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University Microfilms International 300 N ZEE B ROAD. ANN ARBOR, Ml 48106 18 BEDFORD ROW. LONDON WC1R 4EJ. ENGLAND 8001818

R u s k a u p. C a l v in F r e d e r ic k

THE OTHER SIDE OF BROADCASTING: A HISTORY OF THE CHALLENGERS TO THE USE OF THE AIRWAVES

The Ohio State University PH.D. 1979

University Microfilms International 300 N. Zeeb Read, Ann Arbor, MI 48106 18 Bedford Row, London WC1R 4EI, Fngiwd

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Urdversib/ M tad n lm s International 300 N 2EEB RO.. ANN ARBOfl Ml *8106 *313) 761-4700 THE OTHER SI HE 0 / BRO AHCas TIMG x A HISTORY 07 THE GHALLiHGERS TO THE USE 07 THE AIRWAVES

HISSERTATIQH

Presented In partial Tulfillment m t the Requirement* far the .Degree Leo ter ef philesephy in the Graduate Seheel e f The Okie S ta te U n iv e rsity

By

Galvin /reteriek Ruskaup, B.Sc., U.a

The Okie State University 1979

Meaiing Cennlttee: Apprevet By Hr. habert Brenner Hr. panl Bewera Atvi eer Hr. Warren Van Tine Department #f Histery VITA

B. Sc. University ef Miseeuri at St. Leuis

Teacker: st. Leuis City Sckoele, all levels, 1968 Sequela Junier High Sekoel, Fresne 1968-1969 Aquinas Cellege, secenkary, Haaeau, 1971-1972

Teaekimg Asseelate: Department sf Hietery, Tke Okie State University, 1974-1979

it.A. Tke Okie State University, Celunkus, Okie: Critics ef the Sokosle. 1960-1974: Attitudes ef Intellectuals, parents. Stueents «n4 Teaekers

Principal area *f enkeavor: Secial ank Intellectual Histery ef tke Unltek states

i i I'a BLM 0 F GoNTisliTS page VI It'A...... ii iiil'iiUitiLi'iiuu ...... 1 C hapter I . DriVILOPMiiNTS OF THIi 1920's 1. College stations ...... 4 2. Federal Radio commission ...... 25 I I . TEACHING GROUPS 1. Committees oi‘ the 1930*8 ...... 41 2. school Broadcasts ...... 69 3. PM education ...... 81 111* CHlliiihJ^ *o PBQGhAkKilNG GROUPS 1. c h a lle n g e rs ol’ the 1930*8 ...... 101 2. Worla war II and After ...... 117

IV. mura LI'h GnoUps 1. Violence ...... 149 2. sex...... 159 3. IV-Addiction...... 165

V. pUALiiU BBOAjjCa STBHS 1. public choice...... 177 2. a Fourth Network ...... 189

VI. Ttu» lUUuG *HLa) JlMM ARislLRSS 1. Congress—The people'svoice ...... 199 2. Minority Groups ...... 208 3* Community Groups ...... 213

V li. Cash STUuY: WPa C-COMMUNITY BROADCASTING 1. origin...... 231 2. Federal and Foundationgrants ...... 243 3. community punaing ...... 255 4. community programming ...... 278 CONCLUSION...... 304 BlftLiOGiutPilY...... 308 i i i IJtfXJIODUCTIO*

Ike purpese ef this study ie te tell k kiete ry #f ineriean kreadeasting tkreugk tke eyes and aetiritiee • f tke eppe eitlem te etneroial kreadeasting. Tke United States la almost aleme in tke uerld In firing exelueire rifkts te kreadeaat ever limited ekannelm te prirate inti rituals far prefit. fkat kas engendered esnsiterakle eppesitien ky grsnps whs feel left ent ef tke presses er unrepresented in tkeir pkilesepkiee tkremgk kreadeasting. Wkile seme kare predneed written nissilee dirested at brwadeasting, tke reeerde ef aetiritiee ef many kare remained scattered, nnpmklisked, and sseaaiemally existing enly in memerlee ef tke participants. Tkremgk tke use ef eral hiatery, ef kmaineas reeerde, ef arekires* eelleetiens, newsletters, my persenal inrelrenent and etker senrses ef infexmatien, 1 kare eenpiled a reeerd ef tke sundry aetiritiee ef eppesitien greups te esnnerelal krsadeastlng, wks due te tkeir ewm dirergenee ef ideas seuld net tkemselrea kare farmed a united fremt. sekslara eeneemed witk pressure greups and puklie pel ley, and nenkers ef tke puklie wks want te knew tke tetai range at eppesitien and puklie epimldn- tkat kas already aeeunulated teward

1 2 kxaakaaetlmg will kar* tkat raaark. Sima* tk* appaaiog gzwi?a fail® * t« a l t a r tk® a a ta ra • f Awarieaw kxaakaaetlmg, i t s k ia te ry a f a a tlT itla a aak •amaeraa ek*alk pxavlka aa aakaratankimg aka at tk* a am a* *f tke failar*. fallara, af aemraa, la aat amly kme ta iateraal waakm***, kat alaa reaalta fra a tke stramgtk af tk* appaaaat. Saaa raapaaaikility far failar*9 kew*T*r, rest* with klTlslana witkia tk* gxwap* akaliaaglmg kr* ak- • aat lag t wklak aat grampa aak ImkiTlkmal* witk tk* aaaa geaeral aaaa era a agalaat am* aaatkar. Gaapatltlaa aaaag aammeraial kread*aatera kaa alwaya keaa pi aaaa* aampatltiam. Ik* matar* *f tk* Oamwaaiaatlam* Aat aak Harkart Hearer aak /raakll* Haaaarelt'* gaal tawark kaeimesa, aak eapealally tawark kraakaaatimg, waa ta aaaar* It* flmaaaial aaaees* ky liwitak aawpatltlaa. 1refit, a*t paklie aaaeea *r praaatlaa af ikaaa, waa tka aaraaratama af tk* atraatara. Ik* appaaeata t* tk* •traatare kar* keaa lkaa-arleatek, wklak kaa reemit*4 la aakleaa ki aaaa alaa a awaag tkeaaalTaa. Ik* kra ai- aaatara, witk little t* fear fraw am* aawtker** aiaiwaa aawpatltlaa, aak witk a* flaw* af paaaiaa t* praaat* am* pkllaaapky ar aaatkar, kar* keaa akl* t* aaaa aat rat a am k*lklmg mp tka kalwark af aamwaralal kraakaaetlag a* am Ikaa lm itaalf. Xkalr paaaiaml*** appraaak, wklak raflaatak Harkart Hearer*a •ikea-l***" gaal far kxaadaaatiag, pxaYika*m aA« 1 ta la alga paklla talari alaa aakaiulea ia tka laaga af aaaaaaalal kraaiaaatiag. I . JMfiVHLOPlUKIS Of IHB 1920*a

Callaga 3t at lea a

JLBC, im ita firat tkraa fall years af kraakaastimg * pmkliakek krsskarea am ita pxwgraaa im aka a at lag tka ameriaam pm klia. im m 1927 kraakmr* tka matwsrk praaikamt prealatak tkat MBQ wealk k aaaa a a "traa Umi varsity af tka Aim. Ha ravaalak pi am a far aamaarta ky Waltar iiamraaak ia 1928 wklak wara am tl alp at ak ta raaak 25-ailliaa stakamta aaaa tka aatwark aqaippsk aakaala witk rakias. Citiaa SarTiaa kak skawa tka affaativamaaa af aam aarta im 1927 amk 1928. Hat a a ly kik tk e aampamy advertia# its gaaallaa, kmt ilka meat rakia apamaara Im tka lata 1920** it walk akaraa af ita aamaam ataak arar rakia. "3alaa aaaamtlmg ta 2000 akaraa af at**k wara mak* p im ama aity aa a r a salt af amr rakia akrarti slag. " BBC «mk Citiaa Sarriaa axaamtlvaa wara pramk af tka affaat aymphamy aamaarta kak am yaamg peapia. Citiaa Servls* waa akla ta aampile a aailimg liat af 109000 fiwm reapamaaa* amaklimg tka aampny ta writ a area ta yaamg paapla aka at tke impartama* amk kamsflt* af kayimg ataak. "Wkil* it is trma tkat mamy af tka lattara pralalag tka Citiaa sarrla* aamaarta wara wrlttam ky 4 5 yeamg pee pie amd etkers met im m pesitiem te kmy emx seemrities er prwdmetm, yet m large mmmker are premising pxespeets far tke fa tare. Ike title ef tke 1929 kreekure ef ABC's president set tke teme eenmereial kreadeasting need as a defease against all srities fer tke mext five deeades. It was sailed Ike Li sterner stales Brsadeastinjt. Wkatever is ei tke air is emly ea« said kerlim lyleewertk, keeasae it is wkat tke Ineriean pee pie wamt. Im tkat era kefere el eet reale ratings, tke metwerk el aimed its pregrammimg was determimed ky tke ”mere tkam 2 milliem le tte rs” ABC reeelTed im 1928.4 CBS, im its first fall year ef kreadeastimg ia 1926, was less mered ky pmklie respemse. Its ckief mews esaaemtatsr H. V. Kaltemkerm aetiTely supperted H erbert H eeTer sad apposed A1 3iitk ewer tke air. kaltemkerm received mamy Tielent letters. Vetimg imereased ky 6-milliem ever tke 1924 eleetiems, amd He e Ter we a ky 6-nillien Tetes. Kaltemkerm liked te attrikate tke imereased veting te radie amd kie imflaemee. Im 1931 ke sapperted HeeTer's eppesitiem te a veterans' kemas, vising kis per sea al eppesitiem, as well. "1 kad twenty-tms letters tkreatemimg me witk imstamt dsatk if 1 ssmtimaed ts say wkat I kad keem c saying. CBS apparently felt tkat letters were at least an iakieatien tkat peeple were listening. It was initially as Mask tkat kreakeastiag weal4 save lives r&tker tkaa re salt ia tkreats apen life. Ike kadis Act ef 1912 was designed te reqaire rakie eqnipnent ea skips that eealk kreakeast in Merse eeke, aak lieease •peraters aak experimental laak statieas fer eqnipnent re sear eh. Philadelphia's St. Jeseph's Cellegc in 1912 reeeivek tke first lieease frea tke Departaeat ef Ceaaeree fer statiea 3AJ. Lie easing began exactly fear aeatks after tke sinking ef tke Titaaie ea April H, tke event whiek precipitated tke regalatiea. HLsctrleal eagiaeeriag departments ef anlverslties kak keen active ia kailkiag receivers aak transmitters frea tke tiae Galielae Hareswl iaveatek kreakeastiag ia 1895* Ike fell swing year Tnlaae aak Witteaherg kegaa kreakeastiag ia eeke. In 1897 tke University ef Hekraska aak University ef Arkansas kegaa, fellswek ky Ceraell la 1906, aak Pennsylvania State, tke Okie State University, aensselaer Pelyteeknleal and tke University ef Wisceasin in 1909. Tke University ef Wi seen sin kegaa kreakcaeting a n c le ev e r 9kM in 1917, speech in Pekrnary e f 1919* and a regalar schekale in March ef 1920. Thirty-six ekaeatlenal institntieas reeeivek regal ar licenses frea Herbert Heever's newly established had is Dlvi sien ef tke 7 Department ef Cemneree im 1921, kalf ef wkiek ia t|« < te r e t aim t k e i r AH lieemeea. Of tke aeditiemal 166 AH lieemees leaned te edueatlenal imstltmtieae tkereafter, 145 will laae tkeir lieemeea, mainly te eemmereial atatiema duriny tke mext fifteem ye are.6 Cemmereial imterest im kreadeastimy at arte* twemty years after edueatiemal imatitmtiema keys* kreadeaetiny. Omly witk tke aetive assistance ef tke federal yeverm- memt were eemmereial atatiema akle te evertake amd ▼irtmally eliminate edmeatiemal statiena free tke air. Im 1916 Westimyhemse km ilt 8JJL im p ittekuryk. i t a f i r s t rnmaie kreadeaata keys* im Kevemker e f 1919, amd i t kreadeaat tke Hardimy-Cex electiem re terms eme year later. Ita pnrpese was te premete tke sale e f Westimy- kemae rad iea, amd te diaeemraye tke learminy preeeas 7 e f kuildim y eme* a ewm. am edueatlem amd eemmereializa- tiem were at edds im kreadeastimy fram tke very keyimmimy. Msmy firms kmilt atatiema Just te sell tkeir ewm preduet. "in amtemekile aales ayemey weald yet a lie ease te kreadeaat mmsie simply keeamee tkeir name weald ke emtke air. 1T&T, a mem*pely im its ewm field, emvisiemed sellimy eemmereial tine am am all-eeaers kaaia te etker firms, a preeeas its lew Yerk statiem WkAT keyam am Imymst 28, 1922. 8 Sinee ekueatere kak aceeaa te kreakeaetlag ea tkeir eaapueee, tkey kee&ae tke i'iret u i Meet peraieteat •ritie* ef eemaereial kreakeaetlag. Wkea Lewerlag Tyeen keark tke Harkiag-Cex eleetlea returae frea pittakurgk, ke keeaae eatkueek akeat rakie'e peteatial aak ergaaizek a rakie ••amittee at Celaakia University. Bat preeikeat kickelaa Mar ray Batler ceaaik«rek rakie te ke a fakkiek gakget. He telk Tyeen, "S*»'t ketker akeat tkat....tkie wea't aaeaat te anytkiag.A fter AIAT eetakliekek WAA/, tke atatiea'a aaaagers appreaekek Celaakia akeat kreak- • aetiag ekaeatiemal pregraae. ko eae ea tke faeulty weulk participate keeaaee tkey felt it waa aet ia keepiag witk tkeir atatas. feaakatieaa were iruatratek ia tkeir efferta te get ekucatere inrelvek ia rakie. kxeeutivea ef tke payae faak ef Clevelaak eetakliekek a rakie ecuwell la 1921. Tkey "vieitek tke U.S. Bur earn ef Aka eat lea aak prepeaek aatieaal pregraae fer tke puklie aekeela. U.S. CeMMiesieaer ef £kucatiea J.J. Tigert waa aet even iatereatek ia tke effer ef reaearek, aa ke eppeaek fekeral kirectlea fer ekucatlea. Cerperate feankatieaa failek te aake a llaiaea witk ekueatieaal aseeciatieaa. Seara Heekwek’s agricul­ tural feuakatiea kirek an agreaenlet whe kevelepek pregraae kuriag eeke el keara fer kreakeaat ea WL3, 9 Ckicage ia 1924* Ben Bar raw narked witk tke Ceek Ceunty eeke el keard ia deTelepiag tkeee talks, tie erganized tke MAA eeaaittee ea radie edaeatiea at ita Indianapelia eeaveatiea ia June ef 1925, aad published tke iaerieaa Jtadie Teacher prefrees reperts. Tke eeaaittee get me MKA suppert. la 1927 tke Matieaal Adueatien Asseciatiem eifieere skewed such little latereet as te repert tkat, "The MAA kas me eeaaittee te werk eat a deflaite prejeet fe r s eke el s. "11 kdaeatieaal iastitutieaa witk tkeir ewm statieas feraulated pelieies fer use. Ia 1920 tke tteatelair, Mew Jersey Beard ef fidaeatiea kegaa traaw ittiag the aest legieal type ef edaeatiea eemrse. Tke eeurse taagkt radie eeastruetiea aad radie lieease classes. 12 Ia 1921 tke Okie State UniYeraity iavelved thirty-three departments ia develepiag nea-eredit exteasiea eearses fer Tafts Cellege started aedera language classes ia tke spring ef 1922.^ Ia tke fall ef 1925 Saa piekard develeped tke ^allege ef tke Air fer Kansas State Agricultural Cellege, efferiag ketk csliege 15 ceurses and ceurses fer kigk sckeel credit. v Puklie sckeel districts generally kad te rely ea tke am spices ef eemaereial statieas. Tke Oakland puklie Sckeel s' kreadeasts ea General JQ. m etric'a KGO ia 1922 led te tke standard sckeel Breadeast ia 10 kistery and science of HBC'o California network.16 Tke Hew Yerk City sokeel ay • tea started kreadeaat a In 1923* Ike extension division ef tke Maesaekusetta Department ef kducatiem kegaa 21 extenaien eeureea in tke fall ef 1923

ewer WBJ. Material waa provided te atndenta pay in* an enrollment fee fer amok aukjests aa peyekolegy, real eatate law, music, keme economice, writing amd amatemr radie. By tke end ef tke 1920* e 4330 atudenta kad

enrolled frea 34 states, Canada and jikgland. ^ Social service organisations feenaed an eemmereial radio in tke 1920's with tke initial purpose ef using it. In 1924 tke ckild study Association of America kegaa a aeriea of 15-minute talks ke parenta ever WAAl. WOV, Hew Yerk provided time fer a wedfly program ky tke HAACP em klaek enlture. Tke Julius nesenwald fund of Hew Yerk purakased radios frea Ck te give te klaek aeheela im tk e Semtk. Tke question remained aa te whetker apeeifie cultural programs kad any listeners. So in 1925 C.P* Class did tke first listener researck fer Okie State's WAiO, and kegaa a raentkly program sekedule the fellewiiig

year. Iowa'a WO I researck found tkat 2 1 # ef Iowa farms

kad radios ky 1926 and 5 0 # ky 1930. HOI' a keek eluk was designed te use raaie te promote reading ky selling tke keeks tkat were diaeuaaed. 1 s 11 Ik* im stunt popularity of radio changed tke relatlem- skip ketween eemmereial stations amd educators. Ike Lynda found tkat 12jt of Uuncle, Indiana families kad radios ky 1925* in spite of the $100 prise tag. hadio was changing tke people's kakita. "Sundays I take tke key to Sunday IQ School and some straight kone and tune in." 7 Ike parents' kakita proved more influential on youtk tkan tkeir guidance, as faailiea listened together to programs aimed at children, serious listening waned. Ike College of fine Arts musical education programs in Syracuse on CA's WGrY tkat kegan in 1926 ceased in 1929 when tke station aimed all oommeroial programa at listeners, WKBH, Lacrosse instituted the first sponsored Kiddies hour in 1926. Ike following year Philadelphia's VCAU kegan to wean this new narket away from educators witk horn and hardart'e Children's hour. By 1929 tke educators who kad originally keen approaeked ky commercial s ta tio n s and foundations keoamo concerned, in December of 1929 Levering Tyson, John

Anbsell and 13 otkers formed a radio advisory committee on adult eaucatlon for tke Adult Education Association. In January 1930 they met with tke renresentativeo ef tke Jteckefoiler foundation and the Carnegie Cerp, Tkey found tkat in tke 2i-years of the new federal kadis Commission's operations, educational stations kad keen 12 reduced to 63. But due sell, who represented tke Carnegie Cerp., said there ought te ke fewer than tkat, since tkey 20 did net five geed service. J.J. Tigert's reaetiem te tke trend in 1929 was a sudden awakening, ".accent deeisiens of tke hederal kadis Cenni scion handicap educational stations ky daylight broadcasts, division ef tine, and undesirakle wave 1engths....The Oakland experiment kowever shews, unexpectedly enough, tkat art ana arithmetic are among tke subjects which lend then- selves nest readily." 21 ligert kad keecne president of tke University ef flerlda, and obtained a licence te kreadeaat statewide from Gainesville in 1929* Education si certificates were given for completion of >0 courses. But tke Conniscion ordered WdUf off tke air at sunset so tkat Denver's eemmereial KOA could blanket fieri da in tke evening on tkat wave length. As tke federal it a die Co nni a cion's regulations get tougher, alaect half ef tke remaining educational stations oeased. Dr. 1. Keith Tyler, whose career kegan witk the Oakland schools' radio-development program at this tine, felt institutions could not keep up with the costs of InC requirements, especially with tke Depression. "The Commission kept demanding that equipment ke improved. To get 110,000 a year for your radio station was really 13 a* aet king.1,22 Tk* Old.* atate University prsvikok $17,000 for WkAU, but a* any*me them coulk challenge a licensee's ware length sinply by request lac tke same frequency fer kl^ self, "kkuc&tienal people hak te senk p topic kewn t* Washington te mefeak tkeir licenses. "2^ Okie's Attemey fer tke fublie U tilities Ceaaiesiea, 1929-1932, aak tkea Attemey General Jekn Brisker repeatekly appearek b eft re tke FnC te save tke University's statiea. It get tke aev eall letters WOtfU in 1933, but a kaytiae-enly frequeaey, skarek witk 3 etker statieas, iaeluklng a 50,000 watt .jalles-Fert Wtrtk statiea, wkisk eeulk tkea seak its eeanercial pr*grams iate seatral Okie ia tk* evening. Alleeatiea ef breakeast frequeaeies was regalatek by law. Frea 1910, the Wireless Ast, te aik-1927 wkea tke kaki* Aet establiskek tke Fekeral lakie Ceaaiesiea, tke Secretary ef Oeaaeree iesuek lieeases. Tke fakers! Ueaaaaicatieas Aet ef 1934 adkek etker communications areas te the Ceaaiesiea '* aatkerity, bat kik aet ekaage tke rakie per ties *f tke ast frea 1927, aer were the meabers ef tke Ceaaissiea skaagek. Tke FAC besaae tk* FCC. A later chairman ef tke Ceaaissiea, Wewten Miaew, statek, "Ike keaaak fer streag regulation sane, aet frea government, but frea these persons wk* want ok t* operate breaksastiag stations aak te manufacture 24 kreakeastiag equipment." Herbert Ho•Ter, secretary ef Cenneree 1921-1929* kik net like to inject tke gevernweut into private spkeres, kut ke likek te entourage private eteperatlen. Aakie naaufaetnrers General SLeotrie ank Westingkeuse preparek ta effer tke puklie two frequent!ea en tkeir aeta in 1920* Xkat left Heaver witk the preklen ef a p l i t ti n g tin e a e f key, e r kays e f week, ameng v a rie u a leeel applicanta fer tkeae frequent!ea, aak ef putting etatiene at distant leealitiea witk weak aigaala en tke aane frequency at tke aane tine. He alee hak te eenaiker the faet tkat AM aignale travel fartker wken tke aun geea kewn. Se wken Intercity kakle Ce. ef Hew Yerk City wanted.its 3-nentk licenae renewek in 1921, Heever kenlek renewal aa ita signal weulk Interfere witk etkera Heever lnitiatek an aetlen whieh ke subsequently always fellewek wken faeek witk a eriaia. He eallek a eenferenee e f hualneaanen. Tke 2 -p a rt Cenferenee f e r tke Voluntary Central ef Jtahie in 1922 invelvlng rakie nanufaeturera auk engineers teak plate in Washing tan D.C fekruary 2 7-Mar eh 2 aak April 17-19. Te H eever'a surprise, tke nanufaeturera wantek te give hi* nueh mare pewer than ke seugkt. Altkeugk tke kreakeast industry in tke late 1970'a sees ten sumer group a* shall enges te eemnereials en 15 children'a pr«(raa« as its prime threat, tke first greup ts watt* tke federal gevemment te prevent tke seaaereializatien ef kreadeasting was tke kreadeasters.

Qjtl and Westingkeuse ewned ketk raaie statieas and MCA, frea which ABC waa established. These nanufaeturera and etker eenfereuee aeakers in 1922 were eeneerned 26 tkat eenaereials en radie weuld deter tke sale ef sets. AI&T, tke third enter ef MCA, and a nen-manufacturer, kad net yet initiated cemnercials ever its Hew Yerk City station. It did in late August. Heever stated, "It is ineenseivakle tkat we sheuld allew as great a nei- sikility fer service, fer news, fer entertainment, fer edueatien, and fer vital eeaaercial purpeses te ke 27 drewned in advertising shatter." 3e the Cenferenee repert expressed the prineiple: "It is reeemnended tuat direct advertising im radie kreadeasting serviee will ke akselutely prehibited. Heever al se wanted te make sure he kad tke autkerity te prekikit licenses. Tke eenferees wanted federal invelve*ent, ana reperted: "It is reeemnended tkat tell kreadeasting serviee ke permitted te develep 2Q naturally under clese supervlsien. n Tke Bupervisien was te take tke fern ef a kill te give Herkert Heever tkat autkerity. On June 9 Jtepreaemt&tive Wallace White ef Maine, Chairman ef the Heuse Merchant Marine and 16 Fisheries Cemmittee, imtreduce* H.t. 11964 far that purpsse. J30 The hest understanding af the minds af private hreadeasters can he {aimed hy readimf the majer recem- aemdatiam af the eemferemee. Feur alaases af statlems mere ta he licensed, private statieas weuld ha strlatly lecal im mature, hraadaastimf me mare than 30 miles. Adueaters amd ether {reups ceuld preaemt pre grans ever them at me charge. Thus the atatiema weuld have the hemafit ef free pre{rammim{, amd the audiemae weuld huy sets and parts. Tall statlems weuld have a similar distamea. Individuals aauld huy time fer messafes em tell statlems fer such thim{s as hlrth ammeuneaments. (The gevemmemt- ewm ad statlems ef the Bahamas, fer example, eenmeet the islanders hy still sahedulim{ time fer this service). University amd municipal statlems eeuld have a 250-mile range. Class 1 statlems weuld he ewned hy the federal 31 gevemment amd hreadcast fer 600 miles. When respensihility is thrnet mpem a pmhllc servant, he will eftem seek mere pewer. In February ef 1923 the ill strict ef Celumhia Ceurt ef Appeals upheld Heaver's autkerity te demy Intercity Jtadle Ca. a license.^2 Heever them called a seeemd radie cenference em March 23, 1923. He heped it weuld achieve greater unanimity ef self-ragulatiem hy the industry. Interests met repre­ sented at the firat eemferemee hegan te experiment with 1 7 mew frequencies, which mamufactmrerea were met willing te prerike aet a far, tat which tke ankiemce aemlk kuilk. Hearer felt ke eeulk get hreakeastera ta reeegnize tke manufacturers' interests. Prirate kreakeaeters 4k met lik e tk e 50-mlle lim it suggestek at tke first eemferemee. Ikey felt a fern majer imtereata were trying ta aet tka stamkarks far all. Hearer, mever.a fam af free emterpriae ta tke paimt wkere aampetitiam keeame keatmatiTe, preferrek vkat Murray Jletkkark call a cartelizing. Im regark ta fan peliey Hearer, explainek kethkark, kagam witk a "ty p ic a l Hearer!am reumk a f attem ptek ralum tary perauaaiom" until it kecame "clear tkat tke aartelizimg pre gram eemlk n e t mark umleaa th ere mere eeapmleery reatriatian an preauctienf tkere mere aimply tea many farmer a far ralumtary exkart atiam ta kara any effect. " 3 3 He tkem uaek regulatiana ta kring eaapetitara "under federal ergamizatiem amk central" im rariaua fielka af em dearer mkam ke maa president.^* Hi atari am a kare mat examimek kia technique in tke fielk af rakia, kut at tk e 1923 Cemferenee he auggeatek tk a t i f p r ir a te atatiema mamtek ta ke lieemsek far kigker pamer, tkey nuat ahem tkat tkey are presenting crifinal, lire pragrama, amk mat jmat playing phenegraph recarka. Ike "lacal-lire" aat age ry ia atill a part ef pra gran 18 legs wkiek statieas are require* te keep ef tkeir daily scheduling fer tke JCC. 33 If cartelising wee tke aim ef Heever on* tke larger interests at tke 1923 Ceafereaee, it vae qaiekly diverted vkea tke Heuse ef lepresentatives passed a reeelatiea hased ea tke reeenaeadaticn ef Cengressaaa White, eh aim am ef the Ceaatittee ea Merchant Marine aa* fisheries, tkat the federal Trade Oeaaieeiea investigate tke patent monopoly ef naau- facturers. Tke fTC reperte* ia Deeeaher tkat Heever ka* ne aatkerity te issue licensee te wken ke favere*. iCk, whiek ka* a meaepely ea ra*ie parts manufacturing, ka* representatives testify at Hense kearings en tke itadie Bill tkat since radie was ia suek a state ef flax, only general language skeul* ke use*. Clarence Jill, chairman ef tke senate Ceaneree Ceaaittee, weuld net repert tke kill in 1923.37 Blifereat kills were reperte* ky the Heuse aa* Senate ia 1924. Tke senate kill was very general, hut aid state tkat the air was puklie preperty. In May tke IQ Heuse undertoek tke task ef eeahiaiag the kills. Bat at tke third radie ceafereaee in Qeteher Heever reverse* his eapkasis ea leeal private statieas aa* adveeate* nationwide programs.^ He else disagree* witk MCA tkat radie was still unsettled, saying, "Mail* kaa passed from tke field ef aa adventure te tkat ef a public utility."*0 I* December ke witkdrev kla supper* frea a general-language radie bill, stating ia a letter te Whitex It kaa been feaad pesaible by indirect advertising te turn broadcasting te highly profitable use. If tkia were misused, we weuld be eeafreated witk tke fact that serviee aere advantageous te tke liateaera weuld be erevded eat fer advertising purpesea..., Ike basis ef regulation ana tke fundamental pelicies te be fellewed must be finally declared by Centreaa, net left te an administrative ef fleer.... firkertainaent and amusement have ceased te be ita principal purpeaea. Individuals at tke third Oenferenee suek as leuie Caldwell, whe later played an impart ant role in deeiaiens ef tke MtC, continued te press tke industry pealtiem fer an elastic law, contending that radie was "progressing and changing at se rapid a pace. " 42 Wken Heever called tke feurtk Jtadie Conference fer Jtevember 9-11* 1925, it included a wide spectrum of viewpoints. Held at the Chamber of Commerce Building in Washington 1). C., tke Conference had educational input from le v e rin g Tyaen and C.H. Jansky, re p re se n tin g academic and engineering fields in unofficial capacities. I. A, Craven, who weuld be instrumental in tke PHC, represented tke kavy; fid win Armstrong, who would develop Ik at a boon te educators, represented inventors' concerns; 2 0 David Sameff, president of JtCA, uiexc other*, repre­ seated oemaereisl iaterests. ^ There is geed reassn why some writers hare praised Herbert Hoover as a forerunner sf subsequent erities aad c hall eaters of commercial iaterests ia broadcasting. At the 1925 Conference Hoover said: hadie is aet te he eeaeidered merely as a business married ea for private gain, for private advancement, er for the entertainment ef the curious. It is te he considered as a puhlie eoncera, imposed with a puhlie trust, and to he considered primarily from the standpoint of puhlie interest.A+ But Hoover's divergent positions have left lack ef clarity in writings ea broadcasting, and interpretations of Hoover hy general historians have resulted in Bugene Lyons ana Walter Lippmann seeing him as an innovator of progressive bureaucratic government, and Ki chard

Hefstadter and William a . W illiam s c a llin g him a proponent of laissez fairs; Carl DegLer and John Knox seeing him as indecisive, Introspective and friendless, and Will Irwin ana Herbert Corey calling him deolsive, combative, with devoted friends; while lethbard showed h is a c ts were cru el and f a s c i s t , and .Donald Li si# how compassionate Hoover*a actions often were. A5 It is possible to see Hoover as an advocate of big business whose actions set American broadcasting apart from all other broadcasting systems in the world in a 21 totally eomnereial nold with little government involvement. He opened the fourth Conference by declaring hew fortunate Americans were la that broad­ casting wai net supperteA by a tax om the listeners. To suppert it spensers whe want no Tiews en life presented except consumption, has provided, "Greater variety ef pro frame anA excellence in service free ef cost te the listener. This decision has avoided the pitfalls of political, religious, and social conflicts in the use ef free speech. With only two educators attending araid a bevy of commercial broadcasters, the Conference reversed the recommendation for the legal prohibition ef advertising by the first Conference, and proclained, "As any announcement or program if improperly presented will create ill will, there seen a no necessity for any specific regulation in regard te fern ef announcements in connection with such paid cr any ether pro gran. " 47 Hoover received a legal blow in 1926. Hoover had issued broadcast restrictions on a renewed license for zenith's Chicago station. Zenith sued, and the District Court ef the Northern District of Illinois ruled that the 1912 Radio Act only permitted the secretary of Connerce to issue licenses on request, with no right to deny or restrict.*® But the court threatened to 22 adjudicate rights ta frequencies IX Congress did ast ast. Bearer began issuing licenses te all earners, stations liegaa traa salt ting ea the sane frequencies at the ease time, making It hiXXIcult to distinguish a program la daytime, and impassible at sight. Same communities demanded silent sights of their ess statiess ea people seuld pi ah sp a distant at atlas aX similar frequency. Between July, 1926 ash February, 1927 rahla set sales hreppeh 12ijt from the preriaus period. Major manufac­ turers ash brsaucastera asae again he*ashed Xeheral regulation. On Beeamber 5, 192$ Chairman White hah lntrehueeh U.h. 9589 opacifying that Hearer hah the authority to reXuse licenses. At the hearings, Congressman £hwis Baris aX Tennessee shallesgeh Hearer's one-man hi«tutor­ ship, whioh eaulh enable large samp ami es to "unlawfully iq masapaliza radio aammunicatias." 7But it passed as Marsh 15, 1926. It speoified that sponsored programs must he announced as sush, and that the gsrersment could 50 not censor them. Xa educators made a ease at the 51 h earin g s. The White hill incorporated mast of the recam- nenactions aX the radio casXerenees. It included a reXerence to classes aX stations. Congressman Baris ashed Soli si tar Baris sX the Department of Commerce to 23 give his interpretation of that language, which the Congressman wanted an the record. Bell cl ter Daria said, "lew, I take it that under that the department eeuld aet up a el a as ef church stations, it eeuld aet up a el ass of educational stations, and make due provisions for 5 2 then* " Hash etate waa te he giren a station in the interest ef "agricultural and educational institutions, which want the ri^ht te broadcast during certain hours of the week. But there was no concept of regular educational broadcasts presented bp the institutions, just the ran don breade anting of agricultural quotations and bulletins a few hours per dap. All these provisions were eliminated bp the conference committee in July, 1926. During the pears that Congress debated the dadie Act, conference committees were necessary because the Senate bills each year differed sc radically from the House bills that the two houses did not even pass the conference eenmlttee reports until the spring ef 1927. Senator Dill disliked Hoover, and wanted a It a die Commission te issue licenses. He held up appointments ef Commissioners Bellows, Caldwell and Dillon, whom 5A Hoover had recommended. The issue of censorship eeuld determine who would control the airwaves. If a prevision intro duo ed on the 24 Senate fleer te nabe broadcasting facilities "deemed

a n r m i carrier" bad deem part ef tbe bill, free aeoess te tbe airwaves eeuld bare bad te be provided by s ta tio n s te a ll member* e f tb e p u b lic, lay ere up ceula then bave purchased tiae te preaeat it a view* «r programming. Tbe groups vbleh tbia dieeertatiea feeuaes ea eeuld uadeubtably aet ccae iate belag if eeaeeraed pec pi* eere aet excluded from influence ia breadeaatiag. But Senator Bill get the prcTiaica rcaeved free tbe bill, saying* Wbca ve recall tbat breadeaatiag teday ia purely voluntary, and tbe lieteaer-in pay a nothing far it, tbat tbe breadeaater giTea it far tbe purpoae ef building up bie reputatica, it aeeaed unviae te put tbe breadeaater uader tbe hampering ceatrel ef being a common carrier and ecapelled te aeeept anytblag and every- thimg tbat w as offered bim ae leag aa tbe price waa paid. 55 He called tbe bill a compromise, ia tbat the ownership eeuld eenaer and aet the government, but evnera aust get a licence. 5 6 Henever, he alec was eeneeraed that political cppcaent* ahculd be given equal tiae, aad required stations te net censer political candidate*.^' 5 7 Senator pittnan of derada said tbe bill implied tbat 5 8 Bill was aa agent ef tbe commercial broadcasters. 25 2. federal hadie Commission

Xhc apparent premise for educational radio shewn by tke backgrounds e f the f i r s t members selected ts the federal hadie Caaaiseisn did met develop. netired Admiral W. H, G. B ullard and Cel on el John B illon repre­ sented tke m ilitary's Interest in broadcasting. Bullard died in l a te 1927. O restes Caldwell had an engineering and journalism background. He subsequently wrote a journal for the broadcasting industry en engineering, ana served as engineer for eommercial interests. San piekard and *enry Bellows seated ts represent educa­ tion's interests, piekard had established radio extension courses in Kansas; Bellows was an a sistant professor, though more recently general manager of WCGO, Minnea­ polis. But after their serrioo in setting up regulations that gave eommercial stations the universities' frequencies, they both went on to become vice presidents of CBS, piekard later buying a statio n and Bellows later doing public relations for General Mills. Most members o f the PMC and PCC p ro fite d considerably with jobs in commercial broadcasting after their stints in government, if they had ruled in their future employers' interest. £.U. Webster (fCC 1947-1954), and I.A.M. Craven (1937-44, 1954-43), who had also served as PCC chief engineer, in the 1930's, 26 making recommendations favorable to major eommercial interests, went sn ts statien engineering jobs, CraTen with the CswQ.es etatisns sf Iowa in 1944. They maintained that the federal kadis Csnnisslsn had nst acted hastily in its engineering deeislams, whisk stripped the universities ef frequencies, hut with eemaiderahle and prsper theught. Orestes Caldwell, whs did the engineering realignments far the fitc, described his "experience during the emergency" quite differently. He had ts ds all the mark sf frequency reassigning at hene. The Csnnisslsn had ns staff, ne nsney, ns desks, and initially received ns salaries. The pressures put sn the csnnissisners wem t remands us in 1927. Although the next grenp sf federal Kadis esnnisaisners included Judge Ira he kin sen sf West Virginia, sf populist leanings, mast sf the members fallowed in the foe t step a sf the first group, kadis equipment manufacturer Harsld Lafsunt was especially he stile ts educators. He went sn ts become a commercial broadcasting exssutlve and official with Bulova Watch. Chairman Eugene Sykes, whs remained ts became the f i r s t PCC chairman in 1934, la te r established a law firm ts serve commercial broadcasters. Commercial broadcasters get a scare with franklin M aeaevelt's appointees. George paync (1934-43) had written "The Child in Hnman progress", and supported 27 educators. frank Meliaek, Chairman (1937-39) attacked lewdness ia aetwerk programming. James fly , Ckairaoa (1939-44) so angered commercial broadcasters witk kis aetwerk inquiry, the aatitruat suit breaking up IBCt aaa tke decision te strip statiena ef editorializing, far their critiaiaa ef loesevelt, tkat they kad tke Congress investigate him, aad pressured hi a freu e ffle e . Suksequeat ekairaea eaae frea very different back­ grounds tkan Ueliack aad fly, wke cane frea tke federal fewer Commission aad IVA, respectively* Taking over fsyne*s seat in 1944 was U.K. Jett, broadcaster aad subsequently viee presiaent ef channel 2, Baltimore, fly waa fallowed by Paul Porter as ekairnaa, wke had keen principal lawyer fa r CBS frea 1937-42. Ike TCC's lawyer, Charles Benny, followed porter as chairman. He went ea te keeene vise president of 1CA in 1961. Jett then keeane chairman, followed by Wayne Qey in 1947, director ef WXJIJ l, who would leave ia 1932 te keeene Tine-lifeMassachusetts extension program to be reduced in broadcast time to the noon hour. Commis­

sioner as bin sen concluded; Tiie men who were members of the Commission at th a t time now see the error. But licenses, which had been granted, cane under the expectancy ef renewal, and more sta tio n s were allowed under license than there properly were channels for.6'' 3 0 Wke* do bin sen serve* as commissioner in 1928 an*

1929 he found t~iat the e*ucationaI statio n s w e r e g i v i n g up their licenses without mush of a fight. He waa one of the few in*ivi*uals speaking up for special considerations. He criticize* the share* time rulings: 1 *o not speak fo r the Commission; I am in the minority. Time after tine I kaVe sal* 1 do not see why it is that the educational stations have tke lim ited assignments give* them. There is an answer to that. You have not ha* the means to build a station that will give you a high place in the arrangment under the present plan of allocation.62 Other federal kadio Commissioners certainly did not share hobinson's views. Henry Bellows said, 6 3 "Broadcasting is not for a class or group." He contended that his view that each program be for everyone was simply the expression of the law, which required broadcasting stations to serve the publis interest. Bellows disliked special stations:

2,%

Association in its convention proposed that 1 5 # of all frequencies allocated be te educational stations, in December, 1931 the organizations that had come together te form the national Committee on Education by kadie (MC*k) got the fees Bill introduced into Congress with

the 1 5 # frequency allocation provision as its feature. Although the bill failed, various educational groups and other critics ef eommercial control ef the airwaves had begun a unity of effo rt in ICEk. I t s president was Joy Morgan, editor of the hx.A Journal. In addition te the Vatlenal Education Association, HCEh Included the Motional Council ef State Superintendents, I at ional Association of state Universities, ^sssciatien ef Land Grant Colleges and U n iv ersities, Jesu it Education Association, American Council en Education, vatienal 3 2 Catholic Education Association, I at ion al University Extension Association, ami Association of College and University Broadcasters, which had organized in 1926 hut had taken no role in the hill te establish the FHC. Commissioner Harold Lafount becane concerned at * the challenge of these groups to the PHC's relationship with commercial broadcasters. He demanded that university stations broadcast at least twelve hours a day, the PJLC's definition sf fu31 time, stating: Even if the kadis Act did not so require, ordinary fairness and plain justice dictate that educators make full use of the facilities they already have assigned ts them before demanding more,*5 His concept became the position the JCC always brought up in subsequent hearings with educators whenever they sought allocations in new broadcasting developments. The challenge ts the broadcasting Industry's authority to sell whatever it wished was linked ts expectations sf groups te have assess ts the airwaves. David Sarasff promised th at sustaining time would bo available sn BBC to educative organizations if "classes sf stations" was eliminated from the Hadis bill. In 1930 William phlsy appeared before the senate Commerce Committee to inform i t that 753< o f CBS tin s went to publie service and ju st 10jf ts advertising.^ The national As so elation of Broadcasters (MAB), tho 33 commercial stations' trade association founded in 1924, kad no Mention af advertising in its Code of £tkica far stations in 1923. Vitk tka lack af emphasis an advertising ia broadcasters' paklia statements, tke FAC stmak a klon tkat incited ohallengcrs-te-advertising. in August, 1926 tke FAC toak away WCdW's license aad put faur otker stations on skarter-tern licenses* Of YCkW tke Commission wrote: "Xkia station i s one whiek ex ists skiefly far the purpose af deriving an Incone frea the sale af atvertising. Thus, a has!a far okallenging broadcasters was established. Adrian Kelly, who chaired tke national Food products protective Committee, was concerned that cigarette companies were advertising smoking as a cure for obesity. With tke PTA* Child Welfare Assaelation, and groups af doe tar a, they petitioned tke FAC to revoke tke licenses af any stations carrying commercials far Lucky Strike cig arette s, which were cited as tke worst offender, far "a can sol enc el a so attack upon public kealtk. " Ike FhC turned down the petition, stating it

CO lacked autkarity. The groups then turned their efforts to lobbying Congress. Ike First madia Conference an Advertising In 1929 34 hid mot improve tke image of commercial broadcasting, tut made it clear tk&t advertising agencies already controller program content . 69 Tke ekal longing group a aougkt to limit commercials to station breaks to eliminate advertiser control. To scrub tke image of products, tke iiAB Code of 1929 spoiled out advertising practice otkics. Tke concept of Brand *X' was introduced to prevent attacks by advertisers against advertisers . 70 IBC keped to dispel tke view that commercials should only be allowed at station breaks. It commissioned a study by J. David leu ser in 1931. He found tkat 46$ of the public objected to commercials tkat interrupted a program's content. But 63^ of the public found network practices loss objectionable tkan local stations. So tke war of statistics between networks and challengers began in 1931.71 35 I. kotec

i kerlin Ayleswerth, What BroaAeasting M ew te Business (Mew York, 1927), p. lb. o frank Blanc bar A, Bre aAcasting an A the national AAvertleer (Me* Yerk, 192&), p.“57

5m t . , p. 9.

B erlin Ayleswerth, The Llatener Mules BroaAcasting (Mew Yerk, 1929), p. 13.

V. Kalteabora, In I*atitute for EAu cation by KaAie, AAucation on the A ir. Yearbook i l l (Colunbus, Ohio, 1932;, p. 37 herearter referred te as Institute, Year­ book.

^3. A. fro s t, Jr, in In s titu te , Yearbook VIII (1937), pp. 41, 43-44.

**A.P. Shuriek, Ike Pirat Quarter-Century of American Bro aAcasting (Kansas City The., 194b), p.“T2.

®I, Keith Tyler, intervieweA by author, Peb. 21, 1977, hereafter referreA to as Tyler, interview.

^Levering Tyson, in in s titu te , Yearbook VII (193b), pp. 58-59.

10Arastreng perry, JLaAie In KAucation (Hew York, 1929), p. 37.

11IbiA., p. 44.

12IbiA. . p . 40.

^n.C. Mlggy t in Institute, Yearbook I (1930), p. 382.

1*Arm strong perry, AaAlo in KAn cation. p. 38.

15IbiA.. p. 45. 36

l6d i * e Keen, ia In s titu te , Yearbook VII (1936), p. 31. 17 'Armstrong perry, Madia in Education, p. 39.

18 In e titu te , Yearbook I (1930), p. 237.

1^Mabert ft Helen lynd, Middletown (Hew Yerk, 1929), p. 270.

20ln a titu te , Yearbook I (1930), p. 208.

2^Amatreng perry, Madia in Education, p. 61.

22Tyler, interview.

23Ib id .

^*Hewten Minow, Equal lin e (Mew York, 1964), p. 38.

2^l*bert s. UaMakon, federal Kcgulatlen of tke Madia ana television Broadcast industry in the"lTnited 31070 8 Speci'aT'Reference t r "tie~Eaiabir 8fcr5nr and Operation of Workable AdnlaTeTrative standards, Uipueiishe* phTE. d issertatio n (Columbus, Okie s 6hl* State University, 1959), p. 20.

2® Miner Snead, freedan of Soeeck by Madia and lelevlaian ( Washington ETcr, "T959TT p7"2S. ----

2^Iewton Uinaw, Equal Tine, p. 11.

28Iatianal Advisory Ceuneil on Madia In Education, Madia and Eduaatian, first Annual Conference (Chicago, 7937), vol. 1, p.“142, kereafter referred ta aa MACKS, Annual.

29 Ibid.

^°Jakn Coana, f editor,____ r freedan __ and Meaponsibllitjr111 intv l Braadcaating,Broadcasting! a conference report (Evanston, lil.T 7919*1 } ,P * W .

^1MaCkS, first Annual, vol. I, p. 141. 37 32 Xehert s. McMahon, federal jtcculation. ... umpub'd. dissertation (Columbus, Ohio, 1959), p. 20.

^Murray Motkbard, Herbert Hoover aad tke Crlai e of American Capitalism I with Gerald Bash. ‘gills Hawley at* Robert Himnelhe**), (Cambridge, Mass., 1973). p .49.

34Ib id . . p. 50.

35^^ead , freedom ef Speeeh ky kadio and Televleien. p. 1.

54M#Mahen, federal Jtegulatien.... p. 28.

""John37 Qoens, ed. , freedom aad k eep o n slb ility la Broadcast lac. p. 105^

^hl.S. c..«reesleaal keeerd. 68 th Concress. let aeseloa (M ay?4, iM T T p '. 25757*

^W. Brooke Graves, editor, headimcs la puklle Opinion (lew Yerk, 1928), p. 543.

4°Herbert Hoover, la proceedings ef tke ThirdBational Itadle Confer ease (Washington 1)7 C., 192T), pp. 2-3.

41Herbert Hoover, in freedan and kesponslbllity in Broadcmating. edited ky John Coens, p. 107.

42S.j£. frost. Jr.. Is imeriean kadi# Democratic? (Chicago, 1937), p. 27.

4^Levering Tyson, in institute, Yearbook VII (1934), p. 40.

*4 Anthony asitk, Tke shadow in the Gave (Urhana, 111., 1973). p. 187. 3 8 45 kugene Lyons, Our Unknown Ex-president (Garden City, M.Y., 1948), p. 1i9; falter Li ppm ana, "The permanent few D eal," Yale Revlew 3UCLV, am. 4 (June, 1935), p . 649) see Hoover sectimna: kiehard Hofstadter, The American Political Tradition and the Men Whe Made It (fen Yerk, m i r r and" wm i aSTiiTnPirTraiVr Contours oT inert can Mi story (devmland, 1961); Carl begler, "fETe ordeal or Herbert Hoover," Yale Review, n.s. vol. 52 (Stumer, 1963), p. 579) John Knox."T!he flreat Mlmtalce (Washington B.C., 1930), pTTO) Will Irwin, Herbert Hoover, A Reminiscent Biography (lew York, 19ZB), p .£311 Herbert Corey, !tke Erutn About Hoover (Boston, 1932), p. 32; Murray loTSbard. Herbert Hoover and the Crl si s of American Capitol ion, pi 51; Donald Lisio, the PreeTdent and protest I Columbia. Mo. , 1974), p. 2251

Herbert Hoover, in proceedings of the fomrth national Radio Conference tWashington D. tf.. 7^25), p7 Tt

^Conference Reconnendations, in ibid. , p. 10.

48 U.S. v. Isnith Radio Corp., 12 Red.(2d) 616,617 (1926).

4^Robert s. McMahon, federal Regulation. .., p. 71.

^Carl Priedrieh & Jeanette Sayre, Studies in the Control of Radio (Mew York, 1971), study 1, p. b.

31Levering Tyson, in Institute, Yearbook VII (1936), p. 62.

32John Goons, e d ., freedom and R esponsibility in Broaacasting. p. 116.

53Ibid., p. 117.

34Harry Sova, American Radio;1927 (Bloomington, Ind., 1971), p. 27.

33John Coons, ed., freedon ana Responeibility in Broadcasting. p. 1277 c£ Cl arena* Dill, kadis Law (Washington B.C., 1936), p. 127. •57 -"kebert S. McMahon, federal Kegulation. .. , p. 71.

^John Coons, ed. , freedom and ge epon. si dll 1 ty In Broadeastlng. p. 1227

CO Lawrence W. Lichty, £ Study o f the Care era and JualIf 1 cations of Members or the Federal fladle Conml aslon and Pe deral Conn uni cations Conn! e elon t 19^7 ^ o l961. Pnpufcllshed ffl. A. the si a (Columbus; Ohio state University, 1961), p. 269.

60I»stitute, Yearbook VIII (1937), p. 49.

^Institute, Yearbook I (1930), p. 10.

62lbid., p. 16.

F irst Annual, p. 55.

ft4lbld.. pp. 52-53.

^Institute, Yearbook XI (1931), p. 19.

^lewton Mi now, Boual Tine, p. 12.

^TfCC, Public Service Responsibility of Broadcast Licemsees like B1 ue So o k J, (Washiagton B.C., 1946), p. 41.-----

6®FRC, Third Annual deport (Washington B.C., 1929), pp. 32,“557“

^Llewellyn White, The American kadio (Hew York, 197 pp. 55-58. ?°C. i*rie dried & J. Sayre, Studies in the Control dadio, study one, p. 8 .

7 TIHid. t p. 14. I I . TEACHING GiiQUPS Committees of the 1930's

The shock of the FAC's pro-industry stance produeed a host of organizations between 1929 and 1931 te challenge the eommercial stations' output. In 1929 the Chicago Federation of Labor attempted te get a clear channel for WCFL to present labor's ideas, but the Fa C only gave it a shared-time frequency. Some groups urged other agencies of government to become involved in radio: The first network program of the Children's Bureau in the Department of Labor. ..was Called "Your Child" and was a series of talks giving the latest information on child welfare. 1 The program ran from May, 1929 to May, 1936. Secretary of Interior hay Lyman Wilbur on May 24» 1929 conducted the itadio Education Conference in his office in Washington to discuss the plight of educators in being eliminated from broadcasting.

John E lm w o o d , vice president of NBC, saw no need for concern. He said the Walter Damroseh concerts served 3 to 8-million pupils. FAC member Ira Aobinson, who had been a public school teacher, maintained the + 1 42 2 concerts were only suite* for college. It was decide* that Commissioner of Education Williaa Cooper should estab lish a governmental Advisory Committee on Education by haaio to meet on June 13 in Chicago with all interested parties. The Chicago conference was an attempt to reach a meeting of ainds between educators and networks. Educators were represented by Levering fyson, John L* Clifton, Ohio Superintendent of public Instruction, W.W. Charters of the Ohio State University Bureau ef Educational Mesearch, I r a Mobinson, and George Zelmer of the U niversity of V irginia. The oh airmen of NBC and CBS, Merlin jyfresworth and william paley,represented networks, paley offered five hours a week to the educators. The committee concluded on June 18 that, "It is the opinion of the Conference that no change in 3 the plans of any ef these broadcasters is sailed for." The eommittee recommended more research on the part of educators, w.W. Charters suggested the Carnegie Corp., the J.c. Penney Fund, and Congresswoman Prances Payne Bolton of the Payne Fund of Cleveland be contacted, Ben Barrow had joined the Payne Fund sta ff in 1927 and succeeded in directing its interest to funding The Ohio School of the Air broadcasts in 1929* Barrow became schoolmaster of the programs, which were produced at the Ohio State U niversity. The Payne Fund would move 43 te New Yerk City In June, 1929 with Armstrong Ferry as director. Ike Payne, Penney ana Carnegie Funds then set eut to underwrite the establishment of a radio section in the Office of Education ef the department of Interior. The raaie section's goal was te, "Let eehool people know what educational programs were available, watch radio experiments and...get the networks te cooperate in educational ventures. The Chicago committee received a year's funding. Penney provided $2000, Carnegie Corp. ef New Yerk $20,000, and H.k. Clyner, Chairman of the payne Fund, o ffered $2000 ef its resources for the committee's research. V. V. Charters, director of the Bureau of Educational Research at Ohio State University, chaired the executive and research committees. He emphasized vocational education presentations by broadcasting as the most Immediate way of measuring results. Sessions on November $ sought te involve classroom teachers in a cooperative project. Seventy-seven of the 627 broadcasting licenses were s t i l l held by educational in s titu tio n s at the end of 1929, 50jf more than would e x ist in 1933. Eighty-mine of the 335 stations licensed on June 30, 1926 had been educational. The committee recommended coordination to establish a "Radio University for National Education." The networks aad powerful eommercial stations were te 44 be involved te sen* programs around tke world. ® In December, 1929 John Russell of tke Carnegie Corp., L ere ring Tyson, and thirteen ether pee pie formed the Advisory Committee for Adult Education as a sub­ sidiary of the American Association for Adult Education, which had keen organized in 1926 under Rockefeller foundation auspices, a meeting with the Rockefeller and Carnegie funderm in January, 1930 resulted in the establishment ef the National Advisery Council on Radio in Education (NACnE). On April 30 John D. Aeekef ell or, Jr. and Russell offered funds for three y ears. 6 Levering Tyson believed he had accomplished the ultimate goal of the Chicago conference by establishing

NACrE as an example of industry and educator cooperation. He became director, Robert Millikan, the president of California Institute of Technology, became NACRE p resid en t, and Norman Davis o f New York City became Chairman of the Beard. When the organizational structure of NACRE was set up on ouly 30, 1930 i t had six ty members, including college presidents. Charters served as Director of Educational Research, but the foundations' representatives were in many key rolea. Koree Cartwright of the American Association for Adult Education sat on the executive committee. Other members ef NACRE 45 included Jnee Mo Hen aid, president of tke fbreign foilay Association, another Jtockefeller-established group, Frederick Keppel, president of tke Carnegie Corp. of hew York, and frank Sewell, president of 7 Bell Laboratories, wkieh was a funder of C.I.T. On August 8 , 1930 Tyson wrote to the Association of Land Grant Colleges and Universities. He eougkt its support, explaining tkat NACnL wished to cooperate with Q the connereial broadcasters for educational broadcasts. He kad stressed tkat tkene on June 30 at tke first Institute for Education by Hadie, which W.W. Charters established to bring everyone interested in educational broadcasts together at tke Ohio State University for an annual meeting. Tke Institute, funded by the Fayne Fund, had been initially desiened as a prelude to the National Education Association convention in Colunbus, to try to get that body to support radio education. Tke result of tke Institute and the NLA convention

was surprising. Tke teachers came out strongly in support of educational radio, reversing tke indifferent stand of the body in tke 1920's. Joy Liner Morgan, editor of tke NLA Journal. and others called upon Commissioner of Education Willian Cooper to convene a second Chicago conference on October 13, 1930. Tke growing dimensions of radio, and tke leadership taken 46 by government officials an4 professors, had given teachers a new perspective. Ike second Chicago conference was vastly different from the first one. The commercial broadcasters, having assumed the issue of educational programs was solved with the establishment of KACEE, did not send repre­ sentatives • The National Electric light Association, of which Merlin Aylesworth had been president, was under indictment, and AylesworthTs reputation was questioned in the press. A minister at the eenferenoe, Cross Alexander ef Los Angeles, who had organized facifie-Weetem Broadcasting federation, denounced

Aylesworth's involvement in Na CA£ and MELA, which he contended MACnE, "Consciously or unconsciously is aiding to perpetuate." Alexander tied in Ur. Millikan's past career as an engineer with Western Electric to KAChE; I have some letters here from Dr. Uilllkan which strongly suggest to me that the national Advisory Council on hadie in Education is a creature of the fin an cial in te re s ts . I t would act as a buffer, a go-between, a camouflage. 9 Commissioner Cooper, who fe lt MACKE*s leadership was discredited, indicated his displeasure with SACKE's cooperative approach, and offered to spearhead a bill that would require the fJLC to set aside of radio 47 frequencies for educational station s. The IKa and national Congress of tke pi'A backed tkat idea* and bemator dineon Fees of Ohio submitted S5589, tke Fees M il, on January 8 , 1931* Cooper pointed out tke need for the act, citing tke loss of 23 educational stations between January 1 and August 1, 1930* while others were 10 put on shared-time frequencies with oemnereial stations. participants at the conference decided to fon tkeir own organization* tke first media-ckallenge group sp ecifically designed to fig k t commercial broadcasting. On December 30, 1930 they established tke national Committee on Education by kadi© in Washington D.C. Joy liner Morgan, editor of tke KkA courn al* was Chairman, Armstrong perry* a writer on education by radio* provided $1000 of Payne Fund money and served as director of tke service bureau to help educational institutions get broadcasting licenses, Tracy Tyler* Columbia University professor, was hired to edit its weekly publication, Education By kadis, k.C. Higgy, director of WJUO, Ohio State University, and John L. d if ten were among tke founding members, as was Ckarles A, *o bin son of St. Louis University and the Jesuit kducatien Association. HCiil took a highly moral tone in its opposition to commercial broadcasting. Joy Klmer Morgan explained to educators: You will disceror tkat tke advertising agency is taking tke place of tke mother, tke father, the teacher, tke pastor, the priest, in determining tke attitudes of children,*1 Morgan sueeeeded in persuading nine major educational organizations to designate NCEh as their broadcasting lobbyist; Jesuit Education Association, I at ion al Catholic Education Association, National Education Association, National University Extension Association, National Council of Etate Superintendents, National Association of State University presidents, Association of land Grant Colleges and U niversities, American Council on Eduoation, and the Association of College and U niversity Broadcasting Stations, which had been established in 1926, and became the National Associa­ tion of Educational Broadcasters in 1934* The religious input for promoting the group's goals was strong. Xhe Never end M. J. Ahem, S. J , , who mould actively lobby for NCEd's education bills, told educators; If you purge the air of all the deleterious programs for children, you ^ s till aon't7 ds away with tke bad effects of sueh things on children's minds. I think we have always got to look to the education of the parent. 12 Ahem suggested tine-bloeks of programs for different age levels, a concept which was adopted by networks in 49 the 1970's in the family Hour programs. The year 1931 thus initiated both an attack on commercial ownership of radio frequencies, and the moral abuse of those frequencies in regard to children's programs. Hew sources for children's programs began to evolve in 1931. In April Grace Abbott, Chief of the 0 U.b. Children's bureau, began producing "Adventuring i«r Childhood". HCam began to develop the idea of regional radio councils. Initially these were to be liste n in g groups to monitor commercial programming. She most prominent one, established by Laura Haines and a group of YWCA women in Hareh, 1934, was the hooky Mountain dadio Council, a grant from the Denver Adult Education Council enabled i t to switch from merely listening to preparing and producing their own scripts, such as accounts of pioneers for children's time-periods on local stations, v 13 Legal changes began to go JfCEfct's way, too. On January 29, 1931 it defended AOAC, an educational station in Oregon which was operating under twelve hours daily on 550 frequency, KTi1!, a commercial Idaho station, wanted the JtaC to give it those unused hours to broadcast into Oregon on 550. The hours were saved for KOAC's use. U In May, 1931 Joy Elmer Morgan took fu rth er pleasure in an announcement by FitC 50 attorney Louie Caldwell, who was chain* an of the ABA'e

Standing comnittee on oommittees. He said the aBa was reviewing the Aadio Act for possible changes. Morgan made a timely statement, "There is not any reason why in 1935 or in 1933, if we wanted to, we shouldn't have 15 an utterly new deal." ^ supreme Court decisions of

April 27 and *ay 25, 1931 upheld the Kadio Act's clause that the airwaves are to be used in the public interest, which gave NGBii an additional weight in pressing for such decisions by the FKC.

The interests which had put together NACmfi were becoming increasingly concerned by the activities of

JSiOjid and legal developments. The first national

assembly of Ma Ca B was called for May 21, 1931 at the

Mew sehool for Social Kesearch. Ben Darrow and Walter

Damrosch were there, and Tyson, Wilbur and Charters.

Si&onie Gruenberg, who became a leading critic of

commercial broadcasting's approach to children's

programming, was still at this stage working with the

broadcasters. Judith Waller, vice president and general

manager of CBS*s Chicago station and a promoter of the

network's American School of the Air approach to

education played a role. But CBS's most prominent

advocate was its new vice president, the former J?HC

member Dr. Henry Bellows. Denouncing the legal

developments of 1931 end NCBM, he said, "1 do not 51 believe that a greater disaster could possibly befall the cause of education through radio than a legal decree of divorce between education and commercial broadcasting!^

The networks became concerned that some frequencies might be set aside for education.

There was a positive side to Na Cu E's first assembly.

Inspired by the opening address "hadio in Historical perspective" by Columbia University historian James T.

Shot well, H a Ciuj . sought out professional groups to prepare scripts for network presentation in those fields, bhotwell told the assembly:

It is not so incongruous as it may seem for a historian to oiscuss as recent a phenomenon as radio. History, properly conceived, is not confined to events of the distant past...,The ancient Greeks...were concerned with the analysis of events taking place around them.. . .Thucydides specifically says that the proper theme for history is the Athens of hie day. He is bewildered the perspectives of the past and thinks them muck less important.... The nineteenth century.. .began to regard the time perspective as the chief element in the definition of history. Today I regard the analysis of a movement as recent as radio...a proper subject for historical treatment. .*.It is the clue, I think, to the drift of civilization....in radio alone we have in our control forces for change, for the modification of society, of human life and thought, that far out­ distance the powers wielded by the .7 He hen zo 11 erne, the hapsburgs, the Homanoffs.

Shstwell's ideas heralded the position that many educators and historians took during the Great 52 impression. In 1934 the American Historical Association's

Commission on Social Studies issued this definition:

She program of social science instruction should provide for a realistic study of the life, institutions, and culture of contemporary America.. . . it cannot omit study of the ine_ficiencies, the corruptions, the tensions, the conflicts, the con traditions and the injustices of the age. 18

The Joint hadio Committee of the American Historical

Association began writing programs in 1934 for the time-perlods hACaii obtained from the networks for educational programming. The approach to broadcasting history was contained in an aHA report:

Historical-mindedness in the public is not a matter of gaming baokward; it is the intelligent habit of thinking about present affairs in the light of the past from which they developed.. . .far from making people conservative and irresponsive to change, might presumably make them less resistant.

The second assembly of NAChb in 1932 continued the same dichotomy of themes as the first. There was the attack on educational broadcasting stations by a member of the FtLV, and pleas for more public education through broadcasting made by intellectuals.

The fdC's Harold LaTount contended that "bro ad "-casting means programs must be for everyone, for "people of many classes and conditions in life, and, speaking in a strictly physical sense, a broadcasting station cannot discriminate so as to furnish signals to one listener and not to another." He said university- owned stations discriminated against theNpufelie% since people did not want to be educated, frequencies were thus kept out of public use. fie concluded with the curious statement that in Europe, no university holds a broadcasting license. (Of course, in Europe stations were owned by the government).

The trend toward greater government broadcasting activity was developing in Morth America in 1932, threatening private ownership of the airwaves. The

Bennett Committee, established by the Canadian parliament, voted with but one dissenter to adopt a report establishing Canadian Broadcasting Company control of programs. By April, 1934 the government company had acquired its first six stations from private hands. In January, 1934 the Ohio Emergency

Junior Badio College began broadcasting over WOSU and other Ohio educational stations with funds from the federal Emergency Belief Administration. Zn the first six months 1700 people enrolled fsr courses in finance, psychology, literature, science, history, french and

Spanish. 100 people attended findl examinations at the

end of the broadcasting quarter and 55 passed. The

University of Iowa received a grant to begin shorthand

and botany courses on its TV station W9AK in 1934**^ 54

With increased government funding, only three educationally-owned stations in 1934 were still selling commercial time as a source of support, WxiU?

(Florida), WJTL, and WHa Z .22

At hACdA's second assembly, l;cbert s. lynd had expressed what broadcasting's approach to consumer education should be. Instead of teaching people how to spend money, broadcasting should teach them hon not to spend it. He concluded, "We need to be taught to ask the federal government why the consumer is the 23 member nobody knows in Washington."

The public found a spokesman in Washington in

1932 in Senator (Jousens who introduced a resolution requiring the I kQ to report to Congress researched answers to the following questions: Should the government own the stations? How much advertising

should there be on the networks? Does advertising vary according to a station's wattage? How can advertising be United? What is the networks' income? 24 Would only indirect advertising be a possibility?

The commissioners felt that the simplest way

to obtain the information requested was to ask the

advertising agencies for the answers, fifty-one

agencies wrote responses to the FRQf each letter

emphasizing that it would not be a good idea to 55 elim inate advertising iron broadcast In t. Chairman Charles sal tan am in eluded the replies with his cover letter to Congress as evidence against government ownership of the airwaves.2^ The inauguration of franklin hoosevelt in Uarck, 1933 brought increased governmental organization of broadcasting, in the autumn, Secretary of Commerce Daniel hoper set up an interdepartmental committee to coordinate all broadcasting in which the government was engaged. The committee recommended th a t communi­ cations of non-broadcasting nature under tke ICC be placed with broadcasting under a new federal

Communications Commission, on February 6, 1934* K eosevelt 26 sent his message to Congress. The introduction of the Federal Communications Act provided a new opportunity for educators to redress the injustices suffered under the FHC. Group mem­ bers of lfC£d were ready with lobbying efforts. The Hational Catholic Sdueational Association and the Jesuit hducation Association, with Father John Harney of the foul 1st Fathers, who owned VLWL, Hew Terk approached Democratic Senator Hebert Vagner with a proposal. A dmilar amendment was suggested to Hepublican Senator Dr. Henry Hatfield of Vest Virginia by the American Fazm Bureau, the Hatienal Grange, and 4-H 56 a t BCSit's request. Ik e Wagner-Hat fi e l d Amendment e f April, 1934 would, kave required tke mew FCC te all#cate 27 25£ ei' raole frequencies fer educational stations. William Faley exp 1 aimed te Senater Cl arenae m i l *e eemmittee tk a t tke amendment was ummeeded, simce meet e f CBbfs precram time was nom-epen sored sustaining, and tkerefere aTallakle fer edueatlemal programming. Ike statement caused eemcezm te Semater Bill, whs felt tkat if tke new ’nonprofit* statiene allecated frequencies ceuld alee sell commercials, as ceuld all stations in 1934, the eenpetition would destroy eemnerclal sta tio n s whick were barely surviving, witk so much sustaining tine, fill asked if tke edncaters were to be granted frequencies, hew many other frequencies should be reserved just "to tke Catkelies.*•te tke Jews....Yes, and probably the infidels would want something, " Senator Logan ef kentueky added, "And te tke Hindu as.. * Yes, there is a national association of atheists, They 26 perhaps would want then part ef tke tine.» Ike national Association ef Broadcasters lobbied every 29 senator, and tke amendment was defeated, 42 te 23* Ike first week in May, 1934 MCEM sponsored a hational Conference on fke Use ef la d le as a Cultural Agency in a Democracy. Iraey Tyler and Arthur crane, president of tke University ef Wyoming and ACE were 57 major forces la tie Washington D.C. conference. OSU's y.L. Lualey and Mrs. M.S. Fulk, founders of tke Okie Kadi a Sduc&tien Association, ether state groups, engineers and child welfare experts were prdsent te urge tke government te at least estakllsk a perm an eat federal oeaaittee am radio education: "Whale sane needs and desires ef listeners should govern character" ef progress, and tke government aust preset e "whole earn a broadcasts fer youtk. " Tke iapressieaable, defenseless aiads ef children and yeutk aust be pretested against insidious, degenerative influences.*0 Since tke Dill Bill te replace the TRC with tke fCC said essentially tke saae things as tke Jtadie Act, whiek the radio inuustry had been quite satisfied with, tke senate re kad ne powerful interest groups te tell then what te da, and were thus perplexed when the hill case f e r a vote in June, 1934. Congressmen did n et understand, either. Danacrat Schuyler Bland ef Virginia complained; Tke Senate has undertaken te repeal the Radio Aet ef 1927....They do tke useless or futile thing, so far as radio is concerned, ef repealing tke law and tken reenacting tke ease law. lew tke question might arise, Vhat d ifferen ce dees i t make?»V»I mean ne reflection on tke distinguished gentlemen ef tke Interstate and JC reign Comaarca O eaaittee but they conceded themselves upon this floor one week age that they knew nothing about radio. 58 Aepubliean Louis Mefadden ef Pennsylvania could not understand why hecsevelt sent tke kill te the wrong ••uittee, requesting ite consideration: Ike I n te r s ta te and foreign Commerce Committee e f tke House had never had jurisdiction ever tke question ef radie. The Merchant Marine, madia, and fisheries Canalttee had, and kaa grown up witk the growth ef radie in tke United states. After tke Senate appreved tke hill 58 te 40, Congressman frederiek Lehlback ef Sew Jersey said: We have keen called rubber etanps... repealing tke existing radie law en the receauaenaatien of the Senate without a single Member ef the Heuee whe knows any thing about radie giving tke slightest consideration te it. Tke House passed tke b i l l . ^ One new prevision e f tke federal Cennuni eat ions Act required tke new commission te held hearings en the conflict between educators and eemnereial broadcasters and report te Congress by February 1, 1935. The hearings were held fxen October 1, 1934 te Oecenoer 1, and the rep o rt e f #CC Chairman Anning F ra il issued en January 22. "Leke" Ayleswertk gave the networks1 view at tke hearings, claiming educators did not accept the time offered, and what waa used was straight lecture. He tke ?CC report said, "presenting educational programs in an attractive manner" was something educators must learn. It continued: That at this tine ne fixed percentages ef radie broadcast facilities be alleeated by statute te particular types er kinds of non-profit radie programs er te persons identified with particular types or kinds of non-profit activities. 32

KAG jLE officials were pleased with the results ef the fee hearings. hAOnii expanded its contacts with professional org nizations to produce seventeen series played m-inly in 7:00-7:15 and 7:30-7:45 sustaining tinae-periods of networks. The A# of L provided

"America Labor and the Nation,*'. the a Ba wrote "The Lawyer and the public, " and other groups wrote "Coping with crime," "Vocational Guidance," and "psychology Today. " If that sounds like "very dull stuff," this was the conclusion of Thomas deed, Chairman of the American Political Science Association, who undertook a study

fe r Na Ca L in 1936. He felt that the attitude toward the public of the groups which were writing these programs was to "give 'em a college education whether they want it or not." deed's Committee on Civil Education of NACdk included Charles Beard and Charles Merria* of the AHA's Commission cn doclal Studies. Their report of MACnE*s relations and problems with networks, Ibur Years of lotwork Broadcasting, issued in 1936 caused a sensation. It was introduced at the I n s titu te fo r Education by Aadi* In Columbus, Obi*. BBC officials succeeded in suppressing it from being published in the Institute's Yearbook.^ OBU professor and younger brother of Tracy, I. Keith Tyler, said radie educators he was associated with were suspicious of NACitifi educators, "Unwittingly being patsies of the organization, but Levering Tyson did not suppress that article about four Years of hetwork Broadcasting. he was as disillusioned as anybody" by 1936. Tyler felt the BACdE educators' problem was "they just couldn't turn down all this good Disney" that networks provided for their projects ann services . ^

Tyson had ba Ckj ; publish four Years of hetwork Broadcasting. He then resigned, bringing an end to ttACiti. in 1937. The study re la te s the creatin g and first meeting of the Civil Kducation Committee of HACjtbi in the Carnegie Corp. offices, hevember 27, 1931* William Hurd of nBC insisted the programs must be ready by February 1, 1932. Charles Beard and George Counts met on Ueceraoer 12 to begin writing them. v In february a new 2IBC vise president informed Beard and Counts that the 8:00-8:30 time slot had been sold to a sponsor for an entertainment program, but 7:15-7*45 was available, though loeal stations osuld 61 drop network sustaining shows at that tine far sponsored local shawa. The program "You and Yaur Gave ram en t" focused an pram in eat apaakera and was hesigma* fe r 11-12 grace. Manual a were prepare*, an* a staff ef 19 was utilise*. But the only funis were $7500 from a wealthy we a an te uae far expenses, sa ne ene get pal*. Then NBC cut the shew te 15 minutes. The Joint Jtaaie Committee of the AHA deeiie* te try drama programming on taxes. Tyson wants* assurances it waul* not suffer the fate of "You an* Your Government". NBC Vise president Kichar* Patterson wrote him a letter: I assure you h e a rtily th a t even in the difficult times...the National Broadcasting Company w ill... eliminate the chance of a repetition of this recant incident. *7 The programs were prepared, an* in December, 1932 nBC sol* the 8:00-8:30 time slot to a sponsor, an* the ihe Crime Club went on the a ir instead. In 1933 an* 1934- NBC further downgrade* education. It eliminate* the vice president for education position, and sent Na ChM to deal with the vice president far programming. In April, 1934, 10)0*8 southeastern stations substitute* Gilette's Gene 1 Glenn far "You an* Yaur Government", so speakers ha* to ta lk 62 in a different tine elet fer tkat area. When KBC fet lecal atatlens te grant it 3i keurs of netwerk enter­ tainment programming after October, 1935, instead ef just 3 keure, lecal atatlens would no longer carry netwerk sustaining programs in the remaining h a l f-hour ef evening prine tine between 7 and 11. Se HaCHE's shews were being sent eut te enly a handful ef statiens which could net fine sponsors fer lecal programs in that eptienal half-hour remaining. As tke General Manager ef WCA^ explained; Our th ir ty minutes per night f a l l s 7:30 te 8 P.M., and it's net nearly sufficient tine te begin te take care of tke amount e f business whiek is praatieally thrust upon us. ..by ... advert!sere.58 By February ef 1936 even the He sky Mountain and pacific Coast statiens had dropped tke shew. With tke increase in commercials and the elimination of sustaining programs by tke mid-1930's, tke question arose as te what the new fCC would do. It noted in its first report, issued in early 1936; In tke past fiscal year there has been a notable increase in eemplaints te the Commission.. . .The broadcasting ef false, fraudulent, ana misleading advertising in various guises has been tke chief source ef complaint.” Ike commissioners proved they had inherited tke mantle *3 ef the /KC; they reeena ended that the federal Trade Commission he something about the prehlea. As a result ef the fCC's decision te let ether government agencies discipline broadcasters fer eeaaereial content, the federal Trade Commission was given the pewer te put itself in cemtreversial positions, especially hy the late 1970'e. In Uareh ef

1933, h euse In te rs ta te Commerce Committee Chairaan Clarence Lea and Senator Bur ten Wheeler agreed en the Lea hill te give the fTC civil and criminal authority ever misleading advertising in broadcasting; he the fcC neuld net have te punish anyone. Since ■ any complaints in the 1930's were against liquor advertising, the Distilled spirits Institute aeeiaed te take the in itia tiv e and ban liquor eeaaereials after January 1, 1937* There was ne need then fer Congress te consider the Alcohol Advertising bill ef 1938.40 MBC't 1939 Advertising Cede forbidding liquor eeaaereials was anticliaatis, as was the new JfAB Cede, patterned a fte r i t . 41 Congress did net take seriously a 1950 bill te ban cigarette eeaaereials. Chain-saeker Edward 1. Mur row told the Kadis -Televi si en Hews Directors Conference in Chicago en October 15, 1953 of h is M problems in presenting tke issue t I did twe kalf-heur programs dealing witk c ig a re tte smelting and lung cancer. Betk tke nedieal profession and tke tobacco industry ee^eperated in a ratker wary faskien. But in tke end of the day tkey were ketk reasonably content.*2 After tke Burgeon General's report en the linkage ef cancer and cigarettes in 1965* events developed quiekly. John Banzkaf, a Mew York lawyer, submitted a fairness Bsc trine complaint te tke /CC in 1969 asking that it require WOBS, Mew York te earry anti-enticing eeamereials e f b is Action en P e k in g and Health Committee te balance

ax tke cigarette commercials. Banzkaf appeared before tke Pastere committee in tke Senate in .December, 1969* Like tke liquor industry, tke cigarette industry decided te withdraw from the field, but sought a federal law te make sure everyone complied equally. Although tke MAB Cede of 1969 suggested a voluntary pkaae-cut ef commercials by September 1973* sponsors had decided te cease advertisem ent by tke autumn of 1970. Tke federal bill, wliek television supported, actually extended tke witkdrawal period for commercials te 1971. five months after tke advertising ceased, tke PCC ruled en uume 2, 1971 tkat cigarettes and health were a public issue, and tkat WCBS would have te earry tke etker viewpoint, that ef anti-smoking groups1 announcements. 65 When tke issue le between twe commercial groups, tke PCC sometimes aees act. Tke increasing dominance ef prime time by the networks since the mid-1930's culminated witk lecal statiens and syndicaters getting tke PCC te institute tke prime time access rule ef 1971* networks eeuld net send out pregrams between 7:00 and 8:00 P.M. Though tke PCC said it was a rule te benefit viewers, its design was only te faver ene set ef businessmen ever anether. ketworks laid eff thousands ef employees in the autumn ef 1971 as a result of tke loss ef income from these twe rulings.** MCE* kad a lenger life than NACKE. It eentinued actively working through committees ef the federal government until pearl Harbor. Commissioner ef Education u.w. Etudebaker en may 15, 1935 established tke 40-member federal kadis Education Committee and the maaio division in tke Office of Education. In connection witk tke fkEC an Educational JLadie Project Advistry Committee was set up witk Si deni e Gruenberg ef tke Child Study Association ef America, Edward k. Murrnw, Educational Talks Director, CHS, franklin Dunham, hBC vie e-president ef education, and William Boutwell. Hem Harrow's assistant Cline Koen ef GSU AS be tan research for the ttadio Division. ^ 66 Ik January 1936 tke a a die iM. vision began coordinating broadcast inf activities ef etker agencies. Witk tke WPA'a radie director an Adult £ducatlem program fer the Mew York City Beard ef Education was establiaked.

Wit kirn a year 4600 pee pie were registered far classes Ik shertkand, dietatioa and ether studiea. City-owned WWYC was utilised. At tke University ef Wisconsin's etatlen the Matienal Youth Administration established tke Maoie Study Groups project in 1936. MY A werkers in Okie were filling 35jt ef tke airtlne of the Okie Jte urgency India Junior College fer just $6700.

MY a and Aadie uivision establiaked the Appalachian health project.** Xke /JtkC began a script writing and distribution project, federal kadie Script Exchange, in 1937. Scripts included these of tke federal Theater project's kadie ihvision, directed by Leslie Heberts, "pioneers of Science" and 16 Shakespearian plays broadcast on Hew York City statio n s were i t s f i r s t p re je e ts in 1936. I t was also concerned about unenployed variety perfumers, ana produced a Musical program on i.BC called "professional Parade".*^ An increasing number ef ^roups became involved in tke 1930's in trying to get tke government involved in raaio programming. In 1937 in Seattle tke Washington federation of labor, CIO, and Hational Grange urged 67 Congress te broadcast its sessions* Senator Pittman introduced a resolution which failed.^® Ike American Council on Education in 1936 called for tke first National Conference on Educational Broadcasting, wkick hCEJi actively organised. I t initiated educators activities in securing educational PM frequencies. A second latienal Conference on Educational Broadcasting was keld on hevember 29, 1937. fifty CCC workers and workers witk WpA participated in tke secono conference in Ckicago. Tke hAB began to worry about private ownership of the airwaves witk so muck government activity. On May 1* 1936 Broadcasting magazine said groups lik e WPA and CCC should keep out of broadcasting.*^ In July, 1939 tke Office of Education and i t s Eadio u i vision were transferred to tke federal Security Ageney. fSA kad released a film called "The fight for L ife1*, which tke AhLA and ABA maintained was a pronotion fo r socialized medicine, kewspaper columns began associating it witk tke office of Education. Also in 1939, tke jtadio u iv isio n kad produced a program predicting an oil shortage if an energy bill did not pass. Tke attorney for tke petroleum Association of America denounced tke program as an attempt by the government to control the o il industry. Congressman hverett JJirkeen tailed all government rail* broadcasts Mtlap trap and tammy rat." WPA funds far uae 1m radie were cut aff. All funds were withdrawn fram the federal Theater Madia Divieien. CSS cancelled the Department af Interior's "What Prioe America?11 and refused the Office of Bducatiea's "United We Stand." ABC eut the time of "The Jt'arm and ^m a Hour, " and sh ifted "The Warlci is Yours" to a less farcrable time. The Audio Division ceased at the end of 1939, and puhlie broadcasting went silent.51 69

2. School Broadcasts

The remaining college stations in the 1930's liec.Be the principal source of sequenced education.

The Wisconsin school of the Air, and College of the

Air over WHa began in 1931* In 1929 the payne Fund was willing to sponsor network school broadcasts.

Although "hBC and CBS /agreed and7 approached the

American Association of school Administrators, the sohodl superintendents turned it down. They didn't think it was really that important."^2 OBb initiated The America*

School of the Air, two fifteen-minute broadcasts of weekly series each afternoon, in the fall of 1929.

WLW, an inde endent commercial. station, broadcast over aBC's Blue network The Nation's school of the Air from 1937-1939. The CBS broadcasts were carried by some station's into the late 1940's. But the model for the network and each of the college station's programming was The Ohio sohool of the Air.

Ben Harrow was instrumental in beginning The Ohio

Be ho el of the Air. He had attended the Ohio State

University. His work as a ikUA rural worker led him to bears' agricultural division and the development of his Chicago broadcasts* In 1928 he got payne Fund officials interested in a school of the air idea.

When the MBA rejected the proposal at its Minneapolis 70 meeting that year, .Oarrow turned te John L* Clifton, 515 id rector of the state Department of Education of Ohio.

Clifton got the Ohio legislature to aad $20,000 to the

Payne Puna's participating money for the Ohio State

University to uevelop programs to be broadcast

initially over WjuttJ, Columbus, ana WLW, Cincinnati.

The iirst broadcast was January 7, 1929, with harrow

as on-the-air schoolmaster.

harrow saw radio eaucatien as more-encompa sing

than classroom work, he felt politics to be a part of

a student's education. In January he broadcast the

inaugurations of Ohio Governor Myers Cooper and

rresiaent Herbert Hoover, Prom a Washington c.

stuaio he frequently broadcast politicians, prominent

writers read their poems and stories. Vachel Lindsay,

id win Markham, Louis Gu it era an and Carl Sandburg were

guest readers* Ohio Attorney General John Bricker

explained state government.

It was harrow's friendship and support for Bricker

in his bia to be governor in 1936 that brought h a rd

times to The Ohio School of the Air. harrow ana Bricker

were conservative Republicans, democratic Governor

Martin i>avey sought narrow's public support ana a

contribution to his reelection, which harrow refused.

After reelection, havey got the legislature to cut off 71 funds for the broadcasts in the spring of 1937. WLW

continued them on its own till funds were restored

when Havey left office two years later. Harrow had left to aevelop a program for WBEtf, Buffalo. The

broadcasts resumed over WOSU and continued until 1962,

with Margaret Tyler, wife of I. Keith Tyler, as

supervisor from 1945 on. Havey's antagonism to the

broadcasts stirred the Ohio Education Association and

the Ohio PTA into supporting the idea of radio educa­

tion. Their appeals to Havey to restore funds fell on

deaf ears.

Harrow and his associates with The Ohio School of

the Air continued their attempts to change governmental

ana eaucation bodies' attitudes toward radio education.

A conference at the Ohio State House on listening

Schools was provided on November 22 and 23, 1929 for

legislators. Hr. ndgar Hale, who became a leading

expert on media education's effects on youth through

his Payne Pund research and as editor of the Ohio

State University's Bureau of Educational Kesearch's

hews letter in t;ie 1930's, participated in this

conference. The following summer at the first QSU

nadie Institute, the state Advisory Committee on the

Ohio School of the Air was established for teachers,

to have them prepare annual evaluations of the

broadcasts, to determine future scheduling. 72

The fall schedule far 1929 included oeursea in ilature study, i'rench, Chemistry, Geography, Current kvents, history, physios, Health, Art, tke Wound 55 Builders, ana student performances of Shakespeare. The popularity of tke broadcasts with classroom teachers led the legislature to increase fun dine to $46,000 for the 1930-1931 school year. ^ But the Depressions toll on state funas resulted in a considerable cut in funding fo r the 1932-1933 year. The Depression cut inte the networks' school broadcast time.BBC reduced its kusie Appreciation hour to fifteen minutes for the 1933-1934 school year, and conducted no public school broadcasts from 1934-1937. judith Waller, BBC kdueation Director for the Central Division at WhAQ, Chicago had d iffic u lty explaining

Bd C's position at educational conferences. The polio

epidemic in the fall of 1937 enabled her to resume school broadcasting with the Chicago itaaio Council, ivhen the public schools delayed opening for several weeks. 57 Tke Ohio School of the Air inspired extensive

research in radio education. Barrow's survey ef English

teachers in the fall of 1931 determined a majority

preferred dramalogs for their classes, and wanted tke 58 broadcasts to include objective questions. ClUs keen received his ph. D. degree for making a RQ eellection of the surveys.-^ The Ohio State University'a English Department keg an a series ef thirty-minute radio dramas in oanuary, 1929. 60 Alioe Sells* of the OSU Department of Adult Education began writing twenty- minute radio dram ale go f* r WkAU in Iday, 1930. Althengh she centenaed that the heat responses to her programs on stealing ana lying came from children, she cited the approval of parents and teachers to the shows, in l e t t e r s re la tin g sueh comments as, "One l i t t l e boy, of Presbyterian upbringing, who listened to the third aramalog in this group, talked for a week about 'the children God punished'." Alioe Sells received her Easter's degree for a collection of her scripts and listeners' letters. 61 Darrow was not as concerned as many parents were with the need for moral lessens and the inereasing concern of groups by the mid-1930's with advertising and violence on networks' children's programs. Before leaving The Ohio School of the Air he stated h is positions "I have been trying to prevent a somewhat bitter campaign against advertising in children's 62 programs," Ho wanted to know what children wished to hear, in order to make educational programs more appealing. I k April, 1933 uarrew sent interview forms ts teachers in ten schools to enable than to learn the children's interests. Me found this Ohio survey compared to a hew Ycrk survey's results on children. The 664 chilaren liked to hear about a trip around the world, explorers, football and earthquakes. Interest in violence and reuraer was fairly lew among 6 and 7 year elds, hut reached a peak among 10 anu 11 year olds. Crime dues, a network show, was the favorite of 5th and 6th grade children, but ohilaren from the 1st through 4th grades preferred Little Orphan Annie, old Man Sunshine and the Singing Lady, with Crine Clues tenth among 1st graders, and rising to fourth by the 4th grade. 7th and 8th graoess preferred adult shows like Eddie Cantor, Lowell Thomas and hmes Vd * Andy, with Crime d u e s dropping to sixth. The interest in violence seemed to represent a learning phase, but critical groups to network program­ ming and other media would focus on such programs as a plague in the 1930's.6^ When The Ohio School of the Air resumed broadcasting in 1939 alter state funus were restored, it only had WQ3U as an outlet. It initiated the first children's newscast, newspaper of the air, in 1940 with Lon Lavls and Olive Haynes. The Ohio Hi storied Society produced "Once Upon eg a Tine in Ohio", programs were broadcast 1:30-2*00 uaily. 75 The national coverage which WLW had provided The Ohio School of the Air in the early 1950'a increased its influence. Although the broadcasts were made ever only one station in the early 1930's, *LW of Cincinnati, WLW had an unusual feature, when the JhC began reas si ce­ ments cf frequencies, WLW was given 700 he aicng with .Dartmouth Cell ego's statio n . On **©vember 11, 1928 i t received the frequency as one of the forty clear channels

authorized by the jt&C at 25,000 watte, to reach rural ar­ eas. That controversial decision, which cut down the possibility of numerous stations and severely limited competition by giving just forty stations exclusive national control of their frequencies was followed by another decision a year later approving the unauthorized increases in power to 50,000 watts of fourteen of those stations. WLW had increased its power to 50,000 watts on October 29, 1928, before the clea r channel decision. I t had become a blue network a f f i l i a t e sta tio n in July, 1927, and its new audience in 1928 enabled it to increase advertising rates to $600 an hour. The following year, Caldwell explained for the fjRC it* decision to allow the unauthorized increases in power by commercial stations, in a letter of *evember, 1929, stating that they, "mad fine service records from the beginning, and were felt to ueserve best possible power." 76 With tke uncertainty of a new 700*0 p o sitio n toward tke forty el ear channels, tke Clear Channels Group (CCG) formed In May, 1934* WLW secured Luke Patrick, tke fAC's attorney as its attorney. In May WLW tken got approval te increase its power te 500,000 watts, whiek brought i t s signal into almost every American oemmunity witk the same clarity as leeal stations. In 1935 it joined tke new Mutual network, CBb, ki>C, ana their clear channel affiliates came to look upon WLW as different from tken— a network in itself. Attacks on WLW feegn fro* all aides. Commissioner George Payne urged blocking tke applications of fifteen ether clear channel stations that sought 500,000 watts in 1936, to cenpete witk WLW's increasing advertising coups. On June 13, 1938 senator Burton wheeler intro­ duced Senate resolution 294 to forbid 500,000 watt assignments. The National Association of Broadcasters at its convention in wovember agreed witk Commissioner Craven to adopt a resolution against WLW's power.66 As Chief Engineer of tke 7CC, Craven had written the controversial report defending the 50,000 watt high power and the existenoe of tke other olear channel stations in a 1936 7CC study. h© had written there was, "Insufficient data to recommend radical change," hut also that 36jt of tfepepulation depended at night on clear channels for programming. Me 77 indica~i,ed witnesses at his hearings rejected the need £7 for any #CC requirement for educational programs. In spite of Craven's defense of the olear channels, hie statistics showed 143 cities with over 25,000 people had no radio station, 471 cities cf 10,000- 25,000 people had none, ana 15,616 cities under 10,000 haa no station. Craven said it was determined that eities under 10,000 soula not support a station. The domineering department utillziu for these conclusions aa Ca A Infematien Series hunher 5(July, 1936), the research of the director and Assistant Director of kngineering for CBS, the Directors of hadio Transmis­ sion for the Al&T, AGA's chief engineer, BBC's director of keeearch and Development, and the vice 68 president of stronberg-Carlson. BCkh quickly attacked the report. Its director, S. ho ward kvans, questioned the conpetency of the engineers. Dr. Arthur Crane of hCErf and the American Council on kducation (ACk) used the hearings to request kk frequencies for education. Commissioner of Education Studebalter ana ,ihA officials speaking for hiihB college stations were allowed to introduce £Q a similar request. Bo while the CCG was defending itself and attacking its big sister WLb, with its national coverage of The Ohio school of the Air, 78 eduaators Mad. become sufficiently ergamized te get new demands before tke PCC. Subsequent bearings made the pesitien of tke large affiliates of networks raort precarious. J.H. DeWitt, Jr., speaking for the CCG Justified tke existenee ef tke 50,000 watt greup by claiming that large cities' stations were net adversely affected by clear channel stations frem elsewhere because ef too much fading ef distant signals. 70 Yet a sympathie group to COG, the Committee of i'he national kcenomic ana social Planning Association had to use the same conclusions of fading to Justify tke elimination of rtLff's superpower: kxperienee with wLW indicated also that at certain phases of tke sunspot cycle when radio transmission con­ d itio n s degenerate, a power of 500 kw dees a Job that is no better than that uene by a 50 kw station when conditions are more favorable. * » The JUG and other opponents of WLW and its owner, inventor powel Or©siey, Jr., succeeded witk the congressional resolution to reauce its power to 50,000

watte in march, 1939. however, the new FCC Chairman th at year, James L. Ply, began his attack on tke networks' monopolies, resu ltin g in tke forced sale by U.S. supreme Court order in 1943 ef NBC's Blue Network, which would become aBC. i*ly attacked the CCG u n til i t created suifieient congressional pressure against him to force his resignation in 1944. 79

These attacks oa monopoly and the conservative reaction from the Congress fit the changing develop­ ment of the *ew Deal. Its second phase during the unemployment resurgence of the late 1930's created an anti-big business feeling among dew Dealers. They no longer saw a fascist, business-government coalition as the Depression's solution. Tale professor Thurman

Arnold became head of the Justice Department's Antitrust

Division and instituted a large number of suits against monopolies. Educational broadcasters reaped large rewara from this trend of the times.

The euucaters planned a two-prong attack. While hCAJL sought to take from the cemnereial broadcasters what they had, its as so oi ate ACE sought to get educational broadcasters what they lacked, 3. Howard

Evans prepared a paper for senator Wheeler's broadcast hearings in 1936. It proposed new legislation prohibiting newspaper ownership of stations, requiring the networks to obtain licenses as networks, ana establishing a patent pool to break raaio manufacturers' influence on the industry and government's decisions 72 toward it. AC* in December brought together the

American afso elation for Adult Education, the American kara Bureau, the Jewish Welfare Board, the National

Congress of the PSA, the national Catholic Education

Association, and the Women's National hadio Committee Tor tixe iirst National Conference on educational 73 Broadcasting. 81 3. i*M Education

EM broadcasting became technically feasible in

1936, ana. gave groups new hope for challenging the existing structure of broadcasting. In the spring

George Zook, director of the American Council on

Education, which was a member of itfC&t, proposed that a ilrst national Conference on Educational Broadcasting be helf in December in Washington B.C. The principle 7 A ;^oal v.oula be to press the ECU for EM frequencies.

Squabbling a^ong commercial stations enabled Dr.

. Office of education, to introduce a proposal for educational shortwave frequencies to the fuC . The Commission was holding hearings in ^une, 1936 because xegional and local stations were angry about the advertising power of 50,000 watt clear channel stations. They wanted an end to clear channels. More stations would come into being, and shortwave 75 frequencies might replace the clear channels' distances.

The ECO held hearings on the new fk technology in

A ugust. mu &ii asked the EGC to give all of the EM 76 channels that might oe created to the educators. But one educator, I. heith Tyler, realized the EGG would want more in the way of statistics to support such requests, ana at the first national Conference he 7 7 proposed evaluating school broadcasts in existence. an

Sometimes a group's interest in broadcasting matters was developed by another organization involved in broadcasting research. That was the case with public school superintendents, who in the late 1930's were not involved in broadcasting, even though high school hobby clubs in the 1920fs had been instrumental in radio's formation. In oraer to revive an interest by public schools in radio broadcasting, the Bureau of Educational research at the Ohio S ta te university devised the project called Evaluation of School Broadcasting, with W. w.

Charters chairing the Advisory Committee.

The director of the project was I. Keith Tyler, who haa come to the university in 1935. He felt that it was one thing for university people to be Interested in broadcasting, but how could that interest affect children if it was not promoted among public school people. Tyler had worked with curriculum design for the

Oakland fublic schools, and haa conducted a study there of the effects ef radio listening on school children.

His older brother Tracy was executive secretary of the national Committee on Education by haaio, 1931-1935.

Tracy then became researcher for the General Education

Bo are.

having secured a grant of $69*000 from the General

Education Board of the rockefeller foundation in 1937* 83 the Bureau undertook seventy studies across the nation.

Most of the studies were designed to help schools utilise radio in the classroom* Tyler felt the main result of the project was the development of a sense of unity among school superintendents, ana staff development, since "This became the nucleus of the groups which later developed our yi( educational stations, 78 like Betroit, Cleveland and St. ^cuie. rt

The research studies were published in pamphlets by the Bureau, initially free and eventually at small cost to the schools participating as funds began te run out. home were reprinted by the federal Hadio Education

Committee ana the National Association of Broadcasters.

The hAB reprinted study one by associate director of the project Borman Wo elf el to Indicate its commit­ ment to opposing fascism. Wo elf el had begun to stress the value of educational radio for teaching democratic principles as the war approached, since the project continued to the end of 1942, some of the stuuies were developed to show feueral officials the morale-building capacities of educational radio.

In study one U.S. Commissioner of Education John

W. Stuuebaker Indicated his own attitude toward

education by writing that, "The student who missed hearing Chamberlain or hitler because he was forced by an inflexible school program to conjugate German 8 4 verbs...was deprived of some real education."*^ Both Tyler and Weelfel became Increasingly concerned that radio must premote democratic "ideals which merit every sacrifice."80 woelfel stuaied tke development of "The Pree Company," a group of writers who organized te previae pro grume te promote the war effort nearly a year before Pearl Harbor. At consisted of Borman Corwin, Uare Connolly, William Saroyan, Sherwood Anderson, kaxwell Anaereon, Orson Welles, Stephen Vincent Benet, George M. Cohan and Archibald kacLeish. Broadcasts began on februazy 23, 1941. Wo elf el made no effort to distinguish the means of persuasion from those used in axis countries, but wrote, "It was fascist content that forged the German, Japanese, and ftaliaa mind—not the educational engineering techniques which were used to communicate that content."8^ Hr. lyler explained thirty-six years later that with the nation committee to defeat fascism it was necessary to create an understanding in the people. He felt that propaganda is a misused term in America, since education involves persuasion, even tke persuading of someone to make choices, and that when "the cause was worthy," there is a necessity for breadcasting te premete it.82 85

Most of the stuuies of Evaluation of School

Broadcasts were designed to help teachere and adminis­ trators unuerstand radio and better unuerstand children and youth ef the radio age. Seerley held reported on a study undertaken lor the Evaluation by nine kochester, ia.Y. high schools. The first phase was to use radio to try to improve students' speech, in the second phase, an attenpt was made to change students* out-of-class listening habits to ^et them to listen to the NBC

Symphony, Chicago dound Table ana The World Is Yours, ho ohonge ocourred as a result of teachers' efforts, though stuaents did begin to listen to news commentators more in 1940.

The Bureau's researchers wonted to discover the nature of musie tastes to see if new tastes could be developed. The favorite programs of hochester's 16-year olus were Luoky strike hit parade, Kay Kyser and Glenn filler, students listened regularly to 20 programs a week, with no difference in choice related to I.Q. or 84 sex of students.

G.u, Wiebe conducted a survey of 100 Zanesville,

Ohio mothers, he found that their favorite programs were Luoky strike Hit Parade, Kay Kyser and Glenn

M iller.^ But Wiebe discovered on interesting fecet of

those listening habits. Luo to a dispute over a new, 86 hit)i performance fee schedule of the American Society of

Composers, Authors ana Publishers (ASCAF), the networks stopped playing all the popular ASCAF songs during the early months of 194-1. But the &an«sville mothers still listened to the music programs because they liked the orchestras. Wiebe concluded that a particular type cf popular music is not welded tc public taste.

Freddie kartin found that to be true in searching for non-ASCAF songs to record in 194-1. He decided to do an upbeat version of Tchaikovsky's piano Concerto in

B flat minor, which became his best-selling theme song, 86 "lonighi We love."

- 80 the Bureau's researchers had uncovered a key to understanding and changing music tastts. As school superintendents who participated in the Evaluation woula begin to apply for the new experimental Pit licenses for their districts, this knowledge could have been put to use. But it was never utilized.

Howard howlana and Frederick Wyatt undertook the task of listening to all of the children's programs on radio for the Evaluation. During the week of harch 24,

1941 howland listened to fifty broadcasts of twenty programs—serials and evening shows. Thirty murders

ane fifteen attempted murders were committed on the broadcasts. The methods involved guns, hammers, occult 87 powaers, stabbiags, drewaings, strangllnge and a poison hand. la one episode of these 1941 programs drug peddlers were caught snuggling "reefera 11 ia from nexiee. a hen nowlaaa completed, all hi a research ia

1942* after the united states had entered the war, he cane te a conclusion about these programs that woula surprise the critics of televised violence ia the 1970's. Me wrote, "The tine is past whea we can afford the use of raaic programs as a means for the vicarious experience of sadism and aggression, for these emotions must be turned against our 87 immediate enemies. " Frederick Wyatt interpreted The lone hanger program as religious symbolism. Like the knights of the holy Grail, the Lonp hanger dedicated himself to destroying evil siaply because it was evil. Since the channels of law and oruer were ineffective in dealing with evil, the hone hanger took it upon himself to do what sheriffs could not do. Wyatt felt the purpose and popularity of children's adventure shows lay in their ability to give children 88 daydreams of power which they lacked in actuality.

Technical studies comprised the bulk of the

.evaluation. 1. kebert Miles undertook a study of the 86

MBC educational program Tke World Is Yours for the teaching of science in the classroom. One finding was that the programs seemed to be promotional devices for 89 the petroleum industry, the glass inuustry and others.

During 1940 ana 1941 Seerley held evaluated the twenty-six 15-minute programs of th e CBS American school of the Air, which ran for an hour and a h a lf each

afternoon. He found that most involved just a rattling off ef a series of facts. Americans At Work was a series which promoted industries and their products, ana would list strings of facts, such as 30,000 Americans were 90 at work in these jobs.

held and Daniel Day updated Cline Koon's 193d

stuay for the U.S. Office of Education that had found of 82,297 schools only 14 radio sets for every 100

schools. Since the networks used their school broadcasts

as a public relations gambit to justify their monopoly

of the airwaves, the koen study would see* to render

those broadcasts ineffective. Held and Day found that

54$ of Ohio's schools had radios and 11j6 had central

souna systems. But they found that only 6 ^ of Ohio's

schools used the Ohio School of the Air or the jtfBC 91 and CBS programs.

The CBS Teachers Manual for the American School of

the ilx lor the 1940-1941 sohool year broadcasts stated, ?An estimated 200,000 teachers now use tke programs weekly, in classes totalling 8,000,000 pupils." 0*

January 8, 1941 Variety reprinted as fact that state­ ment of the CBS public relations aepartment. The New fork Times, giving the impression that it was reporting

researched fact, and not wanting to be too copyish, printed on February 23, 1941, "Nearly 10,000,000 boys

and girls in approximately 200,000 clas8rooms,,use the 92 ijnerican School of the Air.

There was much disagreement about statements by

CBS. A 1941 study conducted of NBA principals showed,

"Not more than one-third of 1^ of secondary teachers of the country listened to the Prontiers of Democracy qx broadcasts during 1939-1940." J Charges were made at

various educational broadcasting conferences that

Dr. Jrank Stanton, then CBB hesearch Director, had

conuuoted a survey of American school of the Air

listening in 1938 and surpressed it, substituting

inflated figures. The intent was to indicate that CBS

was adequately filling the educators' needs, and that

the new PM channels need not be set aside for education*

It is unclear whether such a study ever existed

and the news media misled. Norman Ginsburg indicated

that "a thorough check in both our Corporate section

and also in our CBS News Division Special projects 94 area" failed to uncover such a study. That could be, 90 because OBb has been notoriously lax In record-keeping and has even lost most of its tapes and transcriptions of old programs. It could also be that such a study was a myth.

School superintendents and other educators did get reserved PM channels in 1938. Twenty-five were assigned to education. It took only a few PCC hearings to achieve, and "nobody really opposed it." president

Uevis of the Ohio state University spoke at the hearings for the universities, at one point asking of Ur. Tyler for the right iniormation, "Is that right, K eith?” An PUC commissioner asked, "Has Ur. Tyler been swcm in ? ” The PuC knew the strong motivations of broadcast educators, ana since Jell seemed to hold little promise, Ur. Tyler felt the networks figured, "This*!! take the educators off our back. "

The Cleveland Board of Education applied for its license. WBOh became the first SU educational frequency in 1938. The schools were equipped to receive programs, zenith’s sets were for PM reception of the frequencies the PGC aesignated. WBOK broadcast on 41*5* curing Kb rid War I I PCC engineers recommended changing PM frequencies to the current ones. That would mean more hearings, and would make existing sets obsolete. The 1945 tfCC hearings showed that the networks 91 haa neither been beneficent nor indifferent to the granting of reserved frequencies to education. In fa c t, existing Ak stations did not want anyone except themselves to get the new rid frequencies. hr. Prank at an ton, then CBS vice president and general manager, and Paul ^esten, executive vice president testified at the PCU hearings on PM broad­ casting. j j v . titanton had received his Ph.U. in psychology from the Ohio State University in 1935. His research provided a basis for the use of the auuimeter attached to rauio sets as a means of determining the ratings of programs. So his ideas on listening habits would have weight. I t was the idea of C.oS th at commercial AM stations should be allowed to broadcast the same network program simultaneously on PM. since there were no Pk sponsors ana in su ffic ie n t programming, it was contended that a M stations shoulu be allowed to buila up a network tuiaience on PU. "No sales argument for buying an PM set can compare with the argument that one hunared million dollars worth of a M radio programs qg go with it." CBS felt that the audience loved the existing programs so much that no new programs could induce the people to turn on an PM set. "separate programing... would penalize the public. "97 9 2 CBs was especially upset that the jPCC has listened to educational groups and reserved channels for them. But these new hearing proviued a chance to correct that error, since it would be very bad for commercial i'k broadcasters " if the Commission reserves

QQ 20 of Jj’k's 90 frequencies for these late-comers. " Of course, educators vere actually the first-comers, as in the case of a M, The reason inuicated for the networks' lack of interest in *k in 1938 was that a T&T's phone lines could not carry more than a limited number of cycles of sound until after World Mar 11. There was no consideration of AM-fM sets at the hearing. It was the CBS contention that because of b e tte r i ’ll sound quality, "We will have no Ak sets because there will be no need.,*.Ak transmitters will go off the air as quickly as ik set sales reach a high QQ enough leveJ of saturation," The National Education Association and the U.5. Office of Education countered the network arguments by noting that th<= promises of networks to provide time for education had never been kept. They asked for 15 reserved channels on the new band, state linkage of stations, and two TV channels. As proof of educators' interest, they pointed to the existing 92 03b was especially upset that the JPCC has listened to educational groups and reserved channels i'or them. 3ut these new hearing provided a chance to correct that error, since it would be very bad for commercial J!'h broadcasters " if the Commission reserves 20 of fid's 90 frequencies for these 1ate-comers." 98 Of course, educators v/ere actually the first-comers,

as in the case of a U. The reason inuicated for the networks' lack of interest in fid in 1938 was that

a T&T's phone lines could not carry more than a limited number of cycles of sound until after World War I I .

There was no consideration of a M-7M sets at the hearing. It was the U3b contention that because of

better i’M sound quality, "We will have no AM sets because there will be no need....AM transmitters will go off the air as quickly as EM set sales reach a high enough level' of saturation."*^ 99 The national Education Association and the XJ.b. Office of Education countered the network arguments by noting that the promises of networks to provide time for education had never been kept. They asked for 15 reserved channels on the new fM band, state

linkage of stations, and two TV channels, as proof of educators' interest, they pointed to the existing 93

Jj'ii stations operated by the school boards of Cleveland,

New York, San jv ran cisco and Chicago. The University of

Illinois at Urbana also had one, and on January 1, 19+5

the 500 watt Fit o f the University 0f Kentucky b e e a n .100

in kOC report of 19+5 indicated the Commission

haa wanted to correct past oversights. It had already

considered what the educators' arguments woula be, and

had decided to set aside 20 frequencies on the new i’k 101 band before the hearings began. But the networks'

position uid lead the i'uC to specify that the educators

would nave to support the stations. No commercials could

be sold. Later the i?cC would make it possible for more

local noncommercial stations on these channels by

allowing applications for small, 10-watt stations. 94 II. botes

^C. friedrich & «T. Sayre, Stuaies in the Control of Hadio. stuuy one, p. 9. 1 2 Armstrong perry, Aadlo in Education, p. 57.

3Ibid., p. 65.

*C. friedrich & J. Sayre, Studies in the Control of nadio, series 3» p. 69. 5 of th t Advieory Committee on Education by Kaalo (Washington u.cTJ 1330),pp. a, 30.

^HaCkE, first Annual, p. 4.

7 Ibl*. . p. 3. in stitu te, Yearbook XXI (19312), p. 15. q 7AaUaE, first Annual, pp. 110, 121.

^Institnte, Yearbook II (1931), pp. 4* 6 .

1Vhio School of the Air Courler (April, 1930), p. 29.

12I b i d . , p. 36.

13frank Hill. Tune in for Education (New York. 1942). a AC Ed publication, p.“S 2. ------

UIbla. . p. 31.

13HACAE, first Annual, p. 147.

^Institute, Yearbook II (1931)f p. 7.

1^EaCjla, first Annual, pp. 15-16, 18.

180ourier (1934), no. 1, p. 16. 95

1^dACn.d, Fourth Annual (1954), p. 202.

20 HACnH, second Annual (1952), p. 165.

21Institute, Yearbook V (1954), p. 156.

22Ibid., p. 297.

H AUiiB, Second Annual, p. 287.

24U. 8. Congressional record, Jan. 7, 1932, p. 1412. 2 5 •^Commercial dadio A d vert!sing, document 137 (June 9, 19^2). Letter^)f the chairman of th e Federal kadio Commission in response to senate resolution 129, 72d Congress, 1st session, 26 Levering Tyson & Judith daller, The Future of ftadlo and Jtiducational Broadcasting (Chicago, 1954), p. 6 .

27 The I, Keith Tyler Faculty papers, see Bulletin #16, File 40/62/Box 1 (Columbus, Ohio State U. Archives). pQ Harry skomia & Jack kitson, problems and Controversies in Televislon and Kadlo (palo A1 to, 1968), p" 175-

2^William Y, E lio tt, Televlsion 1 s Impact on American Culture (Fast Lansing, lypt), p. e 8.

^°Traey Tyler, editor, radio as a Cultural Agency, proceedings of a national ConTerence (Washington L. C., 1954), pp. 126-127.

31U, S_._ Congressional record, June 9, 1934, 73d Cong., 2d session, pp. 10988-10995.

^institute, Yearbook VI (1935), p. 226. 33 Tyler, interview.

54Ibid.

^Committee on Civie £dueatien of NACKL, Four Years of letwork Broadcasting (Hew York, 1937), p. 2. 96

36I M i , t p. 50.

37 Idid.t pp. 50-52.

?8Ibid., p. 54. 39 first Annual report of the federal Communication a Commission (Washington"^.C.. 195b ) , p. lb.

48/eaeral Council af the Churches of Christ In America, Broadcasting and the Bublio (hew York, 1938), p. 33* 41 Coae of the National Association of Broadcasters. July T1, 1*559, *p. 6 . "* 4.2 1». A, Aiurrow, in Harry skernia, Tel evi si on and Society (hew York, 1965), p. 229.

43Anthony Smith, The Shadow in the Cave (Urbana, 111., 1973), p. 305.

44Joseph Leeley, The ^eft-leaning Antenna (New Kochelle, N.Y., 1971), p. 1 EC

43C. friedrich * J. bay re, stuaies in the Control of Aadlo, series 3, p. 70.

4^John Ohliger, listening Groups (Boston, 1967), p. 27.

47See i,TKD Office of information, story of the federal Theater hadio hivision (Mew York, Jan. 20, v m y . ------

48C. friedrick & J. sayre, studies in the Control of kauio, series 3, p. 25.

4^Broadcasting. “ay 1, 1936 , p. 34.

38C. friedrioh & J. Sayre, Studies in the Control of Hadie, series 3, p. 75.

51Ibld. p. 28.

52 Tyler, interview. 97 57 ^Michael Taylor, Ben Barrow and The Ohio school of the Air, unpubli shed~ j>h. D. dissert(tion {Columtus: Ohio State University, 1974), p. 176.

54Ibid., p. 161.

^Cline hoon, editor, The vhio School of the Air Courier (1929), vol. I, no. 1, p. 1.

56 ' Armstrong perry, hadio In Education. p. 37. 57 J Horn an rfoelfel ft I. heith Tyler, jtadlo and the school (Yonkers-on-hudson, h.Y., 1945), p. 97, in the X. hoith Tyler Paculty papers, Pile 40/62/1 (Columbus, Ohie State U. Archives).

Lumley, editor, kadlo Bulletin #1(Columbus: OSU Bureau of Educational Research, Oct., 1951), p. 2.

59 CCLine o^con, Development and Appraisal of Classroom Instruction by kadie, unpubl 1 sncfl ph. D. TTssertatien (columbusT O'Sfr, l93T).

^°liary Jenkins. xtadio-Drama. unpublished k.A. thesis (Columbus; OSU, 1931'),"p."9.

fc1Alice Sells, Education by hadio. unpublished La. A. thesis (Columbus: OSU, 1930), pp. 73-74.

62 I*stitute, Yearbook VII (1936), p. 140.

^kadio Bulletin #6 , pp. 2-10.

64 0hio School of the Air Bulletin (1962-1963), p. 11*

® ^Lawrence W. Lichty, "The hat ion1 s Station11. A hi story of Kaflio station tyLW. unpublished ph. I), disser-cation (Columbus: OSU, 1964), vol. I, p. 165.

^Pederal C ouncil of C hurches of C h r i s t in A m erica, Broadcasting and the P u b l i c , p. 269. 98 67 kfegineering Department of the PCC, To the Broadcast Division of the PCC; Report on Social and Economic Data Pursuant to the Informal Hearing on Broadcasting, Docket 4063* July 1, 1937 (Washington B.C., 1938), pp. 11, 13, 23.

€8Ibld., pp. 67, 72. 69 Ibid. , p. 80.

7 °J'0C Docket ho. 5072-A, "Transcript of Testimony," ^Washington B.C., *>une 9, 1938), vol. 4, p. 435.

71 0ornelia B. Hose, Rational policy for Radio Broadcasting. Report of a Committee of The National Economic ana Social Planning Association (New York, 1940), p. 42.

72 NOEK, Education by Kadio (Dec., 1936), p. 48, hereafter referred to by -fcitle.

^ Education by Radio (Sept., 1936), p. 32.

74 Ibla. . p . 32.

^Institute, Yearbook IX (1938), p. 200.

7* Education by Radio (sept., 1936), p. 31.

77 Institute, Yearbook I a (1938), p. 97.

7B Tyler, Interview.

7^John W. studebaker, in How to Use Radio in the Claberoon (Washington B.C., 1^39), Foreword.

80I. Keith Tyler, National Morale and Radio (Columbus, Ohio, 1941), study eighteen, froreward.

8^leiman Wo elf el, Radio Over U.S.A. (Columbus, Ohio, 1942), study sixty-two, pT” 9 . a n Tyler, interview. 99

®^Seerley held, kadi* and the Teaohlng ef ingll sh (Columbus, Ohio, 194-1), study twenty-two, p. 22.

84 beerley held, rtaaio Preferences of Tenth-Grade nochester students (Columbus, Qhie , 1^41), study twenty-six, pp. 3, 7 -8.

®^&.D. Wiebe, haalo L istoning and popular Song Tastes (Columbus, QhicTJ T^4T), study tw enty-elght, p. 86 Preadie Hartin, interviewed by Tom Snyder, Tomorrow, July 4, 1978.

8 7 'Bowarci Howland, Crime and punl shment on the Air (Golumuus, Ohio, 1542), study fifty-four, p. 14.

8 8 tfrederick Wyatt, So-’-c Psychological Observations on "The Lone nanger1* naaio program (Columbus, Ohio, T54T7T slffoy twenty-seven, p. 5.

hobert Miles, Auditory Aids and the Teaching of science (Columbus, Ohio, T942), study fifty-seven, p. 1.

^°beerley held, "Americans At Work” (Columbus, Ohio, 1941), study thirty-six, p.^? 1,

^Seerley iteid it Can!el Day, desearch in the Classroom Use of Hadio (Columbus, Ohio, 194-2}, study fifty-five, pp. 7^5, ll.

^Seerley held, The &assroom Auulcnee of Hetwork school Broadcasts (Columbus,- Qnio , 1941T7 study thirty-four, p . T.

^ s e e r le y Heia, fro n tie rs of jjemocracy (Columbus, onio, 1942), study forty-eight, p. UT,

^Aiormfcn Ginsburg, CBS Director of Information services, to author, letter, bept. 9 , 1977.

^Tyler, interview. 100

96 P. otaaton & P. Aesten, testimonies, Ihe Transition from a A to ifc Broaacasting. POO hearings (iiew ¥oric, 19^5), p. 1?7

97Ib id . , p. 10.

" ibla. , pp. 13-14.

Aeith Tyler faculty papers, Journal of the Association lor Aduc .xion Sac rtaaio , voY." lV7 no. 2 (Oct., 1^44), p. 31; vol. XV, no. 5 («an., 1945), p. 61 (Ohio state University Archives, Columbus, Ohio), Pile 40/62/Box 1.

101Ibia., vol. IV, no. 7 (March, 1945), p. 92. 111. CnllDtudi *S IdOGjOtuiAilNG flNOCPS

Challengers of the 1930's

Teacher groups had lamented the lack of educational content in commerci.il broadcasting, but new groups in the 1930's cemplained about what the programs contained.

A primary focus of opposition to commercial broadcasting has cc:..e from groups concerned with children's program­ ming. These groups began to take an interest in broaac...sting in the early 1930's, as detective programs started to appear. Not surprisingly, wealthy parents were the initiators or the studies which began in the

Depression era. The PTA of Pox keaaow School in

Scarsdale, New York in 1933 naue the first study of programs directed at children. The Child Study Associa­ tion alBo sent out questionnaires in 1933* and Jtiussell

Williams aid a survey for the newly established

Society for the improvement of Children's programs in

Chicago, a s broadcasters turned their attention to cnildren as listeners, so did parents and psychologists.

Women were the most upset by the violence directed at children on programs. In New York, programs for children had increased from three in 1928 to fifty-two in 1934. Alma Drnst, founder of the Kaaio Committee for 101 the PTa Sear set ale study founa children having nightmares about the programs. Sidonie Gruenburg, founder of the Hational Council for Kadio in Education of the Child study Association, in May of 1935 got the progressive Education Association ana the American Library Association to join with her in protesting the types of programs directed at children. In 1934 she began to tie together in protests the relationship of children-snaring mail-in box top advertising to that particular type of program, the "Gun-barking melodramas that scare children."1 The Association of

University Women in 1933 passed resolutions condemning, "Unnatural cver-stimulation ana thrills" of such programs as "Skippy" and "Little orphan Annie". 2 Sponsors modified the shows. Magazines found the violence on children's radio programs to be a new source of controversy. An article in 1'he hatlon (April 5, 1933) supported the Scarsdale research. "Write to the sponsors of the program and tell them why you object," urged C. U. Littledale in

Parents Magazine (May 1933).^ JPorty-five years later new groups (ana some of the original ones) would contend they were initiating a "wholly new" tactic of approaching sponsors to get them to arop advertising from violent television programs. Each 105 year magazines maintain they have discovered a new phenomenon—-violent ^programs. And each year broadcasters will rLspond that they have heard the public and are

eliminating violence, on July 5, 1933 the National Association of Broadcasters announced in the New York limes "A New Deal for Youth". Dramas of children's classics woula be presented instead of violent detective sto rie s.

protests mounted throughout 1933* The Illinois

PTa met with Uuaith bailer, BBC director for the Central Division ana general Manager of WMAQ, Chicago to aiscuss objectionable programs, but no agreement was reached. The ilementary education Department of Columbia University got parents to issue a statement

denouncing violent programs.* in March, 1933 the Literary Digest published, "Mothers lighting the hadio Bogies." Arthur Mann was exploring the detrimental effect in Scribner's Magazine in his October, 1934 a r tic le , "C hildren's Crime programs." The themes of the titles of articles denouncing radio violence seemed to escalate along with the programs. "Terrorism on the hadio" was the title of a May, 1935 a r tic le by Thomas Henry in the MSA Journal. Mewsweek (November 8, 1939} carried an article called "Badio Gore. " Thomas Henry protested not only fictional 104 violence, but the sensational way raaio covered the

Lindbergh kidnapping. The coverage led to an American

Bar Association ban in 1937 of broadcasting trials.

The 1933-1934 period saw the rise in dramatic bank roDberies across the nation by oohn Billinger, pretty Boy Floyd, Baby Faoe *elson and Bonnie parker and Clyde Barrow. FBI agents, who killed Floyd, Nelson ana Dillinger in 1934, and the police, were eager to promote law enforcement activities over radio.

NBC-Blue network's "Waruen Lawes" of Sing Sing was the first crime show based on true stories in 1934. In

1935 CBS joined the trend with "(rang Busters". New

York Police Commissioner Lewis Valentine maue a speech on the opening program. The new Mutual network introuuced "famous Jury Trials" in 1936. scheduling of violent shows increased during the next ten yearB.

J. Bdgar hoover was active in promoting "The FBI in peaoe and war" on CBS In 1946, and the new ABC network then presented "This Is Your FBI".

In the fall of 1948, the last major radio season,

and the first television season, radio networks presented forty crime programs, some of which would become television staples, such as "Banger", and

"The FBI", hven "Policewoman" was a mid-forties radio

drama in that pre-liberated era. From the initial, 105 classic "Sherlock Holmes" program on NBtt-Ked Network's broadcast from WJZ on January 18, 1931* and the fall of 1931*8 "Bulldog Drummond", "The shadow", "Fu Manchu" and "Charlie Chan", which standard Oil of Nev; Jersey emu Chiang Kai-Shek were promoting to contrast a positive Chinese image with that of the evil Fu Manchu, blossomed a vast array of radio heroes end villains.

hadio created new, violent heroes and villains for children. She lone hanger arrived in 1934* Ur. Keen in

1937, She Green hornet in 1938* ^immy Valentine in

1940, "iek carter in 1944, along with Mutual's other

Saturday afternoon crime programs for children, Ur.

District Attorney and Sam Spade in 1946. There was an array of CBS programs called Crime Doctor, Crime

Photographer, etc. in 1946, The Fatman in 1947,

Philip Marlowe and Suspense on CBS in 1948, and the

Falcon and the Lone Wolf on Uutual—these last three 5 being transferred to television. Television was not the instigator of violent drama, nor did government agencies in the 1930's and 1940's see crime drama as harmful. It supposedly promoted the cause of law and oraer.

In 1933 Sidonie Gruenberg emphasized the positive aspects of the involvement of Children's programming

Groups. She felt that parents could show their concern by reviewing programs ana making suggestions for change 106 to broaacaaters, that would result in special standards being established for children:

The most hopeful development for the radio is suggested by what happened in the field of children's literature. This situation is the outcome of years of patient study on the part of groups of parents, in cooperation with various specialists. These groups had set themselves the task of examining all the books that wero offered by the publishers with an eye to serving children's needs. In this process, they began by recording their likes and dislikes, but ended by developing judgments that the publishers are glad to respect.*

Unlike the publishers, broadcasters were unwilling to work with parent eouncils on content, Radio programs were aevised and written by advertising agencies, and the networks were just beginning to acquire a total line of sponsored protrams by the mid-1930's, so were not willing to challenge agency standards.

The Ohio State University and the payne Pund of

Cleveland were central to the initial research on the effects of violence on children, A series of twelve studies of motion pictures and youth had begun in

1929 unaer payne Puna ana Motion picture Research

Council sponsorship, ana would continue through 1933, bringing in the new eoncems of the challenging groups to broadcasting.

Ur. Edgar Dale was the central figure in the motion picture research. He grew up in **orth Dakota, 107 received hie Ph.D. degree from the University of Chicago* and having made seme educational films* came to OSU in

1929 as assistant professor and an associate in the

Bureau of Baucational research. He and the Bureau's director, W.W. Charters, would be most instrumental in showing the influence ef medem media on youth.

As part of the series, Dale published, Hew te Annreciate

Motion Pictures in 1933, and charters wrote, Motion pictures and Youth. Dale began The Mews Letter for the r.js,.it. in 1933, which tracked the progress of media

ana educators, using a grant from Mrs. prances payne

Bolton.

During the period of the motion picture research,

Dale founa the crime content remained constant in films.

He wrote, "It would be best to avoid them entirely as 7 a form ef unsupervised entertainment for children.?

Other researchers for the series showed a group of

children three crime movies a week for twenty weeks,

with the conclusion that that amount per week, "Is

about as disturbing te sleep patterns as sitting up

till midnight or...drinking of two cups of coffee in Q the evening."

Some researchers in the series were Interested

in other values. W.S. Dysinger and Christian Kuekmlck

attached a galvanometer ana a pneumicardiograph te 108 elementary school children ana showed them the erotie film, "The ieast of Ishtar. " The emotional response of the children to the erotie scenes was sere, but It became quite high during scenes of danger.^ Another study en frequent theatre attendance by some children, determined that the "Movie children averaged lower deportment recoras, do on the average poorer work....

The movie group contained nearly twice as many retarded pupils and half as many accelerated pupils as the non-movie children." The 100 novie children attended five times a week, compared to 100 non-movie children, who generally went to two movies a month. Charters concluded, "There is a positive relationship between 10 truancy and delinquency and frequent movie attendance."

In view of the extent of the Dale-Charters' research, it would seem unnecessary that so much additional research on violence and children would be unaertaken in the next forty years, particularly the hunureds of similar stuuies on television violence. nut, as Dale recently explained, "the television inaustry would always raise the question of more 11 recent data." Dale does not aavocate "repression of crime movies," but rather "supervision of parents."

He continues to fedL the same way "about oertain crine

shows on television" and believes their adverse effect

"has been documented again and agin with the material 109 on violence." Still active fifty years a fte r he began

the initial studies on violence and children, Dale was L attempting to get "the ouse Committee on Communication

/to release/ a devastating report prepared on TV

violence w hich...the Committee was fittin g o n ," Dale

revealed that his introductory stuaies in the field were instituted not only because of Mrs. Bolton's

interest, but were "related to ideas of Jane Ad dame 12 who was interested in the film.»

As nationally prominent figures entered the

attack on media content, franklin hoosevelt informed

the NaB during its 1957 convention that he would accept

a new kadio Code by WaB instead of increased regulation,

critics were angry at hoosevelt for his failure to take

on the inuuetry. At the second National Conference on

Educational Broadcasting held in December, 1937,

liberal news commentator kaymond Gram Swing told the

audience:

hy criticism of the radio is that it doesn't present a balanced picture of a healthy civilization. Obviously that is either the result of broad­ casting, or it is the fault of the civilization itself.'*

Bwing askea the educators if they would want the

civilization they h^ard on radio to survive, president

noosevelt' s new chairman of the PcC in 1937, Prank

ka*inch, aid not. 110

The year 1938 brought a series of attacks on commercial broadcasting. McNinch required all commis­

sioners to participate in broadcasting decisions, instead of dividing tasks among different areas of communication. He held up hundreds of license renewals

and took away ten licenses from stations that had curried jiugene o'heill's play, “Beyond the Horizon”.

In response to 400 letters received by the FCC about

an au&jd and j^ve sketch on uHfl* s "The Charlie McCarthy

Show”, he had Mae Y/est, a participant in the sketch,

banned from radio in 1938. Her films had inspired

The legion of uecency's establi Bhr.ent in 1934, snd

strict enforcement of the Motion picture Code that year. 14

HBC President lavia samoff responded to attacks

on radio in a broadcast on April 28, 1938:

Our American system of broadcasting... is privately owned because private ownership is one of our natirnal doctrines. It is privately supported, through commercial sponsorship of a portion of its program hours, and at no cost to the listener, because ours is a free economic system, ho special laws had to be passed to bring these things about. ^5

On Hovembtr 12 Mchinch replied to the broadcast in his

own broadcast, pointing out how radio programs harm

children.

hew groups were ready for special laws to govern

broadcasting content in 1938. Administrators of the 111

Boy Scouts of America denounced the broadcasters. In

November the federal Council of Churches of Christ began what would become an extensive involvement with broadcast criticism with the publication of Broadcasting

ana the public. It offered to assist citizen's groups

to produce programs.

On November 13, the government initiated its study of monopoly in broadcasting, which resulted in partially

dismantling BBC. By December, even CBS vice president

henry Bellows supported adoption of a strict Wa B Code

at the convention, that contained the same provisions

as those which designated materials forbidden to be

sent through the mails. Violence continued unabated

on radio, as the issue of sex diverted attention from

it, and seemingly produced a cooperative attitude by

broadcasters. In effect they prohibited sex for the

sake of salvaging violence.

The broadcasters got an idea of the type of

programs for which they might lose their licenses at

a meeting in 1938 with commissioners Bugene Sykes ana

George payne, who listed orograms, including those

involving:

"Cliff-hanger kid shows" "Solicitation of funds" "loo many phonograph records" "Programs offending neligious or dacial Groups"'®

Hehinch denounced the use of the wora syphilis, 112 advertising contraceptives, ana any educational information relating to sex. *e told the NAB in 1938:

1 am neither a purist nor a prude, though I have had some questions asked me in ui eating that I vas bo th­ an a th en some I Not a t all! 1 am just an average American citizen.... I have a family, a wife and five children.... I believe a typical American family. Some programs are not welcomed. They subtly ana sometimes boldly suggest to young people things that I wonder if any of you think it proper to suggest to young minds in their plastic and formative stage. >7

On January 24, 1939 president Koosevelt wrote a letter to Senator Burton Wheeler, Chairman of the

Committee on Interstate Commerce, suggesting, "New legislation is also needed to lay down clear congressional policies on the substantive side.... 18 I very much hope that your committee" will ao it. What broadcasters had most lik e d about the Communications Act was its indefinite, flexible nature. Wheeler opposed hoosevelt's suggestion to cut the PCC to three members.

In September 1939 Noosevelt appointed James Ply, who proved to be the PCC's most active chairman for regulation of the industry. Ply pressed the monopoly investigation to the point of angering the networks into tryin 0 to get Congress to remove him. By June of

1940 New Hampshire republican senator Charles Tobey, who wanted to see the monopoly investigation widened, proposed a law forbiading anyone to "unduly influence 113 any public official," in order to counteract the 1Q networks' lobbying efforts of the Senate committee.

Sparked by th^. two National Conferences on

Educational broadcasting, the General .federation of

Women's dubs, the United Barents Association and the

National society of New jgigl&nd Women met in April

1939 in New fork with advertisers of children's programs. The groups demanded that children's programs be reviewed by them. Both sponsors and networks began

to seek ways of involving and of redirecting the women's groups ana the government into broadcast areas other than the commercial foundation of the industry.

The networks thought that by showing their dedication to other goals of women's groups, demands for reviewing network children's shows might be blunted. NBC-Blue

Network offered to broadcast the U.S. Office of

Education series, Gallery of American Women. CBs

accepted the awara of the Women' b National Nadio

Committee for the W?A series, Americans All-Immigrants

All. General kills in 1941 gave *4000 to the University of lowa for research in children's programs.

After jioosevelt transferred the .Federal rtadio

Education Committee to the .Federal security Agency

in 1939, the NAB offered to fund a study by FitifiC of

children's programs. Influential in the research were 114 m.k. Seville, Jr., itesearch Manager of NBC and sterling kisher of CBS, as well as educators who aid research, selecting Chicago, Newark, st. Louis ana Zanesville,

Ohio as representative samples, researchers found

Qaag Busters was the favorite program of youth of all ages ana both sexes in 1941. In Newark, 754 high school stuaents were asked what they learned the most irom of the various radio shows, and "30.5^ mentioned

Uang Busters." This inaustry-funded government study stated:

Apparently the^e programs give the children some satisfactions that are not being supplied by home or school.... Teachers would do well to listen to..."Dang Buster" to find out what their pupils appreciate and think about.20

Networks argued in 1940 that programs such as

Quiz hi as, ^r. I.Q., and Information, please were 21 the right way to approach education by radio.

In the face of the overall offensive begun by networks in 1939, educators and Chicago broadcasters attending the Third iuinual public school Nroaacasting Conference could only concluae th^t in order to produce better programs themselves they should listen to network shows, such as hnU-Blue Network's "Da Vinci" drama and its aiscussion of flying, which included such things as airplane-engine sound effects.22 115 Network pro crams contrasted considerably with the moral approach of the pro cram a produced by broadcasting's critics. The Utah Congress of parents and Teachers, in cooperation with the Utah State Department of Public

Instruction, wrote its own series of children's programs, which were broadcast by the University of Utah Extension

Division in 1939. Program titles and plots included:

"Bob Disobeys Oruers—He Ta*es the Car Without permission" (The problem: it is two weeks before he is of legal age for obtaining a license)

"Jimmy Gives the Basement a Lick and a promise" (The problem of how to get the aoolescent to asnume his share of the responsibility for hone tasks without constant nagging by adults)

"Lillian Doesn't Care How She Looks" (Lillian becomes careless and untidy because her parents do not know how to help her)*3

The national Congress of parents and Teachers was inspired to get the Blue network to broadcast a series it aevised called "Wings for the Martins". The Martins are PTa members, and titles and plots included;

"C h ild ren Are pershms" (What shall the Martins a# with Jimmy to get him interested in school so that he won't run away again) "Let's Give Them Books" (Books used during a measles' quarantine)

"Bo i*un At Mome" (What fun there is in a fa m ily c h o ru s ). 117 2 . World War I I and A f t e r

As war approached in 1941, networks sought the services of prominent inaividuals to promote America's involvement in the violence of war. Archibald liacLeish aiscutsed air raids and ether topics on "This Is War".

There were live broadcasts from the war Bones. The war's onset could not have the government denouncing violence on radie, so the critics of violent programs were stimiea. The PTA indicated its concern about the 25 broadcast of a bombing raid over Germany. ^ The networks had more accurate methods than listener d ia rie s to show public support of th e ir programming in

1941. Prank at an ton ana Paul Lazar sf eld installed 26 program analyzers for CBy. Stanton had initiated research in the use of audiometers attached to sets in his work for a Ph.D. degree at OoU in 1935. host listeners were eager to help him. He said, "I was refused in one per cent of the homes in Columbus and 27 two ana a half per cent in Dayton," Stanton found that people surveyed by weekly i^mory methods had underestimated their use of radio by two hours and thirty-five minutes—valuable time when it came to 26 networks establishing their advertising r^tes. CHS hired Stanton as research Director. By 1946 he had become network president, and later was president of 118

CBS, Inc. ana Vice Chairman of the Board.

Both CBS ana BBC felt the criticism of the JPCC when that Body issued its monopoly study iteport on

Chain Broadcasting on May 2, 1941. The study, instituted by McNinch, with Commissioners Thad Brown,

Paul Walker and Frederick Thompson on the research

committee, was highly critical of the two networks, and

their monopolistic contracts with stations. It praised

Mutual'e contracts with stations (Mutual had urged that

the stuuy be maae) and stated: "This commission should 29 exercise powers in the spirit of the Sherman Act."

It recommended giving stations the rifht to reject network programs and the right to receive advanced

information on broadcasts. Networks could continue

to own some stations, but could not establish

additional clear channel 50,000 watt stations and

NBC would have to sell its Ked or Blue Network. The

last ruling was accomplished by a provision in the

report stating the fee would not renew licenses of

stations that had contracts with an organization 30 owning more than one network.

In 1941 the NaB broke its tradition o f having

the j'cc chairman speak at its convention. Fly

responded by saying that radio's management, "reminds

me o f a aead mackerel in the moonlight which both 119 shines ana stinks." Broadcasters pressured Congress to try to force aoosevelt to remove F ly . The Attorney

General's Committee on Administrative procedure in

1940 had reported, "Attempts by Congressmen to utilize their official positions as an excuse for special pleading are maae with some degree of 31 frequency." The committee lawyer for the a©use members' attack on Ply was a young man eager to protect the interests of broadcasters against government encroachment, oohn J, Sirica.

Although Ply left the POO in 1944, broadcasters founa themselves under attack from a new challenging group, the uIQ, and its new division, the political

Action Committee, headed by Sidney Hillman. Labor organizing had generally been shunned or received hostile comments over stations. At WLW in Cincinnati, in *ay, 1935, Editorial Director Jack kies issued a memorandum to announcers, "No reference to strikes, to include stuuent strikes and school walk outs—is to 32 be made on any news broadcast on this station."

OlO-PAC's programs were refused by stations and networks. The CIO attempted to obtain the new JH

station licenses that were designated as educational frequencies. In 1943 the CIO challenged the license of WhaC, Columbus, Ohio for having refused CIO speakers 120 from purchasing time. Commissioner hay Wakefield wrote a decision for the /CG, stating that any ban on the sale of time in uiscussion of controversial issues was not in the public interest.^

stations had proven to be so biased in their editorials that in 1941 in the Mayflower Decision in v o lv in g Waab , Boston, fly led the jj'CC in banning editorials altogether, on June 1, 1949 th e fGC r e s t o r e d the right to editorialize, with the nrpvision of the fairness uoctrine a^ded, to provide time for opposing views. That was expanded further in a decision of

*mly 25f 1963, th-.t said a station must provide a transcript to anyone it criticizes and free time for a reply, The Supreme Court's Bed ^ion deaision of

1969 f o r c e d WGCB to give time to reply to an individual unuer personal attack by the station's editorials.

In 1946 th e fee issued a Blue Book of what it considered to be rules and suggestions of good practice.

Service in the interest of the community was to be a prerequisite for license renewal. This would be expanded upon, so that by February 17, 1961 for license renewal the j'CC required a statement on the amount of broadcast time spent on area needs and interest, community expression, service descriptions for m inorities in the area, controversial issues covered, educational programs carried, types of orograms and the nature of 121 34 prior review of programs by management before broadcast.

The i’cC's revival of free-swinging news ana

editorials on stations in 1949 produced such abuses

in the next few years as those of G.A. kichards,

President of iudrC-Los Angeles, «G aa -C1 eveland and

wort-netroit. rtichai’is would telephone his newsmen ana

oratr them to reaa from news stories only the parts

thct he liked. u.e requirea news stories to be read

about rtenry Wallace always to associate bailee with

Communists, iiichards died before the r’CO coula reach 35 a decision on complaints against him. Broadcasts

of the one-sided hearing against Alger hiss by the

house Un-American Activities Committee promoted the

reputation of a young congressman, .uichard hixon.

Congress proviued further imbalance in broaaca :ts

by agreeing to the rtAh's request to enact legislation

in 1959 excluding newscasts from the equal time

provisions of the fairness Doctrine.

She late 1950*s produced scandals in the television

inuustry ana the r c c , and saw the rise oi' the Civil

hights iiovement. These factors led Aennedy to appoint

dewton *^inow as i^C Chairman to nromote social

consciousness, which reactivated children's advocacy

groups. The year 1959 included a strong blow against

the images of the networks, The highest rated television

program of the period was Twenty-One, an .NBC quia procram. OB6 had The $64*000 Question and The $64*000

Challenge, a study done in 1955 had shown that 73% of

885 randomly selected women in Columbus, Ohio closely watched The $64,000 Question during that first season of the show. Nighty-four percent of women watching "36 could identify the sponsor, xtevlon. The show was controlled by Mccann-Nrikson Advertising Agency, agencies had carried their influence from radio into television, Xn 1959 contestants on Twenty-One and other programs told New York City prosecutors that the programs were rin ged ana the answers given in ad­ vance. When network executives proclaimed innocence ana ignorance, the tfcC urged the networks to take control of programs, kobert Montgomery revealed the perjured testimony whieh the executives made to the ycc

The rigging of the shows was widely known and discussed in every studio in town while they were on. It would have been an innocent broadcaster indeed who aid not know In thnpe days that quiz shows were crooked.*7

Montgomerys own production influence in broadcasting began to wane with his dissents from network policy.

The 1955 Columbus study of 885 women showed that

55% paid close attention to katinee Theatre on NBC, with 52% identifying the sponsors. This daily program often showed dramas of classics and other serious themes* When NBC decided to replace it with quiz 123 show*, host John Conte asked listeners to help keep it on the air on a non-sponsored basis, sending in contributions to pay for the network's time charges. Listeners sent in enough money to pay for the broadcasts for the next year, but WBC considered that that approach to sponsorship would institute a bad precedent. The program was cancelled, and John Conte was barred from television.

The Cclumbus study showed who controlled viewing in households. In the evenings, wives continued to dominate program selection, as they obviously did during the aay. The program selected in households was made on this basis: At 7 P.M.: Wife's choice, 37^* husband's, 17^; child's 20?t. At 8:30 P.M.: Wife's choioe, 45jt; husband's, 14^; chiltfe, 5£. At 9 P.M.:

Wife's ehoice, 49^; husband's, 10£; ehild's, Ki*. networks began to gear all programs primarily to women aged 18 to 49* since they controlled viewing and IQ spendable income.

In 1960 /red Silverman, after researching all of jkbC'e television programs of the 1950* s fo r h is Master's decree in Communications at Ohio state U niversity, concluded th a t ABC would not remain an also-ran network if they were to change their children-orianted cowboy programs to ones of a light eemedy situation type, but of a less-sophisticated 124 nature than CBS cone dies. By the late 1960's he had hecome thief programmer for CBS, aftA fifteen years after hie thesle, put hie ideas into effect as ABC's vice president for programming. The new schedule would put ABC far ahead of the other networks in ratings. In June, 1973, Silverman would beoome president of BBC. In order to counteract his achievement at a BC of attracting children and youth to light comedy in the 8 P.h. viewing period called the family hour—-he introduced tales of violence into the Family nour in February, 1979: Supertrain, a princess stalked by assassins; The Eagle Has Landed film, Churchill stalked by Nazis. CBS capitalized on

Producer Norman Lear's lawsuit, which brought a ruling in November 1976 that the family Hour concept violated the 1st Amendment, and introduced hard-core violence for children into the Family Hour: The White

Shadow, an attempted rape of a high school counselor

a stuuent; Spider-Man, college students used by

sinister businessman; White Lightning film, a convict who sought vengeance on killers and trapped boot­ leggers in the South. The pressure for high ratings forced networks to return to violence, as indisated by these programs from a ene-week period.

The rating system was under attack by the 125 government in 1960. Qren Harris' Subcommittee on

Legislative Oversight reported, "The rating services do not use quota sampling methods* Thus, preferences of minority groups could be wholly excluded. The Civil nights Movement, which developed in the 1950*8, was beginning to make its considerations felt by government.

The Heverend Hverett larker threw the weight of the

United Church of Christ to the assistance of the iteverenA Hobert anith and Aaron Henry in their challenge tc the license renewal of WLBT-TV, Jackson,

Mississippi in 1962, for the stAtionts exclusion of blacks. Although the kCC renewed the license, the

Supreme Court subsequently ordered the ?CC to consider community representation in stations as a factor in determining license renewals.^

The **ouse Subcommittee on Legislative oversight in 1959 investigated radio's practice of "payola", the acoeptance of bribes by disc jockeys from record companies seeking to get their records played. Major record companies were owned by the television networks.

Inadvertently, it was discovered that fOC Chairman John

Hoerfer haa accepted free trips from broadcaster George

Storer. Loerfer resigned in March, 1960. 7CC Commissioner hi shard Mack had died in an asylum in 1958 after his

trial for acoepting a bribe from lawyer Thurman

Whiteside to vote favorably for a Miami firm's license 126 request* Whiteside committee suicide. Political

Scientist Grant McConnell claimed the problem of influence resulted from the vagueness of authority in the Communications Aeti

The assertion of unlimited discretion in the disposal of public resources according to the personal tastes and power needs of the administrators* Here was a trackless wilderness in which men in office unlearned in reading the signs upon the land itself and ungifted with the sense of moral direction wandered before the pressures of all the winds that b l e w . *2

The numerous scandals of broadcasting in the late

1950*8 created a desire on the part of networks to establish a favorable public image. The success of quiz shows in the mid-1950's had led to the demise of documentaries. CBS had cancelled See It Now in

1958. Host Bdward K. Murrow resigned from CBS in

February, 1961 after 27 years there, doubting the network's sincerity of restoring quality journalism, ur. Prank Stanton announced the idea of CBS deports at the OSU hadio Institute in 1959. In May, 1961 the new documentary host for CBS, Howard K.. Smith, aid a program on CBS deports called nWho Speaks for

Birmingham", about the violent t actios of Sheriff

'Bull1 Connor in suppressing black rights. Smith used a quotation by Bdmund Burke that CBS executives claimed would offend white people in Birmingham. They ordered 127 the quotation removed over Suites protests, and fired Smith.*5

The campaign of John f. Kennedy in 1960 placed civil rights on the level of national dialogue. No raaio station since the 1949 restoration of editorial rights had chosen to use them to endorse a pr eel dental candidate. WkCA, New York endorsed Kennedy on October 27,

1960.** jiltheugh the televised debates between Kennedy and Nixon are often credited with influencing the vote, the first Gallup Poll after the nominations had

Kennedy equal to Nixon, just as the actual results were.

Kennedy actually le<6;- slightly in that poll, but George

Gallup threw out the sample of blacks for an error. 45 These Gallup findings were acquired before the debates.

Kennedy appointed lawyer Newton Minow as fCC chairman.

Minow attempted to restore an adversary role of the fCC te broadcasters by proclaiming at $he 1961 NAB conven­ tion that television was a "vast wasteland. " He

established the fCC office of Complaints and Compliance for public input about station practices and broadcasts.

William hay would head the office until 1978.

People interestea in children's Diagramming saw kinow's stance as a new opening for th^ir input. In Boston the foundation for Character Education was

established in 1962 to examine network programs for children. Sponsors who appeared before tht fCC at 128 hearings in 1961 went overboard in their willingness to correct past abuses. A spokesman for Procter & Gamble said the company reviews scripts in advance of programs it sponsors, arid has strict guidelines:

There will be no material that miaht give offense either directly, or by inference, to any organised minority group, lodge, or other organizations, institutions, residents of any state cr section of the country, or a commercial organization of any sort.. . .political organizations, fraternal organizations, college ana school groups, labor groups, industrial businesses ana professional organizations, religious orders, civil clubs, memorial and patriotic societies, phil an thro p hie ana reform societies, athletic organizations, women's groups, etc. which are in good standing. “

Congress was not enthusiastic about ib.now'e snpport for minority groups. John hell Williams of Mississippi, the opponent of *ev, amith in the race th at le d SJnith to ask the you to allow him as a black to buy time on

WLBI-TV, complained about fCC involvement. Williams was second in seniority on the communication committee, and his friend, Chairman., larris of Arkansas, denounced ttiinow for trying to make WLBI, Jackson sell Snitb time to speak. Me said the ?CC should not get involved 4 .7 in social issues. Me search on parents' contribution to their children's viewing habits was disappointing in 1963.

A study by reter Clarke found that 40jt of parents 129 sampled had watched, television programs because their teenage children had recommended them. As fo r te a c h e rs1 influence, a study founa that the better a child has been educated by the school in his verbal skills, the more susceptible the child is to television commercials' slogans as with studies on the effects of television violence, these results will undoubtably be challenged. The efforts of broadcasting to involve children in the process of consumerism as a means to satisfaction would become the primary focus of many children's programming groups in their criticism of networks. The public Affairs Committee, with Sidonie Gruenberp, Telford Taylor, iirik Bamouw and Cscar handlin directing it in 1965 published a pamphlet for parents c a lled "Your Child and Money". i t warned of the bad effects on children of the "buy,buy,buy" syndrome of JQ television. Be concerned were the networks in keeping the sponsorship-image of television in the public mind, that when the Public Televison Act was suggested in 1967 to create and fund PBo, congressional lo b b y ists for the networks—-Alfred Beckman of ABC, ocoop Kussell ana P eter Aenney of dBC, and Theodore koop of CBS- tried to get the congressional bill defeated. They got an amendment introduced that woula have prohibited PBB from carrying any entertainment programs.^0 In 1967 ITll attempted to purchase ABC. A rash of new broaacasting critics joined the fight to prevent that from happening. The ACLU entered th* attack. In

January, 1968 the fcC forbid the merger. But many organisations saw the need to curtail unrestricted network power. The Afl-CIO published "how To Control

Air pollution'1. Thomas Aioving formed the -national

Citizens Committee for Broadcasting in 1968. It would attract former fuC Commissioner Nicholas John sen to be its chairman. Twenty people took control ef V/NDT-TV, wew York while the station was on the air in 1968, to demand that the station have more re soon si ve program­ ming for all groups in the community, a citizen's group in Boston challenged the license of WHDH-TV for unresponsive programming to all community groups.

The fCC gave the license to the challengers. That

decision led the hAb to get senators in introduce bill

3.2004 in 1969. The bill was intended to prohibit

anyone from filing a competing application for a license, only if a station license was already lost

could someone else then apply for it. The concern of the Congress for preventing competitors to existing

licenses was not simply a desire te help business

constituents. In 1965 a report showed that nine

senators and fourteen congressmen had direct or

family-relative ownership interest in broadcasting 131 stations, as had the president of the United States 51 that year.^

In January, 1968 Action for Children's Television

(ACT) was formed in response to violence in the society and on television. It would become a major thorn in the side of networks and of congresanen in their desire to protect the broadcasters from a CT's petitions to the j!\,C and PTC. Pour women organized ACT in *ewtom Center,

Massachusetts, Svelyn ->arson was a reporter for the

Manchester Guaralan. Peggy Ubarren had been an organizer of charity Book Pairs in Chicago. Joann

Spiro was an art designer. «Juaith Chalien worked in 52 Bo ston. In the fall of 1969 ACT members appeared before

Senator pastore's committee, which was monitoring the progress of the national Commission on the Causes and prevention of Violence's Btuay of media. Its report was issued in November. ACT fit the mood of the time, and began to attract prominent supporters, ^yman Goldin, executive secretary of the Carnegie Commission, advised on grants. Albert ^ramer of'-CC gave legal advice on how to challenge local broadcasters. George Heineman, a creator of idng-uong school in 1952 advised on children's shows. Scott Ward #arr of the National 132 Institute of **ental Health advised on the effects of

advertising on children. ^

Children's groups ana government revived the

spirit of the late 1930*s in the year 1970, with both launching attacks on commercial broadcasting. In April,

1970 a CT submitted a petition to the £CC asking it to,

"require stations to devote a minimum of 14 hours weekly 54 to childrenis programming. It asked that performers on children's programs be prohibited from mentioning

the products advertised. The ycC had just issued its prime Time access dule, which was to go into effect

September 1, 1971. Networks would be deprived of their

first half-hour of evening programming in the Top 50

markets. They would be limited to three hours, 8-11 P.fc.

(jlST). Local stations could use the extra time to

develop their own community service or children's

programs* Syndicated quia show producers, who urged

the ruling on the basis of antitrust concepts, would

eventually benefit most. Newsmen like fred j-riendly of

SBS, who hoped to see an hour of network news, opposed

the ruling, which woula end that possibility. The motion

picture inaustry anu nonald neagan opposed it, as did

Js'GO Chairman u ean Burch. Networks were required to divest

financial interests in independent programs by September

of 1970. That ruling reversed the 1960 demand of the fCC 133

that networks take over programs from advertising

agencies, hoiiywood would bucome the major producer 55 for television. '

a OI' s participation in the White iouse Conference on Chilaren, and a CT's calling of a National Symposium

for October, 1970 led to new challenges to commercial broaucasting. ACT began an analysis of local television programs fcr children, publishing its own books to

expose them. The program-type, which appeared on many

stations as an educations" ly-promoted program for very young children, was twmpor Boom. F. Barle Barcus

analyzed the program on Wi&iT, Bangor, Maine for ACT

during a week in March, 1971. It began with the pledge of Allegiance and a prayer. Counting toy play, the

commercial content of the program was 9 to 47jt. The

sponsor was a toy company. The program hostess, "Urges children at home to join in the play, which is some- 57 times not possible without having the toy." The

hostess woulu give the name of publishers of the

children's stories she read. Barcus contended, "It is

therefore difficult not to conclude, on the basis of

data of this study, that a major purpose of the program t o is to promote its toy products."

Sniper noon began to decline as a program around

the country due to this and other attacks. The FCC,

however, denied Bobert Scott's petition for equal time to

that used on Bomper Boom, KIVU, San Francisco for prayer. 134

He wished to speak to children about atheism. William

B, Hay's ruling was complex. Hay added that a station cannot bar atheism shows if it carries religious programs; however, equal time aid not apply, since an. "exclusion feature" allows the licensee to determine what subjects are controversial, and therefore entitled 5 a to equal time. The success of Sesame s tre e t on PBS also le d to the deoline of Homper Hoorn, although WMAA, Jackson, Mississippi's educational station, banned Sesame Street for showing integration of black and white children.^0

The in 1970 issued Guidelines of Toy Commer­ cials, to be aaded to the HAB Code. A 1972 insert to the Code stated:

jiffective January 1, 1973 the amount of non-program matter time as well as the number of program interruptions are to be cut back in weekend programs designed primarily for children. /Somaerclals7 reduced from 16 to 12 minutes .® ' program hosts were prohibited from endorsing products.

The revision in the Ha B Code was brought about by

an a CT netition to the i'CC in January, 1971. It asked

that all commercials be banned from children's programs.

JfCC economist Alan pearce recommended the PCO rule

against the petition, in his stuay issued in July, 1972*

stating that the networks would lose ^56-million in

income. The fee issued its decision on October 31* 1974. 135

It held that the advertising was vital to the networks.

a CX had begun to publish its own journal In late

1970, Articles had such titles asr "Violence on Children's

TV is Hazardous to Health." senator pastore held another set of hearings in may, 1972. It led Parade to seek a national consensus by publishing a questionnaire in its magazine.of the 25,000 replies filled out and sent in by parente, P. karle Barcus chose 1453 at random to analyse for jtOT. Nearly 94<6 were filled out by mothers; 6* by fathers. Two-thirds of the families replying had 2-6 year old children, who watched television three or more hours a aay. This was up considerably from a 1954 stuay, in which a Yale group found children's programs to contain the most violence on television.**^ In 1967 a high water mark in television violence was considered to have been reached, according to George Gerbner, dean of The Annenberg school of Communications at the University of Pennsylvania. Then ACT was organized.

In karch, 1977 he testified at new hearings before the House Subcommittee on Communications th 't network violence had reached a new peak. John Schneider of CHS contended that he counted a decrease. He and other presidents, Frederick pierce of a HC and Robert Howard o f hHC, were challenged by Representative Henry Waxman of California, "It's an in s u lt fo r you to come here and 136 65 tell us you're doing something. " ^ A year later the

12a held regional hearings on violence ana sex on television, ana its national executive william Young began approaching firms such as Sears, which agreed 66 not to sponsor programs that contained these elements.

Sponsors were the key to children's television, in

1954 regional clinics had been held for promotion directors to share information about their stations' chilaren's programs. Barbara Haddox, WBHS-TV, Columbus,

Ohio stated:

Our cowboy, the Wrangler Dick Lubel, has introauced various new Western film shows through his appearance at grocery and drug outlets.... Here a blending of behavior pattenss and love of the wild and woolly west is combined in a unique manner.*1'

In just a few years of operation, local stations across the country, just like looal schools, seemed to have acquired a striking similarity in format and content. fran k lin Sisson, WOOh-TV, Grand Rapids re la te d his

station's children's programming at the cl ini e:

We are fortunate in having In our town i&ck Tillstrom, brother of Burr Tillstrom, and a guy we feel is equally adept in manipulating hand puppets. We are not doing a Kukla, fran and Ollie with him, however. We teamed him up with our cowboy for a fifteen minute show twice a week, put the two of them on adjoining ranches ana called than "Westward ho He ".68 137

It was not until May 2, 1977 that the Ohio Hi.A became concerned with the effects of drug advertising on children. It haa a bill introduced in the legisla­ ture to ban over-the-counter drug commercials on television during children's viewing hours. The inspiration came fro m aCT, which in April had asked the 1IC to ban all commercials on chil aren»□ programs as taking unfair advantage of children, and causing dental health problems from the sugared cereals, hew ki'U Chairman kiohael pertschuk said it was "inherently gq unfair." Advert!aing agencies sued in U.S. District Court, and get pertschuk disqualified from participating in PTC regional hearings, which began in January, 1979, ana from voting on a final decision due to his stated bias. Congressmen in 1976 had threatened to eliminate the PIC's budget if it went ahead with the hearings, h o w e v e r, the Communications chairman in the House, hep. Lionel Van Deerlin, had begun to rewrite the

Communications Act, and held hearings in 1979 on numerous changes of his own, including a spectrum fee on commercial networks. The Carnegie Commission, which got PBS established

and funded in 1967, had a spectrum fee in mind, also.

In its second report, issued January 30, 1979, it 138 proposed that this fee be used as a new souree of funding of public television stations throughout the country, to be issued through a new establishment, the public Telecommunications Trust, which would replace the Corporation for public Broadcasting—a congressionally-fundec body that has purchased British

Broadcasting Corporation programs for PBS, in disregard of Pub's desire to produce locally. Van Deerlin is,

"Not entirely sold that another layer /of structure/ is going to meet the problems." Hearings on this proposal for major change in broadcasting, that would also greatly increase funding of PBs children's 70 programming, will begin in 1979.

In 1978 Action for Children's Television became a household phrase, on March 18, "ACT members in more than 100 cities will..../Pegin/ distribution of red and white !TV reminder tags' to be hung directly from 71 the family set." They were given out in supermarkets and libraries, and they contained advice of how parents coula aid children's viewing habits, support for the plan came from John hyor, president of the National education Association, who urged the need for parents'

"supervision of their children's viewing."

Prom April 30 to kay 2 ACT held i t s 10th Anniver­

sary Symposium fo r i t s 11,000 members at the Kennedy 139

Center in Washington jj. C. It used the meeting to extend its concern upwara in age level, with the theme "TV nole Models and Young Adolescents". Sears, Jtoebuck ana the Mary heynolds Babcock foundation funded the symposium, which attracted speakers David Halberstam and fCC Chairman Charles Ferris, Marie Thomas and

Ossie ijaviat and panelists Nicholas Johnson, at an

Freoerg, HLlen Goodman, and executives of ABC, 72 20th Century Fox, Warner's and IBM.

The week following the symposium, the FCC began accepting comments on an ACT petition before it to eliminate commercials on children's programs. ACT received support from new groups seeking to extend the petition's implications beyond what a CT had envisionea. The Washington Association for Television and children (WATCH) asked the FCC to write a new definition of chilaren's programs that will "reflect the reality of chilaren's TV watching." The idea th a t Wa TCH was approaching was defined in a petition to the FCC in February by another nev, group, the

Council on Children's Media ana Merchandising (CCMM).

CCAM asked the FcC to change its definition of children's programming "from shows produced for children to shows 74 viewed by significant numbers of children. " A ru lin g by the FTC o r FCC against commercials on 140 children's television would then eliminate virtually all coinnerciale on television.

OOiuk was founded and funded by real estate investor

Aebert Choate, until he received a Ford Icund&tlon grant for it. was distressed on hearing of advertising agency research centers that used children to test reaction to toys before they were marketed. Choate came to feel that the centers and commercials made

"children into secret agents of big business in the 75 home. •• I felt somebody had to do something about it. "

aichael pertschuk held many similar views to

Choate's, he was counsel lor the senate Commerce

Committee for thirteen years till his appalntment

as FSC Chairman on April 21, 1977. pertschuk contends,

There is no such thing as 'children's television'.

We know that the national XV audience is made up of millions of children at virtually any hour. So our 76 concern is. ..at advertising that children watch."

On February 7, 1977 the FTC had ordered Bid son

pharmaceuticals to atop advertising 1 spider-man'

vitamins, since the cartoon character was a come-on

to children. The FTC said, "Advertising of multittle

vitamin supplements to children is in itself an 77 unfair practice."'1 pertschuk was desirous, when

he became chairman, to use the ACT petition on television 141 to extend this ruling to all advertising directed at children*

At the FTC's asn Francisco hearing on ACT's petition to ban all commercials directed at pre-school children and all sugar-related commercials at pre-teen children, uemry snyder of the Consumers

Union spoke in support on January 15. 1979* He pointed out that children under seven have no consumer knowledge. Wart ell a, ward and wackman's study supported th a t position. ihey questioned 600 kindergarten through sixth grade students;

When asked, "l)o commercials always tell the truth?" 50 per cent of the kindergarteners said they do. sixth graders /were7 skeptical. But among the third graders only 12 pa?cent thought ads were always truthful.... What the parents tell kindergarten-age children aoout a product seen of TV nas the most influence. ("1 drink milk because my mommy says it will make me strong. »)7o The researchers received a national science Foundation grant to continue their work, for developing methods of teaching young children how to understand television commercial s.

in what proved to be the most efft ve attack on commercial television to try to change the content

affecting children, the National Citizens Committee for Broadcasting did two studies. In the summer of

1976 and the Spring of 1977 NGCB rated every series K 2 according to the number of violent incident a in shows. I t l i & d in or^er, the most v io len t shows, ana sponsors of shows with the highest violence rating, it maae available to the public the addresses of sponsors, and u r&ed people to w rite them to drop sponsorship of violent programs. The three most violent programs in the first report did not make the i'all schedule. Mve of the top 6 most violent, and 19 of the top 26 in the second rep o rt were canceled within a ytar of the second's publication. 79 nCOb's studies in sp ired community studies throughout the country, i^rs. Florence Melton of Columbus funded obU Department of sociology's study in the fall of 1976, in which students rated violent acts on programs. A national awareness of the detrimental effects of commercial television on SO children was in progress. 143 XII. Notes

* Harrison summers, itadio Censorship (New York, 1939), p. 37.

2Ibla. , p. 26.

•Azriel disenberg, chil aren and Aadio pro grams (New York, 193$), pi

^Charlene ^ext, "T hriller" jrama of American nadio Networks, unpublished m.A. thesis"TGo1 umbus, Ohio : Ohio S tate University, 1949), p. 35.

5Ibia., pp. 11, 15-16.

^Siaonie Gruenberg, Aaaio and children (New York, 1935), p. 20. 7 'Hdgar Dale, How to Appreciate lotion pictures (New York, 19537 , p. 125. Q Study by Samuel Aenshaw, Vernon k ille r , Dorothy Marquis, "Children's Sleep Motility," in w.W. Charters, Motion Pictures and Youth (New York, 1933), p. 34.

^In ibia. , p. 26.

1<^In ib id ., from studies, "The Social Conduct and A ttitudes of *»MDVie Fans," by Frank Shuttleworth and Mark May, and "Boys, Movies, and City s tre e ts ," by Paul CBtssey and Frederick Thrasher, pp. 13-14.

11Ddgar Dale to author, person le tte g , August 2, 1977, p. 2.

12Ibid-, pp. 1-2. Jane Addams, The S pirit of Youth and the City stre e ts (Now York, 192TJ1

1^In Education by Hadlo (Jan., 1938), p. 3.

1 ^Harrison Summers, nadio Censorship, p . 27.

1 Education by Aadio (June-July, 1938), p. 1. 144

^harrison summers, dadlo Censorship. p. 106.

17Ibid., pp. 97-98.

18 education by dadlo (Feb., 1939), p. 5.

1 ^ jiduc etlon Kadip ( 3rd quarter, 1940), p. 18.

20 H.iki. Beville, Jr. and Daniel Cuthbert, Classification of educational dadlo desearch (Washington D. (!., 1941), p. T.

21 Carroll Atkinson, dadlo Network Contributions to Education (Boston, 1942), p. 7.

22 bee George Dennings, editor, proceedings of the School Broadcast Conference (Chicago, 19*9).

23Gertruae Broaerick, editor, dadlo script Catalog, 5th edition (Washington D.C., 1946), p. 24.

24Ib la . , p. 25.

23Norman be elf el, in The Mews Letter (OSU), (Dec., 1942), p. 4.

26B.A. Shurick, The first auarter-Century of American Broadcasting (Kansas City, Mo., 1946), p. 798,

27/rank Stanton, in institute, yearbook xni (1937), d . 332.

2®frank at an ton, A Criti que of present Methods and a new plan for studying dadlo Li stoning BehavTor. unpuVll shed pK. D. alaserxation (Columbue, Ohio : 0 SU, 1935), p. 159.

2^fCC. deport on chain Broadcasting, Commission order No. 37,“EodketTTo. 50b0 (Washington D.C., May, 1941), p. 46.

30Ibid., pp. 39, 91, 98.

31Charles siepnann, dadlo»e Second chance (Boston, 1947), p. 235. ^ 145 32 ^ Marrison summers, Radio Gen— rship, p. 179*

^Charles Siepmann, Radio«s second Chance, pp. 109* 114.

^Harrison Summers, federal Law a. Regulation s. and ■Decisions (New York, 1965); see also Steve Knoll, "Fair o r Foul, » The Mew Republi c (August 31, 1974), PP* 16-18; and, Nat Wen to il, "The lie ad o f th e Camel," Village Voice (oct. 24. 1974), p. 31, for criticism of the Fairness -mo ctrine. Red Lion Broadcasting Co. v. FCC, 395 U.S. 367, 390 (1969).

^ Jo h n k ittr o s e , Kenneth Harwood, &»« £ Z£l£ (Philadelphia, 1970), p. SO. 36 Lon aid C. Smith, Tel evi si on program Selection, unpublished study for the Dept, or Speech, OSU (Columbus, 1963), p. 5. 37 ^Robert Montgomery, q pen Letter From ^ Tel evi slon Vi ewer (New York, 1968), pT 81*

Donald c. Smith, Television program selectlon. p. 7.

^Fred Silverman, j t o Analysis of ABC tel evi slon network programming from February 1953"To octcTBer 19597 unpubl i shea M. A. thesis (Columbus, Ohio: OSU, 1960); TV Guide (February 17, 1979).

*°U. S. Congress, Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce, .Evaluation o f S t atlstical Methods Used in Obtaining Bro adcasi Ratings (Washington i). C. T76T7, p. 31.

^Nicholas Johnson, how to Talk Back te Your Tel evi sion Set (Boston, 1970), pp. 555-557.

*2Grant McConnell, private powef ^ American Democraoy (New York, 1967), p. *45; see also p. 20.

*^Fred Friendly, Hue to Circumstances Beyond our Control (New York7 1957), p. 122.

^Bernard Hennessy, public opinion (Belmont, Calif., 1970), p. 328. 146

45I b ld ., p. 131.

4Sfewton Miaow, aqua! Time, p. 18.

47 Ibid., p. 21. ig See American Behavioral Solentiat. vol. 14, no. 3 (Jan, -F eb ., 1971), pp. 4zl7 52*.

4^public Affairs Committee, Your child and Money (hew York, 1965), p. 3. *50 Kofcert Montgomery, Open Letter Prom ^ Televieion Viewer, pp. 83-85.

51Ibid. . p. 100.

^ttvelyn b arson, Action for Children* s Televi eion (Mew York, 1971), p. 1.

^kobert Baker, Sandra Bal-l, Violence and the Meuia. Staff iiep#rt to the Rational Commieeron on the Causee and prevention of ViSlenee (Washington B.C., Nov., 1969); William Melody, Children's Tel evi eion (Mew haven, 1973).

^Broadcaeting, May 4, 1970, p. 32.

55Ibid., p. 34.

^See White house Conference on Children, "Child Development and the Mass Media," keport to the president (Washington B.C., 1970).

^7 F. M arie Barcus, Jk>cip er doom: An Anal y si a (Baaton, Sept., 1971), p. 9.

58Ibld. , p. 14.

^ Broadcasting, May 4, 1970, p. 29.

60 lbld., p. 10. 1+7

4 iMaB, Code: ChildrentToy c . Insert, 1972. 62 11 an pearce, The finTT- '1 &X Hetwork Ghildren * a I el evi slon (Washington B .C ., 1*972): gCC. children 7 s Tel evi slon report and Policy Statement. 7+- 1w + (Washington b. C. , Oct. 31* 197+77

63 #. Tiarle Barcus, Concerned parents Speak Out on Children’s Television (Kewto'nvill e. Mass., March7 WnTTvp? 1, 10.

^See "Two Year Study by Committee's project on Viewing Habits of Children," Kewsweek (April 26, 195+)*

Guide, March 19, 1977, p. A-3.

66 Jonahue. Sept. 26, 1978. 67 Broadcast Music Inc., Thirty-Two Tel evi slon Talks b* BMI TV Clinics (Mew York7l955), ppTTl^T2a;

68Ibld. . p. 1+3.

^Mel Brie dm an, "How bo You Spell Belief? Madison Avenue Spells It L-A-W-Y-B-B-S, " Juris Doctor (iiec., 1978-Jan., 1979), p. 28.

"^Lionel Van Deerlin, in IV Guide. Peb. 17, 1979, p. A-3.

^ Broadcasting. March 20, 1978, p. + 8.

^ Broadcasting. May 1, 1978, p. 5+.

^ Broadcasting, May 15* 1978, p. 51.

^ Broadcasting. April 2+, 1978, p. ++.

^TV Quids. October 8, 1977, p. 12.

*^"We will be embarking on a long fight with advertisers," TV Guide, Nov. 12, 1977, p. 11. 148 77 "•Spider-nan* vitamin ad dropped," The Ohio State Lantern, tfeb. 9, 1977, p. 2.

^0iTom Ellen Wartell, Scott Ward, Daniel Wackman, How Qhll dren Learn To Buy, quoted in E. Solomon, "Do misleading TV ads create young cynics?" OSU On Campus. April 7, 1977, p. 7.

^"Cooling Off the Tube," Mewoweek. Sept. 6 , 1976, p. 46 j BCCB, You are the one who can temper violence on T ele- vi sion (taskington li. C. , 1§77), p. 3. oft Elisabeth Solomon, "Study documents violence on TV," On Campus, *ay 5, 1977, p. 2. IV. MORALITY GxtuUli Violence

Many groups concerned with moral issues involving media had simple origins. The Lansing Committee for

Children's Television began in 1972 when urs. Amanda

Wallner of Lansing, Michigan wrote to a Letter-to-the-

iiiaitor column of the local newspaper, headers agreed with her complaint about the quality of after-school programs from children. Some critics met with her to form LOUT, which employed researchers at Michigan

State University to conduct a community survey, other

critics formed Citizens United for setter Broadcasting

to hold conferences with the local television management. The groups used the survey, which indicated

aissatisfaction, to ask the J?CC to deny license renewal.

WJIfc agreed to the groups' requests for community-pro-

duced and oriented programs.

Local and national citizens' groups have mainly

focused on the issue of violence on television. Ur.

George uerbner's "Violence profile" is a tool used

for the critic!an developed at the University of

Pennsylvania in 1967. It involves counting every

incident on a program that results in damage, even for

H9 150 comedy effect, such ae cartoon violence that leaves cartoon characters uninjured. The most evident effect of the survey was to stir networks to establish their own "Violence profiles". CDb began in 1973* CBS excludes

"Humorous Violence" and "Accidents" from its count. Dr.

Geroner questioned network studies, asking how "Acci­

dents" could occur accidentally in scripts that plan 2 them as acts of violence.

Further criticism of 03b developed in 1978, when it appeared that the network suppressed one of its own studies on violence. William 3elson of the London

bchool of economics was employed to do a six-year stuay of 15^5 teenage boys in London, when it was. about to be published as Tel evision Violence and the Adol escent Boy.

CBS tfice president Dr. David Blank dismissed the study

as "nothing of consequence. " It had been commissioned

by Dr. Joseph Klapper, CBS Director of Social he search

with a #290,000 grant. The boys were paid £2 each to

relate episodes they recalled from programs aired

during the 1960's. A BBC panel had rated sixty-eight

series by types of violence in episodes. The boys were

divided into groups of low and high violence watchers,

ana questioned about their behavior during six-months

of continued watching of these programs. Most

high-violence watchers performed violent acts during 151 that time. Twelve percent of the high-violence watchers committed ten acts of cruel violence or damage to property during the period. Family-size, father's education and home locations differed among those uoys. The boys were interested in crime and western violence, rather than cartoon or comedy slap­

stick, though they professed not to approve of violence, h el son conclude a that "the degree to which boys engage in violence of a serious kind" is promoted subconsciously ■3 by long-term viewing of realistic violence.

reaction to research on the effects of televised

violence on children differs by nation. Monica Sims,

director of children's programs for the bhG dismissed

the del son study, she said if researchers are to blame

teenage acts of violence on television, "they must also

give credit to television for inspiring children to

behave thoughtfully."* The French response to studies of violence w^s to make a dot apnear on the screen

before violent scenes as a warning to parents. In 1975 f FOC Chairman kichard Wiley announced his support of 5 the French system.

After many sessions with network executives in

the spring of 1975, Wiley got the new 40-year old

presiuent of Uob, Arthur Taylor, to devise a plan

called "The Family Viewing Hour," which all networks 152 accepted. No programs of violence or mature themes were to be shown during the initial hour of evening programming, beginning in the fall, 1975. Taylor was personally concerned, as he had young children. He had no previous broadcasting experience, and CBS had just lost its chief programmer, jj'red Silverman, to ao C,

Silverman used the iaea to develop shows with trendy themes for young adolescents, making aoc the dominant network, while lost ratings, revenue and prestige.

In October, 1976» a year after the introduction of The i'amily Viewing Hour, the Cos owner William paley fired

Arthur Taylor for the effect that plan had on the network. Taylor attempted to develop a network of his own the following October, but prominent broadcasting 7 personalities declined to be associated with him.

When federal judge Warren Ferguson in November,

1976 accepted normon Lear's contention that The panily

Viewing hour was unconstitutional restraint of speech,

the networks aid not further pursue a legal defense of it. Technically, Perguson ruled that Wiley had

coerced the networks, in violation of the Administrative proceedures Act that restrains federal agencies. The

facts belied Perguson's statement for his ruling.

National citisens Committee for broadcasting Chairman

Nicholas Johnson, a former tfCC member and long-time opponent of violence, filed a friend of the court 153 brief against The family Viewing Hour, because it had been aevisea in secret by networks and Wiley "to give the appearance that something was being done to get the heat off them" from citizens groups. Action for

Children's Television joined Bcc'B in the filing of a brief against the network's Family Viewing Hour, agreeing with Johnson's contention that it was devised "behind closed doors and the public, or anybody with an interest in the matter, hac. no opportunity to o * be heard." It appeared that challenging groups were more concerned with public input to media than the issues themselves.

If networks' plans, in consultation with FcC, for reducing violence on television were considered suspect by citizens groups, the question remained as to who

should determine programming. "We are the public,"

said Grace Baisinger, national director of the pTA,

in announcing that the pTA would devise the means for

determining program standards. In August, 1977, with

a new television season approaching that had no legal

support to sustain The Family Viewing Hour, Grace

oai singer aaaed the television set to the family unit,

proclaiming that "TV has become just another member Q of the family." A year-long series of regional

workshops was planned to accumulate public testimony 154 on violence, dtate PfA's were urgea to involve members in the project. At the inauguration of

Ohio PTa Iflssident lois Overbeck in October, Ohio

State University president Harold £harson told the members they coula improve their children»s college entrance examination scores "simply by trading 10 televisions for books." Ohio newspapers were inunaatea with letters supporting tharson and the PEA, after publication of the speech and related articles,^

In February, 1973 the pTa announced which programs its national membership found most offensive for violence. Three of the top six programs listed, presented women in professional, aggressive roles,

Charlie's Angels, police woman and The Bionic Woman, as aid the program rated third poorest in quality— maude. One basis for inclusion on the PTA's "poor

Quality" lis t was "stereotyping of women." To serve as a guide to networks ana parents, a list of shows that members found to make a "positive contribution to the quality of life in America" was published.

Five of those top eight programs contained women as housewives and mothers of large families: Little

House on the prairie (3 children), night is ihough

(8 children), The Fitzpatricks (4 children), The

Waltons ana Mulligan's Stew (7 children). Bonny &

Marie of the large Osmond Family was among the top 155 eight shows. The other two shows of the top 6 had lonely, aggressive male heroes, kafferty and Grizzly 1 2 Adame.

The American Medical Association in the summer of

1977 conducted a poll of its membership. Half of the doctors listed television violence as a cause of children being brought for treatment. .Doctors cited injuries from imitating actions seen, heightened aggression, "epileptic seizures ana nightmares."

.Doctors recommended that viewers complain to sponsors 1 and refuse to buy their products.

The .tifcjt auded its weight to the actions of other groups, which had initiated a dialog with sponsors to urge them to arop violent programs. Although major sponsors began to inform networks of decisions to withdraw from various programs, alternative choices aid not prove the influence of citizens groups. General kills chose to sponsor "21 Hours at Munich", in which

Israeli athletes are shot and blown up, because

General k ills' media director saia, "I think the theme is strongly anti viol ence . 1,1 * He rejected the alterna­

tive do cu dr am a "Mightmare in Haaham County", about muraer ana violence done to women prisoners on a

Southern prison farm, southerners found the latter program offensive, as opnosed to favorable critical 156 response to the former, leaving the suspicion that sales losses or gains, rather than antipathy to violence, still determined choices. The statements by doctors that television violence caused a rash of effects on children led to new attempts to develop legal concepts of televised violence, in

September, 1977 fciami attorney j&lis ioibin ra ise d the defense that his 14-year old client was intoxicated from having watched violent programs prior to murdering an elaerly neighbor. Judge Foul oaker insisted that expert witnesses either link."IV violence to a homioide or any other crime," or not aiscuss it. 15 None could, ana the jury convicted the boy of Dremeditated muraer.

in December, 1977 San Francisco attorney fcarvin

Lewis attempted to link the viewing of "Born innocent",

an aoC movie in 1974, by four girls whom he claimed

imitated the rape scene of a girl by other girls to

the actual bottle-rape of an 8-year old girl by the

four on a beach. The U.B. supreme Court allowed the

girl's mother to sue NBC, but the trial judge insisted

Lewis prove ABC had intended to inspire violence, which

he coula not* In Birmingham a 14-year old boy shot his younger brother dead the morning after watching "Dirty Harry" on television. In New York City a 4-year old boy, who was trying to fly a fte r seeing the movie "Superman", 157 leaped from hie 7th floor apartment window. After watching "Hoots" in February, 1977, Jesse Coulter drove from Detroit to a Cincinnati home fo r unwed mothers, where he had given up rig h ts to his eon in

1957. He held eight hostages with his shotgun through­ out the day, demanuing to see h is son. Since even quality programs of social intent such as "Hoots" were being linked to violent motivations, television producers became very anxious about censor­ ship. in late August, 1977 David wolper, producer of "Hoots", ana four producers of action series held a public conference to explain their aim of using the HAH to establish meetings between them anu groups lik e the pIC* ana a Ma . They claimed to be reaay to have continual open aialogs with citizen s groups. David Gerber, producer of Police woman, said, "We feel we have lost the violence battle. We feel the networks have thrown in the towel because of their own fears of PuU licensing authority, congressional investigations, pressure groups ana pressure from advertising." 16 At the meeting Prank price, president of television productions for Universal studios, offered to eaucate opposing groups on the history of what he consiaered their misguided concepts: 158

The dime novels of the 1890s were attacked because children were reading about Western outlaws, and so they would a ll turn into them. You go back to iduripiaes, who was driven out of Athens for corrupting the youth with h is pi a,, s. Somehow various well-meaning groups have a fear that the depiction of one thing -g or another is going to corrupt society. Wolper offered his theory by recalling that "in hoots I kept saying the slaves have to be hit with whips, because t h a t 's re a lly what happened. And the more violence there is. ..people will feel the horror of 20 what i t was." 159 2. Sex

The fall, 1977 television season showed a BC had eliminated its most-criticized violent programs—The bionic Woman, Ilc st wanted and The S treets of Aan Prancisco. Cos President hobert wussler said, "Because of the public pressure and because of the things various

social critics have been saying to us, we felt this was the time to cut back.'* 21 huC Television president riobert howard said, "We're saying, 'Enough of that (violence).... 22 We're going to try new avenues."

The new avenue seemed to be sex. a BG was the only network in September, 1977 to seize upon the idea, however, by introducing Soap, Operation petticoat, The love boat, fiedd Poxx, the first full season of Three's

Company and the second year of Charlie's Angels. With a UC ratings dominant as a result of the success of The

Pamily Viewing hour programs, Fred Silverman was able to utilize a theory he developed in his 1960 Master's

thesis at Ohio State University thatau C could not

experiment and risk what audience they had, until:

Both audiences and billings are on a par with the 'big two*. ^Then7 the researcher believes that new”programming concepts, forms, and personalities should be introduced to the schedule— more 'special' entertainment and public affairs programming, mare drama, more comedy, more variety.23

Silverman's new "forms" seemed to be Soap ana The Love 160

B o at.

The turning to sexual themes brought forth a wave of new media morality groups. Before soap was aired, the

Los Angeles Catholic archdiocese newspaper editorialized,

"Soap is a desecration of morality and of the Catholic 2i. religion. » After «BC made alterations in the scripts, the Catholic League for religious and Civil Rights said it was still unacceptable, several weeks before the

shew airea, the southern Baptist Convention passed a resolution urging that ABC eliminate the program. The

Convention's Christian Life Commission mailed 50,000 kits called "Help for Television Viewing" to its

pastors and lay leaders. The kits contained moral

questions viewers should ask of themselves after having 25 viewed any program.

Southern Baotists formed a coalition with other

groups to pressure seventeen stations to exclude Soap

before it had appeared. The U.S. Catholic Conference

g o t 47 stations to broadcast 3oap one hour later than

the network aired it. The nev. william Bore, communica­

tions director of the National Council of Churches,

urgea members to organize anti-soap action groups in

all cities. The Rev. Bverett Barker, director of the

United Church of C hrist's media actions, called Boap

"a deliberate effort to break down any resistance to 26 whatever the industry wants to put into prime tim e." 161

A 16-hour moral training course called "Television

Awareness Training" that contained film clips of tel evi sea sex and violence was prepared for church and civic groups by the American Lutheran Church, the church of the Brethren and the United Methodist church for fall,

1977 meetings, AL1 these actions came before viewers had seen Soap.

The hev. Bon aid wildmon, a United ^ethodist church minister in pouthhaven, M ississippi, was ready for the new sex programming in advance, he gave up his ministry in the summer, 1977» ana organized the National r’eaerationof Uecency. Through a newsletter he gathered

10,000 subscribers during the fall television season. his aim was to use his subscribers to pressure sponsors to arop sexy programs. He claimed, "Advertisers listen because they don't want to be hit where it hurts: in 27 the pocket book."

By th e fall of 1978 ur’L was picketing sears' head­ quarters ana 35 Sears stores around the nation. Sears aropped sponsorship of Three's Company and Charlie's

A ngels in September, 1978. A lthough sears denied Bi’JD was the cause of the withdrawal, the company had developed an Bpisode Caution List for all program s it sponsored, alley Brooks of sears said, "We withdrew our participation in 'Three's Company' primarily because the show deals with one basic joke—a continual sexual ptj innuendo." In November, 1978 wildmon held a rally at ajC headquarters to initiate a month-lcng boycott of the network for its showing of "excessive and 29 gratuitous sex." *

In November, 1977 Pred Silverman told the Hollywood itadio ana Television Society his view of the new morality groups protesting aBC' s new schedule:

Implicit in much of their criticism is the notion that television's primary role is to lif t the public to some higher level of aesthetic appreciation. We're certainly not going to apologize for what we're presenting to the American public. I believe television is providing quality across the board. Prom Sight is iifaough to The Love Boat, there's something for everyone.30

The networks were shocked in December, 1977 when the a . a . Nielsen rating company reported 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 less households were watching evening programming that fall than haa. viev.ed the previous season. Could it be the increasing criticism of the programs by morality groups, or the fact that less violence attracted less viewers?

Sexual themes did not produce a decline in ABC's ratings. When Newsweek printed its February 20, 1978 critical expose "sex and IV," with a cover photograph of suzanne aomers* mostly-bare breasts, the cover did for Three's Company what Time magazine's November 22,

1976 cover photograph of Charlie's Angels with parrah

Pawcett-kajors' bare nipple aid the previous season 163 for that show—made it the number one rated program.

■i'he other networks began to develop sex themes. NBC's chief programmer Paul Klein said, "if ABC is doing kiady pom, NdC will give the audience adult pom, " producer Martin tanulis was fired by the network from

"James at 15" because of low ratings. He claimed that in oraer to increase ratings "paul Klein of NBC dictated 32 some storylines, including James losing his virginity."

CBb developed for its fall, 1978 schedule three new programs primarily devoted to showing beautiful young women in very little clothing—Plying High, The

American Girls and Wiutp in Cincinnati.

The spring, 1978 brought a heartening legal victory to the morality groups in a radio issue. The issue involved indecent language. On the afternoon of

October 30, 1973 WBa I, New York, a noncommercial

station of the community-oriented pacifica Poundation, broadcast an album skit by George Carlin called "seven

.uirty Words You Won't Hear on hacio." Carlin used the

woras "shit," "fuck," "cocksucker," "motherfucker"

ana others. ^ a father complained to the PCG that his

young son was with him in his automobile when the

album was aired. The ifCC was unaware that the man haa

been an official of Morality in Media, an organization

established by Jesuit pather korton Hill» who was 164 focusing his attention on Whal and other liberal media.

On February 14, 1975 the kCC held WbAl in violation of the Communications Act by broadcasting "indecent" woras. A Court of Appeals overturned the ruling on the grounus that the Communications Act uenied the AIO the right of censorship, ana because FCC decisions had

always had the agency set itself outside the realm of ruling on television network programs, in 1977 i’a t h e r hill set up the national obscenity law Center to aid

U.S. Attorneys in prosecutions. The PCC appealed the

WhAl ruling to the supreme Court in 1977. In 1978

the court ruled that there are "indecent" words, which may not be broadcast uuring hours that children might h e a r them. 165 3. IV-Addiction

Although iihu led networks in programming of school sports, their popularity brought new chargee of mindlessness in media. The N.C.A.A. negotiated a #118-million contract with ABC for 1978 through 1981, providing at least 116 team appearances per season, as compared to 82 football appearances in the past. After the contract signing, attacks on the promotion of school sports began, ijr. rtalph Nelson of the Mayo

Clinic said team sports are both demoralizing to students who are excluded, ana they deemphasize good physical fitness for all students, sacrificing healthful exercise for the sake of winning: It might be helpful if people rotated positions on teams and made sure everyone played, but this may mean downplaying the idea of winning for the sake of physical fitness. Seeing the evidence that even schools were misusing television to promote their team products rather than knowledge, *arie ninn contended that television in any form is detrimental and addictive to children. ALl television creates uncritical, passive recipients, marie winn held in The Plug-In Drug: Tel evi sion,

C h ild re n and th e P am lly (New Y ork, 1977). She c i t e d the decline in verbal scores on the college entrance

.examinations as an example of the decline in compre­ hension of the language, aw children become mere receptive tools of media.

The College Board was concerned with the decline in b.A.T. scores, and reported the conclusions of an aavisory panel in the fall, 1977. The educators noted the sharpest drop in scores occurred between 1972 and

1975, and continued to decline. They stated that 16-year olds had watched 19,000 hours of television, and that

"an unquestionably considerable amount of time at the set used to go into homework and into reading and writing.

Information on the negligible effects of learning from television was mounting. A four-year study by psychologist Hiloe Himmelweit and colleagues at the

Huifieli. Foundation for the BBC concluded;

Children's information programs... do not improve the viewers' knowl­ edge relative to that of the con­ trols...much of what is offered on children's television is already known to children of the age group.... id any of these pro grams fail to break nev ground, and their level is often too low for even the younger children in our sample. *6

The stu d y was conducted with children who had television sets in their homes for the first time, so no previous knowledge had been gained from television.

Jtat Kutstein agreed with arguments that reported passive addiction of television on children, but held there was negative learning. He had university students 167 observe and interview pre-school television viewers in their homes. "Love—.American Style" was a popular choice of viewers, a sample of the reports Hutetein received described a 5-year old boy:

he giggled and curled up in the chair. He seemed to accept the plots without question. When 1 asked him if he understood the meaning of divorce and wife swapping, he answered that of course he did, that he wasn't a boy anymore. 37

Cultural theorists supported Hut stein’s observations, but saw the effects as the inevitable result of mass culture. Aass culture was the obvious outcome of

"political democracy and popular education" in the

1800's. Gilbert aeldes wrote that mass passivity exists when media define the acceptable ideas, and mass culture creates "the mood of consent* " Dwight kac Donald directed his thoughts to the apparent quick social maturing of children, noting that it was not the awareness of society it seemed to be. He explained:

The homegenizing effects of kitsch also blurs age lines. ...TV orograms such as 'The lone Hanger* and 'Captain Video* are by no means enjoyed only by children, on the other hand, children have access to such grown-up media as the movies, radio and TV. ...This merging of the child and grown-up audience means: (11 infantile regression of the latter, who, unacle to cope with the strains and complexities of moaem life, escape via Jtitsch (which in turn, confirms and enhances their infantilis)} 168 (2) 'overstimulation* of the former, who grow up too fa s t. Or, as **ax Horkheiratr well puts it: 'development has ceased to exist. The child is grown up as soon as he can walk, and the grown-up in p rin c ip le , always remains the same. *38 Marc hall kcLuhan stood at the opposite pole of other cultural critics. %s hooks were published by a subsidiary of mOa , and widely promoted in the 1960's on hnO television specials. «e held that schools were like 18th century factories, and that "learning, the educational process, has long been associated only with the glum." television did not allow for fragmented learning or fragmented lives. Minorities entered everyone*# home through television, though they could be kept out of schools and neighborhoods through zoning. If the contest is between schools and television, i^cLuhan advocated that the schools should go, since the two forces asked children to live in separate worlds, creating split personalities and disruptive children, ne considered television to be the best educator: The "child" is an invention of the seventeenth century; he did not exist in, say, Shakespeare's day. ne had, up until that time, been merged in the adult world.... Today's television child is attuned to up-to-the-minute "adult" news— inflation, rioting, war, taxes, crime, bathing beauties—and is bewildered when he enters the nineteenth-century environment 1*9 that still characterises the educational establi shment, where information is scaree but oraered and structured by fragmented, classified patterns, subjects, and schedules.

Children were asked their reactions to school and television by the r'oundation ?or uhild Development,

Twenty-five percent of the 2,200 .children questioned were frightened by television crime and western programs. Those who watched four hours a day, which was termed addiction, were more generally fearful, according to the study's director Nicholas Zill, u psychologist with Temple “diversity's Institute for

Purvey research. The school was also a fearful place.

The children were ages 7 through 10. Two-thirds worried about tests, ana felt ashamed whenever they maue mistakes in class, petween two-thiras and three-fourths said their mothers urged them to be "one of the best i.1 students in the class. "

hewsweek magazine's 1977 feature story "What TV

Does To kids" solicited children's reactions. The comments from elementary school children confirmed acLuhan's contrast of the excitement television presented to children versus other outlets. Selected comments were:

"I'd rather watch IV than play outside because it's boring outside. They always have the same riues, like swings and things. "

"It bugs me when someone is watching with me. If your friend ie bored, you have to go out or make con­ versation. "

"Sometimes when I watch an exciting show, I uon't blink my eyes once."

"Television is perfect to tune out the rest of the world. ieost of the children interviewed were viewers from the ena of school to the 11 o'clock news. The value of The family viewing Hour was called into question by the results of the a. 0. j»lei sen Co. survey, which "found that 10.5 million youngsters under the age of 12 were 43 still hooked to the tube after 9 p.m."

The Ladies home Journal survey of 1977 confirmed the late viewing of elementary school children. Charlie's joigele was then shown at 10 p.m., but of 1000 children questioned, schoolgirls replied they would most like to be farrah fawcett-Majors: "She received twice as many

votes as runner-up &arie Osmond and al»o st four times

as many as third-place -uindeay Wagner. Less preferred

choices osmona, Wagner, Tennille and Cher had television programs in The family Viewing hour. Boys' choice of who

they wished to be seemed to confirm the early maturing

effects of television. Lee Majors was favored, for

reasons as expressed by one 11-year ola boy, "I'd

sure like to come home to /Farrah Jrawcett-Majore7

every night."45 171 uwight kacuonald's theory of kit sch and the merging of the ‘'matured” child and "childish” adult was evident in the ratings of late evening Charlie's Angels, which not only had a large aged 7 to 12 audience, but was the seventh-favored program among college graduates. The show's producer nick Husky explained:

What we're talking about is a B exploitation movie, not even a B. we understood that we neeaed to exploit the sexuality of the three girls, ana that's an obvious reason for its success.4® .executive producer Leonard Goldberg explained, "We love to get them wet, because they look so good in 4.7 clinging clothes.” Thirty hours a week was the average television viewing time of girls in The Ladies Home Journal survey. Although interviewers in some fourth-graae classrooms received unamimous reactio n s from the 9-year old girls of their desire to be i’arrah i'awcett-toajors, the reactions received to questions about school were f ille d with anxiety and shame. The three most Btatea comments among to ta l g ir ls interviewed were; ”1 would like to do better in JC school...try to be nicer...be a good girl,"

juring February, 1977 the Columbus, Ohio public schools were closed due to fuel cutbacks. WBtfS-IV (CBS) provided four hours of daily school programming taught hy Columbus teachers. The "school Without Schools" project involved a weekly session with students to test them on televised material. "Most quiz scores were good," said Buckeye Junior High school principal 49 Barry Metz. Teachers wore costumes for literature presentations, presented film montag* s for history, recruited teenagers to dress as the i'onz and as other television characters for composition courses.

The children viewing it reacted as they aid to other television programs, with comments such as that of

a third graue boy, " It's less boring than real school." 173 IV. Notes

^Leonard Gross, "Citizens With Clout, 11 TV Guide, March 8, 1975, pp. 31-2. ------2 Laurence Bergreen, "How Bo You Measure Violence?" TV Guide, November 5, 1977, p. 8.

3 'howara Muson, "Teenage Violence and the Telly, " psychology To day. March, 1978, p. 50.

4Ibid., p. 54. 5 '"Warning: IV Violence," Columbus Preepress, May 7, 1975, p. 16. ------

^"CB3 plays Executive Suite, » Newsweek, October 25, 1976, p. 83. 7 "neasoner Rejects Job as Anchorman for fourth Network," TV Guide, October 1, 1977, p. a-3. Q Nicholas Johnson, quoted in Cynthia Robins, "position Non-Contradictory, » Columbus Dispatch, November 30, 1976, p. B-10.

Q Grace Baiainger, Broadcasting, August 15, 1977, p. 32.

10,1 .fliarson urges Ohio PTA to 'ignite the spark,1" Columbus Citizen-«joum al. October 25, 1977, p. 14.

^"iteaaer8 Be act to Violence," Columbus Ui spatch, November 3, 1977, p. B-3.

1 ? "pin. rates IV programs," Ohio btate U. Lantern, February 16, 1978, p. 5; "PTA bays CBS Is Least Violent— ndc B Disagrees," TV Guide, February 25, 1978, p. A-3.

1^"TV Violence and Children," U. S. News & World Report, July 4, 1977, p. 74.

1*Bric Mevin, "The Violence Dropouts," TV Guide, January 1, 1977, p. 8. 174 15 B. Drummond Ayres, Jr., "TV Is on Trial, and at Trial, in Miami," ftew York Times, October 7, 1977, p. A-16. 16 "California Lawsuit Allegee «BG movie Caused sex A ttack," TV Guide, march 25, 1978, p. A-1.

17 "Season of Savagery and Mage, « Time, February 28, 1977, p. 17. ------

1 & "Sex ana Violence; Hollywood lights Back," TV Guide, August 27, 1977, p. 4. ------

19lbid., pp. 15-16.

20T, . - IjoJLG* f p * 7 *

21Bud Wilkinson, "The Jail Lineups: Blow for Bullies," Columbus Li snatch (Guide), May 8, 1977, p. 11.

22 "uuC Plans Less Violence," 0 8U Lantern. January 31, 1977, p. 2.

2^pre d Silverman, An alysis of a BC tel evi si on network programming from February 1953 to October 1^59. unpublished rn.A. thesis (Columbus: ohio state U., 1960), p. 403-

2^"ad C's ’soap' Has pressure Groups In a Lather," iV luide, July 9, 1977, p. a-1.

25,tijf Qffena Thee," Time, September 26, 1977, p. 53.

26Ibid.

27john weisman, "He's Counting Every Jiggle and Cusswora,« TV Guide, March 17, 1979, o. 9.

2®Gary Posey, "Three's Oompany: Why is this Man Snilingv" The saturaay Evening Post, September 1978, p. 62,

29Donald Wildmon, quoted, "Pederation protesting 'Sleasy Sex' on aBC," Columbus ui so atch. November 2, 1978, p.C-2. 175

In Aichard n eev e s, ’’The .dangers of Television in the Silverm an iira, " Esquire. Aoril 25* 1978, p. 48,

71 "Ttf's dropouts," Newsweek, December 12, 1977, p. 123.

•^Aljean harmetz, "The Year TV Turned to sex," TV Guide, may 6, 1978, p. 9.

^»£»GC Judges Carlin becoming 'indecent,1*' OSU Lantern, tfeb. 14, 1975, p. 1.

^4halph Nelson, in "sports programs' Value Questioned by health expert," Columbus .Pisnatch, October 19, 1977, p. a -6 ,

^Prom ftenort oi the Advi sorv Panel on the scholastic Antltuae Test Score decline t Princeton. N. 197?), in The Chronicle of hlgner education. September 6, 1977, p. 13.

^6hilue Himmelweit, a.N, Oppenheim, Pamela tfince. Television and the Child (London, 1958), p. 309.

^Nat hutstein, "Go Watch T* I" (Mew York, 1974), p. 101,

^Bernard nosenberg, david white, ed., kass Culture (Glencoe, 111., 1957), p. 66.

^Marshall MCLuhan, The medium is The MaBsage (New York, 1967), p. 10.

4°Ibid. , p. 18.

4 ^"polling the Children," Time, March 14, 1977, p. 36.

4Newsweek, February 21, 1977, p. 67.

4^Ibla. , p. 64.

44"l‘he farrah factor," The Laaies Home Journal. June, 1977, p. 34. ^"kitis tick Beauty, Bionic, " OSU Lantern, May 24, 1977, p. 1.

^"TV'e super Women," lime, November 22, 1976, p. 69

ig "The tarrah tactor,« p. 36,

^Cynthia nobins, "How TV Taught Columbus, Ohio a Lesson or Two," TV Guide, April 16, 1977, p. 18.

^°»school Without Schools," Newsweek, February 21, 1977, p. 39. V. PUHLiC iuUJ AiCAia'iiASi

Public Choice

Having television stations in every city that would teach children basic education and positive values was the goal of media groups organized in the early 1950's. The first station devoted to educational programs was wO 1-TV. Iowa state College received a commercial license for WO I in 1950. It

appeared that television would follow the same

sequence as radio, with educators and businessmen competing lor commercial licenses. Television

experimentation began as did radio developments at the colleges. The first experimental educational

station was w9aa . at the University of Iowa in 1932.

Channel 1 was useu by ^ansas State College until the fuC eliminated that frequency at the end of the 1940's.

fearing the same fate would meet college

television stations as met the rauio stations,

Wilbur schramm invited 30 educational broadcasters

to Monti cello, Illinois in the summer, 1949 to a

University of Illinois ana Hockefeller foundation

seminar to make plans for television. In the fall the

fuO rejected the idea of educational television channels.

177 The National Association of Educational

Broadcasters, with headquarters at the University of

Illinois, attempted in 1950 to get the U.b. office of education to intervene with ECC commissioners.

Only ECC Commissioner Erieda Hennock seemed willing to hold hearings on educational television. The wae B begait a funa-raising ari*e for more research ana legal expenses, i^rs. Clara Logan of the Southern California

Association for Better Aaaio and Television brought her research (the earliest study of violence on commercial television) to EcC Chairman tfayne Coy. Coy was unimpressed, ae felt educators would not proviae better broaacasting for chilarer than commercial stations, since only 27 Ea educational stations existed in 194tJ. In August, 1948 cey attempted to eliminate the unused reserved Ell educational frequencies.

Clara Logan discussed the study "What Our Children

Bee" at the Institute for EducationRadio at the

Ohio state University in 1950. The first phase of the study conducted auring a week of November, 1949 in

Los Angeles recorded 91 murders on the 6 to 9 p.m. television programs. The study said, "There were crooked juuges, crooked sheriffs, crooked juries."

In response to that depiction of the law in TV films,

Lee Angeles station managers, with prompting from 179 d Cabji T letters, screened programs for faults. The second phase of the study, conducted during a week in spring, 1950, found only 18 murders, and reported that content had changed to "stupid sheriffs, crooked bank officials, false arrest by bungling officiers."1

When bGAdn/i.1 approached producers of offending television programs, the producers saia the sponsors controlled the air. Clara Logan urged members of her

Association and the institute for Education by hadio to develop a tactic for violent shows that would later

(1977) be utilised against sponsors of sexual-content shows, hr s. Logan, however, advocated rewarding good sponsors, rather than attacking offending ones:

Support the sponsors of good programs, let the president of the company hear from us, buy the products when we can, when we go to the store tell the manager that we are buying certain products because of the television program.*

Frieda Hennock spoke at the Obti Institute on may 4, 1950. bhe rejected efforts by citizens groups urging her to support a plan to aelay license renewals of offending stations. hennocK declared that "by withholding a few licenses we would not insure better broadcasting." bhe felt a public choice was needed; that educational stations were the answer, she hoped educators would be more alert than they had been about 180 radio licensing, saying, "The healthiest thing for

American broadcasting woulabe for educators and

editors to be right in the thick of it.

The contrast between the desired positive

atmosphere for children advocated by children's

welfare groups, anu commercial television's violent programming continued to increase. The kiacentury

White house Conference on Children and Youth, 1950, urged: "i’or every child—a fair chance for a healthy personality."* The survey of 564 hours of

television programming on iJew York City stations

during a weex in early 1951 found that stations showed

57 hours of crime programs. Most university professors

ana school officials were slow in proposing solutions.

The factor which provided opportunity for organizing

educators was the license freeze. After licensing 109

television stations, the FCC on September 30, 1948

stopped issuing licenses until April 14, 1952 in order

to determine how to rearrange proposed station

locations to best blanket the country.

The principal organizer of eaucators in support

of educational television frequencies was I. Keith

Tyler, uhio btate University professor who led the

fight for educational frequencies, on October 16,

1950 he named and organized the Joint Committee on

hducational Television, it united the diverse activities 181 of the wax 1j, iiXiA, American Council on Education,

Association of state Universities, Association of

Lana Grant Colleges, Association for Education by

Aaaio ana Television ana the Council of Chief state

School Officers. Tyler urgea the leaaers of these groups to activate their membership in support of eaucational frequencies. Frieda riennock suggested to

■Tyler he get former foG counsel Telford Taylor to present the proposals to the commission. Tyler haa to inform Taylor that "we won't guarantee to pay 5 you a nickle.» Taylor agreed to serve as counsel.

Seeking funas for oC a T's effort was Tyler's initial problem, from Belmont parley of Haa and from a Cx, he obtained i3500. The Association of Atomic

Scientists, "whose conscience had bothered them about

Hiroshima," gave Tyler its mailing list, from which he

W£»able to solicit $42,000.^ Tyler predicted educators woula get 150 stations, one-fifth of the licenses.

At the 1950 foC hearings Taylor requested 168 vHfc' frequencies in the largest cities be reserved for eaucation. wCaT brought forth 71 witnesses in support of the proposal. r,ach witness was careful to state the stations should be noncommercial, so as not to arouse the networks. Cup opoosed the idea, though it was will­ ing to let some Unr channels be used for education. Lore 182

than just educators spoke for bOBT's position. George imeany, Adlai Stevenson ana an aBa spokesnan supported it. Ahe kCC third notice, march, 1951 recognize^ the principle of reserved educational frequencies, sug­ gesting 209 stations night be possible. In April the

Bora Bounaation established the Bund for Adult education to back the efforts of dC*l with grants, a petition by the Beweral uar Association stating that all seekers of licenses .nust compete on an equal basis with no reserved xrequencies was rejected by the Bgc in Uune,

Bayne Coy left the POC in early 1952. president

Barry iruman appointed Commissioner paul Walker to the

chairmanship. Walker was one of A’ran

Walter became a high school teacher ana principal,

having obtained a law degree, he served as public

service commissioner in Oklahoma until his appointment

to the js'Go . i’yler uecided to concentrate on obtaining

Walker* s full support of uCa I' s plan. As bCBl knew it

had former wew York Democratic lawyer prieda hennock's

support, it uecided the best tactic was to ignore her,

as her strong views on everything were not popular with

other commissioners, and jCh,! "didn't want to antagonize

others. Walker led the commission to promulgate the 183 ECU sixth deport ana Ureter in April, 1952. It not only gave one-sixth of Vu*' stations to educators, but also

172 UhE stations, for a total of 258. fifteen more were later auued.

Walxer warned educators to get their station on the air in one year (an impossible task), or the reserved channels might be withdrawn, ^ennock reiterated the plea, stating that "the reservations for education cannot be held forever." Walker's main motive for advocating eaucational television seemed to be the expected shortage of classroom teachers for the 1950's to meet the neeue of the post-war baby boom. In a speech to the Annual

Eaucation conference in harrisburg, Pennsylvania on

October 2, 1952, Walker explained:

American educators need all the help they can get.... 300,000 class­ rooms are neeaed immediately in our elementary and high schools. And because of the increase in popula­ tion, another 300,000 will be needed by 1958.9

Walker left the PCC in **ay, 1953- On Kay 12 Charles

Tobey, new Hampshire republican and new chairman of the

Senate commerce Committee, assured

within one year or lose them. The first noncommercial

station, kuHT-ftouston, went on the air *ay 25* On

October 26 Commissioner Edward Webster threatened

that the PCC will not allow the reserved channels to 184 be "inefficiently used indefinately. No threats were made concerning the commercial channels, even though commercial Litf stations were failing for lack of advertising ana surrendering licenses, kany commercial bnf channels would remain unused after three decades of the allocations.

in October, 1952 the fund for Adult Education established the National Citizens Committee for

Educational Television, it established the Educational

Television ana nadio Center at hAEb headquarters in

Urcana to prepare films for educational television.

The u'ord foundation offered 48.5-million per year to the stations, a s ford foundation and its fAE subsidiary became dominant in funding, its control of the national organs of educational television increased. The first program produced unaer a ford grant was a promotion of xree enterprise economy called "people Under

Communism." In 1955 ford moved the film production center to join Arbor, nuichigan. in 1956 *ord took over complete funding of jceT. When *'ew fork City acquired an educational channel in 1961, ford moved the production center to Mew York to become national

Educational Television (jfETJ.

The blossoming of individual educational stations

stemmed from a meeting in the st. Louis City Hall on 185 January 7, 1952. itaymond Wittcott, president of the

Acult Education Council of St. Louie had urged Mayor doeeph Laret to aonly for a station for the city, uarst established the Mayor's Committee on Educational 11 Television. jCeT wae represented at the January meeting, along with representatives of 28 cities. ±n addition to pi anning for licensee, th-y discussed the cost of 12 establishing a network among them.

The St. Louis station eventually was funaed by business ana public contributions, and established unaer an independent citizens' committee headed by a life insurance company director, gt. Louis University gave the land for the tower to kLTC-gt. Louis, which went on the air September 24, 1954, with community-ser­ vice programs, in-service instructional programs for public sch ols ana college creait courses—standard fare of early LTV stations. Second graae spelling and other courses oiferea only to schools in narrowcasts formed a.jj.TU' s daytime programming by 1956, after the city schools received a $95,000 grant from £*AE the previous year. v in April, 1955 the Ohio legislature passed a law allowing school boards to aonate funds to their regional educational station.1* as Charles

Siepman viewed the mounting teacher shortage in the

1950's in his book for jprd's Pund xor the Advancement of Education, television seemed the answer to the school 186 cri sis.

One problem that plagued many educational stations was their relegation to UhF. a study of ^ansing,

Michigan homes in January, 1955 iound that 84*8# had television sets, smaller surrounding towns had like percentages. Only 20# of all television sets in the 15 stuay had UnF. ^ ij4ucators got congressional support for a bill introduced July 1C, 1962 requiring that all

sets manufactured be Al 1-Channel . The PcC supported the bill in 1963, the year it was approved,

A second problem facing educational stations

was obtaining an inexpensive method to create a network.

Filmed programs were sent about by mail, as a T&T line

charges cost too much, in the 1950’s the FCC placed in

docket proposal 14744 to tie five stations together by

cable. The FCC also suggested microwave relays, but it

acted on none of its suggestions. Congress provided the

first federal funds to educational stations in PL 87-447

on May 1, 1962, but the $1•5-million issued the follow­

ing May permitted that only 15# of the money coula be

used for connecting any two stations.

An experiment to expana the range of educational

stations was proposed by the slowest Council in

Airborne Television Instruction, which organized in

1960 with personnel from JSl'V stations in Illinois,

Indiana, Kentucky, Minnesota, Ohio, and Wisconsin. 187 OdU Resident Kovice fawcett served as the Council president, ford foundation provided a $4. 5-million grant, school superintendents throughout the six states were asked to participate.^

The stratovision project of KCa II was centered at prudue University from 1961 to 1967. A IXJ-6B had an antenna attached to its belly to transmit taped programs to special antennas given to schools. UHP channels 72 and 76 were used lor the morning broadcasts of instructional programs for children. Schools coula tape the programs on viaeo recorders sent by the council if they wished to present them at other times. The plane flew a ten mile figure-8 above northeastern Indiana at 32,000 feet ana broadcast on line of sight. Since weather was no factor at that height, the broadcasts'

"reliability was greater than the schools itself," some of which would close for snow, according to project programmer I. Keith Tyler, when ford foundation lost interest in it, "it finally became too expensive 17 to keep the plane up."

The fora foundation in 1966 began to aevote funds for a satellite project for nKT. It was not until 1978 that j&V stations began receiving Pdd programs via

1 and II, and 1979 that campus and schoal radio stations received National public Kadio via satellite.18 188

Pour programs plus stereo can be broadcast from PBS to iiTv stations for their selection. The three unused orograms can be taped for later use. wPrt satellite transmission is similar for its 217 member stations, but it constructed 16 terminals for the stations to send local programs back to wPn for later use, or to be trananittea on a regional basis only. 189

2. a fourth Network

The Eord *ounaation idea to fund a satellite for x.TV broadcasts apparently was a motivation for ^ames

Killian of m.I.T. to get the Carnegie Corp. of i^iew

York to establish the Carnegie Commission on .Educational

Television in 1965. Killian, a former director of AT&T, voicea opposition to the use of a satellite rather than IQ telephone lines to connect ETv' stations. Killian became chairman of the camegie Commission, ana vice chairman of the Corporation for Public Broadcasting, which the report o f the Carnegie Commission on Educational

Television in 1967 recommended that the Congress create

ana publicly fund, as an overseer of a proposed public liroaacasting Service network for educational stations.

The germ of the idea sprung from a conference of the ivAiiO and the U. o. Office of Euucation in December, 1964-*

Instead of instructional programs, which stations could

continue at will, "public television includes all that is not at the moment appropriate or available for support 20 by aavertising. " The oamegie commission proposed to

change the content, funding and structure of educational

television, -“ike the rnd, Orb became financed by govern­

ment, but was inaepenaent of feaeral control and

politics. The camegie Commission's distinguished panel

chosen from education and industry influenced congressional enactment. Commission members included wames 3, Conant,

Lee LuBridge oi C.I.T., business leaders Joseph McConnell of Reynolds Metals, Bdward Lana, Qveta Culp Hobby and labor leaaer .aeonara Aooacock. it proposed as CPB chairman frank pace, board chairman of General Tynanics, ana as cfo directors Gillian, John B. rockefeller III,

Mrs. Bobby, and board members from Teleprompter and rCA,

Congress enacted the public Broadcasting Act in 1967 with little debate ana with general support from all quarters, ibra ijounaation continued to funa stations ana programs until Congress granted CfB ♦60-million for four years in 1969. fora aisbanaed its public Broadcaet Laboratory that year, and subsequently all activities in the field.

CPB in 1969 began taking over orograins developed by the fora foundation at uhl, as a researcher at WNBT-New

Yorx in 1966, Joan Ganz Cooney developed the iaea of

Children's Television Workshop to use television as a head at art on learning for all 3 to 5 year old children.

In 1967 Commissioner of Bducation ^arold Howe provided

funds along with OBU funas to aeve? op the first series, ■

Be same street, jjijc.1 completed its evolution in 1968. When

cpu emerged full-funded in 1969 it hau waiting for it

those programs from JLbX which woula establish CpB's M 21 reputation, cesame Btreet and ^isterogers Neighborhood. 191 Public affaire programs became a point of controversy in 1970. PBS had established programs from staxi Ueas with funas .rom parent CPB. commentator

Canay Vanocur was hirea from n Bc. Commercial network commentaters were unuer attack by the Mixon administra­ tion arter they questioned statements in a Nixon speech broadcast novenber 3, 1969. New FCC Chairman uean Burch, former chairman of Uoluwater for president in 1964, aemanaea transcripts of commentators' statements, in early 1970 Vice presiaent Bpiro Agnew attacked com­ mentators in a Bes Moines speech. In a subsequent

speech on **ay 22 in ncuston he attacked Washington po st eaitorials, which had criticized President Nixon, 'i'he

Washington post ownea wPLC-TV, Miami ana wJa T, Jackson­ ville. Bebe nebozo's business partner, V. Sloan toccrea, challenged the license renewal of »i/PLG in 1970. Other

Nixon associates sought th<- license of Wua T. William

Porter reported the white House tapes showed "the 22 president himself was directly involved. "

On November 25 Charles Colson wrote a memo to

n. a . naldeman recounting his meetings with CBb and a BC

executives in the pursuit of commentators' transcripts

ana reporters' notes. Of Gub Vice Chairman prank

Btanton Colson wrote, "at an ton for all his bluster is

the most insecure of all.... almost obsequious. m

1971 Agnew attacked Vanocur. clay Whitehead, director 192

oi the new White House office on Telecommunications

Policy ueraanued that pfia drop public affairs program­

ming. on June 30, 1972 Hixan vetoed Gpn's next two

year's lunus of $65-mil3ion. ue later granted 335-mil­

lion. lP-o rresilent John wacy resigned in August. Nixon

appointed henry Loomis of the u.o. Information Agency

to the po st.

fhe reauction in Oph funas in 1972 affected all

euueational television ana radio stations, since they

were depending ior much of their support on op.o. A

reaucea 5-ycar ^pn grant for the news staff oi WubU

raaio forced the station to suspend some consumer

ail airs programming »y 1977. stations had to rely more

on traaitional r,,cthous of tuna raising, r^TO-IV in

1975 oiferea free movie tickets, which promoted a

theatre's film, in return for donations, technically

violating the principle of nonce mm ercial television.

Although television executives hau complained in

a White house meeting of t*une 22, 1972 that phd was

bent on a policy to compete with commercial networks,

it was not their complaints but ^ixon's dislike of

pu£> orograms that seemed the basis for his veto of

opja funas 8 days later. "The Great American Dream

kiachine," with segments ridiculing business, junk

fooas, P-or surveillance of the public, ana Pba 193 uocumentariee, such as "The Banks ana the poor,”

"Castro's Cuba," ana "Who ■‘•nvited Us?" on U.o. foreign intervention were unpopular at the White House. "The

Great jjnerican jjream machine" was cancelled by cpB,

Loomis eliminated "Black journal" ana "Bill foyers' 24 . Journal," claiming lack of funds.

president Kichara Nixon haa no sympathy for commercial networks. In **ay, 1970 .jean Burch promulgated an fee ruling forbidding network ownership of any new programs, udC owned 683fc of its prime time programs,

CBc> 73^ ana iuiw 66^. In September, 1971 Nixon supported

PoC proposals to limit network reruns to 13 weeks, on j April H, 1972 the ustice .Department instituted an antitrust suit against the networks to force them to 25 surrender financial interests in their programs.

In bune, the supreme Court, with new Nixon appointees, upheld the government *e right to obtain reporters* notes, as Nixon's presidency neared its ena, a 5-year i-unaing bill for CrB was approved in **uly, 1974. The antitrust suit was dismissed in October,

Conservative political media groups were inspired by the **ixon actions. Accuracy in ^edia formed, and in deptember, 1972 attacked an NBC documentary, which

showed corporate managers being fired before their 65th birthaay to prevent them from receiving pensions. 26 194 The American /arm Bureau federation denounced a PBS documentary, "a Day Without sunshine," January, 1976 27 on the plight of migrant workers in Slorida. '

In June, 1977 the Carnegie Commission on the future of Public Broadcasting was established. She expectation was that it would request greater funding with the issuance of its neport in 1979. LTV stations affected by the Mixon funding-squeeze had become increasingly aware of their desire and need for large

CPB grants. They became cautious programmers, on beptember 30, 1977 r .00 had a "Black perspective on the «ew8" program rejected by most affiliates which carried the series. The series, developed by black producers at Wh'xT-philauelphia, found its program on

Nazi and hu hlux Klan leaders had been banned after protests to stations by the American Jewish congress.

Philadelphia mothers threatened to stop supporting besame btreet after the Black perspective program 2S aired there. Other Jewish organizations were inspired to focus on media after the success of the television protest. In March, 1978 the uewish Defense League attempted to prevent "The Palestinians, " a film produced by Vanessa hedgrave, from being considered for a documentary Academy Award.

henry Loomis, Dixon's appointee to OPB, lost influence to Lawrence Grossman, PhD president, in 195 October, 1977. president carter submitted a new 5-year funding bill for UPB on October 7, for the period

1979-1984. CPB would receive $1-billion, with most of it designated for national rather than local station production, Pda would have sole proauction authority, without interference from parent GPB.

Some congressmen saw the bill's implications as

a prelude to the Orwell social concept of "1984".

The bill aid have a feature to promote individual

expression, Noncommercial stations, an increasing number of which were beginning to be founded as inniviaually-owned community-minaed stations, would be given the right to editorialize. Many stations might use that to promote nalph Naaer-type investiga­

tions.

The new Carnegie Commission, which started its

analysis of CPB in 1977, was chaired by william kicGill,

president of Columbia University. Its goals included

studying better funding methods, the means to meet

neeas of broader and of minority audiences, and hew

to determine "what constitutes 'success' in a publicly 30 supported system of radio and television." were

*1 -billion of public funds to be spent on public

television for five years, the last question was

important to answer, with surveys showing Just 1{i 196 of Americans1 television viewing time devoted to public television,

Killiam kc&ill was aware that citizens media

groups were setting their focus on public television

as a new area of attach. He admitted at the start of

Carnegie II hearings that Cth was under '‘pluralistic

pressures" i'rom many uiverse groups. He felt public

television should meet the expectations of pressure

groups without losing sight of national goals. He

seemed to suggest that rbb should have an overall

goal similar to the commercial networks, but excluding

any lowbrow programs or commercials, when he stated

that "the real question here is 'What is the public?*"

When the commission issued its conclusions on January 30,

1979* it raised carter's request by another 3200-million,

but asked Congress to obtain that additional amount not

from public funds but from a spectrum fee imposed

upon commercial broadcasters, it would be collected

by a new lublic Television Communications Trust, which

was to manage all public broadcasting funds. 197 V* N otee

1lnsiitute, iearbook aa (1950), p. 172.

2Ibid. t p. 174. 3 'itobert lewia Shayon, Television ana our Children (New York, 1951), pp. 6 7 -5 5 '. ------

*Ibla. , p. 58.

Tyler, intervi ev.

6Ibia.

7lbid.

^Institute, Yearbook jui (1951), p. 145. Q In Herbert Marx, Jr., Television and Hadio in American Life (New York, 1953), pi 129.

^William Y. Elliott, Televi sion1 s Imp act on American Culture, p. 82.

11Max Wylie, clear channels (New York, 1955), p. 95- 12 Carroll Newsom, £ Televi sion Policy lor Education ( Washington .u.o., 1952), pi 136.

1 ^The News Letter (ObU), Bureau of Educational nesearch (October, 1955), p. 1.

1 ^Charles siepman, TV and Qur school Crisis (New York, 1958), p. 35.

1^I. Keith Tyler faculty papers, OdU Archives, 40/62/Nox 2 (nax Jj Eact sheets 1954-1958', mimeo 3/10/1955).

l6Mary anith, ed., Using Television in the Classroom; Miawest Program on Airborne Television instruction (New York, 19$1), p. xiw. 198 17 Tyler, interview,

18 The broadcaster (OBU), dune, 1978, p. 7. 19 Network pro ject:h.Y.C. . The tfourth Network (New York, 1971), p. 12. 20 Carnegie Commission, Public Televi sion; A Program for action, neport of CCBT (Jew York, T9677* P* 1* 21 nichara polsky, Getting To sesame street (New York, 1974), p. 116. 22 William E. Porter. Assault on the keaia (Ann Arbor. 1976), p. 55.

23Ibid.

2*Neil hickey, "public TV in Turmoil: Who's in charge here?" Tv_ Guide, ouly 30, 1977, p. 22.

25 William E. porter, Assault on the Media, pp. 154, 157.

26Ibia. , p. 187.

2*^Edith Efron, "I’arm Bureau offers powerful debuttal to Pos," Tjf Guide, September 11, 1976, p. A-3.

28New York Times, October 6, 1977, p. 38.

29"A Boost for public TY, " Newsweek, October 17, 1977, p. 106 •

^"Writing a Bew script for public Broadcasting," The Chronicle of njgher Education. cctober 31, 1977, pT*"5. VI. '£ h £ t YoUilG M i U I'HH XLC.oi'It.L.di

Uongress—The people's Voice

Congressional reaction to television programming has often been negative, since committee investigations of meaia are generally inBpirea by mounting complaints irom citizens groups. Senator hstes hefauver's crime investigation of 1951 turned attention to the effects oi television on juvenile delinquency, when Democrats regained congressional control in 1954. Regaining committee chairmanship, Aefauver continued investiga­ tions through 1957 with the subcommittee on Juvenile

Delinquency of the Judiciary committee. He was inepirea by the Nail's surveys of violence on commer­ cial television (1951-1953), which had been designed to get the r’oC to grant educational frequencies. The daju) study of children's variety programs in Hew York ana i»ew Haven during the wtex of May 15, 1952 refuted claims by television executives that the media taught lav/ ana oraer through violent programming; "in New

York only 9 percent of the violent acts ana threats in such programs were in the context."

Senator kefauver was not a denunciator of television. In 1951 he wanted to allow the networks

199 to well commercial sponsorship ol the committee hearings.^ The report of his subcommittee investigations

t 1954- 1955) was tentative in regard to television's effects on juvenile delinquency. Xt said television might be harmful. .Experts in psychology and sociology from Columbia university differed in their testimony before the committee, psychologist nalph Banay said 3 crime programs afreet disturbed adolescents, paul

Lazarfela felt that almost nothing was known of the

effects of television on chiluren.^ kefauver noted in 1957 that as a result of his report, television

"is already making efforts to improve its programs

so that a more beneficial diet will be presented to 5 the child. » he saw no neea for government regulation in the area of programming.

A®rieB of attacks on television violence in

1959 and 1960 led to Senator Thomas jJoad establishing more subcommittee hearings on television and juvenile

delinquency in 1961. In inarch, 1959 Margaret Mead

argued in "How TV violence Affects four child," that

violence was fun only when it is "palpably fiction,

fantasy and unreal.... The violence on the screen is

no longer an escape, but a prescription for murder....

The practice of the networks in representing crime or

in depicting fiction aw if it were real life" is the

source of televised violence being transferred into 201 behavior. ^

jr. i’ranic btanton countered jr. kead's concern in his keynote .address to the 29th annual UfciU Institute ior haucation by xtadio :

Television reflects the values of the society it serves; it cannot create them....0Jb proposes to begin this fall a continuing field study of television and the American people to see if we cannot bring more factual knowledge to our programming. 7

Stanton felt the more a program appeared to be factual, the better it was.

In July, 1960 the conference of the .National Council on crime and .Delinquency recommended the establishment of a national Commission on Television. The Council reviewed the summary Keport of the Conference on the

Impact of motion pictures and Television on Youth, which held that observed tendencies toward violence Q in young children were reinforced by media violence.

The first Jodd Committee hearings were held a year after the conference. It appeared that a strong report might result from the hearings, jodd, however, appointed the son of a Metromedia owner to the staff, xhe staff report was never published.

The report of Jodd's 1963-196+ hearings was published, it stated that television was '’becoming a q school for violence." The strong stand of the report led to citizens establishing the national Association 202

for Better nadio and Television in 196+.

In 1969 jjodd urged the National institute of

Mental Health to conduct studies on violence. n.h.

Liebert ana n.^. Baron of BIkH had 5 to 9 year old

chilaren watch "The Untouchables". The chilaren

aisplayea more aggression in random play after watching

the show than aid children who watched nonviolent

programs, bteven Chaffee and oack fcicleod founa the

family, not the programs, mattered, permissive families

had less aggressive chiluren, who chose to watch less

violence than chilaren of families who protected them

but let them use the television set as their main

outlet on life.

Violence throughout the nation in the late 1960's

led to the establishment of four national commissions.

Black rioting in Watts, 1966, .Newark ana Detroit, 1967,

led to the establishment of the Kemer Commission.

Arrested looters were interviewee, only 8# of the

Detroit rioters haa leamea of the riot from television,

and 17# heara of its occurrance on radio. The majority

joined the rioting when they heara of it from others

on the street, nesentment for white people was expressed

by 27# of the rioters.10 After the assassinations of Dr. kartin Luther

Aing, jr. ana senator Robert P. kennedy, the (Milton)

Eisenhower commission was established to delve into the 203 causes of American violence, it held hearings in

O c to b e r, 1968. ^Speakers at the hearings such as jr. .Bradford Greenberg of Michigan state University warned that the urban poor watched television. The commission's report noted that the American culture 11 had always been violent. It held that negative role moaels for pre-adolescent children of low-income groups were depicted on television. Nearly half of the poor chilaren thought the world they saw on television was true. It aid not go beyond the contentions of jr. Joseph iCLapper, Coo vice president, who held that

televised violence might or might not have bad effects on children with certain personality maladjustments.

Vice president hubert Humphrey on duly 9, 1968

took a strong stand on violence ana television:

It has spread the message of rioting and looting...has literally served as a catalyst to promote even more trouble.... If the meaia are going to broadcast the emotional appeals of the utokely Carmichaels and other agitators, it is like throwing gaso­ line on the flames. I have discovered even in my campaign that negro youth particularly likes to get on television, half of the jumping, pushing and shoving that goes on in a campaign is the desire on the part of the youngster in the ghetto to have some publicity, to see his picture on television,1^

Humphrey became a victim of a response to rioting,

when he was teargassed by the Chicago police in August,

1968. The Chicago riots at the Democratic Convention led to the creation of the Walker Commission. Its report pointed out that demonstrators had utilized the presence of television cameras to promote an. image of repression. The phrase, "The whole worla is watching, was chanted by people being beaten by the Chicago police

hearings on violent television urograms by the

senate subcommittee on Communications in 1969 led to a request by chairman Cohn pastore that the United states

Surgeon General establish a commission to determine

"what harmful effect, if any, these programs have on

children."^ pastore wanted effects, if any, established

scientifically, in the manner in which the tiurgeon

General haa determined the harmful effects of cigarette

smoking.

The commission's vice chairman a LI hubinstfein, iMluin psychologist, directed staff research. Network

consultants participated with commission members in

reviewing past lieterature ana overseeing 25 research

projects and 40 technical pacers. The commission took

for granted the iaea that chilaren would imitate

actions shown on television, it was interested in

whether or not television coulu instigate violence.

Violence was aefined as "inflicting of harm...or of 15 damage to property." ^ The definition was similar to

that of the itiot control act of 1968, popularly known 205 as the itap Brown Act, since it was passed after Brown was accused of instigating a riot by making a speech in ^uinapolis, Maryland, xhe commission's concern seemea siilillar to that of the three previous commissions on violence. Its conclusion was stronger: "Television violence can instigate an increase in aggressive acts" in chilaren predisposed to aggressive behavior.^

iiiedia dismissed the commission's report as too mila to matter, jack Gould's front page reaction in the ew iork Times (^anuary 11, 1972) was entitled,

"TV Violence Held Unhanaful to Youth." Broadcasting magazine's analysis (^anuary 17) headlined the story:

"Violence on air ana in life: no clear link." The

Wasi.lnrton nvenlng star (January 18) cautioned its account; "Tv violence stuuy Galled whitewash. " michael nitney's analysis for The Hatlonal observer

(January 29) summarized it best in the title: "TV Gets a Slap, aot a Wallop, for Violence."

Senator pastore held hearings on the surgeon

General's neport in ^arch, 1972. Interest was high. The 17 hearings were published. Two years later he began more hearings on the subject of violence and television.

He was the only member of his subcommittee present.

I n 1976 L io n e l Van neerlin, chairman of the

House subcommittee on Communications held hearings on 206 violence ana television, Expectations of results were not high. Dr. Alan pearce, staff economist for the subcommittee, considered it was natural to love v i o l e n c e ;

There is a human preoccupation with watching violence. v>e are drawn to it irresistably. Ask any policeman about the crowds that gather when there's an auto acciaent or a fire, fes, it's hypocritical to condemn violence in public and then go home, shut the front door and switch on a crime drama. But th at's what we do all the time.’8

An initial finding of the subcommittee was that

"the presence of violence on television continue* to be at a level that is a cause for concern and remeaial

action." borne of the staff suggestions were the

establishment of "a repository for studies of TV

violence" in the Library of Congress, a "orescreening of violent shows by local network affiliates," the

possibility of an industry-aeveloped rating system

of shows, ana use of "electronic locking devices

to prevent children from watching unsuitable programs."

With an array of suggestions before him, Van Deerlin

decided to rewrite the 1934 Communications Act. By

mid-July, 1979 Van ueerlin gave up his attempt to

rewrite the act, citing congressmen's fear of broaa-

casters in the 1980 elections. After extensive hear­

ings Van ueerlin said, "We just don't have any clear thrust in the direction of diversity. .Anyone who doesn't like the programming now is just going to have to live with it." ^ 208

2. kinority Groups

black consciousness rose in the 1960's, black

citizens groups critical of media developed. Black

Bflorts for soul in Television (bjco I) was formed in

1969. It picketed network stations in jeceraber to protest inaaequate black programming and hiring

practices. Community Broaucasting Boston, a citizens

group which consisted mainly of blacks, challenged the license renewal of wbbb. in jf’CO hearings, claiming the

station did not serve community needs. The group waB

granted the Whx*ti license. The Boston herald-Traveler,

the old licensee, subsequently went out of business.

Black and white citizens groups were combining

efforts in 1974. Gilbert mendelson ana korrissa young

of -oBof prepared a report for ACT on the overt and

covert messages of television programs in the areas of 20 racial and political concepts. it was aeeigned to

make viewers more sensitive to that content.

Bbs programming for blacks was problematical, as

the bbs audience was primarily upper middle class white.

As Bbo stations attempted to increase black personnel

in the mid-1970's the new black employees often felt

out of place. wUdU producer Julie Smith said that "under

the circumstances my relations with fellow employees is

good." she had criticized the lack of black programs, 209 complaining that "flUBU's Black content could be improved, however nObU does not have a representative 21 Black audience."

In 1972 president hixon selected black minister and judge Benjamin hooks as an PcC commissioner, uuring the subsequent five years of Hooks' membership, tne iVC became increasingly conscious of community groups' concerns at license renewal hearings, renewal applicants had to delineate service to the community, satisfying 19 different groups chosen by the PCG as representative.

In August, 1977 the U .b. Civil Bights commission reported that television uiscrininated against blacks in newsroom employment, i t proposed that racial job quotas be used, it had sampled stations in the 22 1974-1975 program season. The two intervening years before the report was issued had brought an increase in black news co-anchormen. WG^h-Qolumbus made leon

Bibb co-anchor in September, 1976, after an hastern- based company bought the station, he received many

awards from local black community groups. By 1978 the ao C evening hews had a black co-anchor.

In th e 1960's cries of Black power led to whoops

for ned pov/er. In regard to media consciousness,

Bative itmerican groups protesting television depictions 210 of Indians preceded the development of black meaia-protest groups. The Tribal Indian Land Nights

Association in 1967 denounced th e way Inuiane were

depicted in the new ao C series "Custer". The National

Congress of American Indians joined the protest. NCa X

called Custer the "Adolph jiichmann" of the 19th century. •

Janies hovis, lawyer for the Yakima tribe, urged all

tribes to file for Buc equal time requests on their local iuic affiliate. As petitions were sent to the NCC,

ao O considered the cost of defense in possible hearings.

Bome stations gave on the air discussion time to Indian

complaints. ao C discussed the program's content with

wCat at a meeting in California. The network cancelled

the series after nine programs.

by 1979 the Navajo reservation's Navajo Community

College could boast i t s own station. anc C began 24 training Indian students in broadcasting sicills.

The Mexican-American community was in itially split

by age in its protests of broadcast media. When presno

stations in the fall, 1968 began using the term

'Chicano', which youth groups were promoting, older

Mexican-Africans considered the term an insult, as

it had once been. The youth also freely used the word

'brown', in organizing auch groups as the Brown Berets

in presno, to imitate the Black panther party image.

When Capital Cities Communications bought Triangle's Fresno, hew haven ana Philadelphia television stations, it sought to avoid minority group challenges to the license-tranelers. It established a million aollar fund for minority programming, ihe phil-a delphia station set up the minority Communications Board to give community groups input for program proauctions. kfhN-fresno created the minority Advisory Committee, chicano members proaucea the most programs from 1972-1974. Chicano,

Indian ana black groups with Aa U created ethnic broadcast training centers for their youth, in October,

1974 uiaC was made an autonomous production company and given a 3-year contract to produce programs for ArSH.

CUC's broadcast division president uoseph Daugherty expressed a view different from that of most commercial bro aacast ere:

fj?he very fact that m inorities had the opportunity to present their message from their viewpoint, that can't be judged in rating points. 'i'he input we received, in awareness, the sensitivity that all of us who participated received can't be judged t h a t way,25

kcGraw-hill found that it was faced with chicano

demanas upon purchasing stations in Bakersfield, San

Diego ana Denver. It put on chi canoe and Indians to its air staff. In 1975 its stations were nearing 2 0 $ minority employment. It set up minority advisory 212 councils at each station to suggest program ideas, a short series haza, which came from council ideas, was purchased by jiho for showing at its affiliates 2ft in ^exican-jinerican areas. Commercial broadcasting was responding positively to minority groups by the m iu-1970* s. 213 3. Community Groups

Cablecasting seemea to many media challenger groups to proviae the solution of having time for all views to be p r e s e n te d . In 1971 th e jj’co required cable companies to have three free i«#;cess channels that anyone could use to present programs or views. The tfoc subsequently reduced the requirement to one channel. By the end of the 1970's, most ol the hours on cable companies' free access channel went unused.

Since if'^c regulations forbade cable companies from censorship of the free access channel, groups with radical viewpoints saw the channel as an outlet.

The Minneapolis viueo Collective taped "Wounded knee

Operation" and "inaochina peace Campaign", two r a d ic a l a c t i v i t i e s o f 1973* o rg a n iz e d by th e American

Indian movement ( a I m ) and IrC, respectively, Jor cable cast, feminist views were presentee in video­ taped programs, such as "Women and waiting" by Twin

C i t i e s Women's J?ilm c o l l e c t i v e , and "Women and ifc&aness" by B e a ttie viaeo C o lle c tiv e . i)atagang o f

Columbus, chio taped women's events for cablecast, such as "Women's price Hif,ht— December 19, 1974" ana 27 "holly hear at the cockroach". on A p ril 5, 1976 the public Accese Coalition, a nonprofit corporation in Columbus was formed to provide information on videotape equipment for purchase and rental. Anyone 214 wishing to produce programs for the public assess channel on any of the city's 3 cable companies could jo in .

bome radical groups in America and Siglana used their own equipment in novel ways, in April, 197B in

Syracuse a group called Lucky seven began broadcasting a taped "steve kartin in concert" ana the film "Deep

Throat. " They broadcast over an unused, unlicensed channel 7. ihe penalties for unlicensed broadcasting are "fines of up to £10,000 or one year in jail or 29 both. " l'he /oc did not find the broadcasters.

On November 2b, 1977 Southern Television's

Southampton, mgla-id station lost the sound portion of its evening news, in its place, the audience heard:

This is the voice of Asteron. I am an authorized representative of the inter-gallactic mission ana I have a message for the planet iSarth. We are beginning to enter the period of Aquarius and there are many corrections which have to be made by earth people. All your weapons of evil must be destroyed, you only have a short time to learn to live together in peace. You must live

a stunned station spokesman suid that "the equipment used would need to be fairly sophisticated and 31 expensive. " Only a group with advanced technical equipment could have overriden southern's signal.

Cable technology advanced with the initiation of 215 Earner Communications' QUhf* system on December 1t 1977

in Columbus, Ohio. It provided for 30 channels— 10 for

distant commercial stations' signals, 10 for community

programming, and 10 Day-per-program channels which had new ana X-rated films, college credit courses, ana

sports and cultural events, /ranklin university offered

accounting and anthropology courses, Columbus Technical

institute gavt a course in communications, and Capital

university presented a child development course. A

unique feature of the system was its ability to record

viewer responses, a response button on viewers' channel

selector was usea to elicit viewer-size an^ reactions 32 to questions put to the audience during various shows.

A year after its inception QUjsa announced formation

of a children's network called Nickelodeon to produce

ana sell children's programs for the cable industry.

Vivian homer, vice president for education and

children's programs, said the motivation was due to an

awareness that "young people are real] y a di senfranchi sed 33 group in television." Another motivation was the

uesire to promote Warner communications' I>.C. Comics

division. December, 197b was the start of Warner's

promotion of ft. C. comics hero quoerman in a motion

p i c t u r e , a television series for Nickelodeon was

planned called "Video Comic Book," featuring other

f . c. Comics heroes, including The ilash. a program for 216

pre-school chilaren called "pinwheel" and one for

adolescents called "Columbus Goes Bananas" were

produced by

One motive for the introduction of was to

provide for an A-ratea movie channel, which could be

cablecast only to homes that requested it. It enabled

W&rner to become the Becona cable company in Columbus 34 to provide A-ratealilms, X-ratea offerings were

increasing tht number of cable subscribers throughout

the country.

Complaints auout A-rated cable programs from media critics were increasing. Jesuit pather korton

Bill of Morality in Media denounced the trend, pro- 35 claiming that "the people won't stand for it."

Manhattan Cable I'elevision in jecember, 1975 c a n c e lle d

a sophisticated series for jew Yorkers called "Midnight

Blue", which discussed sexual themes. It was a i r e d on

the xi’ee atcess channel, co-produced by screw

magazine's Al Goldstein. Manhattan Cable coula not

legally deny access to that channel to anyone

requesting available time. The producers, with AGLU

support, sued Manhattan cable. Manhattan Cable restored

the show, only to be denounced by congressman John

Murphy, who showed portions of the program at the

Bouse subcommittee on Communications hearings in 1976. 217 He said it was "clearly obscenity."^* PcC itules ana regulations, section 76. 2511ii) "Operating rules"

state:

por the public access channels, such system shall establish rules requiring iirst come, nonaiscriminary access prohibiting...obscene or indecent matter.

The cable company is left to aetermine such matter,

nut it cannot exclude any individual from cablecasting on the free access channel.

Indecent words in free access community broadcasting

received a blast from senator John pas to re when he began hearings on children's television in 1969.

The rcw had granted Pacifica a license to build iwpjj'T-Pjm in houston at a time when the Pacifica's

Los ^ngeles station api'a-im was being criticized for

broadcasting a poem called "Jehovah's Child". The

poem was of local community interest, since its

author, a young woman Hnglish professor at a state

college in Los Angeles, had been fired for reading

it to a class.

Pacifica inundation was a nonprofit corporation

that originated the idea of free access community

radio, pacifist-newsman Lew Hill in 1946 quit his

Washington u.C. job to organize pacifists who had

been jailed during norid nar II. The idea was formed 218 to build a raaio station in Berkeley, California. aPBa-bm began to broadcast in April, 194-9- H i l l ' s plan was to sell subscriptions to interested listeners in the way magazines were supported. Although anyone could tune in to the political, cultural and intel­ lectual programs of a PPa , hill thought that enough people were going to appreciate an alternative voice in broadcasting, and therefore support the station's e fio r t s.

fifteen months after it began, Hill shut down

UfA for lack of funds. He did not wish to continue the station*s commercial license if it meant he had to use advertising. Citizens who liked the station organized a meeting at which $2,300 was raised, They

subsequently collected $30,000. The Puna for Adult

Education gave H ill's foundation $150,000.

h ill got an educational license for JfeLP PH-Berkeley in 1954- Another educational Pk license established a PPa -L os ^ngeles in duly, 1959. Pacifica's fourth

station, wBnI-Hev; York, began in January, 1960. In

1961 hi-tA-BerKeley had 7,500 subscribers at $12 per year, as well as many large contributors. Its promotion of avant-garde culture brought Lawrence Perlingetti to

read his Beatnik poetry in 1959. Bdward Albee's The Zoo

Story was broadcast over KPfk in 1963. The play's salty 219 language brought about many listener-complaints to the

in a license renev*al hearing, the Puc renewed. rorJJA's license, stating:

We recognize that as shown by the complaints here, such provocative programming as here involved may oflena some listeners. But this aoes not :.esn that those offended have the ribht, through the Com­ mission's licensing power, to rule such programming off the airwaves. Were this the case, only the wholly inoffensive, the bland, could gain access to the radio microphone or television camera.37

Bach pacifica station had a board of directors and full time paid managers to supervise a volunteer staff. irograms were plannea, and community groups' nrogramming was net especially solicited. The Vietnam War brought a new focus to the stations. In 1965 a correspondent was sent to Vietnam, managers and volunteers established democratic decision-making procedures in the late 1960's. a communal emphasis was stressed. Upoer middle class listener-contributors dropped off.

In September, 1976 the Board of xdrectors of

ftjiitl-£'ifc a p p o in te d Anna A osof as station manager. WBaI program director pablo Yoruba Guzman of the Young

Lora's party, a radical puerto xtican group, and other

staff members saw her appointment as an attempt to

reestablish a bureaucracy, she criticized the concept

of a rauical commune: 220

It's a life style. They resist a substantial change as destroying their commune. It's a w-y of life of the 60's, ana they haven't gotten out of it... .We are not feven serving the white population I% r Spanish and West Inaian7.

She felt that most of the city's minority citizens did not liice the radical iaeasof the s ta ff. The Board of

uirectors felt that it better unaerstood the needs of

the community, it shut down the station on February 11,

1977 in oraer to lock out the staff, on February 16 the

Board cancelled the station's business telephone, and

began making plans for a delayed reorganization.

Wealthy worthweateraer Lorenzo n*ilam decided in

the mia-1950's to imitate the pacifica concent. He

established aha Ji-Seattle and j^uOO-portland on a

li stener-sup ported basis. When ofb instituted National

iublic nadio, the stations were of required power tc

receive government support, kilan loaned Jeremy

Lansman of bt. Louis the funds to establish jmaJA

there.

After a tomaao wiped out a portion of central

bt. Louis in 1952, business entrepreneurs rebuilt

several square blocks into an entertainment center,

involving, small saloons, Bixieland jazz spots, a

theatre for plays, antique shops ana other enterprises.

It was called Gaslight square, and Lansman decided to

locate jxxua there. kikiA had a commercial Fk license, 221

so initially sold commercial time to area merchants.

In the 1960'e the volunteer staff chose to l i v e a

communal lifestyle at the station, sharing meals and mattresses. In place of commercials, the staff

solicited listener contributions. Anyone was welcome to go to the station ana speak on the air—the total free access concept, fhe communal staff scheduled

their own air times. Lansman sola the station in the

early 1970's.

Lansman and kilam became a center of controversy

after filing j;\,u p e t i t i o n nui-2493 in December, 1974.

i’he petition was uesigned to create more educational

rw frequencies for free access community broadcasters. it urged the jtuu to deny license renewals to religious broadcasters, who usea educational station licenses, 39 but primarily broadcast religious "propaganda". '

national neliglous ijroadcasters and the Christian

urusaae did not feel they broadcast propaganda. AnB

asKed its supporters to write to the i?*oC and denounce

the petition, iwuj claimed that 27*000 peopl e had

already written to the j’cc in support of rfA-2493, and

an overwhelming response was neeaea to overcome that

support, in the summer of 1975 an anonymous flier

began circulating among religious groups. It suggested

that kadalyi. fcurray q 'Hair was behind the 27,000 222 supportive letters for **-2493. a related form letter to the flier asked people to sign it ana send it to the i'-oo. It said:

I personally appreciate ana wholeheartedly support the dunaay worship services and other religious programming.... I urge you to see to it that such programming continues. 40

The ia-o received 700,000 letters against xul -24S5i and aeniea the petition on august 1, 1975. The denial was not wiuely publicized, ana letters against itiiu-2493 continued to arrive at the At). Three million more were received in the next 12 months. The community raaio concept had been stalled by community members it had not intended to serve.

Olaer types of educational r'k stations began to switch to the community concept of listener-supported radio and community volunteer staffs in the 1960's.

.tidU-fellow springs, Ohio was established at Antioch

College in t'ecruary, 1958 as a college cultural station. It brought in community members to supplement stuaent staff, ana be^an coliciting subscribers. It also received Orb funas. nidU had acquired nearly

1000 annual subscribers at #20 each by the mid-1970 * s.^

In 1975 community access stations were in the process of going on the air in cities throughout jimerica. random groups of citizens were taking up the commercial broadcasters' challenge that if broadcasting 223 seemed so easy, let critical citizens groups try running their own stations. The groups were applying for educational p* licenses, even for a few Uhi' television licenses, and new stations such as

r'ree Access Communications in Columbus,

O hio, wa IP, beptchild haoio in Cincinnati, and sunrise nadio in Lincoln, Nebraska were preparing to broadcast.

Milam and Lansman hoped to get all the new and earlier-established community access stations together for a conference. They planned the National Alternative uaaio Conference for June 17-22, 1975. kike O'Conner of

wuni', Back porch haaio in kadi son, y/i scon sin offered the use of the station's facilities for the conference, hill Thomas, educational raaio expert in Urbana sug­ gested that a tape exchange be among the topics for discussion, he offered urban a as a center for ixee

Access stations to send tapes for exchange of programs, he compiled a list of existing and pending noncommercial community stations, who were invited to come to Madison.

27 radio stations and one television station were broaucasting. 13 raaio and two television stations had

applications pending, beven stations had construction permits from the foe, ah additional 7 were preparing 42 license applications.

Only 5 of the stations invited were hPit members, but Opn was asked to send representatives who could 224 discuss how the stations might become members.

was dominated by university and school district stations. lansman thought the i'ree access stations coulu establish an apsociaticn of their own.

Twenty-four ox the delegates representing 18 of the stations present in ^aaison decided to incorporate as the National federation of Community Broadcasters.

They agreed to contribute an average of £20 a month per group to wrua. jfub held a constitutional convention

^guat 1-3, 1975 in Columbia, Missouri. 27 delegates attended. The convention report stated that:

Commercial stations will not be included as official members of the federation.... The overwhelming majority of existing broadcasters, both commercial ana so-called public, has clearly failed to meet this obligation.... that the full range of opinion in our community finds expression.... we present diverse cultural, musical ana dramatic offerings, produced locally.... through the active participa­ tion of men and women of all races, cul­ tures and ages....we get excited on the air—real people, being angry, happy, scared or delighted, we care strongly about the people in our communities and what we bi’oadcast. That is why—at each of our stations ana across the country— we work for the growth of vibrant, responsive ana human broadcasting. 4-4

Standing committees ana a Washington office were established. ixfCii's certificate of incorporation in

Delaware stated its motive as "the optimum utilization of educational ana charitable resources" for its 225 stations, to serve as a go-between for its stations and the government, ana to develop production centers ana a noncommercial, noninstitutional network. v

National public xtaaio required member stations to have 250 watts iuu or 1000 watts Pto to belong to the federal network ana receive wpri px’ograms and CPB funds. rive full time employees were required, receiving at lease federal minimum wage. ^ station needed an annual income of *75,000 before it was eligible for federal

aid. ^ had 145 ana 20 am members, mainly university and school district stations, plus the

Pacifica stations.

a.dVjj stations would have been pleased if all of

their stations as a unit had a total income of §75,000

annually, fcany free access stations hau licenses limiting their dm output to 10 watts, stations

attending the National Jtemative Baaio Conference

expressed their opinion of CPB in the resolutions:

The history of the public Broadcasting Act of 1967 shows that.... the program was designed to encourage the develop­ ment of alternative forms of broad­ casting. current Copporation for public Broadcasting (Cpn) raaio qualifications go against this history.... The results are that stations representing the poor, minorities, ana diverse communities of interest remain poor, while stations serving the wealthy and educationally elite get feaeral dollars. Certainly this spenas our tax money in a regressive way. 4-7 University educational stations, once the challengers to poweriul commercial broaacasters, were considered to be a new elite as a result of On funding, and new community groups hau come forth to challenge their entrenched position ana programming. 227 VI, wotee 1 Dallas any the, hew Haven 'television. ^ay 15-21. 1952 (Urbana, 1953), ~ 5 i r ^ ------2 itobert summers, The dole of Congressional Broadcasting in a Democrat!c aocietv. u»puDlished ph, d. disseriation (Columbus, onio: oa), 1955), p. 299.

benate, Oommittee on the Judiciary, investigation o f J u v e n ile Delinquency in the United states, Television and juvenile Delinquency. weport Ho. 1466 , 64 C ong., 2d sess.(Washington w.c., «Jan. 16, 1956), pp. 29-30,

^paul Lazarsfeld, "Why Is So Little Known about the Directs of Television on children and what can Be Done?" public o p in io n - Quarterly. KI a (1955), pp. 243-249.

5 Robert Lewis shayon, open to criticism (Boston, 1971), p. 231.

^"How TV Violence Affects four Child," TV Guiae, March 21, 1959, pp. 17-19.

^Institute, Yearbook a a I a (1959), pp. 9-10. Q See Conference neport. national council on crime ana Delinquency (hew York, I960).

^U.b. Senate, Committee on the Judiciary, affects on Young People of Violence and crime portrayed on Television. part 16 of Investigation of juvenile Delinquency in the bnited states (Washington D,0., 1964), p. 3731.

10See Denort of the president1 s national Advispry commi ssion on civil disorders (New York, 1968),

1 National commission on the causes and prevention of Violence (Mass Media Hearings) "Mass Meaia & violence" ( Washington D.C., 1969), Vol. 9-A, preface.

12in James Jfixx, ed., The Mass Media and politics (Hew York, 1972), p. 94.

1^bee xtights in Qonflict (New York, 1968). 228

1*U.b. public nealth service, surgeon General's scientific Advisory Committee on Television and Social Behavior, Television ana Growing Up; The imp act qJ' Televised Violence (Washington B.C., 1972), p. 1.

15Ibid., p. 5.

^ Ibia. , p . 7.

17 U.o. Senate, subcommittee on communications, Hearings on the surgeon General *s Beport by the sci entiflc Advi sory Committee on Teleylsion and Social Behavior (Washington 1^72^. p. *j>.

16 In Max Gunther, "All That Tv Violence: why Bo we Love/nate It?" Guide, November 6, 1976, p. 10,

1^Tv Guide. July 9, 1977, p. A-1, on no rewrite, Los Angeles Times, July 20, 1979, part IV, p. 36.

20 see G. kenaelson & m. Young, Net work children ' s programming: ^ Content Analysis of Black ana Minority Treatment on chilaren * s i v (Washington ±>, C., 1974)#

21Lawrence Wade, "is WUdU killing Black programming," our Choking Times. September 16, 1975, p. 12.

22kevin phillipB, "Networks Are under pi re for Racism, Sexism ana Ageism," Tj/ Guide, September 3, 1977, p* A-3.

23Vine Beloria, Jr. , Custer ded for Yo.ur Sins (New York, 1970), p. 31.

2*»A College of, by, and for Navajo Indians, » The chronicle oi Higher education. January 16, 19 yu , p. 10.

^"Citizen*. with clout," Guide, March 8, 1975, p. 34.

26Ibid., p. 33.

2*^"one channel i s pree," Columbus jj'reepress, December 11, 1974, p. 9. 229 28 "public Access Cable TV! I" Columbus Dreeorees, March 10, 1976, p. 2. ‘

29 "pirate Tv broadcasts illegally over channel, " Oob Lantern, April 20, 1978, p. 15.

50 " "Mysterious Voice interrupts Tv program, calls for peace," Lantern, November 28, 1977, p. 8,

51Ibid.

52 ^ "Offerings By Wb-uB Begin in December," Columbus Dispatch, (fialde), October 2, 1977, p. 20.

To Head children's network," Columbus Dispatch, December 1, 1978, p. j^-5.

3*nobert ituth, "City can't Control cable TV Vilms," Columbus dispatch, October 11, 1977, p. B-9.

33peter keyer, "objections to Tv porno more moral than legaj," oolumuus citizen-journal, October 12, 1977, p. 10,

36Ibia.

37ln re paciiica, 36 147, January 22, 1964, para, 2.

38C. Gerald praser, "Wba I nead says Takeover Hecalls 60's tommune, New York Times, February 22, 1977, p. 54.

3^nk-2495. quoted in Tv^ Guiae, July 24, 1976, p. 5.

^°f1orni L etter, in TV Guide, July 24, 1976, p. 6,

^V.Y8U, "Community itadio for All of Us," Brochure (Yellow springs, Ohio, n.d. ), p. 3.

^ithoaa Bpstein & B ill Thomas, Gommunity-Altematlve Directory (Madison, 1975), p. 13*

*3Bill Thomas, National Alternative nadlo Konvention (Urbana, 1975), p. 11. 230

^ dipub I, "a statement of purpose, " The Constitutional Convention jjeport (Madison, 1975)* pp. 4—5.

1 c certificate of incorporation, The Constitutional Convention neport. pp. 13-H.

^60Ph, policy for public rtaaio stations Aeaistance (Washington u .C ., 1975)» pp* 4-71

xtesolutions (Madison, 1975)* p. 2. VII. tiAbb oi'U^Y: torAU-UJiiUtlliiilY u.«Ua .lA,ao TIwG

O rig in

WY' a J-.cW, Columbus, Ohio playea a leading role at

the national Alternative hadio Conference, June 17-22,

1975. It a influence was surprising in that it v.oula not begin broadcasting till one ana & half months later on

a 10-v.att noncommercial license, its aelegation

incluuea the only black uelegates at the conference.

The final resolution of the conference reflected wjjaO's

p r e s e n c e ;

jtadio as a profession has traditionally been ana continues to be dominated by young white males. ...',ye as members of participating raaio stations will work towara the elimination of such discrim­ ination based on sex, age, race, or even economic condition. *

WifiC .board of Trustee member *>une Todd offered

the conference the use 01 .iI’aC as a central telephone

exchange for transferring news ana other stories

between stations, if funus coulu be found for the

project, jji analysis of community stations, and

W-CaC * s subsequent rapia decline ana demise will

provide fruitful insight to the nature of citizens

meaia groups, particularly the new community-access

g ro u p s of the 1970's.

251 252

£he iaea lor a community-access radio station in

Columbus was developed by two residents whose heritage represented ethnic groups. Italo-American halph ne&tel'ano and uzech-^nerican £*red Anarle came separately to

Columbus in the early 1970* b. nestefano, a former xhilaaelphia policeman, was marrieu to a professor of early chilahood eaucation at the Ohio atate university, he haa experience seating up radio towers in the orient,

^narle enterea commercial broadcasting after receiving an in the field from Syracuse university. He came to

Columbus to teach at Capital University, He also became

.e'ine Arts Baitor for rlih*, the city's leading commercial

station, where ne hosted a cultural discussion program.

After reviewing available frequencies for columbus in 1972, xjestefano and Andrle decided to apoly for noncommercial 91.5 -e'*, a channel that coula broadcast from an inexpensive 10-watt transmitter, to be located in uowntown Columbus, The station was to be owned ana operated by a Board of Trustees unaer a nonprofit

corporate charter, obtained in the name Columbus

Community .educational Broadcasting (cCxx) in December,

1972. Dedtefano was Board president and ^nurle secretary.

Andrle's neighbor carol Brigham, a west Virginia native

and organizer of Appalachian cultural festival®, was

vice president. Her friend Don Haefele, an obU professor of early childhood eaucation ana colleague of Destefano's 233 wife, agreed to serve as treasurer, providing he was not called upon to assist in development and operation of tht; station. Brigham's friend June To da sought a passive role in station affairs, a writer ana wife of a wealthy psychiatrist, to da agreed to donate $1500 to the development funa, and later added $1000 for iaily operations, she was urged to become a Boara member;

subsequently, to co-chair the program Committee with

Anarle. Through Toua another large contributor was

auaed to the Boara—charlotte witkind, of the Lazarus

department store family, a seventh trustee, Lydia

Morgan, left Columbus beioru the station began

construction in the spring, 1975.

The trustees set up a nonactive Board of Advisors in 1974 to give status ana a representative community

image to the station, members includea Msg. Gilbert

Schmenk, pro test ant m inister George Whitney, attorney

Brea Isaac, liberal yta.te representative Mike stinziano

ana conservative businessman Aaolf Sommer, who 2 contributed $500 to the development funa.

in November, 1974 the trustees held the first open

community meeting. They had received BCC authorization

to begin construction. The meeting was hela in st.

Stephen's Episcopal church near the Oi?U campus, posted

leaflets on campus announced the meeting, so the

original composition of the organizing committees was 234 people of university backgrounds, stuaents, professors ana s t a f f .

The trustees had studied the creation of other community stations. They decided that neither the cul­

tural mouel of a l i a o nor the hippie structure of KINA was adequate to meet the needs of Columbus. Backing for WfAC was obtained from senior citizens, the Afro-American

Cultural A,rts center, auVi, the Mayor»s o ffice an** the

Ohio department of development. Trustees aesired to make the station a usable tool to the whole community, especially minority groups and individuals, programming for blacks in Columbus consisted of a white-owned Ami-iM

station, which employed black disc jockeys to play soul music. iVf-tiO1 s inspiration had developed during the iiixon

Administration's repression of the civil Rights Movement ana its elimination of programs such as 0j£), which had been seen as beneficial programs by white liberals like

the trustees.

The first descriptive paper of OCjjb stressed the

trustees' commitment to the advancement of minority

g ro u p s:

We will seek to alter the widely accepted concept that radio broadcasting requires complex professional training, To this end, we plan to train inaividuals and members of interested groups in the use of radio equipment and the preparation of programs. 235 Disadvantaged people who seek training with a view toward entering commercial broadcasting will be given full oppor­ tunities. our proposed station plWis to make full use of all resources of the Columbus community, local performing artists will be encouraged to contribute broadcast m aterial.... The cultural expressions of minority groups in Columbus will be made available for broadcast presentation. The latter , could include Blacks and Appalachians.

in depth local news reporting and documentaries were proposed for the station. All types of music were encouraged, iinarle had informed the i'CO that after- noon-programming would consist of a magazine format, recordings of varied music interspersed with informative conversation, interviews ana local features, evening programs would be 2-hour blocks of specialized formats, music, comedy, drama, public affairs. Two salaried managers were proposed to supervise the volunteer staff.

An operating budget of $36*000 annually, including

$11,000 for salaries and $10,000 for equipment was planned, ft was to be met by obtaining 1500 subscribers at $15 each, never acquired more than $2500 in its account at any one time, only 30 subscribers were obtained by the end of 1975. baxii's descriptive goals conclude with the comment that "in the history of community radio, no station that has come on the air has failed.'*^ WtfjiC changed history.

A 12-member steering committee was coasted at the first community meeting, it consisted of the trustees,

accounant Kay home, ObU fem inists Diane poulton and

Kris perry, June Toaa's 16-year old son Bruce and 5 Brigham’s neighbors Carol Houser ana Karen Martens, poulton was Editor & Director of communications in

Ubli's College of Administrative science, she designed

the station’s letterhead and wrote the early news­ letters. in October, 1977 she became administrator of

the state Assembly reference Bureau's new women's

information service. Kris perry was a straight-A

senior at uob ana member of women’s Action collective.

She organized ..aC's women's Broadcasting croup, carol

Houser's husbana uave was an organizer of the Columbus

jazz society and a host of a n'OtAi jazz program. Karen martens' husband was a bunker. Bruce Todd servea as

Wind's first station manager during construction and

the lirst month of broadcasting, till leaving for

c o lle g e .

A 12-member public relations committee was headed

by Mifce Darfue, a state employee, who provided free

printing of station materials, a 15-member construction

crew was set up under professional carpenter Mickey

Melragon, a friend of jjidrle*s. M^lragon built the

control room stuaio and provided materials for free.

Chuck happ, a professional house painter, constructed 237

record shelves and provided other free services. He

was £estefano's neighbor, ana became a sluegrass music

show host at the station, a technical committee was

headed by steve puffenberger, an Q8U technician.

The trustees held a second open organizing meeting on Novemoer 18 at st. Stephen's. Availing list of 85

was compiled from the two meetings. uegtefano headed

a fund raising commit tee. Anarle and *June Toad co-chaired

the program committee, which woula become the primary

decision-making body at the station for most activities.

B la c k s became in v o lv e d wHtLurbtC a t th e November

meetings, popular commercial disc jockey Kirk Bishop

attended, oteve steward offered to develop drama

productions. He began an effort to obtain a Bicentennial

grant for programs in that area through the ohf°

Historical society ana with the assistance of 0 8U

history proiessors. K&y Lunay was a clerk-typist

at ohio state university. Like most blacks who joined

she was experienced and educated beyond the

job-level from which she earned her income. Lundy haa

3-years of college, was a graduate of minorities

Broadcast graining in Youngstown, former co-host of a

women's discussion show ana co-producer of a lounge town

religious broaucasu. Blacks who came to had been

unable to fina paying jous equivalent to their skills.6 2 3 0

ine rirst hews Letter was issued alter the wovuDber mtetins. It revealed a new development p r o v i o i n e m jtm ii with a potential 2 0 , 0 0 0 listeners as soon as it went on the air:

Coaxial communications, inc. ana garner caole ol Columbus have agreed to carry the broadcast signal oi radio station nr1-**.'- on cable viueo ch an n el b. *7

The cable coup was likely to ering many subscribers, gam er's audience w^s upper middle class, like the kina

Lhat supported community stations in orher cities. rfhe station's scuna never airea on cable, however.

The trustees called two community meetings at

tjt. Stephen's church in December, on the 9 th ana 17th, which raised total participation in the station to 1 3 0 .

The Btation would have 130 active participants the hollowing December oi 1975» but only 13 oi the original organizers irom the wovernier-December meetings became

stari members, ana just 7 remained in December, 1975.

A hunured oi the organizers ceased involvement uuring

th e 3-month period in early 1975t when the trustees

sought a site lor the studio, though n£'A .\* would

continue to send the aev.s jjetter to the oricical 1 3 0 ,

rather than arranging new gatherings.

At the December 9 meeting the participants were

inronaea by jjnarle oi the neea to ootain third

class radio engineer's licenses through examination

ii they wished to operate the stuuio's control boara. 239

j j i stuay guide was proviaea, ana meetings in homes

were arranged xor stuay. participants were urged to

taice the test in January in eclumbus. only ^narle

ana jjeotelano haa licenses.

Technicians line ^teve puffenoerger were not worried

auout tailing tne test, ae faileu, however, ana left the

station without a technician oi’ his bacjtgrouna. There

was no one to install the equipment, tt-eaC purchased a new control panel, ana was given a usee transm itter by

a jbv, nersey station. x^vier college, Cincinnati ottered

a used antenna tor transmission ot the signal from atop

a tower, but required staff members jeif 3 a t t e n

ana chris tina to climb Javier's ola tower to get the

anterma. .vPAC only haa a consulting engineer from

Cincinnati aurin^ its construction, ana pec rules

requirea stations uroauc. sting to obtain an pec First

Class li censed engineer. tfhen only two of the gt.

Stephen's participants who tooK the January thiru-class

license test passed, the future looked DleaA.

The secona i«ews . s e t t e r i s s u e d i n M arch, 1975

an nou ncea, "GoOh wortb! WFa C now has its studios ana

o ffices.1,0 A aowntown businessman gave the station

rent-free, all utilities paid, the whole secona floor

of a builuing on state street that housed a popular

restaurant, ana was just two blccics from the state

C a p ito l, a catholic seminary gave the station a portion 240 oi its vacant downtown roller rink to house the tr^snsmitter, ana adjacent lana to buila the tower on.

trustees culled a general meeting at the new studio lor ivpril 1.

The trustees were taking seriously their aeuic-tion to involve blacxs in majcr roles at the station.

^e^tex -no named 20-year old James £vsns as news director, jj! uuu graduate in December, i;vans was completing a broadcasting training program at career academy, a traue school, ri*e other blacks at the station, gvans* pacing „ob was uelow his training— a state assembly clerk and messenger, although stall members liked Evans» the appointment by ueatelano maae it appear as though community participants on the stall were not to be consultta on important decisions.

jjuture blacK stall member cordon pranklin inter­ viewed i^vuns lor the April edition oi an o SU black s tu d e n t newspaper, ^vans' comments on his plans l o r wI a O nelu portents ul luture policy conllicts;

it's there, il we aon't use this and exploit this ana try to make this station a "people's raaio station n— and either we are going to ao this or not— we can only lo se an opportunity, it's up to blacks to make this work i o r them . 9

in e goal that gvans haa in ainu was .-iiierent from the trustees' im age o i the station, sy December, 1975 th e 241 trustees' contrauictory hopes lor minorities were clear—if one group was held back at the station then its potential wac thwarted, but if one group was allovea uominaaoe then other groups woula be left out.

jjvans was unable to organize a news staff. scvtrJ. meetings, staff members no longer came, he ueclinea to contact national sources suggested to him lor free tapes. ^ since Anarle had committed the station to a news' effort, he ana x)esteiano ueciaed to promote Dvuns out of the position in August ana into the role of continuity Director, with responsibility for scheduling, checking auily program logs, orienting new staix members ana obtaining public service ana communi ty-af fa irs announcement s. D®a'tefano asxed gvans to spend most of each day at the station. He accepted the opportunity. £vans* appointment was announced by

De$tefanc at a general meeting. Destefano asked in front of DVcuas if anyone objected, leaving the staff to accept the process of uecision-maxing as well as tne appointment, without comment.

in the hectic days of the pre-broaacasting phase of wkac, some blacx, ethnic and talent applicants got lost in the shuffle. Lawrence waae, a perceptive editor from pm* ghrtifiwg mand writer of some experience,

submitted program iueas, but wade was never contacted by jjfurle, who was serving as program director, till 242 11 mio-septemuer. j^gtefano assumed the role of station manager in August when gruce ^oaQ left for college, ne subsequently lust a tape from a local harmonica placer, who Kept calling auout a program, joanne uembro wsKi, a polish polKa expert, approached ^narle uoout a program, out he aid not pursue it.

in uune, 1975 Anarle haa alterea his free access beliefs, ge aoubtea local aazis could be given access to tne airwaves to promote Killing jews. He and piegtetano oejected to pruce goad's discussion with rabbis, wno wished to uo an historical program on ouuaism. Anurie suggested that radical groups should not have access to teach bomb-maxing, it such a proposal were raaue.

xtauical groups toox no interest in wfa C* I n 811 attempt to obtain national alternative news sources, staff members contacted ^iteration hews service ana tne Alternative press syndicate, wnich served under­ ground newep^pers anu pacirica. replied that

••we'll be looxing forward to ,vpAC subscribing in a tew months." APS required a $25 initiation fee ^ust 12 to ce considered tor memoership. WFAC could not afford membership in the radical organi zations, and they refused tree assistance to the station, so

WPa C remained distinct among free access stations in its lacx of new Lett news anu views. 243 2. jfeaeral ana poanaation Grants

in spite oi WFAC^ nonrauical political image, it received no help from the ieaeral government, hpii informed tfiUo that the station was too small to receive public xunas ana so it must utilize iiaevotion 13 ana enterprise at the local level, « jhe station was sent the weeitly Dulletin oi CPBf the parent agency oi hrh. rihe bulletin citen containea announcements oi new aoministrative positions at CPB* irequently noting that «tne salary is in excess oi *35 ,000 per year.«

Grants irom cpB to memDer s t a t i o n s were l i s t e d , w ith inrormation as "another grant ior $10,000 has be^n aw^raeu to A.W-aci'f'O ^an prancisco" to aevelop a half-nour show on the topic of "Spenaingtt money. ^

Wjb'a C sought assistance from other agencies oi the ieaeral government, GSA haa aonatea surplus technical equipment to educational institutions. a 8

Wj?a O haa an educational license, it applied to the surplus program. GSA repliea that to qualify «it will ue necessary Ior you to advise us what your ±eu.eral 15 agency ariiliation is." Ihe station had no insiae c o n ta c ts , ih e station asicea the state .Department f o r tupea programs on public affairs it haa advertised, ho tapes were sent, ana a rep ly stated that «our programs are currently unuer re-evaluation. 244 hx«W since lyo2 proviaea grunts ior transm itter ana construction unaer an annually renewea act for eaucatiouux stations, WFAC applioo it was informed tne program was out of funas until the next liscal year iuegan auly >J, 1y75, alter VVFAC haa its tower built ana was transmitting a signal. gince columbus public gchools ana Oob nave eaucutionul stations, ttfaC ^ua low priox’ity for future requests to HEW unaer the tfoncomuiercial

^uucational Broaucasting facilities a0^! wnich favored stations in localities Inciting other public stations.

AS Wj?aG uroufent minority youth into its free training program, it considered seeding feaeral funas ior that. An auministrator of the urcun ^eague informed

Begtefano that the station uia not have enough money to be consiuerea as a recipient of federal funas. institu­ tions seeding xeueral training grants must pay minority trainees one half of at least the minimum wage auring training to get the other half from tne government.

WJs' a O o n ly h a a ^ 2 5 0 0 in its banic account, patching funas were required m r laaa juvenile aelinquency job training grants, ^fi's minority Training (jrant program, wnich required aPa membership, and CETA training grants.

Basic Opportunity Grants were available to poor youth only if the institution belonged to a prominent

accreaiting agency. 245 In 1>75 WE AC maae two proposals to produce and broadcast dramatized hi story programs ior the Bicenten­ nial. Stewart's proposal, which he developed with o i i i o e r s oi the Ohio historical society, was rejected by the ^erican ^evolutionary Bicentennial ^.oministra­ tion, An iuea i^r broaucasting programs about women or the j*aerican a n volution was submitted to the bod u i i i c e oi women's stuaieB, which had received the right to administer 55 ^eceral gran cs. The proposal was r e j e c t e d .

Wjj'a O obtained tne services ol Leaortt G^ry through the Chi* (Comprehensive jtfuployment graining Act) irogram. In that program minorities are paid Ior training at some job. Gary asjted that she be allowed to go to WE AC lor oroaucast training, jhough unemployed,

she huu considerable background ana skills, a CETA oriiuial tolu ner to stop desiring .obs comparable to 13 her skills aiu abilit j r . and loo* Ior a typing job.

she was allowed to wor* at the station without ,vpa C having to put up a matching portion oi salary, yhe hau come to oolumuus with her 4 children ana husband,

when he got a job—but he subsequently lost it. she

hau been editing a blac* community newspaper in Michigan,

which she and other blac*s lounued. ]>es'teiano asicea her

to uevelop a monthly program QUiae to send to subscribers. 246 ne thought sales oi advertising in the (juiue coula

support the station, bhe prepared a moael. $he solu

an aa to a olacit realtor, yhe ana c^ol srigham appi*oachea

G^ru circle, a uiscount chain, with a proposal ior

auvtrtiaine inserts, out it was rejected. ^1 though a p r i c e 0 1 „ust ^292 ^or 10,000 16-page tuDloia size

ouiaes per month was obtained, and plans maae ior

writing stories about the station in the guide,

^fe£jtexano informed G^ry that no ,*FAC runua could be 1 y usea to print it. as sunicient advertisements were never obtained lor an introuuctory issue, the guiue

nut never printeu. in ^ugust ^une ioau appointee gary

to the rro^raiii committee, aria L'-aora gary uecyiie a

talented host ci an ^irican ana jazz music program,

ana special events reporter.

ViJ?au attempted to obtain private ^rants. The major

rounuation locally was the columbus foundation, jhe

Columeus rounuation rejected two proposals in the

summez', 1975, i n s i s t i n g t h a t i t s o o a ra m embers be

g iv e n seats on w.c'a G' s ijo«ra oi ^rust-es beloz'e iunas

were granted, iiestei’ano rejected the idea, i e e l i n g

that it was uesignea to assure a conservative policy 20 at the station.

Grant proposals were submitteu to numerous

iounaations. ^ach was geai'eu to the xouuaation * s 247 chartered goals; proposals l'or music appreciation programs, advancement of m inorities, youth or women,

technical education, cultural advancement, construction oi’ training facilities ior youth, ana proposals

specifically ior public broadcasting to foundations

funding it. some foundations listed in airectorj.es

set-m to exist only on paper. x^e postal service returned letters unopened indicating no forwarding aauress of

Various foundations, including rail lip s(iainneapoli s),

xjoswell, Grace, j^resge anu iAmim.

jo me private roun nations required affiliation with

reueral agencies for grants. jjears-Hpebucic Foundation

declined to help with a training program for ^outh

a t Wrjtc, d r a in in g i t onl., u su e g r a n t s n th ro u g h n a t i o n a l euucu.ion agencies. 1 ^ om egie nexo puna commission

of rittsburgh showed the uegree to which the foundation

directed gra..t recipients, explaining that "our funas

nuot oe upplieu sorely towara our awaru and operating

expenses. It suggested that the camegie corporation

o i wew 1 0 rx oe contacted, since it iunuea the cth study

ana was interested in public broaacasting.

oorporatfon of aew fora indicated its determination

to dominate grantees, rejecting the proposal and inform­

ing nfxC that “we ao not muxe grants for rauic anu

television programming projects unless they are central

to our own program interests. 2 * 8

u.any wealthy i'ounaatione rejected w?AC's proposals b., claiming that the founaation aid net have any money*

I’he rf)c*vfci'eller pamily puna wrote that it only haa

"limited resources. The **ohn ana toury darkle iounaation oi 50 iiocKefeller plaza wrote that »twe are a small Iounaation. » The laconic foundation on piitn

A.venue, uew ior* also repliea that it was «a small loutuation. ,l

1969, which required foundations to spena some oi their iuau3 for phil ati thro pic purposes, rather than just

serving as tax shelters lor families who established them •

utany iounaations estaolishea by wealthy, conserva­ tive families ana corporations rejected W>AC p r o p o s a ls with statements about lack of iunds. The Howard heinz 27 inuowment "is limited in its giving." The General 28 ilectric younuation "limited its support program, " 29 The piailinger ihunaa-cion "limitea our contributions. »

The gawin «. ana Catherine m. javi s foundation iouna

that "the iunas available ior distribution are not

suxlicient. " jhe well-enuo wea olin pounuation, inc. prore^sea that "all oi our lurius are committed for 51 some tim e .

The nelena pjuoinstein foundation was approached

because it specialized in grants lor women's projects. 249 a proposal was maue to prouuce programs for women ana to train women in ox’caacusting. it must have had many requests, since it rejectee the proposal uy saying that 32 "we are acle to support only & limitea numoer."

other lounuations seemea to be swampea with uemanus.

The crown ^elleroach J)'oui;aation haa «unpreceuentea uemanus on our resources," ana rejected v/pAC'6 proposal in spite oi v.iiat was callea «the significance of 'VPAC18 3 3 activities. » The jdlis l,. pniliips pounuation was

"committee ior this xiscal year. She ^ea^ens pigest pounuation was worse off, claiming tnat iitnis year our 35 ejs.penuitures have exceeuea our buaget. " (phe McGregor pund went xurther in its ueiicit planning, maxing

"substantial commitments on its resources over the 5b next several years. 11 5?iie irwin-gweeney-jiirlt-r j^ounuation citea tieconomic factors affecting our enuowment. .., v,’e expect that it will be at least two 37 years oexore v.e can unuertaxe auaitional obligations. "

Two founuations set up by wealthy inuiviuuals rejecteu vi/AC's proposals on the grounue that they were in such baa straite tney could help no one. jhe j-illia xsaobitt nyue pounuation claimea ((inability to be of help to jou either at this time or in the foreseeable future."^0 The william 0* W itney pouuuation of new york ihuicatea the ultimate uistress that "we are not in a position to make a grant at this time nor. ..in the 45 0 iuture." *

pour; cations that purportea to be national in

scope in directories infonr.fcd wj?AC That tneir grants were lim ittc to certain geographical areas. T*1® jjooert

sterling olar* younuation, inc. lixec tne station's

"youth involvement project," out said it haa to involve i.eu ior* city jouth to get a grant. wFACta cultural programs hau to oe neara in "Pittsburgh anu the a e stem Pennsylvania region" to get a grant irom 41 ine iiiilmau x'ouiiuatiofi, inc. ^he snows hau to be nearu in wounty, i.ew jersey h to get iunas irom

ih e F lo re n c e anu t-ohn ^chu;;i«nn p o u n u atio n . ^ hev. jersey

was eligible ior eonsiuerade help, The victoria

pounuation, inc. niocuseu on uroaa problems in northern 4 new aersey, " anu coula not help v/FAC ' 8 minority programs.

pouncations praiseu wPa C's proposals, but uiu not

seuu money. The preueric* «. nenneay ^emaila! 5 0 u n c a tio n ,

in c . fe lt of the "youth involvement project, this sounus

line a gre^t iuea, " jo get a grant the program would

have to oe establisheu in "Boston anu douthern pines, 44 north Carolina." Tne ciyVeiana foundation was limited. 45 to "the greater Cleveland area." ihe icuis j> peaumont

foundation oi Cleveland was «a regional foundation" ior

the northern and central Ohio areas, but they nuni'or- tunaiely uo not induce your area."46 t jhe Qfcorge (juna younaution oi Clevelanu wanted to Keep up a correspon­ dence, ana "welcome an opportunity to learn more about tne lauuiole plans, 11 although "they ao not fall within 47 the present program priorities of our younu&tion. "

foundations in gaiut Paul were all located in the first inational nanx. ijuilaing, ana hua unusual geo­ graphical limitations. The fuuis ’»* ana fcaua Hill racily foundation gt*ve to the entire "northwestern unitea states,11 excluding uhio. 4-0 The j^ush foundation hau "regional em^nasi s, " uhio not using one of its regions. ‘r; The nriscoil jOUnuation rejected a proposal ufcu^uae it only bLVt to "several narrow geographical s o areas,’1 not specifying whart.

foundations createa by industrial corporations v.ere very parochial in scope. The corning Glass 1(orK.s jfuUuuation g<*v^ to local projects fixe mT'a Ci out only in cities where the company "has ruanuxacturing plants."

The American aetal climax foundation le lt vif’AC u^a no'*: 52 "fall within the scope of Am ax. ” jhe ^ank of America younuution tnou^ht the station's "objectives important, 53 out "outaiue the scope” o± .ounx of xmerica. The

Gleniueue frust company directed the pew charitable 54 fruets. «y^c projects fell »outsiue*' their scope.

A uifxerent area of current founuation interest was oitfcii the basis for reaction. The houston ynaowmen 252

Inc, had "no program** that fit WFAC's needs.'*'* The Mar,y i»ouise Curtis Box foundation only gave to the curtis 56 institute of music, WFAC's "project lies out side n the 57 Kowland. foundation, Inc, interests. The hew gorld foundation especially limitea its philanthropic goals, stating that "we do not support art, madia or cultural m58 programs.

Borne foundations indicated that they likedwFAC*3 projects so much that they could not give a reason why they were rejecting the proposals. The Raymond John 59 Wean foundation found WFAC to he a «worthy cause. **

WFAC's "youth involvement project.. . . was given careful consideration at the fall meeting of our contributions

Committee," wrote the Aliie-chalmere foundation in its rejection letter.^0 The appropriations committee of the fublic Welfare foundation, inc., met ts discuss 61 projects, hut was "unable to participate." The

Cargill foundation found the WFAC request "worthy of 62 support," but "we are unable to make the grant."

Borne foundations rejected WFAC proposals because they were exactly what those foundations were designed to fund. The janforth foundation, which aids the education of youth, rejected a communications education program for youth because "the foundation does not make grants for projects involving the media. "^3 The CBS 291 foundation, in c., which was designed to give meal a

grants, iouna that WfAG "falls outsiae the scope of

the normal activities of this pounaation.

Three WfAG proposals were rejected because they

fit the foundations* aims, a proposal to produce medical ana health care information programs for the

community was rejected by The henry J. kaiser family

foundation because "the foundation's primary interest

is supporting programs in the areas of medical education 65 and health care delivery." ^ a proposal for a children's

workshop to enable children to produce their own radio

programs from their ideas, and develop a sense of

self-discipline was "too far outsiaen The ^rant

foundation, inc., interests, which were the "behavioral

aspects of child development. The hope for a grant

from the William h. jjonner foundation, inc. tu help

WPa G assist m inorities working with the station ..was

dashed because the foundation engaged in "assistance 67 f o r th e American I n d i a n s . ”

.Large foundations that had funded sim ilar areas

to those projected by WfAG sent negative responses.

a proposal for extensive programming in the arts, to

give aisaavantaged residents access to the ideas was

rejected by the rockefeller foundation because

"guidelines of the Arts program are such that support go ior radio falls beyond the scope." »phe Rockefeller 254 brothers fund had interest in radio, but nwhiie the fund uoes have interests in the field of communications, its program does not, as a general rule, extend to contributing to community programs. The most surprising rejection came for a proposal to create a community stations' network, and establish neighborhood remote broadcasting anu training facilities throughout the city, xhe foundation rejecting it was the major px'omoter of a public broadcast network idea and the

programming center—the ford pounaation. it rejected the proposal because the ford foundation has

"no grant program for radio activities and no general om aget.

Three foundations liked the ideas so well they asked for additional time to consider them. National dome Library founuation wrote that *»we shall study your project ana if we have any questions we B h a ll be in 71 touch." The (jarolyn foundation enthusiastically

"referred your letter to one of our committees for review." The *fc>bert o. and nel en c* Kleberg foundation was a part of the ning Ranch, inc., ana could provide

entensive support when the proposal «was brought to the attention of the uirectors of the foundation at their 7-5 next meeting." Those three foundations were never hearA from again. 255 3. Community ±*unding

The Columbus jtounaation was approached in a grant proposal prepared by uiane ho we, after the first rejection.

Howe was an Cob student permitted to receive credit from the department of Communications for working as a summer in tern at Mi'jtC. Though her proposal was rejected , she developed the first fund raising benefit for the station.

iihe got the moonshine cooperative Bar to promote a WFAC benefit for *>uly 17, 1975, with a 750 cover charge from customers to go to the station, ghe induced popular bands like the heo Mountain string £ano to donate their 74 services. The moonshine was a university-area bar

established with the purpose of providing funds for worthy community projects.

The benefit did not bring in much money. The U°*n-

shine contact proved to be important. The owner of the downtown building where WJ?AC received free space sold it to the restaurant owner in the fall, The new owner demanded rent, in December, 1975 the Moonshine offered

brkc a 2-story house it owned adjacent to the bar at no charge, a s the station was broadcasting 24-hours a

day by December, it mace the move without going off the

air. chris hind, a sound systems technician whe replaced iuffenberger, was able to reconnect all the equipment

at the house, while Bill Bamer played tapes at the 256 uowmtown stuuic.

hill Hamer and another member of the original committeea from the at. Stephen's meetings John cpyaer, became the main fun a raisers for WFAC* jjayuer printed the uoonshine Benefit fliers, and on tfx&uat 1 obtained the use of a party house in a suburban development for a press party to promote the inception of programming on WFac. no members of the press came, but some early participants in station activities were reuhltea ana contributed $400* In jjecember giyder quit his office job to go on unemployment benefits and become the office manager full time at WFAC* He designed the interior of the moonshine house, supplying carpeting anu paint for the stuuius, and initiated a training program for new volunteers at the station.

i>egtefano felt some of cyder’s activities impinged on hie area of station manager, gpyder obtained exten­ sion telephones for the downtown studio to set up an om-the-air telephone for callers to give their views, hebtefane ordered the telephones disposed of, believing that uhio hell required ito own telephones to be installed before an extension service could be Initiated.

Hebtefane initially rejected a

a&yder waited part of the cover charge to go for his 257 services. uobtefaae asked, <*yhy should he get anything. 75 it should all ge to the station."

wohn ijiyaer proposed printing bumper stickeiste exchange for donations ana printing charts on how to build and connect hone antennas to radios to better receive the 10-watt rftfxC signal. fhese wert available at the booth he set up at the community Harvest festival in October, 1975 in the universlty-area. on priaay night oi the festival WFAC was broadcasting its regular keminist aadio talk and music program of Kris perry and Women's action collective, gayder felt students preferred rock, and to induce their attention to the booth he played a local rock station on the radio at the booth, pretending it was WFAC'S programming. June loud anu Carol Brigham strongly criticised gpyder at the next Program committee meeting for his deception 76 of the public at the festival.

Xhe October 13th program committee meeting discovered a deception of the pec that

August 12 sad 13 operating lags during the tine he was

•a the air as the licensed ep era tor, he substituted aew unsigned operating logs ior those days, since the 77 other engineers' signatures could not he translerred.

At the Program Committee meeting June jodd and carol Brigham were aistressed by the deception ana the loss ol the historical record #i the station's program­ ming, including a record ol the lirst s«* ward ghow,

August 16,6-12 p.m. ward was a blind man with a third class operator*s license, he presented an oluies request show, Book 'n1 Boll ol the 1950*8, with his extensive record collection, it became a popular call-in show.

Ward handled the calls and control board himsell, having a friend fill in the log. when the friend could not come one Saturday night, Ward was alone in the station. Be aid the show flawlessly, and thereafter came alone. When he first approached Andrle about doing a show at a general meeting in June, he brought a tape of telephone conversations he had with commercial broadcasters around the nation who rejected his services, telling him they could not trust a blind man around their equipment, even if he had assistance.

Bestefane ana uedrle denied any knowledge of gvane* altering ef the logs in a debate at the October13th meeting, i t revealed the growing r ift between the male and female trustees. .Differences ef opinion had existed 260 since the formation of the Board in December 1972, but Brigham and Todd were depenaent en the male trustees for knowledge, since they lacked broadcasting experience, as the women gained experience and confidence, the rift increased, as it did between the 7S men and women en ether committees. Brigham enlisted the support of her neighbors carol

Jaeuser and Aaron martens, making them program committee members, martens and aouser initiated a weekly 3-hour evening program ef community affairs. The August 27th program log, which Avans aid not get to, is remarkable in its detail in contrast te the more generalized gvans* replacements, ana gives an account of the Houser-gartens program that shows the extent ef community affairs beigg b ro a d c a st. The show in clu d ed 15-minute in te rv ie w s w ith Gene waCman o f th e Ohio h i s t o r ic a l so c ie ty and airby, a consumer affairs expert, it had b° o Jc c ° rn e r with jj±ck uckee, a section on the problem of women and alcoholism, a recorded chilaren's section for their entertainment, and a public service announcement on the 79 Columbus Tenant's Union. martens was engineer for the August 27th program. When she and nouser were shown the control board in duly, they were hesitant to touch the dials. T*ey attended WkAC study classes for the FCC third-class license test, but martens insisted she would never 2ft 1 take the test. She felt jyidrle planned to leave her en her own In the studio If she received a license, and she wanted his suppftrt and presence as engineer, ghe ana houser were housewives, married to successful husbanas. she doubted a woman could handle technical equipment or get a license as an engineer, when she took the test at itmdrle's insistence and passed, he left her on her own at the controls with no resultant problems. When she left the station, she get herself a paying job.

ihane he we was afraid te operate the control board, and turned asm a chance te have a program ef her own, though she was n communications major at college, she continued to write grant proposals. Aware that B°raent8 of Columbus had "supported many local projects," she 00 submitted a grant proposal, it was rejected, ucjpnalds was petitioned for a grant to aid training of youth at the station, it was turned down* The columbus community kood Coop, a email group of university-area people who operated a natural foods grocery in the basement of a methodst student center, was the only local organisa­ tion te give support, over $200. The food ooop* like the Tenant's Union, moonshine ana an underground newspaper The Columbus yreepress were products of the

anti capitalist, community people*s spirit of the late

1960*8 and early 1970*s» which was partially an 262 influence on the idea for "-“Ao and other free aooesa

stations, Deatefano felt these organisations were toe radical, me frequently criticized the preepress, but

as they occupied the house that Moonshine was giving to in December, uestei'ano arranged a joint meeting of the radio and newspaper staffs, and

convinced the Jgmepress staff to move out, stressing

the greater community service that the station could p r o v id e .

jtndrle urged ui ane Mo we to do a two-hour evening program when her internship ended in August, she was

too frightened to come te the first scheduled show,

subsequently she developed an unusual shew called

aural Delights, blending music, poetry and other arts,

and enjoyed hosting and operating the equipment, she

recruited other women for the station,

ueuora Gary initiated the idea of using night

clubs as a fund raising source, she convinced the owners of ivories, a black club, to let WFAC collect

a cover charge one night a week when a band performed.

That brought in £20 a week. Bill Ba r n e r» in the next

month of September, 7975, approached

the aeeoles gye. Burner suggested that since jazz

was an art form, W/AC could broadcast it live from

the deedles Dye, and collect a cover charge from 263 patrons entering tne jazz room o f the club, Denham agreed to pay technical costs oi' the broadcasts, and narner offered the services oi jazz c ity workshop to perform free once a week. Though a chemist and scien ce writer, narner played clarinet with the experimental group, cover charges came to nearly$80, and a second night was added bringing the station another$80 and the raaio audience of Qolumbus the iirsrt live jazz programming in the p rogressive mode.

B&rner secured recordings of local classical and jazz a r t is t s fo r broadcast ona program he hosted. he got fr ee recorus fo r the sta tio n from a local juke box company, ne wrote to record companies, and gotWFAC on th e ir albums1 m ailing l i s t s , and he got the American chemical bociety to send its popular weekly taped program "men and m olecules". WiJ'AC’e main reason for seeking taped programs from varied sources was to get the tape recordings to use at the station for recording shows and events. The station could not afford to buy tapes, ch**0! Houser got the uhio department of natural jjesources to Bena taped programs on state parks, but the DePartnient demanded i t s tapes be returned, most program su p p liers did not. The .hm eric an offices of jgurope's public broaucasting companies sent tapes of programs promoting 264 national cultures ana music. The sweetish. Broaacasting

Corporation ana naaio Meaeriana wereluomroep sent 61 taped programs. The national cotton council sent meekly tapes oi' "Cotton in the newsti, ana informed the y n station ©i' its "cotton hotline" for news upaates.

in uctober poncho and pannie Murray brought an

Appalachian flavor to the station, pone no was a forJdift operator at Aroger's. He was an aficionaao of nluegrass music, having taped festivals ana met most of the artists, ne got pete Hughes, owner of the Bluegrass palace, to give a grant of $30 per show, for two nights a week of live Biuegrass broaacasts from the club, columbus has an Appalachianimmigrant population, but the music was considered too distinct an art form for commercial stations, and almost none was programmed until the broadcasts began, and poncho anu rannie started a recoraed program, as well. The

station's income had grown to $240 a week.

By early 1976, most of the station's weekly income haa been cut off. The programs from the Neeales Eye

almost aid not begin, riestefano neglected to oruer line connections from the telephone company between

the club ana the station, so that the program could

be carried to the studio ana then broadcast, pour days

beiore the first broadcast he asked ^narle to do it. 265 jmorle refused. Volunteer technician chriB L^nu was the only station member who knew to what frequency cycle the telephone connections had to be equalized with the station's equipment, ijegtefano also uid not realise that modulating equipment was needed at the club to send

*-he programs to the station, ihe station had none, (d^is hind had bought Borne for personal use, and he lent it, after ordering the telephone lines just in time, although the Jutirrays had agreed to operate find's equip­ ment from the filuegrass palace, i/ejjtefano sna Anurle had not arranged for an engineer to sit in the stuaio during the broadcasts, a boring job no one wished. Destefano*s neighbor chuck itapp volunteered, as he also liked nluegrass, and did a record show of his own in that general area.

hieron Pathak had worked as an intern with a commercial station, till he was let gp. He came to WFAC anu joined «*ohn ynyder in a team effort to coordinate engineers at the needles hye site and in the studio during the broadcasts, pathak and giyder were upset when the second night of broadcasts was scheduled from the heedles j£ye, as they had planned to use that evening to broadcast from a university-area club for personal fees. When inane no we volunteered to serve as engineer at the neeules J$ye on the second weeknight of broadcasts, 266 tyiyaer, who was stuaio engineer, cut the program off the air before its conclusion. Howe no longer volunteered, but two young black women came to the station and offered to engineer the broadcasts from the nieecles jgye.

Gladys Wag staff was a schoolteacher; c°co (jurington was an ex-H&rine. They asked to ao it on a permanent basis at a general meeting, gayaer later called them ana told them the iaea of the broadcasts was to have alternate hosts and engineers, and rejected their plan as regular hosts. They declined to participate further, pathak arranged a meeting with uegtefano and Anurle to inform them that no one was available to host two weekly

shows from the heeules Kye. nestefano cancelled the

second broadcast without informing anyone on the programming staff, leaving the entire evening without programs.

in keeping with the trustees commitment to provide opportunity for blacks, Anarle scheduled uLsco pave

Chandler to do an all-night request program of soul music bunday evenings, chandler had no license, and

*ndrle failed to inform any engineer to be present with

Chandler. btaff members volunteered to sit with him.

The request program became the most popular on the mtatinn.

WVa C's signal was strongest in the black sections of

Columbus; weakest in upper middle class sections which 267 traditionally supported community stations elsewhere.

The black audience could not 1'lnancially support the station.

Bo fey diley, who like chandler was a young unemployed black man, volunteered to do three all-night jazz programs. Todd and Bfigham promoted Riley to co -music director with a young ca&aaian wosan (jhris

Christo tier sen, and chandler to public gelation s director in early September, Bluets and women were given management opportunities unavailable elsewhere. ho salaries were paid, since jjestelano insisted all money irom the clubs must go into the general fund.

ailey maae the station a home, sleeping there in the

uaytime. ne and chandler offered to alternate with aedora Cary, collecting funas on every other week at ivories, after their first evening collecting, they

gave Bebtefano $ 6 , unlike the $20 which gary usually 8 i collected and turned in* The evenings at ivories

ceased as a source of major funding, as Begtefano

was using Cary full time to collect at the Reedies Rye.

Conflict arose cetween the black and Appalachian

cultures at the station. Be at ef one proposed that

rancho and kannie Murray be trained during morning

hours on the control board before Hurray went to work

at aroger's. «James gvanB, who had been appointed

continuity airector by Begtefano, had assumed full 268 control over scheduling hy late August. £vans was eliminating the mixed music concept of xnarle* favoring blocks of one type of music throughout the day. fjvans began a 24-hour schedule, but did not have a staff to fill all the hours, ne asked Riley and chandler to continue their all-night programs into the morning hours. When the Murrays arrived with their RLuegrass records for training on the control board, Evans and hiley protested to .jestefano that the Murray's music would disrupt the continuity of jass and soul music in the morning. kvans was concerned that neither Riley nor chandler haa licenses, he urged them to study the fee guides ana take the tests. They failed, he told them they had to prove the worth of black men and not fool around, honcho aurray offered to drive Riley ana chandler to Detroit to take the test with him. It was offered daily there, ana a license issued without a waiting period. Murray hau ueen studying for two weeks, tie passed the test, but alley a n a chandler failed again*

kvans pro ceased test applications for new volunteers to the station. The hoc provided provisional licenses for one year without a test to anyone that a station's chief engineer certified as fit to operate the board ana aware of JfCC rules. As the station was desperate for engineers, 269

every new applicant was asked to submit the pcC *2 lee for a provisional license, j^vans objected, claiming he

shuula extensively train all volunteers, without

informing the supplicants, trustees, or the chief

engineer, he locked up the applications and checks, including those of an audio technician, a Jazz pro grant host, whom uave Houser wished to have as his partner on a new ivjj'a C show, and the young woman who hau served as Bruce To da's assistant at the station, lam Pollack. when i)vans* deception was uncovered in uctober, he was confronted by iieytefano, Brigham and

haefele in a heated t.ieeting. a * ter the confrontation,

a vane offered to assist Leaora gary in collecting cover

charges at the Aleeales u^e. ghe was the only person left who would broadcast from the club with giyuer

ana lathak as overseers, and she left £vans to collect full time, when he left without giving her the collections,

she reported it to f>eStefane. The following week flegtefano

sent anyaer to the club to get the collections from

as she had not completed them, she signed over her

monthly welfare check to the station, unaer pressure

from jxiyuer, to cover the expected take, ghe was left

without an income until jjegtefano reimbursed her the

Oi amount of her check, less collections.

evening preparatory classes for the third class JCC license brought an unsolicited station subscription of 2 7 0

415 iron a grateful trainee, dee pittro. The 29 other subscriptions received in 1975 were from staff members rather than listeners. **pp, Batten, Bruce T ® d d , ferry, Christoffersen and her employer Tommy's pizza, oave Bunge and Greg Iramel, a state welfare caee worker, were among staff who haa been with the station from the bt. Stephen 1 s meetings, when most of the subscriptions had been collected. Announcers promoted giveaways of oonated gifts in return for subscriptions, but no one called in.

Station volunteers contributed supplies in aauition to their time. Bunge gave the station a press negative for printing the stationery, hike Darius did free printing, frank Gabrenya, a writer with a local advertis­ ing agency who did a comedy program on the station, gave albums and tables. When oestef’ano neglected to get broken neeale cartridges on the turntables fixed, roncho murray bought new ones, and also gave record cases. Grant nilliker made an album-sized mailbox for the staiion, when Destefano refused to buy a large box for mail deposits at the new university-area studios*

Bill larks gave recordings of broaacasts he conducted witn celebrities and tapes of specialized music from his WUSII programs, prancis carmedy, a state policeman

at the s t a t e office Tower, listened nightly to WFAC 271 while on duty, ne gave a weather and police band radio lor the news staff. Dave geld began hosting a morning show, he was a cab driver, who listened at the terminal with other cabbies. ne gave 75 recent albutts, volume-con- trol earphones, and a record cleaning set. chuck g&pp built the control room's platform at the new goon shine stuuio s.

Although itapp was Desteiano*s friend and neighbor, ueotefano decided to enforce £vans* rules against him. in August uvans urged at a general meeting that a system of lines be adopted for log errors and for breaking any of a series of rules that Evans proposed, such as loruiading food and drink in the control room, bringing beer or drugs te the station, and coming late to broadcasts, riestefano agreed to enforce the lines, but was nonplussed at having to initiate them against itapp, who enjoyed betr and cigarettes during his hluegrass and Uiuntry show, in December, Rapp declined to further engineer the hluegrass palace remotes, leaving the station without a stuoio engineer for the programs, which left them in doubt.

in December netitefano was bringing pressure on all air stall to become subscribers, anu to work two hours & week at ofxice tasks, although there was little to be done in the office. Destefano insisted that the ri^ht to broadcast was not a benefit given the station 272 by volunteers, but a privilege given to volunteers by the station, tie entered the control room during broaucasts to uemana a $15 subscription. Dave Johnson, the l'irst volunteer to have passed his license test in February, 1975, ordered jjesteiano out of the control room, ae was a miuule-aged unemployed white man, who haa fixed the used turntables Destei’ano had obtained i’or the station, and shielded the station's tower with steel, nis weekly program was an informative look at past music eras, like the big band era. He often volunteered to be studio engineer during needles gye remote broadcasts, xfter the confrontation with

.ueoteiano, he left WfxG and refused to return nas long

Cj C as H*lph was there. »

jf’rancis Garmedy felt comfortable with the fact that he and .uebtefano were miuule-aged and shared police backgrounds. carmedy co-hosted a Saturday morning program, ue became uistressed about James liVans' Sunaay morning program, and began to tape ^vans’ shows, threatening te send the tapes to the pcC as examples of illegal use of the airwaves, chrmedy was not familiar with the free access and expression concept of broadcasting, kvans played records that promoted black revolution, no held discussions with guests about the evils of white dominance in society.

On beptember 25 his guests were kel griffin, former 273 announcer with WVK.O, & soul music station, ana its loraer program ai rector L^s Brown, who cl aim e a he was iirea i'rom WVJU) for urging blacks over the air to register to vote in the hovember election, which had a black man as democratic mayoral candidate ana black school boar a canuiuates. j*uch of the black staff at

hVkc left the white-owned station after grown was fired, fheir attacks with hvans on WVkO's management concerned debtefano ana iOiarle, as well as c^'meay. pec Rules governing personal attack require that a transcript be eent to the subject ana time be given for a rebuttal. x.vans claimed he informed WVKO'8 station manager Bert

Charles auout the program, ana haa made a tape of it.

wVao'a problems ana WkAC's programming for blacks lea the latter to become a popular station in the black . + bb community.

dvans brought in bob Lewis as co-host of some

bunaay morning programs. Lewis was a young black garuage collector, who wanted an all-night music and

talk show. LVcJis agreed to serve as engineer when it

was scheuuled. When the station moved to its university-

area stuuios in mia-december, bvans stopped coming to

the station, dewis was left at the station without an

engineer, debtefano was refusing to give anyone keys

to the new studios, so Lewis was often left locked out 274 at mianight, as well, on Christmas £ve he arrived to uo his show, and spent hour* outside in a phone booth trying to get stall' members to open the station

1'or him. ne had obtained a provisional license, but still no key.

as a result of uesteiano’s refusal to give the stall keys, the station was off anu on the air at ranuom times during 1976 ana early 1977, uepenuing on whether or not someone was in side the station to let announcers in. if someone arrived late for a show, or the previous announcer was not there for his show, the station was loc*ea anu inaccessible, je^tefano and

Anarle reiuseu to arive to the station in response to telephone calls from locked out announcers.

At a program committee meeting in early December, iieotefano anu Anurle proposed that the station's broadcasting oe limited to evening hours, which would have cut everyone's air time to an hour, since a full stafi for 24-hours was functioning, with 50 licensed volunteers ana new provisional licenses pending, ueotefano ana jjiarle claimed that the air staff lacked broadcasting skills, ana that it could better gain those skills by broadcasting fewer hours. The concen­ trated effort would force announcers to plan their programs better, loud and brigham voted against the proposal, with uiane no we casting the deciding program 275 Committee vote against reduction o f hours, Destefano ana anarle persistently lest on voting atP.h. meetings, ana set about to scu ttle theP.O., where they lacked a m ajority i'or th e ir iueas.

when ram rollack stopped coming to the station in secernoer, the iiews getter which she prepapred was no longer issued, her lather had proviued a source of station iunuing by giving hesteiano a large sum to be paiu in weekly wa^es to Pam to give her the experience, her lather Art pollack was a bu sines an an who hau let the station use his trucks lor bringing equipment to the uowntown stuuios in *

Alternative aauio conference in aaaison, pam mannea the station's oilice by herself.

jjeijtelano ana Bitce Toad maae another trip in wuly. They joined uestelano's wile on a trip to the international Women's Year conference in gexico city* bince ueotelano haa experience setting up radio towers, the station was left without his services when the tower was purchased and ready for construction* xnarl e delayed buying the tower, which led to its owner raising the price by £500. j^r an auuitional fee the owner agreed to set up the tower at the roller rink

site, a s the stall was eager to broadcast, it voted 276 to pay the additional fees rathur than wait i'or uestef ano 1 s return. The station was able to begin testing its signal by late uuly, 1975, anu broadcast H7 programs in the first week in August. The promoter of a free access station in Dayton, whose license was pending, visited WFAC in August to uiscover funding techniques. The Dayton station was charging tuition to volunteers to take its fee license study classes. As Ohio had recently established a board to oversee proprietary schools, Dayton*s operation was unuer scrutiny b^ the board.

Defcjtefano wished to learn what the board's requirements were lor establishing a school of broadcasting at the station, if wtfAC were to get larger quarters than it had downtown. He felt such .a

school could support the station from tuition.

Acquirements were a $100 fee, $10,000 surety bond,

approval by the building, lire, health and sanitation

department, full disclosure of assets and liabilities, of contracts, scholarships and loans offered to students,

anu courses comprising 450 clock hours per half-year, or three-hours daily.

The requirements for establishing a trade school

were beyond ikaC's means, bur Degtefano asked public

gelations director Chandler to find a location for the 277

station that could meet them. Chandler iound an unused

A ! store lor a reasonable rent, jjegteiano rejected it lor security reasons, stating that since it was in a black section ol Columbus the station's equipment would be unsaie there, chandler resigned as public relations director ana John gnyder took over those iunctions. aiyaer advocated rallling a television set as a way to raise fun as lor the station. idtail members were asked to sell raffle tickets.

A young black man who was a student at career Acaaetfly* the broadcasting BChool uegtefano planned to compete

with, volunteered his services at the station, on hie

first visit to the station, fcrnie Yates tola jjegtefano

and Andrle that he had arranged a disco dance at

.denison University in Granville as a benefit for the

station, if HikaC would send a disc jockey to play

records at the dance. A volunteer was obtained, and

jjeijtefune ana jjiurle gave Yates 50 raffle tickets

on the TV to sell in the station's name. Yates was

never heard from again, nor could jjegtefano locate 89 him. There was no dance scheauled at Denison. 2 / 8 4. Community Programming

its co-chairperson of the program committee, june

Tedd was instrumental in shaping WPAC'S initial approach to programming, she proposed that ui sous si on materials be made available to the air stai'i* she provided a variety oi magazines, journals ol wiuely aiiierent viewpoints were sought out lor free subscriptions. nun an events, a conservative journal, was obtained lor the station by uave uohnson. John giyuer obtained the liberal gn ^i lairs newsletter. June Qjodd included these varying viewpoints on her Monuay afternoon discussion program. The othtx announcers could not obtain access to the magazines. James ^vans locked up the magazines, he claimed that the stall sat around ana read them in their spare time, and that that was a waste oi time. in hovember, 1974 the only purpose oi the program committee wtis to develop program concepts. Bill Barner ana nave ho user worked on music programming, a 1*110®

Todd on youth programs and Chris christo H e r sen on c h ild re n 's shows, in the summer o l 1975 June

Pred Anurle scheduled a program committee meeting at pebtelano's house, .ue^telano thereby became a committee member. «*une Todd aaued her son b-^uc ® to the reconstituted committee, carol Brigham ana plane hpwe were the other members chosen, simce most ol the members were tru stees, 279 the coninittee was no longer a generator of creative concepts, but a governing body over programming and a ir s ta ff . Andrle ana June Sou a selected 50 people from among the lists compilea at t>t. Stephen's church. The 50 were invited te attend a miusummer meeting at the downtown studio to receive air staff assignments, Twenty-nine men ana 21 women were in v ite d , a s u ffic ie n t number came fo r ^narle to araw up 4 a p.m. to mianight schedule, which incluaea a variety of programs. The air staff did reach 50 by Octouer, 1975.

At a ttuly meeting at brigham's house, Junejoaa auded Gary te the program Committee. James Evans was the secona black member selected, by virtue of his iiews .director position. belectione to the p .p. were capricious, in early August Ahdrle informed two staff members who volunteered to serve on the committee and develop program iueas that the committee was closed, ana not open to anyone interested in programming, in mia-august he oraerea oohn ^nyaer to sit apart from the committee at a restaurant meeting, after Evans had in v ite d ikiyaer to attend, Brigham aaued her

neighbors karen kartens anu c^rolB p user to the committee, anurle aauea prank Uaarenya, who had writtenwfAC the handbook, which stated the initial promise that nthe regular programming Committee is always in need of 2 8 0 eager volunteers. " The P.O. decided its membership shoulu be limited to people with "taste*, ana a program Committee review Board ol members was established to select days for overseeing the staff's programs by inuiviuual P.O. members to improve the quality.90

martens anu nouser resigned from the p.C. in

October, citing its lack of effectivemess. By jjeceraber the P.O. had 15 members, each holding the title of

'manager* or 'uirector' over some aspect of station activity and with uirect authority over subalterns, bhyaer, as ofiice manager, was selected to the p.C. in early uecemuer. tfhen dune touu informed Anarle of her penuing resignation as co-chairperson, efiective at the jjecember 15 meeting, Anurle ana jjestefano were no longer at a voting disadvantage. a** ike jjecember

15 meeting xiehtefano accepted to da's resignation letter, but he declared that the P.C. had actually been uissolved at the last meeting, gnyder contended that the exclusive concept was enued, ana anyone who attended meetings coula vote. Anurle said he never liked the idea of a closed committee.

A democratic spirit seemed to be at work, since the jjecember 15 meeting consisted primarily of office staff—neotefano, tfiyaer, Andrle, coco G^inston, who had assumed ttvans' public service scheuuling role, they 281 launched an attack on the air staff. ^narle claimed

black #. j. 's illsco ijave ana £op oe-t gpn Hayes were

prima aonnas who promoted themselves rather than

program concepts, hay eg had worked at East o’oa.st

commercial stations, and did a yunaay afternoon j-aaa

request show lor WPAC that haa a large audience, jhe

new i.e. at the meeting voted to begin limiting the

concept oi Iree expression for the air staff, a ml©

was passea thut no announcer could say his name more

than twice curing a program, regardless of the show's

length, penalties for violations were not specified,

but the 9 yea voters, most of whom had not been

considered to be P.C. members, introduced a new aspect

to a free access station, brighara anu Howe fruitlessly

objected. With oune Todd gone, the p.C. was under

i^ebtefano's control. foua urged other p.C. members

to resign from the committee, wtth fewer p.C. members

available lor assistance and access to the station,

aeyless air stall' members who could not get in to do

their programs began to rtsign. with Evans no longer

uoing his yunaay morning show, the station was locked

at noon whan jton nayes was scheduled to broadcast.

After several weeks of being locked out, Hayes left in

•January, 1976 and obtained a paying job at WKQ*

Saturday afternoon's popular jazz-rock host Ml^e 28 2

Vitzpatrick leit i'or a job with a local commercial station, like daily early morning host John (joawin leit, obtaining a job in south Carolina as a result oi his iirst experience at W#aC< jtlternoon jazz host Barney nuilin got a program on WYkO.

The news stall was at oaao with Desteiano. josh hoery, a young reporter on the staii, came to the station ior news experience, while pursuing a state assemblyman lor comments on a breaking news story, itoory was tola by -uecteiano to quit worrying about the news ana to type up a letter ior him. ifio x y leit, ana was hirea by local wTVk-TV as a news prouucer.

The uews -oirector who hau replacea KVane was £ave

Bams. ne le it to become a promotion manager lor rat Boone ana family.

oams was younger than Lvans, but was selectea to replace nim because oi his organizing ability* a 1 ter

Avans became continuity airector, an attempt was made to reestablish a news stall in September, yams attenaed the organizing meeting, he was ABC's regional news reporter ior teen events, he organized a daily scheaule ol newscasts on wi'AO* including a 15-minute b p.m. newscast, ana recruitea a news stall. WJ?AC news programming began October 1. 263

ObU female students became WFAC's most effective reporters, warle Timmerman obtained an exclusive interview with .Lieutenant Governor Dick celeste in which he outlined his criticism of Governor

ubb stuuent Li sa met calf provided lists of aides to 3tate oificials to contact for stories. Her mother was an aiae to the governor, she brought Giehn Hpaay* her former high school teacher, to the station. Ho day involved high school students in the station through rroject it.H.a.i.* Title ill of the Elementary &

Secondary .education j*.ct, which he supervised in the

bouth- western city s c h o o l B. students were to receive

real life job experiences.

Several 16 year old high school stuuents were

given roles on the news staff, same brought Becky murray, miss Teenage Ohio of 1975. to the station as news coordinator, Jt hil Golovin was named sports director

and sent to cover nigh school events.

bams planned elaborate election night coverage for

November 4—a city mayoral, council ana ytate bond issue 2d4 election, iteporters were assigned to campaign head­ quarters oi' candidates. Lisa metcalf was sent to the

Loara oi Elections to call in returns, she experienced being shoved ana jostled by aggressive male reporters seeiting the handouts oi returns.

^ames i/vans criticized the news broadcasts oi oams ana the staii, claiming the staii aid not gather enough original news, he preempted afternoon and evening programs irom October 21 to November 4 to conduct live interviews with ail canaiaaLes for the school boara, city council ana mayoral elections.

oo-music id rector ohris uhristoiiersen criticized the 6 p.m. newscast ior interfering with music programming, especially her own rock program irom

4 to 7 luesaays. She expressed her opinion on the air, receiving calls from her fans who said they listened to the station to hear music without commercials, ana news was as bad as commercials, jgacouraged by the response, uhristoiiersen denied dama and Becky Murray access to the air at 6 p.m. October 7 to ao the evening news, jjvans consented to her action, as Murray had driven from a distant suburb alter school to be there,

she left the station never to return, sams could have

taken over, as he was the licensed engineer at the time, having signed the operating log so that ckristoiiersen 285 92 could do her show. un October 3 she had received a letter irom the J*CG informing her that Ndue to the fact that you are not an .American citizen, you are ineligible to hold a Commercial license.

Sams' license was posted on the studio wall in accordance with jfCC regulation, when the trustees ordered LvanB to meat with them to uiscuss his approval of Christoff ersen ' s action ana his hiding of pro­ visional applications ana checks, yarns' license disappeared, kvans later found it behind the control panel where he said it had fallen, when -^e trustees spoke with chri sto if ersen, she initially refused to accept station rules, but she was later allowed to begin her children's interview program on October 17 for credit from OoU. Only one other proposal had been maae to the station for children's programming, head Librarian Walker of the Upper Arlington library proposed reading pre-kindergarten books, but the library did not follow up on the proposal.

iave bams was "fired" from the station in late

November by Ledtefano anu itndrle, after Brigham told anurle she heard bams say "fuck" during a 2 a.m. phone call he maae to uohn Snyder's all-night Friday show, bnyaer haa the phone conversation over the air*

^ebtefano ordered gams not to return to the station when 2 b t they met the following day, pestefano claimed he acted on authority of the Programming policy and plow

Chart. ‘i!he P.C. had written the new policy in oruer to protect £ams and others from unauthorised acts like the Christoff ersen incident, since same was not bro&acasting at the time of his call to ®iyuer, and therefore could not be removed from the air, pegtefano

seemed to have exceeded the new policy guidelines, which contained no provisions for "firing" staff. jjebtefane cited this paragraph as authority:

The engineer, a licensed operator, is legally responsible for all programming uuring his logged time, in the case of licensed operator breaking pec rules, the Program id rector, station Manager or any member of the poard of trustees has authority to remove him/her from the air immediately if necessary.94

Chief jihgineer mark karraker thought the utterance of one "indecent" word did not violate PCC rules, sams begged Toad te get him reinstated, claiming he had

said "fudge", as support for grew, jgaarie claimed

.ueotefano haa never oraered gams from the station, and he was alloweu to continue broaacasting. Qn pec ember 13

heotefano nained dohn gproat, an unemployed experienced newscaster as news director, gams laid plans for a

bO minutes-type pregram, using cab driver pave geid's

contacts auout the city for community stories, and

harh Pinkelman's access to community cultural events, 287 as P.*. coo rain a tor lor the obU Film Arts society and frequent film reporter for WFAC* S4*0^, Keia ana

Jfinkelman planned their program for February, 1976.

uowara aorris brought popular black $. j. Kir^ bishop to the station for an interview, gorris was a blue a high school stmdent who came afternoons to the station to get program time. Evans ana chanaler told uebtefano that a truant officer from Morris* school hau warned them about using a high school volunteer auring school hours. i>ebtefano told the staff in dovemoer to have aorris arrested for trespassing if he returned to the station.

When the news staff complained of broken electric typewriters, j^eStefano gave the typewriters to two young women who arrived in a van, ana told them to get them fixed. They hau offered to do typing for the

statiun. 1‘hey left with the typewriters and did not return, uebtefano claimed everyone subverted his

authority. At a late August general meeting he broke into tears of depression at seeing his authority 95 criticised.

'fhe wfac Programming policy glow Chart was issued

te limit uebtefano ana gvans* range of actions. Tbe

continuity director was limited to "see that all

corrections are made properly" on program logs, and 266

to neJce public service announcements available to

staff. ^ Avans had issued a continuity .Report in

September giving broad scheduling authority to himself ana warned the air staff to "remember fines of twenty-five cents will be imposed for all uncorrected mistakes; the fines will take effect

beginning f o r th e Operating Log September 2, 1975

ana for the programming Log September 9, 1975* There

will be no exceptions. You have until ^ffext 9f He be on your guard, " as many staffers were poor,

ana fines coula nount into dollars, the p.C. *a

HfPxC programming Pel icy was issued ana left out mention of fines, it was based on a decision of the

P.C. at ivories September 22 stating that "final

appealed aecisions on fines shall come from the 9B Program director ana Associate program Director. »

Avans' fines would then be cancelled. He aid net

like the new restrictions, and accepted a promotion

out of the continuity director job and into director

of Training of new volunteers. He aid not develop a

training program. John jjnyder took ovtr the training

program role in mid-December, with assistance from

a recent ooli engineering graduate, Jeff Burmeister.

hurmeister began the station's only Hew Lei't;

program "movement" in November. He aid stories on the

Tenant's union, free clinic, and Mark Lane's appearance in Columbus to aiscuss the Kennedy assassination, burmeister drafted engineering diagrams for £estei'ano

to submit to the J?CC with a proposal to increase

WtfAC's power to over 1000 watts. WfAC had to switch to

a diiierent eaucational frequency unuer the plan,

since the increased power would interfere with nearby

stations on 91.5. The tfcc rejected an earlier request

ior a lesser power increase on the same frequency,

iinurle ana uebteiano claimed that increase wouia have

caused WYdO's 91.5 signal to interlere with WPAC'B

91.5 signal, out not vice versa, and they waived

WKSu's interference. tfcC engineers disagreed. Anctrle

also had overlooked the 91-5 license for a 10 watt

station held by a college just 10 miles from WFAC'8

tower. The proposal for a change of frequency was

then submitted in November.

ijidrle Jcnew of an jfGC rule that required commercial

stations building new towers to provide space for

educational stations' antennas on their towers, a ^

no cost to WJ'a O the station with its new frequency

would get access the new tower being constructed by

jtndrle*s past employer, WTVM- WOSQ was to gain access

to ttTVh's tower, anu get increased power. The new

tower height and power would vastly increase WFAC'8

audience, uebtefano forgot that the increased power 290 on the new .frequency would interfere with the signal oi the new uayton free access station, which sought a license on the same frequency WFAC was seeking. The MQ jf*0C rejected the proposal.

When WPa C folded on April 18, 1977 it gave its license to an experimental learning project called uefferson center, who excnanged it with ffOSlt* a stuuent station at 0 .jU that was seeking a broadcast license on the new channel that WFAC sought. WOSR preferred to have a secure license for 10 watts at

91. 5» while weixersen center chose to gamble for greater power on the new frequency, not knowing that jjayton had a license on that frequency that would foreclose a chance for a powerful columbus station.

Chief iuifeineer mark a erraker was not consulted in the power increase plans, when he left the city for Christmas vacation in uecember, 1975» itegtefano appointed a second-class licensed engineer Greg i>eChant to the chief position, a legally questionable appointment, but re chant was popular with Degtefano and Snyaer for his stand against issuing provisional licenses to new volunteers, in late December he

confiscated 15 new licenses, with Andrle's knowledge, including one for former first-class WOSU engineer

and program host Dill parks* parks had agreed to host programs at WPa C. he was ordered off the air by 291

jjeChant during his first evening of programming,

jjechant insisted on extensive training of staff,

claiming he unuer stood what proper log-keeping ana

technical performance was. he had operated the bo*rd

twice. The second time on hovember 27th when he aid

a music program he maae 55 errors on three pages of the r-LQgram fog, including writing the wrong hour

throughout one hour of programming.^00 unuer jjvans'

system, he would have been lined f13.75.

Grant nilliker objected to the increased

bureaucratising of the station, he had been adjunct professor of political science at uoU's uershon

Center ana was active in many community organizations,

ue pointed out at a recemoer meeting that the station's purpose was to allow all views from the community to

be expressed, his own program, n^ho's Running your

Life," expressed the philosophy of community involve­ ment so that other's do not control individual freeaom.

he interviewed supporters of puerto nican independence,

.urn eric an rnaian movement spokesman walking Klk, who

was supporting the iuohawx's claim to land rights in

aew lorx, anu local activists, as he was so involved

in activities, he frequently asked staff members to

broadcast his taped program, he left a tape with

nogey hiley, who gave it to &ris perry ana her 292 associates to play after their feminist naaio program

concluded its Broadcast, idley left, perry put the tape on the ,recorder playing over the air, and she ana her colleagues left the station unattenuea and uniocited, ana arove home on a yeptemuer priuay evening.

ise^tefano ana jtfiarle chose perry as one of their

daily program directors in December, in a plan uesigned to eliminate all opposition to them, station program directors were eliminated and a group of mainly new, inexperienced volunteers to the station were itiaue

responsible for each supervising one day of programming, overseeing the air staff, scheduling anu checking logs. most haa no licenses. ±hey were appointed on jeceiuuer

1t>, 1b>75 after a night's training session conducted 101 by j*nurle. I'heir inexperience Bade them aepenuent on

reotefano ana ijiarle. ihe plan hau been approved at

the December 15 P.O. meeting, after

re signation.

ihe previous month ijiarle ana xje^teiano forced i^aura nilkison to leave the station, she had been

sent to the station in ouly by (jreg x^elt her welfare

case worker, ohe was divorced ana had a young child,

dhe volunteered for all activities, getting stores to

post fliers for the Moonshine benefit, getting companies

to give free food and drinks for the press party, she 293

became station liaison to WCOb's F.D. Bob wooding,

a u lack man who gave WFAC duplicate albums his station

received, ohe hosted two all-night music programs* and

her sexy voice brought offers to help the station from local businessnen.

(Jhris uhri sto if ersen accused her of using drugs

anu attempting to steal money from her purse at her

apartment. Andrle ana .jeytefano confronted wilAison in

a long discussion on August 21. she left, but later

returned to do her midnight program an hour late, jave

nouser continued his jazz program until she arrived,

not Knowing of the confrontation. Knorle asKed j^vans

to replace nilaison as the station's liaison to G^ociing,

nheri she insisted on Keeping that assignment, Evans

denounced her as a drug user, and accused her of

program absences, he attempted to reschedule her to

a morning program, u&ve ho user accused her of being

late for her programs. aiKe uarlus, who had not been

given a program by itfiarle because it was felt he would

uo it poorly, was resentful that wilhison still haa

her programs, he told ueytefano that he, snyoer ana

jivans were all leaving the station unless wil^ison

was fired. j*q accusations against her were proven. a B.C. meeting was scheduled at ivories on heptemoer 22 to enable nave Houser to confront

WilKieon on the lateness charge, a decision was reached 294 to review the first 50 days of program logs to check 10 everyone for lateness ana absences.

a summary neport showed that wflkison was late three times but never absent without approval. Houser was lute 12 minutes to one show. KaPP 10 minutes late to one show, no we miaeea a program without notification. lfcard late three times for 42 minutes. Kiley late twice for 30 minutes. j^vans late five times for five hours,

40 minutes, anu absent for three, fiary late five times for an hour, ana four absences without notice, cbfcnbler late six times, one of chancier* s latenesses cost the station the chance to have its sound broadcast on

C o a x ia l's cauie station, as it was just t r y i n g to pick 103 up the sound at the time the station was off the air.

The P.O. decided it needed some method for

••firing" volunteers, niley was maue an example. He had come increasingly unaer the influence of £vans, ana was demanding that irrelevant programs be removed. tie consiaered Gabrenya*s comeay show to be too frivolous.

Gabrenya and christoffersen developed the show in July, writing scripts of comedy skits which staff members performed in biweekly taping sessions at Gabrenya *s home, The show involved more effort than any at the station, after the hour program, G^brenya left the tape tor other hosts to select skits from for their programs throughout the week, niley hi a a weekly tape 295 of The aadxsh Guild in liovember. he was con iron ted

with that charge ana a lis t of others by Brigham and

To da, ana oruerea from the station permanently. ?he

naoish Uuila eapanaed into a perfouning group at local

clubs in February, 1976.

The aaaish Guild lasted lotiger than WFAC* T*1®

station began a fun a raising arive July 4, 1976* which

raisea sufficient money to obtain a better cable to

connect transmitter with antenna, it increased itrauiated

power by 2i times. power haa fallen below the 10 watt

author! zation.

By the enu of 1976 *4* staff haa fallen to 23, and

the station was "on the air less than half" the

authorized 24-hours a day. ihe trustees resigned,

though jjebtefano continued active at the station. »>ack oakes bee ante Board president and Jim sheets the

secretary-treasurer. a benefit was planned for w?AC

at the Agora club on April 11, 1977. it brought in less

than *200. on April 19 the station closed for lack of

funds, in a last article jjestefano told a reporter that

"some outrageously aelicious, fantastic talents have

been brought out h e r e .. . . Anyone who wants to get on the air can get on. 107" It was published one week after the station closed. 296 HI. Mo te e

National Alternative Radio conference, Resolutions laaaison,1975 ), p. 3. This chapter is basea in part on personal observation. The author attended the general meetings in 1974* served as production manager iron May to September, 1973, and program director September through december, 1975. 2 WFAC, betterhead <1975); Don Haeiele, comments, d ec. 1975.

^CCMB, description of aims (1974). p. 1.

I b id ., p. 3. 5 CCAb, steering committee List, 1974.

^aay bundy, Resume to WFAC, 1975.

^WFAC, Mews better, vol. 1, no. 1 (1974). p. 1.

^wrjiC dews. vol. 1, no. 2 (1975). p. 1.

®James bvans, in"WFAO-91.5 FM"» O^r chokingTimes, A p r i l 7, 1975, p. 8.

1°see democratic Rational Committee, pamphlets; Hgews Actualities ana perspectives," p. p.

l1Lawrence Wade, Assume ana sample to WFAC (19Y5).

1^S*>nay shea, letter from hits to WFAC. «July 6, 1975; APS brochure

^marvin hunter, uir. of station Relations, NPM» letter te wPaO, t^uly 1, 1975.

^ CPh Report. September 29, 1975, pp. 1,4.

1 -’marine niley, Chief, Utilization Branch,

l6Jttlia aoore, media 1,1 ai eon oilice, U .S . state department, letter to WfAC, July 14, 1975. 17 U, a. .uept. oi HEw, HMouconuaerci al Educational Broadcasting facilities construction chants, « (Washington d.c.» 1975), p. 11250; Janet AQes» Oiiice oi Youth development, HfW, letter to WFACt *june 27, 1975; U.o. oiiice oi Education, nx>etexamination oi Baaic Grant Eligibility index (1975); CPB» T^e mi no ri ty Training (irant program (1975 1. 18 L eaara Gary, account o i CETA interview, june, 1975. 19 Gowe printing Co., price Quotation form, june 11, 1975. 20 HaLph desteiano, comments, July, 1975.

21 Edward Quinn, Y.i . » sears-noebuck foundation, le tte r t® wjj'a C, A ugust 13, 1975.

22duvid Oliver, Y.P,» Carnegie Hero puna commission, l e t t e r to WPaC, uune 25, 1975.

2^Sara Eugelharat, Aset. secretary, c*rnegie co r P- o i ix.Y., le tte r to WfAC, June 24, 1975*

£^xiobert scrivner, ijir., Hpckeieller family pund, letter to WfAC, June 27, 1975.

2^Aanaace daass, Asst, to the Pres., J. & M.R. MarJtle foundation, letter to WfAC, July 14, 1975.

Jane Eday, Exec. dir*, la c o n ic foundation,letter to WfAC, August 5, 1975.

2^Alired Wishart, Jr., Exec. dir., Howard Hein* jindomnent, le tte r to WEAU, July 8, 1975.

2®nichard aramer, jr., asso.Administrator, the G eneral E l e c t r i c foundation, letter to WPAC* June 26, 1975.

29hebert hills, pres., The pfaiiinger foundation, l e t t e r to WfAC, July 16, 1975. 298

■ ^d.o. lid call ef, jA r, , Auwin w • & Catherine m* Davis foundation, letter te WfAC, July 23, 1975.

31 jialph Glark, tiec.-jrea., olin foundation, inc., letter to WPa C, oune 24, 1975.

32 idane Gorbin, Axec. secretary, Helena Rubinstein founaatien, l e t t e r to WFAC* J u ly 16, 1975. 33 Lonise Griesinger, Asst. secretary, crown zellerbach foundation, letter to WFAG, August 14, 1975.

34 Bonnie Harrison, inundation secretary, s L l i s j,. Phillips foundation, letter to WFAC, duly 16, 1975.

35 ^Hent Hhoaes, pres., aeaaer's Digest foundation, l e t t e r t« WFjiG, a u g u st 19, 1975.

^*John paynter, Axec. p ir., MCfrregor pund, letter to Wf*C, September 10, 1975.

37 ^ A lan Green, Axec. Dir., Irwin-sweeney-giller foundation, letter to WFAC, July 14, 1975.

^Patricia Lacina, Grants Administrator, The i,illia Babbitt Hyde foundation, letter to WFAC* July 14, 1975.

^aorman worse, secretary, william g * Whitney foundation, le tte r to WFAC, dune 24, 1975.

*°Bcott McVay, Axec. p ir., Robert sterling clurk foundation, inc., letter to WFACf August- 6, 1975.

+ 1Aonald werta, Axec. pir., The Hillman foundation, Inc., letter to WF*0, duly 1, 1975.

^Harold nerrell, Axec. pir., The Florence & jobn bchumann foundation, letter to WFAC* June 23, 1975.

^Catherine mcfarland,Aomin. Asst., victoria foundation, Inc., l e t t e r to WFAC, dune 26, 1975. 299

**harry Anderson, Axec. H r., The preaerick j. Aennedy memorial Poundation, letter to WPAC* July 14. 1975. 45 homer Waasworth, uir., I’de Cleveland pounaation, letter to WPAC, June 23, 1975.

Prank doseph, Jr., v.P. * The Louis D* Beaumont Pounaation, letter to WPAC* duly 3, 1975.

47 dam^s Lipscomb, hxec. pir., jhe Qeorge fluna poundation, letter to WPAC, wune 23, 1975. iQ Paul Olson, program Asso., Louis 4 jjaua {pill family pounaation, letter to WPAC, June 23, 1975.

49 Humphrey noermann, £xec. H r., The Bush foundation, l e t t e r to WPAC, duly 9, 1975. 50 W. «John Driscoll, The Driscoll pounaation, letter to WP*c, tJuly 9, 1975.

Cl are uavis, program manager, coming glass works Pounaation, letter to WPAC, dune 24, 1975.

**2Virginia howler, secretary, African Metal c9-iniax Pounaation, inc., letter to WPAC, July o, 1975*

55 X• d• iimerich, program OHicer, B^nk of America foundation, letter to WPAC, July 2ti, 1975. 5 A nuth parker, Trust octree, The Qlenmede T^st Company, letter to WPa C, dune 23, 1975. 55 -^marshall wells, uoorainator of Grants, Houston DiaowAent, inc., letter to WPAC, August 6 , 1975.

56 b. W. otevenson, beeretary & comptroller, T^e II.L. Curtis uok pounaation, letter to WPAC* July 2, 1975.

^Philip D uhois, Kowland pounaation, inc., letter to WP*C, July 1b, 1975. 300 CQ David damage, or., jgtec. Dir., The New world foundation, letter to WP A^, August 18, 1975. 59 H.d. wean* dr., The d. J. wean pounaation, letter to WPa C, «uly 21, 1975.

u. n. dabb, secretary, Allis-chalmers foundation, In c ., letter to WPaC, november 12, 1975.

^Davis naines, f res., public jelfare foundation, Inc., letter to WPa C, July H , 1975. jjp Thomas Hall, Dx.ec. D i r ., The curgill foundation, letter to WPaC, duly 28, 1975.

63^Deraldine Hagby, f . p . , xhe D ^i'orth foundation, l e t t e r to WPa C, July 17, 1975.

6^Hele» brown, sxec. D ir ., CBS poundation, inc., letter to WPaC, September 2, 1975.

^nobert binaee, The Henry j. K&iser family Pounuation, lette r to WPAC* July 18, 1975.

fa6philip sapir, V.P.* The Grant foundation, inc., l e t t e r to WPa C, duly 17, 1975.

6^duay Yestrumskas, program Qiiicer, w illi^ H* uoimtr foundation, inc., letter to WPAC, July 8, 1975.

nowara Alein, Dir., ine Hockeleller pounaation, l e t t e r to WPa C, dune 27, 1975.

fe^dobert bates, HQCkeleller Brothers pund, letter to mPa C, duly 7, 1975.

^°Tinka Hobbe, program oil-i^er, poru foundation, l e t t e r to WPAC, dune 25, 1975.

^jUine Allen, rdtec. Dir., National Home Library Pounaation, letter to WPAC, Ju ly 29, 1975. 301 72 Robert jjiercks, Emec. pir. , curolyn pounaation, letter to WPa C, July 10, 1975.

73 -'martha jd worth, secretary, ging Ranch, inc., letter to WPa C, euly 16, 1975.

74 "WPa C nauio Benefit," ilier (July 17, 1975).

75 nalph .ueatefano, comment o, ijec. , 1975. 76 program committee meeting, out. 13, 1975 , »i tape recoraings.

77 WPa C, program dogs ana uporuting L°a8* August 7-27, 1975. 7fl "Program committee meeting, October 13, 1975". 74 WPa C, program dog, August 27, 1975.

^ WPaC Jitewa L etter, vol. 1, no. 3 (1975). u 4 Claes d a h lg r e n , dir., sweuish eroaucastino c01^ '* l e t t e r to WPaC, *>uly 10, 1975; B.C. kuypers, c o n su l, Consulaat-ceneraal aer neaerlanaer, le tte r to WFAC* A ugust 9, 1975. u p iJ,oyd dinkins, pa manager, national cotton council oi AWtrica, letter to WPAC, uuly 10, 1975.

8^ttalph i>e&teiano, comments, October, 1975. ti*Leaora cary, comments, fiiov., 1975. PCC APPlic a tions ior provisional certificates (hia by Evans); pam Pollack, rick Gilbert, guile Leon» Jr* » Tu^lo r» daviauymes, mark govick, gooert gcolee, preuerick marshall, idcharu nice, clurence williams, , 1975. to**ielephone conversation ft*m gave J o h n so n , gee., 1975.

86WPa O, Tape necoraings of Lee drown & Mtl Grt-i'fin interview, hept. 25* 1975. 302

^ WPAC Atewe Letter. July, 1975. QO State of ohio, soara of scnool and college negistration, letter and forms to WFAC* August 6, 1975.

89 „ dim mccreevy, chairman of yocial service*, Denison jj* » telephone message to WFAC* October 16, 1975* on note pad.

90 prunx Gabrenya, WFAC handbook (1975)* p. 15* WFAC station rroceauxes manual. August 21, 1975, p. 2.

91 aecorued interview of no ward getzenbaum by M^rle ^immerman, Oct. 6, 1975.

^WFa C Operating Log, oct. 7, 1975.

Atoms, FGC ihgineer in c^arge» letter to c^istina ohriatoffex sen, uct. 3, 1975.

9 * WPa C programming policy. oct., 1975, p. 1.

^interviews with prank Gat,renya ana Ga**ol ^rigbum, oct., 1975.

WPAC programming policy, p. 2.

97 oames pvans, continuity geport, p. 2.

^8WFa C, decisions of the program committee jesting, S^pt* 22* 1975. sparry Schumann, "WOSU-FM to get strong, clear signal» toct. 10, iy75>, p. 14* npoin pond, h^osa way go FM" ^oct. 21, 1977 J » p. 3; heith Haselton, "Wqsr-aM ooara oJls exchange of frequencies (may 18, 1978), p. 2, all stories in Oou xj an tern. yee also The flew street s^^t (•July 12, 1976>, p. 2.

^^WFa G Program nog, mov. 27, 1975.

*^prea *nurle, telephone conversation, December *9, iy75. 303 109 Wi*AC, Decisions of the program committee meeting, September 22, 1975.

10^*U!‘a C, summary report, sept. 23, 1975.

10^susan ^pero, "oolumtms style comeay featured ^peb. 12, 1976J* p. 10 and tiuth Boice* "Rauieh GuiQ! growing absurd v^une 28, 1977j» p. 11* G6U Lantern.

^•ViJce Van aer does, »support WFAC» " C^u^us greepress, aov. 17, 1976 , p. 4. 10ft sen ay wies, "WPAC up in the air over funding bluest* CApril 7, 1977>» p. 2 ana sinay cip^iani, hstation fails; funds low” Unay 11, 1977J» p. 9, GSU L^txt&m.

^^"Kaaio station airs unique format, « OSU Lan'te-m* April 26, 1977, p. 8. “ COttULU oIUM

The case study of community station WPAC forms a striking contrast to the criticisms of commercial broadcasting brought by community groups from 1920 to 1980. The focus at much of the commercial broad­

casters was inability to meet varied needs within a society, standardization of prograuming, sensa­

tionalism of content to attract large audiences ana

attempts to squeeze out noncommercial broadcasting

activities.

Commercial broadcasters countered the criticism by challenging the community groups to broadcast, if it seemed »e easy. They held that they were meeting public tastes and needs—rating points proved it to

them. The insistence of the fkc a*1*-1 the pcC that

content not be too specialized, due to the limited number of licenses available, further inhibited

refined programming, a general mean was maintained.

When community groups failea to achieve sub­

stantial results in negotiations and challenges to

commercial broadcasters, community stations were a

logical outcome, applications increased from groups

seeking jftt and UhT licenses for free access service.

504 305 These groups criticized traditional educational

stations as too standardized, due to their increased aid from government. This study of the history of community criticism of broadcasting provides a perspective for understanding the conflicts between the public and the industry. The case study shows the p itfalls awaiting community groups seeking to participate in broadcasting.

The major educational radio ana television

stations underwent a long struggle to bring instructional

anu cultural programs to the public. The public broadcasting Act of 1967 changed their focus from primarily instructional to mainly cultural broadcasts,

oince the programming has represented high culture, or a semblance of it, critics such as Bei* stein

nave attacked the goal of Oamegie 11 to increase

federal spending on similar programs. These critics

charge that the public's money is being spent to

benefit only the highly educated and the upper class,

who have traditionally supported and attended functions

of high culture.

The major educational stations involved with

r-oh anu hpk have launched an attack on the new

community stations. They have asked the PCC 506 eliminate the 10-watt license in the ?M“®ducational reserve ban* hLiminating the 10-watt license would put an enu to stations on those frequencies which could not be increased in power because the increase would interfere with others, at at ions on frequencies that cauld be increased beyond 10-watts would be encouraged to join hpa and broadcast its cultural programs.

in 1978 courts continued to sort out the public's interests in boradcasting, producers of programs deleted from Pdo when the network reacted to threats from president aixon instituted a suit charging first amendment violations. PBS responded that it was not a government agency and such violations were not applicable. The public access channel provision of the Pcti, requiring cable companies to let anyone use their equipment to produce programs on one channel

was struck down by a federal court in Missouri in 1978.

rrogress continued in the late 1970s for minorities,

ana children, black businesanen owned two television

stations in major cities in 1979f and expressed a goal of presenting programming of interest to blacks.

Action for children's Television revived the interest of university scholars in broadcasting policy, the

battleground having shifted from the pec to the PTC*

where scholars wei.e testifying in 1979 on the effects of advertising on children, responsive commissioners

were threatening to ban all commercials from children's pregrans. duch a ban would be a gain for challengers as significant as the i’h wa ktv channel reservation of the 1940s and 1950s. BIBLIO&HAPHY interviews, discussions ana personal correspondence subsequent to events: x, taped interview, peb. 21, 1977.

Gontemporary with events:

Pred anurle, WPa C, conversation, oct., 1975. carol nrigham, WPa C* comments, oct., 1975. nalph jjeotei’ano, WPa C, comments, June and wov. , 1975. P ranx uabrenya, WPa C, comments, Oct., 1975. ceaora Cary, WPa C, comments, June ana kov. , 1975. don naeiele, WPaC, comments, Dec., 1975. vave oohnson., WPa C, conversation, ijec. , 1975. eune Toau, wPac, conversation, oct., 1975.

«im Mcoret:vy, denison U., message, oct., 1975.

A rchives collections kagur i>ale ranuom materials. 0oU collection, Uob iu&in dibrary, Colum bus, ohio. t*a*ren 0. narding papers. Box 161. Ohio Historical •Society Archives, Columbus, Ohio.

1. Aeith Tyler Paculty papers. 5 boxes, ohio state University Archives, Hitchcock Hall, Qolumbus, ohio.

Business documents vanet Aaes, u.d. department of Health, education ana Welfare to WPa C, letter, June 27, 1975-

Alternate press jaynuicate, prochure of introauction( 1975). h. Atems, PoC, letter to Christina christoffersen, wpa Ci oct. 3, 1975. 30b 309

Columbus (Jo mm unity educational Broaacasting, inc. , "description of A im s," 1974.

Columbus communtiy educational Broaacasting, « steering Committee uist," 1974.

"Community narvest festival, « booiclet. columbus; CuF Committee, 1975. corporation ior rublic Broaacasting. policy lor public itadio stations assistance. Washington £. C. :CPE» 1975.

Claes Gahlgren, bweaish Broadcasting 0°^* 1:0 WPAC* letter, ouly 10, 1975.

democratic national Committee, »Memsxsiualities ana Perspectives," 1975. dloyd jjiriAims, national cotton council oi America to WPaC, letter, ouly 10, 1975.

uowe rrinting Co., "quotation pom, » June 11, 1975.

Marvin nunter, national puulic ^adio to WPAC* letter, ouly 1, 1975. n. w nuypers, Consulaat-G®neraal uer weuerl anaer to wFjiC, letter, august 9, 1975.

oulia Moore, u.o. department of state to WFAC* latter, ouly 14, 1975. national association oi Broadcasters. Broadcast sell x^egulation. Washington B.C.: HAB, 19Tr

______. C oue: c h i l a r e n 1 s T o y s, insert. Washington d. C. : d4tn, 1972.

______. Film manual. 1957-1956. Washington B.C.: 1971. ______. The Coda of the national Associationof nroaacasters. Washington b . C. : MAh* 1939-1974. national Public nadio. Membership in national publi c nadio. Washington B. C. : dPM, 19757

Maxine alley, General services Administration to WFAC* l e t t e r , May 26, 1975* 310 bandy bhea, Liberation a ewe service to WPAC* letter, *mly 6, iy75.

State of uhio, uoaraof schuol ana college Registration, letter and forms to WPAC* August 6, 1975. kJLm* ^annuity report. dames Kvans, continuity director, sept., 1975.

Wpac , "PCC provisional certificates,» 1975.

WPal: nandbook. prank Gabrenya, ed., 1975.

WPa C, "Aay .uundy Resum e," 1975.

WPa C, "Lawrence tiaae Resume ana sample, " 1975.

WPa C, "netterheaa," 1975.

WPa C, "Program logs ana operating logs, « au 6* 7-Dec, 31, 1975.

WPaC Programming policy. oct., 1975. wPac station procedures M anual. Aug. 21, 1975.

WPAC summary xiepprt. sept. 23, 1975.

WPa C, "WPa C Radio jjesnelit, » flier, duly 17, 1975. wifoo, "Community Radio for All of Us," brochure, fellow springs, ohio: WYSo* n.d.

rroceedings of Meetings institute fo r xducation by Radio. jgducation on the air, fearboofc 1 - a a I a . Columbus: ohio staxe u., 173C-T9597

Pennings, George, ed. praceedings oi the school Proaacast Conference" Chicago7 puUlic”school broadcast Conierence, 1939. m arsh, c. s., ed. praceedings of the First national Conierence of kducational p ro adcasting. cmcago : u. of Chicago, 1937. national A dvisory council on Radio in Education. Radio and Education. Annual conferencesI-V. Chicago: 07~of Chicago, 1931-1935. 311 national federation of community Broadcasters, yhe Constitutional Convention Report. Maaison, wise. ; wren, 1975.

Tyler, Tracy, ed. kaaio as a cultural Agency, proceedings of a national Conierence.""Washington B.C.: NCER, 1934.

u.o. .uept. of commerce, division of Radio c°mmunlc&tl°ns* Proceedings oi the first national Radio convention, Washington d. C. : GPoJ T$2T.

______* proceedings of the pourth Rational Radio convention ana jtecommenaationB for peguiation o r “oaoi©. Wasxiington B.C.: GPO» 1926.

______. Proceedings of the second Rational Radio Convention. Washington B.C.: GPO» W3.

______. necotiunenaations for the Regulation of Raaio Adopted by the Third National Radio convention. Wasxxington u .c . : GPo* 1924.

•Pa C. "decisions of the program committee Meeting, n sept. 22, 1975.

. "detailed winutes of the program cowrittee meeting," sept. 29, 1975.

. "program committee meeting, « tape recordings, sept. 29, Oct. 13, 1975.

, "program Committee notes," Rov. 22, 1975.

, "rieport of the program Bisector," b^*0* 15, 1975.

Pounaation Letters to WFAC» 1975

Ahne Alien, national domeLibrary foundation, July 29. uartha Alsworth, xving Ranch, inc., July 16. narry Ah a er son, The preuerick J. Kennedy Memorial Pounuution, «>uly 14. a.«*. arne rich, pan a of America pounaation, July 2b. m . n . dabb, alii s-chalmers f'ounuation, in c., Rov. 12. Geraldine Bag by, The dan forth foundation, July 17. itobert dates, wockefeller Brothers puna, july 7* Clare davis, coming Glass works foundation, june 24. nobert dills, The .rfax.finger pounaation, july 16. Virginia dowler, American Metal climax pounaation, inc., «uly 8. nelen drown, CdB pounaation, inc., sept. 2. Ralph Clark, Clin pounaation, Inc., June 24* 312 .Diane Corbin, nelena Rubinstein pounaation, july 16. mooert ijiercks, Carolyn pounaation, July 10. Humphrey ice ira an a , Tile Rush p o u n a a tio n , J u ly 9. », wohn ^ r i a c o l l , The ^ r i s c o l l p o u n a a tio n , J u ly 9. irhilip juunois, Rowlana pounaation, inc., July 18. wane Duay, laconic Pounaation, Aug. 5* bara xugelharat, carnegie Corp. of Rew York, June 24* dan Green, trwin-bwetney-ailler pounuation, July 14. Douise Uriesinger, urwon zeilerbach pounaation, Aug. 14. Davis naines, rublic welxare pounuation, inc., july 14. Thomas nail, The car gill pouadation, July 2b. nonnie narrison, gLlis d . Phillips pounaation, july 16. Pranjc woseph, or. The D o u i s 4J. Beaumont pounaation, wuly 3. nowara Rlein, The Rociceiell er Pounuation, June 27. nichara ararner, »r., General plectric pounuation, June 26. iwanaace m ass, o. . hdwaru guinn, hfca.re-RoeoucK pounaation, Aug. 13. Davia naoiage, wr., The new worla pounaation, Aag* 18* j^-ent Rhoues, neaaer's digest pounaation, Auf. 19. rhilip hapir, The G-f^nt p'ounaation, i^c. , July 17. Robert o c r iv n e r , Rockefeller pamily puna, june 27. b. W. oteveneon, The m.L. Curtis Bok pounaation, july 2. homer wausworth, The clevelanu pounuation, june 23. r. o. Wean, wr., The r , j. wean pounaation, july 21. marshall wells, Houston pjiuovwuent, inc., au£* 6* aonald wertz, The hillman p'ounaation, inc., July 1. dired wisnart, w r. , powaru Reinz ijauovrtnent, june 26. wuay ieetrumsKas, william n. ipuner pounuation, inc. , uuxy 6* 313

Broadcast a

-L.es Brown, ana jnel uriilin, WVKO* interview. WFAC* BJ-ACfc Community speaks. on t a p e , sept. 25, 1975.

Christian cchool nally, interviews. WPAC* Montage, Bee. 8, 1975. ureaaie martin interview. Tomorrow with tow gnyaer, «uly 4, 1978. no ward metzenbaum, interview . WPAC flvening news, on tape, oct. fa, 1975.

walking Aik, AIM, interview . WFAC* Who 1 s Running your on tape, uct. 5, 1975*

william loung, P'i’a , interview, jpnahue, sept. 26, 1978.

unpublished ph. jj. i)i s s e r t a t i o n s

Atainson. carroll. Baucation by Radio in American Bchool s. nashville; George peaboay college, 1938. nettinger, ne.t.man. The U se oi Radio Broadcasting as an AQVfer ti si nr. meu.ium in ‘the Unite a sta te s. phil aueXphTa: u. oi Pennsylvania, 1933*

Jioon, Cline. development and APprai sal oi nl asBroom instruction by naaio. Co 1 um bus; o h io’ s t a t e university, 1931. nichty, Lawrence w. "The Ration * s station**, ^ Hi sto ry oi ivauio station wi.w. 2 vol s. Columbus; 08U. 19^4. wall, Richard. some Aspects oi political Broadcast PQlicies oi itaaio ana Tel evTsion stations in tKe u n i t e d s t a t e s , C olum bus: OBU, T55

Pearce, ALan. nnC hews division; A Study oi the costs, the revenues, ana the BeneirTs oi Broadcast Hews. Bloomington: inuiana university, 1971.

Biley. uonald. * history oi American Radio jrama prom 1919 to 1944. Columbus: OoU, 1944. 314 nipley, «oseph., li. The practices and policies negaraing Broaacasts o? opinion' about cofttgoversial 1 s sues by nadio ana I el evi son stationsl’n the united states. Columbus: 0olH 1961,

Cab ah, jjranxlin. The Use oi the semantic Dili ernetial Technique in the Analysis of the images of Three"" Columbus commercial Television stations, columbu b: 1959. anith, xiobert n. The ftartime Rauio RewB Qonnnentariea o f itaymorm ^wing. 1939-1945. Columbus: OdU* iyb3.

ptanton, trank. a critique of present Methods and a New rlan for ptudvinA pauio iFet'enin^ Behavior. coTumbus: 7 1935.

cummers, itobert. The nole oi congressional Broadcasting in a ■democratic Pocietv. colurn bus: OBU* 1955.

Taylor, michael. Ben par row ana The phio school oi the *±r. Columbus: c^U, 1974.

Unpublished m.A* Theses next, charlene. "Thriller" pram a of American Radio networks. Columbus: CoU, 1949.

*>enkins, aary. nadio-prama. Columbus; OBU, 1931.

Pichty, Lawrence W. £ptuoy of the part er a and uualiiicaiions oi members oi the federal Radio i^ommi Haion ana peueral communications commi sslo n , 1927 to 1961. Columbus: OoU, V?6l. nipley, **oseph, ii. problems in the ^ tension ol the content Analysis research TechnTque to include oral rresentation for Use in RaaioResearch. columbust udj, 1953.

pells, Alice, education by Raaio. columbus: OBU» 1930.

pilverman, Prea. g i Analysis ol abc teleyision network programming lrom peuruary 1953 to October 1955^ Columbuss OoU, 1960.

caith, Donald c. A study of programming of the Three major naaio networks Between October 1951 and buiy 1936. Columbus: OoU, 1949. 515

Summers, j*obert. The Hole of Radio as an in strum ent oi Unitea btates jo reign roTTcy^ columbus; OSU* T95T.

Unpublished studies nopf, dowara ana jjedwell, Raymond, jr. ii stener availability ana aaaio news ana music preferences in colurnbus. uhio. April. 19597 Radio-Tel evi si on audience btuuies—dew series Wo. 1. columbus: UuO i^ept. of speech, 1962. tfnith, uonald C. Tel evi sion program selection, Li Ring for Tel evi sion xrofrana. ana Levels oi' Attention Given to Tel evi sion programs by housewives Tn ju scallo sa, Alabama, nadio-iel evi sion Auuience studies—New series no. 3* Columbus: OoU x/ept. of speech, 1963*

Congressional Hearings u.o. Congress, nouse. committee on interstate ana poreign Commerce, au ending the communications AQt of 1934. Vo* 650) 82d CongT, 1st sess. Washington B.C.: G P O » 19 5 1 . ______Amend section 309 (o) of 209 the i£ communications l ,______, Act, ^protest procedure, H.h. 56'TT)_S4tn cong. , 1 st sess. Washington B.C.: GPO» 1955.

. color Tel evi sion. 83ra cong., 1 st sess. Washington jj. C. : GPG, 1953. tne negul at ion of interstate and go reign Caw err a by Wire or wadio^ (h. r . 8301 ) 73rd cong., 2d se e s . Washington QpQ, 1934.

______. proposed changes in the comm uni o ^tion s wet af 193A. ih . n. 5497) 77 p£ c o n g . , 2d se ss. Washington B.C. : GPU, 1942

U.t>. congress, douse. committee on Merchant Marine anu Pisheries. a dill to regulate Raaio communication. Vd. i\. 7357;“68th cong., 1st sess. washing ton b. C. : GPU, 1^24. ______. g hill to peculate riaaio communication. vn.a. 5589 > 69th Cong., 1st sess. Washington B.C.: GPu, 1926. 316

______. -ail! to .Hiitend Act to Regulate Radio (jftmmunj cation a ad proved auau sT T57 191?, and lor Other Purposes. ^h.a . 11964) 67th cong. , 2d seas. Washington ; upu, 1923.

______. Xfi. a^dnd the Act for the Hegulation oi itaaio Communication.

______. £o Amend the aaaio Aut oi' 1927. (H. H. 7716) 72d Cong., 2d sess. Washington j>.C.: GP0» 1953-

______. Continue (.until inarch 16, 1930) th e federal aaaio. commission (H. a . 1543PT 70th cong. , 2d sess. Washington ja u. : UPO, 1929. u.u, congress, nouse. select committee ol the House. inveatination oi the feueral communications commission. tiOth c o n g . , 2d sess. Washington u. c.: GPO» T948.

______. btudy ana investigation oi the general Communications commission. Th.Kes.~2l7 78th cong.. 1st sess. tart 1, geb. 1943* Part 2, may, 1944; part 3* «ov. 1944; Part 4, oec. 1944; part 5, Feb. 1945. Washington u.u.: ufc, 1943-1945. u.u. congress, house, special bubcoramittee on Legislative uversight. Pursuant to h. me. 99 pertaining to the inaepenuent negul a to rv commi ssion s. 83th cong. , 2d se ss, Washington i>. c. ; GPO* 1959. u.o. Congress, nouse. bubcommittee ol the committee on Appropriations, indepenaent pilices APPropri a tion s 1940-1955. 76 cong.-84th cong. Washington L.C.: GPO* 1939-1955.

U.u. congress, house, subcommittee of the committee on interstate ana Foreign Commerce, investigation of aaaio and lei evi sion programs. 82

Congress, senate, committee on interstate ana foreign Commerce, Amendments to the poaununications *>ct ol 1954. 1973) 81 st Cong. , 1st sess. Washington o.e. : GPO* 1949.

______fee policy on Tel evi sion freeze and p iher c;n mm Ljai'c ation a matters. 82d cong., 1st sess. Washington u.c.s GPO. 1951. 317

. Hearings on Confirmation of commis signers. 70th won*., 1st sees, Washington n.C.: GPO* 192b.

. nomination ol p. it weoster to the peaeral cnmmunj cations Commi ssion. 81st cong. , 1 st sess. Washington 0.0. ; GPO, 1949.

. nomination oi Robert jj. ^ee to be a member of the Peaeral communi cations commission.~B5ra cong., 2a sess. Washington P.O.: GPO» i954.

* nomination of ihaa h. prown on Reappointment as j1 eueral communications comm is si on ^r. 76th cong, , 2a sess. Washington no.: GPO, 1940

. nomination of wayne pox arm George .g. sterling to the peuera! communications pommfsaion. both coufo., 2u sess. Washington D, c.: GPO* 1948.

. xteaffirming the U se of the ret her for ftauio Communication, (u. i anu s. 175?)~69tn cong. , 1s? sess. Washington *j , o. ; GPO, 1926.

______. ritatus of UnP ana multipl e ownership of TV stations. 83ra~cong., 2a sess! Washington u. c . : GPO, T9&T! . Televi sion rnquiry, part 4, network prac­ tices. 84th Cong., 2a sess. Washington o.C.: GP0» 1956.

______, To Amen a the Communi cation s Act of 1934. ^8. 814J 7tith Cong., 1st sess. Washington D,c. : GPO* 1944. . To Ajnena the communi cations Act of 1934. . 13339 80th Cong., 1st sess. Washington p.c.: GPOt 1y47. ______. ^2. Amend the Aaaio Act of 1927. (H.K. 7716) 72d Cong., 1st sess. Washington u.C. : GPO, 1932.

______. fo Authorize a btuay of the Hadio and ~Televi sion nulus ana negulations o£ the geueraT communications Commi ssion. (sen. Kfcs1 T13) 77th c°ng., 1st sess. Washington ±>.C. ; GPO, 1941.

______. ^o_ Continue (until march 1b, 1930) the rowere of the reaeral nauio nommission. (s. 9937) 70th Cong., 2d sess. Washington u.C.: GPO, 1929. 318

______. Tg. investigate the Actions oi1 the peueral ^nminunjcations COHJuission in connection with the ■oevelopititiit v i 'iel evi sion. "Tsen. wee. ?51 ) 76th c°n*5* » 2a sess. Washington x>. C. : GPOt 1940.

______. Tfi. prohiuit the Advertising uf Alcoholic ueverat.cs by xtauio. 517,) 7b th cong. , 1st sess. Washington x.C.; GPc* 1939.

______. workloaa ol the peueral communications ^ tiftttfillfifiifln. 83ra cong., 1st sess. Washington B.C. : GPU, 1953. u. o. Congress, senate, jdubcoramittee oi' the committee on appropriations, inuependent ol-*-ices appropriations 194-0-1955. 76th-84th Cong. Washington D. C. : GPO* 1939-1955. u.^.. congress, oenate. bubcommittee oi’ the committee on interstate ana poreign commerce, nomination oi' Robert j)‘. uon»- s to the peuerai communications pommi ssion. Soth cong., 1st sess. Washington v . C . : GPO* 1947 . u.hi. congress, senate, subcommittee on communications. Hearings on the surgeon General 1 s heport by the SCleftUUfi aavisory committee on Tel evi sion ana social Behavior. 92a Cong. , 2a sess. Washington G. 0. : Gru, 1972.

Congressional reports

U.o. congress, no use. committee on interstate ana foreign Commerce. Communications act Amendments, 1952. Conierence neport to accompany 3. 658. house HeP°^ 2426 , 62a cong., 2a sess. Washington G. C. :GPU» 1952.

. conierence itepo rt to Accompany £i 3265. House report 1918* 73rd cong., 2a sess. Washington h.c. : Gru, 1934. . Aval uat ion ol ptati stical Met ho as u sea in ubtaining nroaacast ratings, report. 87 th cong. , 1st sess. Washington u.c.; GPO* 1961. . jor the itegulation of interstate and Poreim commerce by wire or Kadlo. House report 1850, 73ra cong., 2a sess. Washington i).G. : GPOt 1934.

. network hroaacasting. house neport 1297* 85th cong. , 2u see si Washington ±t. c. : GPO* 1958. ______. duspension of Pertain provi sions oi the Communications *ct during jar. house Report 2 5 9 7 7 77th pong., 2d sess. Washington j.C. : GPO, 1942. u.p. congress, nouse. committee on the judiciary, Antitrust subcommittee. The Television groadcasting inaustrv. house Report 607, U5th cong., lst sess. Washington r. p. : GPO, 1957.

U.p. pongress, nouse. Committee on merchant garine and fisheries. & Hill to Regulate Radio communication, nouse report 404, 69th pong7, 1 si sess. Washington jj. c. P ip , 1926.

______. a Ct lor the itegulation ol Radio Transmission. no use neport 464, 69th pong.j Tst sess. Washington u. C. Gru, 1926.

. Act lor the ijegulation oi Radio Transmission. Ponierence Report to accompany R.R. 9971. House Report 1086, 69th cong., 2u sess. Washington p.p.: GPO* 1926.

______. Hill to Amend Act to gegulate Radio Pommunications Approved August I?! 1915, and lor other irurpo ses. nouse Report 1416, 67th cong., 2 d sess. Washington p .p .; pro, 1925*

. To Apt end th e Radio got of 1927 . House Report 1.556, 71st Pong,, 2a sess. Washington D,P. : GPO, 1931.

______. Amend the aaaio act of 1927. House Report 221, 72a ^ong., 1st sess. Washington P.P.: GPO* 1932.

. To Amend th e Radio Act o f 1927 so as to Make pnl.v pitlzena of the united state snTrgTTjle lor hi cense s. Rouse Report 1116, 72d pong., 1 st sess. Washington u.p: GPP, 1932.

______. To continue (Until a arch 16, 193Q) Hewers ol the Peaeral Radio commission. Rouse Report 3 9 6 , 70th pong., 2a sess. Washington P.P.: GPO* 1929.

______. j£o_ continue until otherwise provided Law the rowers anu Authority oi! the peaeral Radio aa-tnn.. House R eport 35* 7T st c o n g ., 2d se ss . Washington jw.p . i GPO, 1929. u.p. pongress, Rouse, delect committee of the House. investigation of the peairal communications pommission. nouse deport 2095, ^6th pong., 2d sess. Washington .p. w : GPU, 1945* 320

______. investigation of the peaeral nommunications Commission. nouse heport™54797 80'tH_Cong7, 2a sess. Washington -u.c. : UPu , 1949.

______. investigation of the port Huron Decision ana the rco 1t .jeci sion. nouse repo rt 2467, cong*, 2d sess. Washington *>. o. ; flPOt 1948. u. u. congress, nouse. special subcommittee on Legislative cversight. inaepenaent reguiatory commissions. House aeport 2711, 85th Cong., 2d sess. Washington-!). 0, : Gru, 1959. u.u. congress, nouse. subcommittee of the committee on interstate ana Poreign commerce, investigation of aaalo and iel evision Programs, house report 2b097 62a Cong., 2a stss. Washington n.C.: GPO, 1952. u.*>. congress, senate, committee on interstate and Po reign commerce, act for the regulation of flauio jj.ansmission. senate report 772, b9th cong. , 1 st sess. Washington u. w : Uro, 1926.

______. /unenaments to the contmunications Act of liOi. cenate report 741, 81 st cung.» 1st sess. Washington v.c.; cput 1949.

. Comm uni ca lions Act Amendments, 1951 * senate aeport 44, 82u Cong., Tst ses'sl Washington J.C.: GP0» 1951.

______. Communications otudy. senate report 49, 81st Cong., 1st sess. Washington iuc.j GPO, 1949.

. por the regulation of interstate ana poreign commerce by wire or raaioT senate~HeP°rt 761, 73ru cong., 2d sess. Washington ±j. c . : GPO, 1937.

______. resolution Authorizing Air investigation ana otuay ol the rroaacaBting inuuErEry, of rroan- casting in the uni tea abates, ana of interstate and roreign commerce b.v radio, senate report 1203, 75th cong., 1st sess. Washington u, c. : GPO, 1937.

______. ielevision network regulations ana the UK? rroDl em. j*»emorandum by Harry m. plotkin. Washington : GPc, 1955.

______. l‘he I1 el evi sion inquiry, report, 85th cong., 1st sess. Washington u.C, : GPO, 1958. 521

______. The Tel evi sion Inquiry. Tel evi sion Network rractlces. neport, 85th Cong. , 1 st sess. Washington n. w; uxrO, 1957.

______. The Tel evi sion inquiry . The proul em of tel evi aion ser vice for smaller communiti es, staff report, 85th Cong., 2a sess. Washington JJ. C. : GPU* 1^58.

______. Tfi. Amend the Communications act of 1934. senate xieport 1567, 80th cong., 1st sess. Washington n, i,. i uru, 1948.

______. ^2. Amend the xtaaio Act of 1927. senate xieport 564, 72u Cong,, 1st sess. Washington u.c.i uru, 1932.

______. ^o Ainena the xtaaio Act of 1927. senate xieport 1578, 71st cong., 2a sess. Washington D.G.: CPU, 1931. ______. Tfi. amend the xtaaio Act of 1927. senate xieport 1045, 72d cong., 2d sess. Washington U. c. • GPo, 19 33. . To Continue the peaer^ hauio commi ssion. senate neport 56, 71st cong. , 2d sess. Washington u* i/. ; uro , 1929.

. Tg. Prohluit the ^.uverti sing of Alcoholic nevera^es Hv xtaaio. senate report 338,”T6xh cong. » 1st sess. Washington u. c. : CPU, 1939. u . m. uongress, oenate. committee on the juaiciary. -effects on xoung peonle of Violence anu crime Portray ea o n l^evision.~epb'rt. 6arT~T6rWh cong. , 2d sess. Washington u.c.; UPU, 1964.

______.investigation of juvenile Delinquency in . - the Unite* states. Tel evi sion ana Juvenile Delinquency, xieport no. 14b6, 84th cong., 2a sess. Washington d . C. i uru, 1956.

U.o. uongress, senate. au no c Advisory committee on a ! l ocations, xieport of the a <* hoc Anvi sory committee on Alio cations to the Commit tee on interstate ana j?nreign uommerce. 85th cong., 2d sess. Washington n. w.J UPU, 1958. 322

Government Document8 b. ■*>« vaaKreasional necora. 68th Cong., 1st sess., Mtty 24, 1924, p. 25727; 72a c o n g ., 2d sess., Jan. 7, 1952, p. 1412; 7>rd cong., 2d sess., june 9, 1934, pp.10988- 10995. Washington d. a. ; upO.

U.u. department of commerce, radio service Balletin. nashi-.gton d. : dept, of commerce! sept. 1922-Dec* 1y2b. u.w. -department of «ustice. upinions of the Attorney general . Washington c, ; Gpc, 1912, p. 579; 192b, pp. 126-152, u.u. peueral communications Commission. Action for children's relevision "comments." pcC jpcket no, 19142, rm. 15b9. Washington B.C.: POc, July 2, 1971.

______. "Action lor chiluren's Television proposal acceptea as rule nuking petition, " public notice no. 44628. Washington d.c, : P^c, peb. 12, 1970.

______. Action for children's Television "Reply bt-tement in the matter of petition for ruI e-ijaKing relating to children's Television." Washington B.C.: Pec, April 29, 1970.

. "Amendment of part 75 Of the commission's rules and regulations with Respect to competition ana responsibility in retwor* Television Broadcasting." report ana uraer no. 12782. Washington B.C.: PCG, May 4. 1970.

______. Annual report. Washington B.C. : GPU» 1934-1978.

.ptroaucast btation rule Reierences l'pr Raaio Operators. Washington d. o. ; PCC, 1974.

. chilaren1s Televi sion Report ana policy statement. 74-1174. Washington r. a.; p^c, oct7 5l, 1974.

______• engineering dept, of the PCC, TO_ the b ro a d c a s t ni vision of the PCc: R eport on gocial ana economic data pursuant to the Informal Hearing on broadcasting, Docket 4063, e u ly 1, 1937. W ashington d.a,: j\,cf 1938. ______. "interim neport by the o-J--»-ice oi' network btuay, weapon si Dili ty ior nroaacast Matter. « Washington i.o. : jftu, 1960.

______. net work oroaacastini:. touse neport 1297, 65th cong., 2a sess! Washington ^.c. : GPO* 1958.

______. "notice oi inquiry ana notice oi* proposea nule making," Uocket no. 19142, peueral le is te r 36, no. 20. Washington o. . gpo, jan. 29, 1971, pp. 14^9-30.

______. Public arm proaacasting. peueral Kee4-Ster 39 no. 173, pt. ill. Washington u.0.: GPO, 1974.

______. rublic service nesporisibility oi Broadcast licensees tihe Blue uookj" wasHTngToni. c. : Poo, 1946.

______. "rteply comments—Action lor (jhiluren*s i'el evi sion, » POC locket no. 19142, pm. 1569. Washington i. u. ; PoU, Oct. 1, 1971.

______. "Keply to nesponse oi Komper ttoom to the neply oomments oi ACT- " Washington u. o. : PGc, March 13 1972.

______. rteport on chain Broaacasting, Washington i poc, 1941.

______. nult-s ana negul ation s. Washington B.C.: poo, 1940-1975.

______. "aecona interim report by the oitice oi network btuuy, Television network program procurement, rart 1, louse neport no. 281, 8bth cong., 1st sess. Washington i. o. ; Gpo , 1963.

______, »yecona Interim report by the oi^ice oi net worn btuuy, Television network program procurement, Part 2. Washington n.o. ; GPU, 1965*

______. The economic a oi network Chil uren »s Televi­ sion Programming, btaii report. Washington b. C: FCC, 1972.

______, The m ineas primer. Washington B.C. : PGC, 1975. ______. The PCC ana proaacasting. Washington u.C. : Poo, 1975. 324 ______. Thira claas broaacast operator permit etuay guiue. Washington d. c ; J?'CC, 1974. "Transcript ol Testimony, « xpcket no. 5072-a, vol. 4. Washington d . c . : RCC, June 9, 193&. u.o. feaeral Kauio Commission, jjinual Report. Washington -u. u. . arc, 9 1 2 7 - 1935. ______. radio Aavertising. Document 13V, letter of the chairman of the jjaC in response to equate resolution 129, 72a c^ng., 1st sess. Washington D.c.: CfO, uune 9, 1932. u.u. reueral security Agency. raaio script patalog, 5th eaition, Uertruae urouerick, ecu Washingtond. c. : riwi, 1946. ______. nauio ccript catalog. 6th eaition, Gfcrtruue nrouerick, eu. Washington d.C . ; fcU, 1950. b.o. o ffice of nuucation. "Determination of Basic grant Eligibility inuex. « Washington d. e. : HEW, 1975. u .^ -,lh ite house conference on chiluren. «chila Development ana the mass Meuia,» Report to the fresiaen t. Washington c. : tiro, 19YO. u.u. works rrofc,r ess ^amini st ration, feueral Theater rro^ect, rauio Division, ptory of the Reueral theater raaio pivision. uew YorET RThD'"on'ice of information, 1939.

Laws Corporation lor rublic pro aucasting. The Minority Training urant fro .ram. WashingtonB .C .: CPh, 1975. u.o. Jt’eaeral Communications commission. J?CC Reports; ueci sio n s. report s. an a cruers of the ffeherar communications commission in the uni tea states. Washington d . w : arc, 1936-19777 ______• The Communications Act of 1934. wuskinfcton iy.o. ; ufw, 1956. b. congress, nouse. Raaio pawsi f the united states. Washington jj, c. : ufC, 1^36-1972. 525 u.o. cilice of Education. noncommercial Educational nroadcaating Pacilities program! Washington d. C. : nx.i», 1975.

Court and Agency decisions duncan v. u .o ., 46 P<2d) 128 (CCA 9th 1931)* profanity, me v. nelson Eros. uona & mortgage co. 289 U.8. 266 U955J. A iJu ) broadcasting a s s o . v . PKO* 47 F(2a) 670 ( DC APP* 1931 J i medical aavice on air. in re racifica, 36 FCC 147» uan. 22, 1964, para. 2; obscenity. xtea xjion jjroaccasting Co. v. FUC* 395 U. o. 367 (1969). m-Du v, u.o., 319 U.o. 190 (1942); antitrust. Trinity methouist church v. FaC* 62 p(2a) 850 (dc APP* 1932;; political attacks, u . o . v. e e c , o i i o , a d ^ ( "-“ntitrust complaint," tiled with u . o . district court, cefl* civ. 01 California, April 14, 1972. u . o , t , benith xiauio Corp., 12 F^2a) 616 (1926); regul ation.

Commission neports naker, nobert ana nail, i>andra. violence ana the Media, btafi ueport to the national commi ssion on tne causes ana rrevention of Violence. Washington d.c.: GPO* 1969. camegie commission on nuucational Television, public Television. A r jx>gram f^r Action; the deport and «ecommendation a of the Carnegie Commission on -E.aucational Tel evi sion. new York : Bantam, 155’7.

Committee on c i v i c Education o f Kao KE. pour years of Network nroaacasting. «ew York: MACKE, 1937T national citizens committee for broadcasting, yon are the one who can temper violence on tel evi aion. Washington : Kcob, 1977. national council on crime and delinquency, comerence iie n o rt. dew i o r k : eCCe, 1960 nights jn conilict. mew York: uutton, 1968. itfiport of the t resident's national Auvjsory no amission on Civ il .uiaorafcra. hew York; pant am, T968. 326 nose, C ornelia b. national p o lic y for Radio Broad­ casting. neport of a Committee of" the Rational'" economic ana bocial Planning Association. New fork: narper, 1940,

bio an cottmi ssion on Cable communication*. On the pabl e—- th e t e l evi sion of Abundance. New fork: M^Graw-Hf 11» 1971. u.w. department of interior, U.o. Office of jgaucation. iteDort of the Advisory committee on Ruucation by ■aauioT WashlSgtori ^ i " gpo T ' T ^ 30” ------

U.S. public nealth cervice, ourgeon General's scientific Advisory Committee on television anu social Behavior. te l evi sion ana crow ing Up ; The impact of Tel evi sed violence. rreiace; ana V vole: Television and social b e h a v io r , Washington b. c; GPO« T5TT.

periodical s

?adG will pay *116-million to televise college Football," the ohronicle of nigher .education (June 27, 1977), 6 .

"ad C' s 'soap' nas pressure Groups in a Briber," Gui ae Uuly 9, 1977), A-1.

*A boost for public TV*" Newsweek (oct* 17, 1977 J, 106.

"a C o lle g e of, by, ana for Navajo Indians, « the ghroni cl e of Higher auucation (Jan. 16, 1978), 10.

" a CT gets together in Washington, " B-rouocasting (lim y 1* 1976), 54.

"ACT taxes its fight to the supermarkets," Broaacae^inS (m arch 2 0 , 197b), 4 8 . American behavioralpcientist. 14, no. 3 (Jan.-Feb. 1971;, 421, 526.

"a new deal for fouth, » New fork times (July 5, 1933)*

"Area coaches Quests on WFAC*" o&etz Gazette (pec. 8 , 1975), 1. '•A btrong signal for public Broadcasting," New york timea (cct. 7, 1977;, A-30.

Ayres, b. brummona, wr., "tv Is on Trial, ana at T^ial# in aiami," new fork Times (Oct. 7, 1977), A“1^* 327 bergreen, Lawrence, "bow ±jq You measure violence?*' 1Y (aov. 5 , 1977), 5-10.

"black TV," Mewsweek (sept. 29, 1975), 63.

.00 ice, uuth, "Kaoisb. Guild; Growing Absuru, " OSU Lantern (uune 28, 1977;* 11. nogart, Leo, "warning: ^he snrgeon General Has jjetemineu That TV violence Is kouerately jjangeroua to tour chilu's mental nealth," p ublic opinion iMBti&ElX. jUUVI, no. 4 (Win 1972-73)7 514-513.

"boy's xrial sawyer nits TV Violence," oolumbus .Dispatch (bept. 26, 1977), a - 7 .

“Broadcasterswoula have PCC say nay to cCMui on ch ild ren 's reporting,11 broadcasting (April 24, 1978), 44. broaacastingUav 1 , 1 9 3 6 ), 34-35i (May 4, 1 9 7 0 ), 2 9 -3 4 ; (iuig. 15, 1977), 3 2 . brown, Les, "7 f-ao otations neject interview with bxtremists, " aew fork Times (Oct. 8 , 1977), 38.

"by the numbers," Time (peo. 23, 1976), 66.

"darter seeks to opend | 1-uillion on public Broaucasting over 5 iears," The chronicle of higher baucation ( o c t . 1 1 , 1977), 1 , 1 2 .

"ebb Plays hxecutive buite, » Newsweek (oct. 25, 1976), 63—86•

"Cbb-Tv ousts 2 chiefs m intensive bhakeup," flew Y°rk Times (uct. 18, 1977), 1,66.

Chagall, x^aviu, "The child probers," TV G^iae (oct. 8 , 1977), 9-12. —

Choate, Robert, "Pair play in young viewers: h°w A^out xtevealing oponsor's Tactics?" hew iorx. Times (bept. 17, 1972). Cipriani, Cindy, "btution f a i l s ; funas low," 08U Lantern (may 1 1 , 1977), 9. coffin, Thomas and Tuchman, $am, "Rating Television programs for Violence; a comparison of 5 surveys," euumal jLt nroaacasting (w^n. 1972-73), 15-16. 328 "Community Access Kaaio To begin,n columbus preepress iu u ly 2 , 1975;, 2 .

"Community Access Video," Columbus yrtepress (peo. 12, 1975;, 2.

"Cooling v i ' l the Tube," Newsweek (sepi* 6, 1976), 46.

Cooney, jo an Canz, "isn’t it Time we put the ckiluren jjlrstV" mew iork Times vi)®c. 3, 1972). corporation Tor rublic nroaacasting, CPP KePort V oep t . 29, 1975;, 1-4. "Curtis conference on Advertising lor chil uren Hrings neateu axchunges," Auvertising A*e ^july 19, ly65)» 41. cegler, carl, "The urdeal oi* Herbert Hoover," yal e neview. n. s. 52 Cbum., 1y63), 56 3-583.

"respite conviction oi1 icuth, .^eoate uver TV vioitnue continues, " new iorjc jimfcs tcct. 8 , 1977), 10. jjiauionu, j^uwin, "meuia myths that Limit pree speech, " Xi th iiu® Uov, 5, 1977), 41-46. baucation by r.auio. 6 , no. 9 (sept. 1936), 31-52; 6 , n o . 12 v-oec, 1936;, 4 6 -4 9 ; 6 , no. 1 (Jan. 1938), 3-4; 8 , no. 6 ^uune-culy 1 9 3 8 ;, 1- 2 ; 9, no. 2 (peb. 1939), 4-5; 1 0 , no. 3 ^ 3ra quarter, 1 9 4 0 ;, 17-18. iCtron, i^iith, "The chilaren’s crusuue that jailed," XI 0uiu® vapril 14, 1973;, 38-41. . "parm nureau uiiers poweriul ^ebutcal to r-oo," TV cuiae ^8®pt. 11, 1976;, a-3.

______, "The merging TV puttie; jv,rce vs. yreeaom, n TV Cuiue Vnec. 1 6 , 1 9 7 6 ;, a -3 . rleey, Michael, cerbner, George ana Teaesco» "Apples, oranges anu the Aitchen sink; An Analysis ana Guide to the Comparison oi‘ ’violence ftatiugs, Journal o i aroaucastinglain. 1972-73), 30.

"j&arson urges chio PTa to ’ignite the spark,’" colurot ’118 citizen-oournal luct. 2 5 , 1977;, 14. "Pcc Judges carlin necoruing ’xnuecent,*" ObU Luni®171 Ueb. 14, 1975;, 1. 329

"FuC permits ^uulic Rauio satellite Use, « columuus u i sputch ^feb. 1 1 , 1979;, g- 1 0 .

"feaeration rrotesting 'sleazy ^ex' on AjBC, " Columbus ujspatch v«ov. 2 , 197b), o- 2 .

"/teaerB at the Trough,” Broadcasting (Aug. 2b, 1972;, 5k. franklin, Gordon, "WFa C-91.5 FM." our choking Times Upril 7, 1975). o. fra se r, o. Gerald, "WBAI head says Taxeovei* Recalls 60 * s 'Commune, ' 11 i»ew xorx Times (pet. 22, 1977). 54. friedman, *iel, "now uo You sPell Relief? jfludison ^venue o p e ll s i t g - a - w-Y-.m-.h-s, M ju ris ijoctor (gee. 197b-jan. 1979), 25-30.

"from the E rector's uesx," The groaacaster, osu (June, 197b), 7.

"from soap to nuts," newsweex (gee. 1 , 1975). 73.

"fTc head questions a^b Aimea at children," columbus ^i-sp a tc h u*»ov. 9 , 1977), A-4.

"fTC panel hears faculty tell views on kins’ tv a u s i " oou un Camous (April 5, 1979), 4.

"fTc will continue stuay oi TV aus aimed at children," Columbus oitizen-cournal (may 25, 197b), 29.

"Gazette cports suitor To Rauio, »» o^etz gazette ( r o v . 3, 1975), 1.

Gould, «ack, "TV Violence nelu unharmi'ul to youth,» ±,ew lorx Times v«Jan. 11, 1972), 1. Griffith, Thomas, "Television's gecessary Reuters," Time Uec. 19, 1977), 4b.

Gross, neonaru, "Citizens with clout," TV Guiue V*arch 8 , 1975), 31-35.

Gunther, max, "aII That TV Violence: why go we gove/uate TtY" £V Guiae (mov, 6 , 1976), 6-10. narmetz, Aljean, "The iear TV Turned to sex. " TV Guide l^ay 6 , 197o), 4-10. >30

«aas your television reception been better,» The Ne* street sheet (.July 12, 1976), 2. nazelton, ^eith, "WO on-am board. 0 K.S exchange o l frequencies," Uou Lantern (May 10, 1970), 2. nenry, Thomas, "Terrorism on the itauio, " NLa jo u r n a l t>ay 1935 J. nentoll, mat, "The n e a a o i th e camel," village Vdice Wet. 24, 1974;. 31-32.

Mickey, ueil, "It AL1 comes Town I'o Money," TV Guiae IAug. 6 , 1977;, 29-32. ”

. "public TV in Turmoil: who's jn charge nerevn li Ouiae Wuly 3 0 , 1977;, 20-24.

"now TV Violence Aifeets lour child," TV Guide (March 21, 1959;, 17-19. ------

"II the j;ye cli'end Thee," Time (sept. 26, 1977), 53.

"is Prime Time A^ady lor sfc*?" Time (July 1 1, 1977), 75.

(Jensen, nita, "cable companies open Tree access channel," UuU lantern (peb. 5 , 1975;, 8 .

"nias rich betmty, bionic," OOJ Lantern (May 24, 1977), 1.

%ing te a r," Time (Ap^il 5, 1976;, 74-75. nnoll, oteve, "Pair or roul," The hew pepublic (iiug. 31, 1974;, 16-18.

".Laughing Jill the Way," hewsweek (Dec. 1, 1975), 73* nazarsfela, raul, "why' I s so L ittle xnown about the xllecte ol Television on chil uren ana what can Be Iphe?" iu-hli-c Opinion uuarterly. a I a (1955;, 243-249.

"nettere," Newsweek (march 14, 1977), 5. nevin, x,ric, "The Violence Dropouts," TV Guiae (wan. 1 , 1977;, 4 - b . nevine, idchard, "Advertisement lor itself," gew Times (march 20, 1978;, 77-78. nippmann, Walter, "The permanent hew jjeal," yale geview, aaIV , n o . 4 (*>une 1935;, 649-667. 331 m*acaeil, Robert, "25 ifears of public Television^ iV Guiae (March 1b, 197b), 3-6.

Mann, Arthur, "Chiluren's c-fime programs," ^cribner'e w a a a z in e w e t . 19343*

"Mary, Mary, yuite contrary,» Time (peb. 23, 1976), 49.

Mayer, nobert, "The guiet aour,» Newsweek (Feb. 9, 197 6;, 1 1 . jwcueely, Bhirley, "QUBii.'s pin wheel To proviae 'goiter* Approach To Chiluren," coluwbus nisputch, Guiae (0°^* 2 , 1977;, 2 .

Merry, C a ro l, "neport a d v o c a te s 200% h ik e in public nroaucasting funds," Gob Lantern (peb. 22, 1979), 6 .

Meyer, peter, "Objections to TV porno more moral than legal," Columbus citizen-oouraai (oct. 12, 1977), 10.

M ills, e e i l r e y , "scholar Blasts Advertising 11 Columbus i/i sp a t ch (M arch 16, 1979), c~5. m orrow , Aance, "Goodbye to 'u u r Mary,'" Time (m arch 14, 1977;, 37. ------

"Mothers lighting the nauio Bogies," Literary digest (March, 1933;-

Muson, noward, "Teenage violence anu the Telly," Psychology Touay (March 1 9 7 8 ), 50-54.

"Mysterious voice interrupts TV program, calls for peace," bob x. an tern (j*ov. 2 b, 1977), b.

"a .a . a . a.p. 1 s Country preacher," Time (J»ov. 22, 1976),22. "axkb: jtteaoy for preaoie," Time (can. 30, 197b), 74.

»aJJC rlans ness violence," 0oU Lantern (Jan. 3t, 1977),2.

»aew ok at rublic Broaocasting, " ^ h e c^roadcle of higher kducation. Wune 2 0 , 1977), 67

"Offerings ny y(JBB Begin in ^ecemoer, « columbus Bpatch, Guiue wet. 12, 1977), 20.

Ohio school of the Air Bulletln (1962-1963), 11-12. 332 uhio school of the Air courier. I, no. 1 (1929), 1-2; 1 1 , n o . 6 (April, 193i)» 29-36; yj, no. 1 (Jan., 1934), 16-17.

"wne ch an n el i s f r e e , 11 columuus preeprmss (cec. 11, 1974),

"outlet brings changes to WOMB, " OCU Lantern (yeb. 3, 1 9 7 7 ;, a . ------

"Pbh satellite system brings im p ro v e m e n t," q SU 0 n campus (April 5, 1979;, 4. rhillips, j^evin, "jnetwons Are Unaer pi re por Racism, sexism unu Ageism," £V Guiae (sept. 3, 1977 ), a -3-

______, "TV nas Pinally begun to c^ver itself, « XX Guiue (sept. 17, 1977;, a -3 .

"r irate TV broadcasts ille g a lly o v e r c h a n n e l," o 6 U u a n t e ra (April 20, 1976), 13.

"rolling the Children," Time (warch 14, 1977), 36. ronu, nobin, "WOoh may go Pm," 06U Lantern (oct. 21, 197 7;, 3. rosey, Gary, "Three's company: Whjf is this wan gniling?" ^he Saturday evening post (sept. 1976), 62-63.

"pTa Rates TV programs," OsU Lantern (peb. 16, 1976), 5 .

"p I a says CDS is neast Violent—hcCJJ Disagrees," Tjf Guiue (Peb. 25, 1976), A-3.

"rublie Access cable TV*!" Columbus preepress (ifcarch 10, 1 9 76;, 2.

"ybnji. To n eaa c h i l u r e n 's a e tw o r x ," colum bus p is p a tc h (i;ec. 1 , 1976;, s-5. y u ig le y ,

•'^ueen for the bay," Rewsweek (moy. 1 0 , 1975), 60. naaio aul 1 etin f1, OsU bureau of Ruucational R esea rch (Oct. 1931), 1- 2 .

______, #6 (Dec. 1933), 2-10. 333

"kaaio Gore,” aewsweek (jmqv, 8 , 1939).

"aaaio station airs unique lormat," OSU Lantern (April 26, 1977;, 8 .------

"iteaaers neact to Violence," Columbus dispatch (Hov. 3, 1977;, B-3. ------

"iteasoner reject a oob as anchorman, lor pourth i*etwurk, « M ( u c t. 1, 1977;, a-3.

A eeves, a x chard, "The Dangers of Television in the Silverman sra, " ^squire (April 25, 1978), 44-57. nitney, Michael, "TV Gets a slap, hot a gallop, lor violence," The -national Jbserver (Jan. 29, 1972). uobertson, Thomas, "The impact of Television Aavertising on. ohilaren," Wharton quarterly(sum., 1972). no oins, uynthia, "now TV Taught ^olumbus, Qhio a Lesson or Two," TV Guiue (April 16, 1977), 16-18.

______"Position Don-Contraaio to ry, " colu^^us d i s p a t c h (aov. 30, 1976), B-10.

Muth, nobert, "city can't control caole TV I’ilms," Columbus j j i snatch (oct. 11, 1977), B-9«

"school Without ochoole, " aewsweek (peb. 21, 1977), 39.

Schumann, Barry, "WusU-PM. to get strong, clear signal," usU Lantern (cct. 10, 1975), 14.

"season ol savagery ana xtage, » Ti»e (peb. 28, 1977), 17.

"Sex ana TV," Newsweek (peb, 20, 1978), 58-61,

"Sex ana violence: bollywooa pights Buck," TV Gaiae (Aug. 27, 1977;, 4-18. Shah, -oiane, "neeere's ., .phil Donahue i» Newsweek (march 13, 1978;, 85. sh ay o n , nobert m ew is, "AUt with ACT," s^turaay Review (March 7, 1970), 22-23.

______, "TV Without T®rse r,« saturaay Review (march 4, 1972), 74-76. 334 "bilverman, superstar," mewsweek (Jan. 30, 1978), 74.

'"bnap, crackle, pop1 unuer pic attack," ObU lantern VApril 5, 1976), 7. ------belomon, xlizabeth, »lo m isleading TV aas create young cynicsV" oU on campus (APr*l 7, 1977), 7. ______, "ctuuy documents violence on TV, " OS# on campus (*ay 5, 1977), 2. "bona oi‘ 'itoots, Hewsweek (sept. 5, 1977), 52-59. bpero, busan, "columuus-style comedy featured,” OsU i* an tern (uune 2b, 1977), 11. " ' spider-man' vitamin au dropped," obU Lantern (peb. 9, 1977;, 2. ------"dports rrograms* Value Questioned by Health fc^.pert," coluuibus v i spat oh ('-'ct. 19, 1977), a-6. Stein, x>enjamin, "Puo Unuer P ire; i t s Reach i s s h o r t,» XI Ou^ue voec. 20, 1975), 24-27. bteinfelu, oesse, "Television violence isHarmful, « iveaa^y...8 ^*JL££t ^*ay 1973), 3b-40. "ougar in the com in g," Newsweek (Jan. 30, 1978), 75. "supreme court to hear appeal on banned words," OSU ^antern Uan. 10, 1978), 3. Teneubaum, nobert, "is there good news in columbus?" Columbus monthly ^may 1977), 38-47. ______, "The Great R&uio Ratingswar, » columbus M onthly (Jan. 1977), 42-46. lhackery, uonna, "Reaching out Through Radio," pocus ^April 15, 1977;, 15,24. "The d iv estitu re rebate," Newsweek (March 14, 1977), 43. "The Rarrah factor, " The Ladies Home journal (June1977), 3 4 -3 8 . "The Galbraith bhow*"aewsweek (May23, 1977), 61-62. 335

"The naraer They pall," Newsweek (oct. 25, 1976), 62,

"The not network," Time (march 15, 1976), 82*85.

"The ijCwq Tube," newsweek (.pec. 29, 1975), 60.

"The man with the ucluen gut,» Time (sept. 5, 1977), 46-52.

"The **ovie TV nates ana moves," Ti^e (Dec* 13, 1976), 7o-79. ------The news net ter, o^u bureau oi' baucational Keetarch. (wov. 1935;, 1i (Dec. 1942), 4; (Jan. 1951), 1-2; (uct. 1955), 1.

"The other a OT petition comes unuer heavy fire ," nroaacasting (**&y 15, 1978), 50-51.

"The xiumor the pec can't k ill," TV Gui ue (July 24, 1976), 4-6.

"The viaeo nius,» newsweek (march 7, 1977), 4.

"Three mays o f xiage, " aewsweek (peb. 21, 1977), 22.

"Tomorrow the wurla," Time («jan. 3, 1977).

TV Aggression Teaches Apathy, « psychology Touay

"TV upaate," TV Guide (duly 9, 1977), A“ 1i(Pel:>* 1?, 1979;, a -3 .

"t V Violence ana uhilhre», " U. s. news & worl u ftepart <*>uly 4, 1977;, 74. "TV violence otuay o’allea wnitewash, » Washington nvenintf ^tar tJan. 18, 1972).

"TV’s nropcuts,» newsweek (pec. 12, 1977), 123.

"TV's ouper woaien," Time (nov. 22, 1976), 67-75.

"T v 's Towering ' n i n g , Newsweek (peb. 13, 1978), 97.

"Two Tear* mtuay by committee’s project on viewing xiabits of unilure," aewsweeK (April 26, 1954). Tyler, x, n eith , "bauio in the iJ.ementary schools," journal of xlementarv j,uu c a t io n . IV, no. 3 (peb. 1936). . "haaio in the nigh schools," jjaucational jteseargh nulletin. j o .% ^ ° v » 13» 1 y3 5 ), 2 C«-2 1 2 .

______, "The Listening Hauits of 0^*1 and pupil s, » jgiklish uoum al. AkV, no. 3 (march 193b).

Van a e r -woes, M ike, "su p p o rt WP aC* " c ° i UJfiOUS p re e p re s s U* 0 v. 17, 1976), 4.

"Violence on air anu in lile: no clear link, " jiroaacasting (oan. 17, 1972).

"Violence on Tv: wh„ people are Upset,n U.S. tfews * worla ASport (uct. 29, 1973), 33.

vogl, a . j ., "The Changing pace oi the Qhilaren's market*, sales management 93 (Dec. 16, 1964), 35-36.

Waae, nawrence, "ie W06U K illing ulack programming, » our choking -t-ines (sept. 16, 1975), 12-13.

. "Is WvKu still the people's voice?" wur choking Times (wov.-nee. 1975), 9,16.

Wara, ocott ana #ackman, L. B., "chiluren's purchasing ini'luence attempts ana parental Yielaing, » journal oi marketing research (aug. 1972).

"warning: TV Violence," uolumous preepress (May 7, 1975) 16. ------

"Washington neport," TV Guiue (Murch 19, 1977), a ~3-

naters, •uariy, "people who heeu people, » jtfewswetk (ban. 10, 1977;, 4b. lei an an, oobn, "he's counting pvery jiggle anu cussv.ora, lii Oulae (march 17, 1979), b-13.

"We will be embarking on a long fight with aavertisers, " TV Guiae Uov. 1 2 , 1977), 10- 11.

WPxC aews Letter. 1, no. 1 (1974), 1; I, no. 2 (1975), 1 i, no. 3 (1975), 1; I, no. 4 (July 1975), 1.

" WPiiC-renple ' s naaio," columbus preepress (hov . 17, 1976), 2 .

"What the miuaies preler," yariety (peb, 10, 1971), 34. 337

"what TV hoes To Aias, " hewsweek (peb. 21, 1977)* 62-70.

" why th e Big ijrop in 3 . a. I. scores?" jhe chronicle of higher Education (sept. 6 , 1977), 17T5.

Wies, oanay, "WJPa C up in the air over funning blues, » Cuu B a n te m ^Ap r i l 7, 1977), 2.

Wilkinson, nua, " 11*00 Chief's stance on Ki ovia ^ankles Television rrograiamers,H columbus uispatch (March 16, 1979;, C-5. ------

. "The jj’all ijineups: slow lor sullies," Columbus hi soat ch. Guiue (May 8 , 1977), 11.

will, Ceorge p., "The h o t - 3 0 -M ighty Tube," fleweweek ^Aug. 8 , 1977;, 84.

______, "frisoners of TV," hewsweek (Jan. 10, 1977), 76. Wilson, otunes ^. , "Violence, pornography anu social science," The rublic interest (win., 1971), 61-63.

"Wiseman on «ell'are," aewsweek (sept. 29, 1975), 62-6 3.

"Moras from the sponsor," news week (hec. 29, 1975), 40. "Writing a new script for rublic broadcasting, « jhe Ohrunicle higher haucption (oct. 31, 1977),“57 Wren, Christopher, "Magic Carpet Thatt 1*311 sports? mo, Bream er, wot le t, but we bo have a wall-to-wall Dru£ o f Animation," aaturaayxtevjew (s^P^* 16, 1972), 53-61.

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narrow, sen. xtaaio . The A ssistant Teacher, colnmbus; it. li. Adams, 1932.

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