups mistake to approach local governments or agencies? But first, let's ask this, to set up a Research Bureau which what is the minimum budget on which would attack only administrative prob- such a survey can be run in a town of lems. Polling should include research approximately 250,000 inhabiunts? (A on all aspects of some community prob- count of hands showed that no one lems. thought it could be done for less than $5000; 6 thought it could be done for THE CHATRMAN: AS a matter of prac- $10,000 or less; 5 said $15,000; 12 said tice, when a polling agency is set up it $20,000; 9 said $25,000; 2 said $30,000; usually develops into a general statis- and 3 said more than $30,000.) tical and social research department. The largest number think it could be done for $20,000 a year. That is a RAYMOND FRANZEN (New York City): modest figure in terms of the amounts Although an analysis which stems from spent for other services. But the ques- the local situation must be accom- tion then arises as to who should pay plished, it is important to study the for it. Manufacturers are not interested difference* between communities. For in the growth of the community, but diij we need some sort of coordinating PUBLIC OPINION RESEARCH CONFERENCE 823 council, so that techniques, questions, viewing is done by volunteer workers, and scales can be correlated. and clerical assistance is provided by sponsoring groups. The material is then PRESTON V ALIEN (Fisk University): assembled and analyzed by Fisk. Spe- Fisk University operates a service bu- cialists take the analysis back to the reau on inter-group problems using committee and conferences are held on general community survey techniques. what to do about the findings. Fisk's In order to have the residents of the work ends at the point of recommenda- community participate in the discovery tions. In three surveys completed so far of conditions and to encourage local the recommendations have resulted in responsibility for needed improvements, constructive action. Downloaded from we rely largely on a self-survey tech- nique; we don't go into any city on our THE CHAIRMAN: We have seen that a own initiative, but only on the invita- very large amount of opinion research tion of a local agency. Then citizens of on local problems has been done, and the community are involved in every that most surveys can profit from con- http://poq.oxfordjournals.org/ step. First we set up an advisory citi- sulting the work of similar surveys zens' group, with a chairman—and completed in odier communities. Per- special committee chairmen in special areas, such as housing, education, labor haps it would be helpful to establish a and management relations and so forth. central registry which researchers could Following that, Fisk specialists meet consult to find what types of work have widi planning committees and design been done and arc being done in this a questionnaire for each area. This field. questionnaire is approved by the plan- (Numerous participants agreed that at AAPOR Member Access on March 8, 2016 ning committee responsible for the area such a central registry would be useful, it covers before it is used. All inter- and the meeting was adjourned.)

ACADEMIC AND NON-ACADEMIC RESEARCH- DISTINCTION AND INTER-RELATION*

(Tuesday, September 14, 1948) Chairman: William A. Lydgate, American Institute of Public Opinion. Participants: Clyde W. Hart, National Opinion Research Center; C. T. Smith, American Telephone and Telegraph Company; David B. Truman, Williams College; Paul Stewart, Stewart, Dougall, and Associates.

THE CHAIRMAN: Practical pollers have work, and to take advantage of the fine often felt that academic critics don't thinking now coming out of the uni- come to grips with the real problems versities. of opinion research. There is, however, In particular, I would recommend much healthy criticism coming from the following specific problems for the both camps. Our purpose here today is •Reported by Helen Crosiley, Opinion Re- to try to find a common ground for our search Center, Univertity of Denver. 824 PUBLIC OPINION QUARTERLY, WINTER 1948-49 universities to consider: (1) Turnout— should be left to the business depart- who will and who will not vote in elec- ments of commercial organizations. tions. The perfect system of question- Furthermore, there arc many areas of ing to predict turnout has not yet been ignorance which we ought to be work- discovered, but turnout is an important ing on. The fundamental question to aspect of political behavior. (2) Causes be asked is: Does this job promise any of non-voting in the U.S.—whether be- substantive or methodological contribu- cause of sociological, educational, or tion to the general fund of knowledge? other factors, voting in the U.S. is 2. Universities should not ordinarily shamefully low. In the recent election be concerned with projects, but with in Italy, 80 per cent of those eligible programs, where each specific project Downloaded from voted; in South Korea, 90 per cent; in defines variables more precisely, checks France, 80 per cent. In the United States hypotheses developed, builds on previ- in 1940, 63 per cent of eligible citizens ous projects, or suggests subsequent, over 21 voted; in 1944, 55 per cent; in more refined projects within the con-

1946, only 38 per cent. There have been tinuing program. http://poq.oxfordjournals.org/ no thorough studies of this problem 3. Universities should not accept since the ones made by Merriam and studies that cannot lead to full and Gosnell some twenty years ago. (3) complete publication of the results. Aptitude test for interviewers—who Such a restriction would keep us out would or would not be a good inter- of many jobs we have no business in. viewer. Such a test would be of great Of course, there would have to be some value to all opinion research. exceptions; for example, an NORC market research job for the University CLYDE W. HART: Later speakers, I of Chicago to pay for our board and at AAPOR Member Access on March 8, 2016 hope, will tell us how academic people keep. can best supplement and criticize the 4. University research organizations work commercial people are doing. But ought to accept and abide by the prin- it would be difficult to set limits to aca- ciple of "open covenants openly arrived demic research; what academicians do at." Every job done should be thor- may not always seem relevant, but in oughly cleared through the sponsoring the end it may have great utility. University. Here are some ideas for discussion on the role of a research organization C. T. SMITH: According to Webster, affiliated with a university. These sug- the word "academic" means pertaining gestions are given as rules of thumb, or to an academy, college or university; it guides in designing research programs also means formal or theoretical, as —they are not necessarily descriptions opposed to practical. This definition of what NORC now does: doesn't ring true to me, because com- 1. University research should be con- mercial people can no more insulate cerned with problems which contribute themselves from theoretical problems to knowledge, particularly in the social than academic people can from prac- disciplines. A university agency, in gen- tical ones. eral, hasn't any business accepting Research has an important place in purely service jobs where the methods the work of the Bell System. The re- and techniques are well known. These search unit of the parent company, the PUBLIC OPINION RESEARCH CONFERENCE 825 American Telephone and Telegraph and which could probably be released. Company, has three main functions: Secondly, commercial concerns might (1) To advise and consult with the add something to their studies to cover operating companies: (2) To conduct matters of methodological significance. pilot studies and experimental works; Or, thirdly, we could all get together (3) To carry out studies where system- and work out projects to cover both wide results are wanted. The research content and method. is to answer such questions as: What We are in the early stages of opinion does the public think of telephone measurement, but much progress is be- service? How effective arc activities ing made. Close cooperation between Downloaded from designed to keep the public informed academic and non-academic agencies about the business? What is the market seems essential to continued progress for telephone service and how is service in this difficult field. used? Our basic job is a practical one—to DAVID B. TRUMAN: An area of agree- http://poq.oxfordjournals.org/ aid in the economic and efficient opera- ment seems to be developing this after- tion of the telephone business by sup- noon, but I believe it may be more plying facts to supplement operating apparent than real. I don't want to stir judgments. This emphasis on the prac- up a controversy, but there are diffi- tical means that methodological work culties in actual situations. must have a practical objective, which I agree that the function of the uni- is probably true cf most business or- versities is to extend the realm of ganizations. The universities' role is to human knowledge, and that anything develop methods and principles which which does not is not a university func- at AAPOR Member Access on March 8, 2016 can be applied in many situations. Some tion. Academic people could well give problems we meet we cannot solve our- their attention to the problem of non- selves. For example: (1) What are the voting. (Incidentally, the figure of 55 reasons behind public opinion regard- per cent of eligible voters who cast their ing a company and its service? (2) ballots is not necessarily shameful, as What is the effect of specific public Mr. Lydgate said—it may be no less relations activities in increasing knowl- healthy than the participation of 90 edge or goodwill or changing public per cent in places where revolutionary habit? (3) What is the validity of ex- crises might be causing a large turn- pressed opinion in terms of behavior— out.) Another possibility for academic the relation between answers to atti- research is the meaning of the term tude questions and actions? "public opinion." The "why" question There is a tremendous overlap be- that has been mentioned is very im- tween the interests of academic and portant. So is the historical conception non-academic workers. It is therefore —to watch developments and supple- pertinent to inquire what can be done ment the journalistic preoccupation of to promote the free exchange of ideas agencies which concentrate on "news- and to work out ways of exploring worthy" events. problems of mutual concern. A dividing line is not easy to draw, For one thing, commercial people except for some obvious cases, such as have in their files much material which a university doing a study on the mar- might be of interest to academic people, ket for a certain brand of soap. It is PUBLIC OPINION QUARTERLY, WINTER 194&-49 especially difficult on matters of meth- The situation is not that of two sides odology, since pure methodological re- irreconcilably opposed. Universities search occurs relatively infrequently. should not compete with commercial Research on methodology usually is an organizations, but they certainly can outgrowth of particular problems. Be- attack problems of a local community cause of the lack of clear distinction nature. I'm not nearly so much dis- between the two types of agencies and turbed as Mr. Truman is on this score. their work, the possibility of hard feel- ings is likely to remain. CLYDE W. HART: I think that the sub-

stantial contributions made by the uni- Downloaded from PAUL STEWART: Both academic and versities should be made available to non-academic researchers certainly have commercial agencies. But a commercial a great deal to contribute. Commercial group has every right to set up purely research organizations should feel obli- experimental work if it wants to. Community projects are sometimes gated to provide material for academic http://poq.oxfordjournals.org/ research wherever possible. There is the most desirable type of academic- an abundance of information available non-academic cooperation. The Social which could be used for laboratory pur- Science Research Council studies on poses without harming the interests of attitudes and consumer wants provide clients. With safeguards, many clients an example, and projects done through could be convinced that research ma- Columbia, NORC, Princeton, and Cor- nell have all been weighted heavily terials could be re-analyzed from the with people drawn from the com- methodological standpoint to make a mercial field. at AAPOR Member Access on March 8, 2016 real contribution to research in general. I am convinced that the old suspicion Case materials for use in teaching could is gradually dying away. At the Central be provided in this way, as is already City conference we were all dose- being done in the American Marketing mouthed and isolated; but now we lay Association. The impetus and initiative our problems out quite openly. for such contributions must come from the commercial organizations, because C. T. SMITH: There is certainly a large the academicians do not know of the area of agreement, but there may be existence of most of this material. some question when it comes to a spe- Whether 35 or 40 per cent of the peo- cific project. However, if we agree in ple in New York City like their tele- principle, we may be able to work out phone service or not is not the point— the details. but how the study was done and how it differs from others is important. PAUL STEWART: I don't think any of Another possibility for joint action us should be all things to all people, and is a student training program similar each group should carefully delineate to that now provided to NYU and its own field of activity. A review of the CCNY students, giving them part-time types of academic research now being experience and practical "know-how." carried on would be a great help to Credit might be arranged, especially everyone. The idea is to push the fron- for graduate students, for work done tiers of knowledge ahead so we will in commercial research organizations. all do a better job. PUBUC OPINION RESEARCH CONFERENCE 827

H. H. REMMERS (Purdue University): mercial work, the commercial agencies There is a real problem in deciding could contribute much—for example, what jobs to accept. Some years ago a raw data used for a client's report to large chain store wanted to set up fel- give students practice in handling mate- lowships for the purpose of finding out rial and meeting commercial problems. public attitudes on a bill then under discussion to regulate chain stores. DAVID TRUMAN: This is now being They were afraid that commercial poll- done at Williams College with material ers would have given the answer they contributed by Elmo Roper.

thought the chain stores would want Downloaded from Four methods of surveying were tried: JOHN W. RILEY (Rutgers University (1) Mailed questionnaires to be re- and Market Research Company of turned (these gave about a 10 per cent America): I am one of the increasing return), (2) Mailed questionnaires en- number of people who divide their closing a quarter (these got about a time and have both interests simul- 90 per cent return), (3) Mailed ques- taneously. I tnink the progress AAPOR http://poq.oxfordjournals.org/ tionnaires promising a quarter if re- has made in bringing the two groups turned (these got about a 40 per cent together is very heartening; perhaps return), and (4) Personal interview- the main purpose of the organization. ing. The differences in the results ob- Probably there is no one here who is tained by these various methods were not engaged in active research—plain not great. This problem was both prac- theorists just don't exist. Academicians tical and theoretical, and therefore we can't make surveys without practical

finally accepted it. application, even in the "drainage, at AAPOR Member Access on March 8, 2016 drunkenness and divorce" category. I RICHARD W. DITTMER (Opinion Re- doubt that any university takes projects search Corporation): University without methodological possibilities. agencies may need some outside work My suggestion, perhaps a radical one, to help pay their bills. There is also the is that commercial agencies could adopt problem of personalities and personnel. somewhat the same principle, and add Since the universities are training many a certain percentage to the cost of each people who intend to go into com- survey for methodological exploration.

CURRENT ACTIVITIES IN MASS COMMUNICATIONS RESEARCH (Wednesday, September 15, 1948) Chairman: David Wallace, Time, Inc. Participants: Bernard Berelson, University of Chicago; Douglas Williams, Fred Rudge, Inc.; Samuel Northcross, Audience Research Institute.

THE CHAIRMAN: The field in which cover no more than portions of it today. mass communications research operates As a backdrop for the discussions, we is so large that our round table can might remind ourselves that communi- 828 PUBLIC OPINION QUARTERLY, WINTER 1948-49 cation implies both transmission and television, as die bar and grill audience reception. If the material transmitted gradually reaches a saturation point. is not received there is no communica- Audience Research has been study- tion. Also we may consider "mass" as ing television along two lines: (a) Con- referring to groups of more than two sumer reaction to television advertising, persons. Our subject includes not only and (b) Audience reaction to various the physical processes and instruments types of programs. of communication but the psychological Widi regard to die first subject of aspects of individual reception. Since study it can be said diat die qualities every member of an audience reacts dif- of sight, sound, and motion combine Downloaded from ferently to a given stimulus, we have to make television an unusually effec- an infinite number of degrees of re- tive advertising medium. ception. Semantics is in the problem. When it comes to audience reacdon We must also study the motivations to television programs, it was at first that have caused people to be a part of

widely assumed that die novelty of die http://poq.oxfordjournals.org/ a particular communications audience medium was such diat people would —why they arc reading, listening, or accept almost any program uncritically. looking. Preliminary research indicates diat diis This is a brief delineation of our topic is not die case. Panels of reviewers area. The three participants in this registering dieir reactions widi record- round table will report on dieir ex- ing dials graduated from "like very periences in three sectors of it. much" to "very dull" show wide dis- crimination. Testing several consecudvc

SAMUEL NORTHCROSS: My remarks this programs on one Monday night, it was at AAPOR Member Access on March 8, 2016 morning concern the fast-moving tele- found diat a ncwsreel scored very high, vision industry. Audience Research be- but a female singer very low. A short came involved in the field in the course subject on sports showed a fair degree of preparing a book on it, and die speed of interest (die audience was 60 per cent with which such a treatment becomes women), and a male singer received a out of date is indicative of the fast pace. low score. An educational program, a As yet television has offered only coin quiz, and a "hangman's" game limited commercial opportunities in were all dull in die opinion of die terms of mass markets, when compared panel, but a skit about Francis Scott to other advertising media, and there- Key scored fairly high. fore funds available for research in it By way of comparison, die reaction have been limited. The networks are of die panel to a motion picture showed doing some, and the Broadcast Meas- a fairly high degree of sustained in- urement Bureau has a television com- terest. The comparison is not really a mittee. This committee has attempted fair one, however. A motion picture to coordinate information on die num- represents an expensive and carefully- ber of sets in operation, but has had created production. The usual television trouble obtaining accurate figure*. At producer, on die odier hand, must put present the best estimate is approxi- on a show every week, widi an invest- mately half a million sets. It is also ment of from diree to four diousand believed that die home audience is be- dollars per week. There are more ex- coming more and more important for pensive shows, of course, but diis is PUBLIC OPINION RESEARCH CONFERENCE 829 about the average. These costs are ex- Information and Education Division tremely low, even when compared with suggested diat a carefully prepared AM radio programs. "combat tips" booklet might assist in Evaluating television as entertain- remedying diis situation. Army au- ment, we find that it falls between the diorities agreed to die plan, particularly motion picture and the ordinary radio because only two weeks would be in the opinion of most audiences. needed for die complete job to be done. It is extremely difficult to select rep- To gadicr material for die booklet, resentative panels to test television pro- die Research Branch detailed two of-

grams. Some research in television ficers and two enlisted men to inter- Downloaded from homes has been done, but the sampling view veterans of die firing line. The problems here are serious, because of interviews made use exclusively of the low percentage of homes having •general, open-end questions, such as television at the present time. Results "What did you have to learn about so far, however, show little difference combat die hard way?" After two days between the results obtained from of intensive interviewing along diesc http://poq.oxfordjournals.org/ measuring the reactions to television lines, die data acquired was put on of persons in public gatherings and cards, widi one idea to a card. Then those obtained from research in homes. die ideas on die cards were taken to Stratovision—transmitting a televi- anodier sample of front-line soldiers, sion signal from a high-flying airplane and it was ascertained which ideas were —gives a prospect of increasing gready die most unanimous and which die die range of the television signal. This most intense. In bodi diese sets of in-

method was used in die Louis-Walcott terviews, die group mediod was used, at AAPOR Member Access on March 8, 2016 fight, and consequendy the areas of widi durce or four men being ques- transmission were gready enlarged. The tioned at once. This usually resulted total audience was measured at 7,100,- in a pattern where one man would 000 of whom approximately one million suggest an idea and die odiers would saw it from die street, looking through develop it further. die windows of establishments having The most unanimous and intense television. ideas were dien arranged in book form, widi illustrations by Mauldin. Little DOUGLAS WILLIAMS: This report con- rewriting was done, and die final form sists of a case history in a very different of die book followed closely die orig- field—Army morale research in die inal expressions of die respondents. Mediterranean dieater. I go back to Two days before new men went into diis case history because it represents combat diey were given copies of die a technique which has considerable booklet While no systematic survey potentialities but is now litdc used. of its effectiveness could be made, dicrc Toward die end of die war, infantry were a large number of reports diat it replacements in tie Italian dieater be- was of immediate and direct use, and came so scarce diat die Fifdi U.S. after die end of die campaign it was Army was forced to retrain many truck used in training troops who were to be drivers, clerks, etc^ for combat duties. transferred to die Pacific dieater. As This led to high casualties and poor far as could be ascertained, die use of morale, and die Research Branch of die original data in diis form was far 830 PUBLIC OPINION QUARTERLY, WINTER 1948-49 more effective in gaining the attention tration to differentiate the marginal au- of green troops than any similar ma- dience from the central audience. The terial available. same characteristics which differentiate the audience of any medium from the BERNARD BERELSON: When we deal population in general are present to a with any of the mass media, we en- greater degree in the central audience counter the notion of "audience." This of that medium than in its marginal notion is difficult to define precisely. audience. For instance, is a person who listens When we study overlapping of vari-

to the radio fifteen minutes a day part ous audiences, we may find that the Downloaded from of the radio audience? How many central audiences for books and maga- items in a magazine must a person zines tend to overlap more than the read in order to qualify as a member marginal audiences. The central audi- of the magazine audience? We must ence weighs heavily in determining draw an arbitrary line somewhere, but the composite picture of the total au- this still leaves possibilities for wide dience. The few give the exposure pic- http://poq.oxfordjournals.org/ variations within any given audience. ture to the many. To represent the audience of any medium graphically, we can show the WILLIAM A. YOELL (New York City): number of persons involved on one axis Reading, looking, and listening arc all and the amount of exposure on the parts of living habits. Therefore, it is other axis. For instance, we know that important for the researcher who wants the first 10 per cent of the radio au- to know why people choose to expose

dience does 30 per cent of the listening, themselves to a particular type of com- at AAPOR Member Access on March 8, 2016 the next 10 per cent only 15 per cent munication to try and correlate the of the listening, and so on. This graphi- circumstances of exposure with living cal representation will give us what habits. For instance, we know that might be called the curve of concen- many women do not listen to soap tration for that particular medium. operas when doing their laundry. Only On the basis of such data as these, a low percentage can identify an ele- we may form a hypothesis that the ment in the program. larger the audience the less the concen- tration of exposure and the smaller the BERNARD BERELSON: This problem is a audience the higher the concentration particularly thorny one, since little of exposure. Thus, 90 per cent of the work has been done with respect to population listen to the radio, but their the psychological characteristics of vari- degrees of exposure show a very wide ous audiences, and many inferences are spread; a large number of people pro- possible from the facts we know. vide 80 per cent of the listening au- dience. In the case of books, however, JANE SHEPARD (Washington Surveys): a fairly small number of people account The concept of fixed loyalty is a useful for 80 per cent of book readership. one in analyzing media audiences. For Thus there is a hierarchy of concentra- instance, in the District of Columbia tion in the various mass media corre- two newspapers have audiences which sponding to the extent of exposure. correspond fairly closely in their social We may use this concept of concen- and economic characteristics. But when PUBLIC OPINION RESEARCH CONFERENCE 831 these people have to drop one of the tion in their central audience. Is it papers, then they retain the one the really useful to describe both of these central audience of which corresponds as "mass" media? more nearly to their socio-economic status. BERNAJLD BERELSON: That depends again on the definition of "mass" as BERNARD BERELSON: This phenomenon well as on the unit of measurement is similar to that found in the Sandusky being used. Unless we are willing to study of voting reported in The Peo- accept time as a measure for exposure

ple's Choice; many voters reverted to to both media, then it is very difficult Downloaded from the party which represented their so- to compare them. cio-economic characteristics most accu- rately. Perhaps condition applicable to WILLIAM A. YOELL: Very often inter- political loyalty is also found in the relations between various types of ex- definition of the central audience. posure can be found and then cor- related with the personality type. For http://poq.oxfordjournals.org/ THE CHAIRMAN: Another example of instance, we charted the amusement facts which need further psychological habits of a divorced woman and found interpretation can be found in the field that she avoided all radio, magazine, of magazine reading. We know most and film items which used the triangle of the economic and occupational char- theme. acteristics of readers, but we don't know enough about why they read— JOHN F. MALONEY (The Reader's Di- what motivations and gratifications gest): We have tried testing the effect at AAPOR Member Access on March 8, 2016 make them readers of a particular on readers of articles in The Reader's magazine. Digest, some of which may have pro- duced swings of opinion. These experi- RAYMOND FRANZEN (New York City): ments were made with attitude ques- In relating behavior to media exposure, tions tacked on the end of readership it is difficult to separate out any one questionnaires. For example, 73 per item of behavior, since many behavioral cent of our readers said they favored characteristics are interrelated in a man- compulsory military training the month ner which is often impossible to deter- before an article appeared on the sub- mine. For instance, a person may listen ject. The month after the article ap- to program X because he uses appli- peared 55 per cent favored it, while ance Y; or he may use Y because he AIPO Surveys showed that there was listens to X; or else it may be that both little change in the opinion of the these types of behavior arc characteristic general population during the same of social group Z. period. On the other hand, an article promoting military aid to China showed WILLIAM REYNOLDS (National Broad- no change in reader attitudes. We don't casting Co.): There is some question know whether the changes we have whether we can lump "concentrated" noted arc lasting in any degree. media, where 5 per cent of the popu- lation account for a large portion of the BERNARD BERELSON: This problem of exposure, with media which include measuring effect is particularly difficult. as much as 20 per cent of the popula- Conversion is often a long, slow proc- 83* PUBLIC OPINION QUARTERLY, WINTER 194&-49 ess, and involves much more than a attitudes can be gained dirough "labo- single article or other stimulus. We ratory" tests. We try to make the ex- must look at the whole context within periment situation duplicate the actual which attitude changes occur, and then situation as closely as possible. If die try to gauge the effect of the various stimulus proves effective in die test stimuli which are involved. In the ex- situation, we assume it will be effective ample cited, there may be several tech- in a real life situation. nical difficulties. There is some indication diat dif- ferent media reinforce one anodier. RAYMOND FRANZEN: There is also a Three media of different types, used Downloaded from particular danger of bias involved in joindy, may be more effective dian die measuring the effect of single maga- same effort concentrated on one me- zine articles, since those whose opinions dium. We need better mediods to test have been supported by the article are die joint results quantitatively. far more likely to answer than those http://poq.oxfordjournals.org/ who disagreed with it. NEIL DUBOIS (DuBois & Company): In studies of brand consciousness, we FRANK LANG (Association of Casualty have found wide differences widiin and Surety Companies): What concrete media and education groups in die evidence do we have that advertising ways in which people absorb trade can in fact change attitudes? marks, slogans, symbols, and other as- pects of advertising. In odier words, SAMUEL NORTHCROSS: Considerable independent of dieir physical exposure data are available regarding the extent to advertising, there are differences in at AAPOR Member Access on March 8, 2016 to which advertising can change at- peoples' psychological accessibility to titudes. For instance, a household die advertiser. cleanser recendy jumped its sales fig- ures from almost nothing to a point THE CHAIRMAN: One diing our discus- where it topped the field as a result sion this morning has shown is that it of soap opera promotion. is impossible to cover die field of mass communication research in one session. LEBARON R. FOSTER (Opinion Research I hope, however, diat most of us have Corporation): Further evidence on the profited from this exchange of ex- extent to which advertising changes perience.

MINUTES OF BUSINESS MEETING OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR PUBLIC OPINION RESEARCH EAGLES MERE, PENNSYLVANIA—SEPTEMBER 14, 1948

The meeting convened at die Crest- Massachusetts had been printed in the mont Inn, Eagles Mere, Pennsylvania Conference proceedings, diey were ap- at 4:00 pjn. widi President Clyde Hart proved widiout being read. in the chair. The Secretary reported on the meet- Since the minutes of the first meedng ings which die Executive Council had of AAPOR held in Williamstown, held in die past year, and in the ab- PUBLIC OPINION RESEARCH CONFERENCE 833 sencc of Mr. Lucien Warner, Confer- The Treasurer presented a report of ence Committee Chairman, gave a brief current financial status of the organi- rcport for the Conference Committee, zation as follows:

TREASURER'S REPORT—SEPTEMBER 14, 1948 Income Membership fees 212 members @ $10.00 $2120.00 Expense Pre-confcrcncc Downloaded from Stationery $148.70 Postage 61.14 Telephone and Telegraph 211.05

$420.89

Conference Expenses http://poq.oxfordjournals.org/ Programs $117.50 Cards 10.00 Tags 31.04 Eagler Theater rent 25.00 Secretary travel and expense 83.04 Public Relations Committee travel and expense 80.09 Jean Joyce-fee 100.00 at AAPOR Member Access on March 8, 2016

446.67

Total expense $867.56 867.56

Balance remaining Estimated cost of proceedings 530.00 Cost of running Association September 1948-January 1949 (est.) 200.00 730.00

Estimated balance on January 1, 1949 $522.44

It was pointed out by the Treasurer until the report of the Publications that if the estimates in the report were Committee. correct, the Association might have to Mr. Hart reported on the grant re- choose between paying for a subscrip- ceived from the Rockefeller Founda- tion for each member to the official tion to be used towards the expenses journal and defraying the expenses of of foreign delegates to the meeting of printing the Conference proceedings, the World Association for Public Opin- Discussion on this point was postponed ion Research. The National Opinion 834 PUBLIC OPINION QUARTERLY, WINTER 1948-49 Research Center acted as a receiving fore, that the mast-head of the and administering agent for this fund. Quarterly be altered so as to indicate A committee consisting of Messrs. Wil- that the University retains primary son, F. Williams, and Sheatsley was editorial responsibility, at the same set up by NORC to administer it. Mr. time that the journal serves as an Wilson, reporting for this committee, organ of the Association. A possible said that the expenses of eight foreign formulation, based on the text which delegates had been defrayed through presently appears in the mast-head, use of the fund. is indicated below:

On motion, it was voted that the THE PUBLIC OPINION QUARTERLY Downloaded from Secretary send to the Rockefeller Foun- Editorially sponsored by Princeton dation a unanimous vote of thanks for University. Published by Princeton the grants received. University Press. Organ of the For the Publications Committee, Mr. American Association for Public Cornelius DuBois reported on the meet- Opinion Research. http://poq.oxfordjournals.org/ ings of his committee, at which a deci- sion was made to recommend the adop- THE QUARTERLY is supported solely tion by the Association of the follow- by Princeton University, Princeton ing agreement with the Public Opin- University Press, and income from ion Quarterly: subscribers and advertisers. Statements of fact and opinion are "In order to give the Association a made on the responsibility of the voice in the administration of the authors alone, and do not imply an Quarterly, it is proposed that:

opinion on the part of the maga- at AAPOR Member Access on March 8, 2016 1. The Chairman of the Associa- zine, which is hospitable to all tion Publications Committee be a points of view, provided only that member of the Faculty Editorial the material presented helps the Committee, and be notified of each reader to gain insight into the meeting seven days in advance. problems of public opinion. The 2. The President of the Associa- American Association for Public tion and the Chairman of the Asso- Opinion Research assumes respon- ciation Publications Committee be sibility only for material which is ex officio members of the Advisory signed by an officer of the Associa- Board. (It is noted that, in any event, tion in his official capacity. The a large number of the members of advisory board listed below is the Advisory Board are members of generous in its assistance and ad- the Association.) vice on particular problems, but Suggested Editorial Arrangement is not responsible for policy or the content of issues. "Because of its appreciable past and current investment in the Quar- "It is also suggested, in order to terly, amounting to approximately avoid possible misunderstandings, ten thousand dollars a year, Princeton that the Quarterly agree to provide University is anxious to retain the up to four pages in any one issue for general editorial policy which has official purposes of the Association governed publication of the maga- if requested to do so at least six zine thus far. It is proposed, there- weeks prior to manuscript deadline. PUBUC OPINION RESEARCH CONFERENCE 835 This does not mean that additional notification. In the event of termina- space cannot usually be made avail- tion, however, all subscriptions to the able when needed, but only that the Public Opinion Quarterly which Quarterly may restrict the space to have been entered by the Association four pages in the event that prior will be allowed to continue until editorial commitments have been they lapse, regardless of the termina- made. tion date." "It is understood that, in the ab- Mr. Dufiois moved the adoption of sence of a special arrangement in this recommendation.

each case, official material of the Downloaded from Association will be sent to the Mr. Richardson Wood inquired if Quarterly in a form ready to be the fee of $3.75 for the Quarterly printed. subscription would come out of the ten-dollar dues paid by Association Suggested Financial Arrangements members, and asked if an additional

assessment would be necessary in view http://poq.oxfordjournals.org/ "It is proposed that the Association of the picture of Association finances agree to place with the Princeton previously presented by the Treasurer. University Press a subscription to the The Treasurer replied that an assess- Quarterly on behalf of each of its ment would probably not be necessary members and officers every year. The but that the Association with its present University Press will accept such sub- membership could not stand the ex- scriptions at a special rate (for mem- pense of having the Conference pro- bers and officers of the Association ceedings appear both in the Public only) of $3.75 per annum. This Opinion Quarterly and separately in at AAPOR Member Access on March 8, 2016 special rate will apply only when sub- mimeographed form. He stated that scriptions are placed by the Associa- the problem could probably be solved tion. In the event that a general in- temporarily by waiting until 1949 to crease in costs should force the Uni- enter subscriptions to the Public versity Press to increase its rates to Opinion Quarterly for members of other subscribers, the rate for the AAPOR, and that inasmuch as many of Association will be increased pro- the members probably had subscrip- portionately. tions for 1948 already, perhaps that would be the best thing to do. Start of Agreement Mr. Williams then asked what the "This agreement will enter into fiscal year for the Association would be force when approved by the Faculty and was told by the Treasurer that no Editorial Committee and signed by decision on that point had yet been its Chairman, and when signed by made. an officer of the Association em- Returning to the discussion of the powered for this purpose. proposal of the Committee on Publica- tions, Mr. Wood asked if there were Termination any other candidates for the official "This agreement is provisional, journal other than the Public Opinion and may be terminated by either Quarterly and was told by the Chair- party six months following written man that he did not know of any. 836 PUBLIC OPINION QUARTERLY, WINTER 1948-49 The proposal for entering into an ar- Elmo Wilson; for Vice-President, rangement to make the Public Opinion Herbert Hyman and Richardson Quarterly the official journal of the Wood; for Member-at-Large of die society was then put to vote and Executive Council for a direc-year adopted. term, Archibald Crossley and Paul Mr. Phillips Davison, who had been Stewart; for Chairman of die Commit- appointed Editor by the Executive tee on Standards, Philip Hauser and Council of AAPOR, presented a Samuel Stouffer; for Chairman of die proposal for the publication of pro- Conference Committee, Jerome Bruncr ceedings of the Eagles Mere Confer- and John Riley; for Chairman of die ence. He said the Association had a Committee on Nominations, Angus Downloaded from choice of publishing the proceedings Campbell and Cornelius DuBois. as a separate pamphlet of 50 pages, the In view of the fact diat dierc had cost of which would be approximately been no additional nominations sub- $700, or of having an additional 50 mitted by members of die organization pages added to the Winter issue of the to die Committee in advance of die http://poq.oxfordjournals.org/ Public Opinion Quarterly and dis- meeting, die Chairman declared the tributed with it. This latter plan would nominations closed, and die Associa- cost about $530. tion proceeded to ballot on die nomina- After some discussion concerning tions. The following were elected: die relative merits of the two proposals President, Elmo Wilson; Vice-Presi- and the availability of reprints of the dent, Herbert Hyman; Member-at- proceedings if die second proposal was Large of die Executive Council, Archi- adopted, a motion was made to audior-

bald Crossley; Standards Committee at AAPOR Member Access on March 8, 2016 izc die Editor to proceed along die lines Chairman, Samuel Stouffer; Conference of die second proposal. After discus- Chairman, John Riley; Nominations sion, the motion was adopted. Chairman, Cornelius DuBois. In Daniel Katz's absence, Mr. David For die Committee on Standards, Wallace of the Nominations Committee Mr. Philip Hauser presented die fol- presented for diat Committee its slate lowing report: of nominations for Association officers for the coming year. Mr. Wallace out- "The AAPOR on May 19, 1948, lined die procedure employed by the received for consideration a sug- Committee in arriving at diese nomina- gested 'Code of Professional Prac- tions, pointing out diat the Committee tices' and 'Standards of Practice to be had observed die Constitutional re- Used in die Reporting of Survey quirement of a sample poll of die Results.' These proposals were pre- membership and had in its nomina- pared by representatives of six organ- tions conformed to die outcome of diis izations engaged in survey research poll, except where diere had been an in marketing and public opinion. undue concentration of officers from "The Committee on Standards, any one firm, or where for some reason mindful of die basic importance of the prospective nominee refused to run its constitutional assignment to for office. The nominees presented by AAPOR and to its members, agreed Mr. Wallace were: that die proposed 'code' and 'stand- For President, Paul Lazarsfeld and ards' could constitute a good starting PUBLIC OPINION RESEARCH CONFERENCE 837 point for the development of stand- public opinion research. It urges con- ards in the field of public opinion sideration be given in the coming research. To assure maximum con- years to the development of standards sideration of the proposals, the Com- in the following areas of operation: mittee arranged for a panel discus- sion on standards as part of the pro- 1. The design and pre-testing of gram for the annual meeting, and schedules; mailed copies of the proposed codes 2. The design of samples, methods to the membership in advance of the of estimation, and measures of precision;

business session. Downloaded from 3. The evaluation of validity of "Through these arrangements, it response; was hoped that members would have 4. The organization and super- ample opportunity to consider and vision of field and office opera- evaluate the proposals prior to the tions; business meeting. 5. The analysis, interpretation and http://poq.oxfordjournals.org/ "The Committee on Standards, presentation of results. after careful consideration, recom- mends that the proposed 'Code of "The Committee urges that the Professional Practices' and 'Stand- Association, through its Committee ards of Practice to be Used in the Re- on Standards, keep abreast of meth- porting of Survey Results,' with the odological developments, and that substitution of the phrase 'public all members of AAPOR, in accord- opinion and marketing research' for ance with their ability, continue to

'marketing research,' be commended conduct research on these vital mat- at AAPOR Member Access on March 8, 2016 by AAPOR as an initial step in the ters. The Committee suggests that development of standards for public results of such research be made opinion research. It is recognized by available to the Committee on Stand- the Committee that the proposed ards. Through these means it should 'Code of Professional Practices' and be possible to pool the salient re- 'Standards' for reporting consist search findings from all sources, and largely of a statement of broad prin- achieve a broad and sound factual ciples which only research, time, and basis for the development of oper- continued effort can convert into ating standards on public opinion operational and procedural terms of and marketing surveys." an objective and definitive character. It is also recognized that the imple- Mr. Hauser then, on behalf of the mentation of these proposals is en- Committee, made the following mo- tirely dependent on the voluntary tion: adherence, and the good faith and "That the American Association professional conduct of individual for Public Opinion Research com- members. mend the proposed 'Code of Profes- "The Committee believes that with sional Practices,' and 'Standards of this action, the way will be paved for Practice to be Used in the Reporting the development -and adopting a of Survey Results' prepared by the code of detailed standards of per- representatives of six leading research formance in the various aspects of organizations, as an initial step in 838 PUBLIC OPINION QUARTERLY, WINTER 1948-49 the development of standards for "Be it resolved that the American public opinion research; Association for Public Opinion Re- "Recognizing that these proposals search condemns the use of survey consist largely of a statement of interviewing as a selling device and broad principles which only research, holds this practice to be a serious continued effort, and time can con- threat to the continued cooperation vert into operational and procedural of the public in legitimate marketing terms of an objective and definitive and public opinion research. character, and "Further, in the belief that the

"Recognizing that the implementa- National Better Business Bureau of- Downloaded from tion of these proposals is entirely fers a widespread organization ex- dependent on the voluntary adherence perienced in combatting fraud and and the good faith and professional misrepresentation, the Association conduct of individual members." urges the individual members and their agencies to give financial sup- Speaking to the motion, Mr. Hauser http://poq.oxfordjournals.org/ commented that the Standards Com- port to the National Better Business mittee was aware that some members Bureau to deal with this situation. of the Association thought the measures "Further, the Association instructs proposed in the Code were too strong, the Standards Committee to keep and others thought them too mild. abreast of developments in this area, However, he thought it absolutely to cooperate with the National Better necessary that the Association commit Business Bureau and other organ- itself at least to the idea that there izations concerned with improving should be standards of some sort to be standards, and to call the need for at AAPOR Member Access on March 8, 2016 observed by members. He pointed out corrective action to the attention of that as the Association grew, its Code the Association members as neces- of Ethics and Standards could be sary." further developed in the light of ex- Mr. Gaskill then asked for an ex- perience. planation of the term "selling device" After considerable discussion from and Mr. Hauser explained that it re- the floor, the motion was adopted with- ferred to a salesman gaining entry to a out dissent. home by saying that he was doing a Continuing his report for the Stand- survey and wanted the housewife's ards Committee, Mr. Hauser then opinions, but, having gained entry, pro- brought up the question of the in- ceeded to attempt to sell goods. In some creasing abuse of interviewing tech- cases, Hauser reported, the respondent niques by sales people in door-to-door was asked to fill out slips or blanks selling. He noted that the National supposed to be part of the survey but Better Business Bureau had uncovered which later turned out to be sales many evidences of this and that a representative of the Bureau was pres- contracts. ent to answer any questions that any Discussion then followed concerning members of the audience might have the wording of the phrase "as a selling about the nature of the abuses. Mr. device," and Mr. Hauser amended his Hauser then moved the following reso- motion to substitute the phrase " to sell lution: goods to the respondent at the time of PUBLIC OPINION RESEARCH CONFERENCE 839 the interview" in place of the phrase ence. He noted the action of the Ex- "as a selling device." ecutive Committee of the World Asso- Mr. Isador Lubin suggested that it ciation for Public Opinion Research in might not be desirable to refer to a par- dispatching a telegram to Secretary of ticular outside organization in a resolu- State Marshall and moved that a tion such as this, and that while he similar message be sent on behalf of hoped he would not be misunderstood the American Association for Public as casting reflections on the Better Busi- Opinion Research. Extended discus- ness Bureau, he thought it unwise for sion of Mr. Bogart's motion ensued, the Association to specify the Better during which the telegram sent by Downloaded from Business Bureau alone in the resolu- WAPOR was read to the membership tion. He moved that paragraph 2 of the by Mr. Jean Stoetzel. The motion was resolution be deleted and this amend- opposed by Mr. Gaskill and Mr. Burke ment was carried by a voice vote. The and supported by Mr. Lee. original motion of Mr. Hauser as Mr. Elmo Wilson reported on the amended was then put to a vote and inquiries he had personally made to the http://poq.oxfordjournals.org/ adopted. State Department relative to Mr. Rad- Under the heading of "New Busi- vanyi's case. He said that an Assistant ness," Mr. Frank Lang pointed out Secretary of State had told him the that the Association was made up of reason for not issuing Mr. Radvanyi's three groups: academicians, commercial visa was "ideological" and that the final practitioners, and "consumers of re- action had been made at Mexico City. search," and moved that the new nom- Mr. Dan Clark then moved as a

inating committee be instructed to pro- substitute motion that the Executive at AAPOR Member Access on March 8, 2016 vide representation of all three groups Council investigate further the facts of in its slate for 1949. The Secretary the situation and then take such action raised the question of whether the As- as they deemed proper in view of the sociation could so instruct the nominat- future welfare and progress of the As- ing committee without amending the sociation. Constitution. Whereupon, Mr. Lang Mr. Bogart then withdrew his orig- changed his motion to read that it was inal motion at the consent of his sec- the sense of the meeting that such a onder and moved to add the following distribution of officers among the three paragraph to the motion made by Mr. groups was desirable. Clark: Mr. Bevis asked how numerous the "The American Association for third group (consumers of research) Public Opinion Research wishes to was in the Association, and in a show record at this time its feeling that the of hands, called for by the Chair, it free exchange of ideas and persons is appeared that nine such individuals of value in furthering both the cause were present. Mr. Lang's motion was of scientific progress and interna- then put to a vote and failed of a tional understanding." majority. Mr. Leo Bogart then brought up the The discussion then proceeded on subject of Dr. Laszlo Radvanyi's in- the amendment to the substitute mo- ability to obtain a visa to enter the tion and Mr. Gaskill restated his feel- country in order to attend the Confer- ing that the matter was irrelevant so 840 PUBLIC OPINION QUARTERLY, WINTER 1948-49 far as the Association was concerned would be proper to appoint a commit- and that he still deemed it unwise for tee from the Association to work with the Association to go on record. Mr. the Better Business Bureau in its pro- Lee pointed out that the issue was not gram tn eliminate misuse of survey ap- so much that Mr. Radvanyi had not re- proaches. Mr. Hauser stated that the ceived a visa, but that he had not been Standards Committee would approve told whether he would receive a visa or the appointment of such a committee. not after having applied for a visa six Mr. Williams moved "diat the Presi- weeks in advance. He had received no dent appoint a committee of three mem- information and had been given a run- bers to be drawn from commercial Downloaded from around. marketing research agencies to con- Mr. Clark wanted to know if it was sult widi die National Better Business a definite known fact that the State Bureau in the problem of using inter- Department had refused to give in- viewing mediods as a selling device." formation about Mr. Radvanyi's case Mr. Lubin moved an amendment to the to the Association and was told by Mr. motion to insert die words, "and other http://poq.oxfordjournals.org/ Wilson that so far as he knew, the organizations," after die National Bet- State Department had not given out ter Business Bureau in the original any information concerning Mr. Rad- resolution. Mr. Williams accepted die vanyi's case. amendment and on a voice vote, die By voice vote, the amendment to the amended resolution was carried. substitute motion was then adopted. Mr. Hart dien turned die meeting On the question of the substitute mo- over to die newly elected President, Mr.

tion itself, a standing vote was taken Wilson. After a few remarks by die at AAPOR Member Access on March 8, 2016 and it was carried. new President, the meedng was ad- Mr. Robert Williams inquired if it journed at 5:55 pjn.