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The Early Medieval Cutting Edge Of University of Bradford eThesis This thesis is hosted in Bradford Scholars – The University of Bradford Open Access repository. Visit the repository for full metadata or to contact the repository team © University of Bradford. This work is licenced for reuse under a Creative Commons Licence. The Early Medieval Cutting Edge of Technology: An archaeometallurgical, technological and social study of the manufacture and use of Anglo-Saxon and Viking iron knives, and their contribution to the early medieval iron economy Volume 1 Eleanor Susan BLAKELOCK BSc, MSc Submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Division of Archaeological, Geographical and Environmental Sciences University of Bradford 2012 Abstract The Early Medieval Cutting Edge of Technology: An archaeometallurgical, technological and social study of the manufacture and use of Anglo-Saxon and Viking iron knives, and their contribution to the early medieval iron economy Eleanor Susan Blakelock A review of archaeometallurgical studies carried out in the 1980s and 1990s of early medieval (c. AD410-1100) iron knives revealed several patterns (Blakelock & McDonnell 2007). Clear differences in knife manufacturing techniques were present in rural cemeteries and later urban settlements. The main aim of this research is to investigate these patterns and to gain an overall understanding of the early medieval iron industry. This study has increased the number of knives analysed from a wide spectrum of sites across England, Scotland and Ireland. Knives were selected for analysis based on x-radiographs and contextual details. Sections were removed for more detailed archaeometallurgical analysis. The analysis revealed a clear change through time, with a standardisation in manufacturing techniques in the 7th century, and differences between the quality of urban and rural knives. Analysis of cemetery knives revealed that there was some correlation between the knife and the deceased. Comparison of knives from England, Dublin and Europe revealed that the Vikings had little direct impact on England’s knife manufacturing industry, although there was a change in manufacturing methods in the 10th century towards the mass produced sandwich-welded knife. This study also suggests that Irish blacksmiths in Dublin continued their ‘native’ blacksmithing techniques after the Vikings arrived. Using the data gathered, a chaîne opértoire of the iron knife was re-constructed. This revealed that there was a specific order to the manufacturing process and decisions were not only influenced by the cost of raw materials, the skill of the blacksmith and the consumer status, but also by cultural stimulus. Keywords Anglo-Saxon, Viking, Iron, Steel, Knives, Manufacture, Archaeometallurgy, Settlements, Cemeteries, Status, Page 2 of 293 This PhD is dedicated to Granddad Blakelock and Grandpa Ogden Page 3 of 293 Acknowledgements I should like to express my gratitude to all those individuals who have assisted and supported me and this project. I am extremely grateful and indebted to Gerry McDonnell who not only started my interest in archaeometallurgy but has encouraged me throughout my academic career. He has continued to support me and the project and without him, his knowledge and support this project would never have been finished. I also thank Justine Bayley for reading and commenting on several chapters. I particularly thank the AHRC, but also all those that have provided me with samples for this project, which includes; West Stow Hannah Simons, Alan Baxter and the West Stow Anglo-Saxon Village. Gwithian Jacky Nowakowski, Charles Thomas and Jane Marley at the Royal Cornwall Museum. Twyford & Collingboune Ducis Jörn Schuster and Wessex Archaeology. Quarrington Dawn Heywood and The Collection in Lincoln. Wharram Percy Ann Clarke. Burdale Julian Richards. Whithorn John Pickin. Sedgeford Sedgeford Historical and Archaeological Research Project, Naomi Payne and Quita Mould. Dublin National Museum of Ireland, Jennifer Mulrooney and Patrick Wallace. I thank the staff at Bradford University including Tim Taylor and Cathy Batt, I would also particularly like to thank Belinda Hill and Stuart Fox for all their support and assistance in the laboratory. At the same time I thank, just a few of my friends that have supported me when the going got really tough, (no particularly order) Alice and Joel Hunt, Chris Witney-Lagen, Hannah Russ, Val Steele, Jui-lien Fang, Karen Hollings and Janis Heward. There are so many people who have offered technical and moral support during this process, so I thank all my friends in the small world of archaeometallurgy, and particularly those in the Historical Metallurgy Society and at the Institute of Archaeology, UCL. And last but not least, my utmost gratitude goes to my parents and family, as without their encouragement and full support I don’t believe I would ever have come this far, and certainly would not have completed this PhD. Page 4 of 293 Contents Page Abstract ............................................................................................................................... 2 Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................ 4 Contents Page ..................................................................................................................... 5 List of Figures ..................................................................................................................... 7 List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... 15 Chapter 1: Introduction, Aims and Objectives ............................................................. 18 1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 18 1.2 Early Medieval Knives Review Paper ........................................................................ 19 1.3 Research Aims .......................................................................................................... 21 1.4 Research Objectives ................................................................................................. 23 Chapter 2: Early Medieval Background ........................................................................ 26 2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 26 2.2 Different Types of Settlements ................................................................................... 27 2.3 Changes through time ............................................................................................... 34 2.4 Cemeteries ................................................................................................................ 37 2.5 Late Saxon Britain ..................................................................................................... 41 2.6 Viking Europe ............................................................................................................ 44 2.7 Summary ................................................................................................................... 50 Chapter 3: Chaîne Opératoire of an Early Medieval Iron Knife ................................... 52 3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 52 3.2 Iron Smelting: From Stone to Iron! ............................................................................. 53 3.3 Iron Smithing: From Bloom to Artefact ....................................................................... 56 3.4 Knife Chaîne Opératoire ............................................................................................ 58 3.5 Early Medieval Ironworking ........................................................................................ 67 3.6 Summary ................................................................................................................... 78 Chapter 4: Methodology ................................................................................................ 79 4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 79 4.2 X-Radiograph Study .................................................................................................. 79 4.3 Sample Choice .......................................................................................................... 84 4.4 Sample Preparation ................................................................................................... 84 4.5 Sample Analysis ........................................................................................................ 85 Page 5 of 293 Chapter 5: Results .......................................................................................................... 95 5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 95 5.2 Early Saxon Settlements ........................................................................................... 98 5.3 Early Cemeteries ..................................................................................................... 108 5.4 Middle to Late Saxon Rural & Ecclesiastical Sites ................................................... 123 5.5 Viking Dublin & Europe ...........................................................................................
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