Archaeometallurgy ARCL0045

UCL INSTITUTE OF UCL INSTITUTE OF ARCHAEOLOGY ARCHAEOLOGY

ARCL0045ARCL0045 ARCHAEOMETALLURGY ARCHAEOMETALLURGY Course Handbook for 2019/20

Handbook 2019/2020

Years 2 and 3 option, 15 credits

Co-ordinator: Miljana Radivojević [email protected]

With contributions from Mike Charlton [email protected]

Term I, Thursday 4-6 (plus Fridays 9-11 some days), B13

Friday 29th November 2019 essay deadline. Target return deadline 15th January Monday 20th January 2020 video deadline. Target return deadline 20th February Archaeometallurgy ARCL0045 | 2

AIMS The main aim of this module is to familiarise students with the main approaches to the study of archaeological metal artefacts and metallurgical debris, and how these can be used to address questions of archaeological significance. This optional science module will provide students with an overview of the development and spread of mining and metallurgy within their natural and archaeological contexts from the Neolithic up to the Industrial Revolution. It includes an introduction to metals as materials, and how the exploitation and understanding of different metals evolved over time in different regions. Particular emphasis is placed on the understanding of technical processes related to metallurgy, their reconstruction based on the study of archaeological remains, and their interpretation in the relevant social and cultural contexts. The course does not focus on the typological or stylistic study of metal artefacts, nor does it attempt an exhaustive documentation of sites and dates (these aspects can be explored by students in their coursework, depending on their specific interests). While copper/bronze and iron/steel take centre stage as the most important metals, individual sessions will address the less common metals such as lead, silver, zinc, brass and gold. Case studies are drawn from all periods and regions of the world.

OBJECTIVES AND LEARNING OUTCOMES On successful completion of this module a student should have an overview over the general trends of technical and social development in relation to metals. Furthermore, s/he should have acquired a basic understanding of the fundamental physical principles of metallurgy at a level relevant to understanding ancient metallurgy. With a view to being encountered during later archaeological practice, students should understand the general trends of spatial and temporal developments in global (archaeo)metallurgy. They should recognise relevant evidence such as slag or technical ceramics related to metallurgy during their future practice. In particular, they should be able to pose educated questions leading to a scientific investigation of such remains and be familiar with the various types of interpretations and explanations possible from archaeometric approaches and archaeological interpretations.

COURSE INFORMATION This handbook contains the basic information about the content and administration of the module. Additional subject-specific reading lists and individual session handouts will be given out at appropriate points during the teaching, and made available via Moodle. If students have queries about the objectives, structure, content, assessment or organisation of the ARCL0045 module, they should consult the course co- ordinator, Miljana Radivojević ([email protected]).

TEACHING METHODS The module is taught through lectures and practical sessions, as detailed in the schedule below. There will be some hands-on sessions, including the handling of archaeometallurgical materials and practical introductions to analytical methods, as well as a museum visit. In addition, students will be informed of special lectures by external specialists.

PREREQUISITES. No formal prerequisites are required.

WORKLOAD There will be 26 hours of classes (lectures and practical sessions) for this course, as well as a museum visit. Students will be expected to undertake around 66 hours of reading for the course, plus 60 hours preparing for and producing the assessed work. This adds up to a total workload of some 150 hours for the course.

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LIBRARIES AND ONLINE RESOURCES In addition to the Library of the Institute of Archaeology, UCL's Science Library has holdings of particular relevance to this course. Further information on resources is available below, under “Introductory reading”.

The current reading list online is available via the Moodle page (see below). You may find links to other Archaeometallurgy reading lists from various pages within the UCL web, but these may be out of date and should not be relied upon.

If you haven’t, you should consider joining academia.edu and researchgate.net, where many authors make their papers available as PDFs.

On the Moodle page for this course (https://moodle.ucl.ac.uk/course/view.php?id=277) you will find access to the reading lists but also to downloadable handouts and PowerPoint presentations that will be added on a weekly basis, as well as other activities and resources. If you do not appear automatically registered for this course, you will have to self- enroll at www.ucl.ac.uk/moodle using the enrolment key ‘archmetUG’. You are expected to log on the Moodle page at least once a week.

METHODS OF ASSESSMENT Assessment of the course is by one essay of 1425-1575 words (50% of final mark), and a 4- 6 minute documentary video (50% of final mark). The essay is due on 25th November 2019, and the video on 20th January 2020.

The topics for each assessment, as well as further guidance notes and submission procedures, are given at the end of this handbook. If students are unclear about the nature of an assignment, they should contact the module co-ordinator. The module co-ordinator is willing to discuss an outline of their approach to the assessment, provided this is planned suitably in advance of the submission date. Students are welcome to suggest their own topics, but these should always be agreed with the module co-ordinator in advance.

INSTITUTE OF ARCHAEOLOGY COURSEWORK PROCEDURES General policies and procedures concerning the module and assessments, including submission procedures, assessment criteria and general resources, are available on the IoA Student Administration section of Moodle: https://moodle.ucl.ac.uk/course/view.php?id=40867. It is essential that you read and comply with these. Note that some of the policies and procedures will be different depending on your status (e.g. undergraduate, postgraduate taught, affiliate, graduate diploma, intercollegiate, interdepartmental). If in doubt, please consult your module co-ordinator.

GRANTING OF EXTENSIONS: Note that there are strict UCL-wide regulations with regard to the granting of extensions for coursework and that module coordinators are not permitted to grant extensions. All requests for extensions must be submitted on a the appropriate UCL form, together with supporting documentation, via Judy Medrington’s office and will then be referred on for consideration. Please be aware that the grounds that are acceptable are limited. Those with long- term difficulties should contact UCL Student Disability Services to make special arrangements. Please see the IoA Student Administration section of Moodle for further information. Additional information is given here: http://www.ucl.ac.uk/srs/academic- manual/c4/extenuating-circumstances/

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PENALTIES FOR LATE SUBMISSION OF COURSEWORK Late submission will be penalized in accordance with current UCL regulations, unless formal permission for late submission has been granted. The UCL penalties are as follows:

• The marks for coursework received up to two working days after the published date and time will incur a 10 percentage point deduction in marks (but no lower than the pass mark). • The marks for coursework received more than two working days and up to five working days after the published date and time will receive no more than the pass mark • Work submitted more than five working days after the published date and time, but before the second week of the third term will receive a mark of zero but will be considered complete.

If at any stage students are worried about completing all their work on time, they should talk to their Degree Co-ordinator, as soon as their concerns start to develop; they should not leave this until it has affected all of their modules. All staff are most anxious to do all that they can to help those in difficulties.

UCL PENALTIES FOR OVER-LENGTH WORK The following regulations with regard to word-length will apply in the 2019-2020 session

• For work that exceeds the specified maximum length by less than 10% the mark will be reduced by five percentage marks, but the penalised mark will not be reduced below the pass mark, assuming the work merited a Pass. • For work that exceeds the specified maximum length by 10% or more the mark will be reduced by ten percentage marks, but the penalised mark will not be reduced below the pass mark, assuming the work merited a Pass.

The following should not be included in the word count of coursework and dissertations: title page, contents pages, lists of figure and tables, abstract, preface, acknowledgements, bibliography, captions and contents of tables and figures, appendices

COURSEWORK SUBMISSION PROCEDURES

• All coursework must normally be submitted both as hard copy and electronically unless instructed otherwise (However, bulky portfolios and lab books are normally submitted as hard copy only.) • You should staple the appropriate colour-coded IoA coversheet (available in the IoA library and outside room 411a) to the front of each piece of work and submit it to the red box at the Reception Desk (or room 411a in the case of Year 1 undergraduate work) • All coursework should be uploaded to Turnitin by midnight on the day of the deadline. This will date-stamp your work. It is essential to upload all parts of your work as this is sometimes the version that will be marked. • Instructions are given below.

Submit to Turnitin via Moodle

1. Ensure that your essay or other item of coursework has been saved as a Word doc., docx. or PDF document. Please include the module code and your candidate number on every page as a header.

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2.. Go into the Moodle page for the module to which you wish to submit your work. 3. Click on the correct assignment (e.g. Essay 1), 4. Fill in the “Submission title” field with the right details: It is essential that the first word in the title is your examination candidate number (e.g. YGBR8 Essay 1). Note that this changes each year. 5. Click “Upload”. 6 Click on “Submit” 7 You should receive a receipt – please save this. 8 If you have problems, please email the IoA Turnitin Advisers on ioa- [email protected], explaining the nature of the problem and the exact module and assignment involved.

One of the Turnitin Advisers will normally respond within 24 hours, Monday-Friday during term. Please be sure to email the Turnitin Advisers if technical problems prevent you from uploading work in time to meet a submission deadline - even if you do not obtain an immediate response from one of the Advisers they will be able to notify the relevant Module Coordinator that you had attempted to submit the work before the deadline.

DYSLEXIA AND OTHER DISABILITIES If you have dyslexia or any other disability, please make your lecturers aware of this. Please discuss with your lecturers whether there is any way in which they can help you. Students with dyslexia are reminded to indicate this on each piece of coursework, and may request extensions to deadlines if they need them. In addition, the library will make special provision if this is recommended by the dyslexia assessor. Every effort is made to cater for those with a disability. If you need any special provision, please contact the Institute’s Disabilities Co-ordinator, Judy Medrington, at the start of your course to make her aware of your needs.

ATTENDANCE It is a College regulation that attendance at lectures, seminars and practicals be monitored, and a register will be taken. A 70% minimum attendance at all scheduled sessions is required. If you have to miss any class, you should email the course coordinator with an explanation. Attendance is reported to College, becomes part of the student's academic record, and will be reported to their funding agency if this information is requested. Students should also be aware that potential employers seeking references often ask about attendance and other indications of reliability.

TEACHING SCHEDULE AND GROUPS

Most of the lectures and practicals will take place on Thursdays, from 4 to 6, and Fridays 9-11 in room B13. However, we will have to split you in two groups for some sessions and practicals, and groups will be assigned different time slots and locations, though within the stated times.

It is essential that students attend the session with the group to which they have been assigned. If they need to attend a different group for a particular session, they should arrange to swap with another student from that group, and confirm this arrangement with the co-ordinator. Please choose your group in the Moodle page of this module: https://moodle.ucl.ac.uk/mod/choice/view.php?id=459661.

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SPECIAL LECTURES AND IAMS SUMMER SCHOOL

You will be informed of special lectures and seminars related to metallurgy taking place during the academic year. Of special interest will be the IAMS Summer School on Ancient Mining and Metallurgy, an intensive course that takes place at the Institute in the early summer, which is free for UCL students, and covers many aspects of archaeometallurgy not discussed in this course.

HEALTH AND SAFETY

The Institute has a Health and Safety policy and code of practice which provides guidance on laboratory work, etc. All work undertaken in the Institute is governed by these guidelines and students have a duty to be aware of them and to adhere to them at all times. This is particularly important in the context of the laboratory work which will be undertaken as part of this module.

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ARCL0045 ARCHAEOMETALLURGY: SCHEDULE

Week Date Topic Fridays in B13. Times:

1 03-Oct Introduction. Technical background (MR) 10-11 Introduction to metallurgical materials (MR & MC) 2 10-Oct Studying Archaeometallurgical remains: handling session (MR & MC) 3 17-Oct The inception of metallurgy (MR) 9-10 (G1); 10-11 (G2) Practical session at the Optical Microscopy lab (MR & MC) 4 24-Oct Copper and bronze (MR)

5 31-Oct Chemical analysis of metal artefacts: 9-10 (G1); 10-11 (G2) theory and practice (MC) Practical session at the Electron Microscopy lab B04- XRF (MC & MR) 4-8 Nov Reading week - no lectures

6 14-Nov SEM analysis of archaeometallurgical 9-11 SEM analysis of remains + practical (only G1, Room B04) archaeometallurgical remains + (MR & MC & TG) practical (only G2, Room B04) (MR & MC & TG) 7 21-Nov Lead, silver and gold (MR)

8 28-Nov Iron and Steel (MC) 9-10 (G1); 10-11 (G2) Practical session (MC, OFN)

9 05-Dec Metallurgy, Ethnography and Ritual (MR & MC) 10 12-Dec Alchemy and metallurgy (UV) 10-11 Visit to the British Museum

MR – Miljana Radivojević

MC – Mike Charlton

TG – Tom Gregory

UV – Umberto Veronesi

OFN – Ole F. Nordland

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INTRODUCTORY READING

The following is an outline for the module as a whole, and identifies essential and supplementary readings relevant to each session. Information is provided as to where in the UCL library system individual readings are available. Readings marked with an * are considered essential to keep up with the topics covered in the course.

There are three books which are particularly useful, as they cover a good deal of the topics of this course. Both books are suitable for independent reading, sufficiently self-contained, and provide an introduction to the subject as well as offering in-depth follow-up. Unfortunately, the older ones are out of print, but several copies are available in the library. The more recent one is available online, and is an excellent compilation of introductory papers.

Tylecote, R. 1987. The early history of metallurgy in Europe. London and New York: Longman. ANCIENT HISTORY A 68 TYL, ISSUE DESK IOA TYL 2

Craddock, P. T. 1995. Early metal mining and production. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. INST ARCH KE CRA, ISSUE DESK IOA CRA 6

Roberts, W. B. and Thornton, C. P. 2014 (eds). Archaeometallurgy in Global Perspective: Methods and Syntheses. New York: Springer. Online

A detailed introduction to Archaeometallurgy (with a strong British flavour) can be found in the following volume.

Bayley, J., Crossley, D. and Ponting, M. 2008. Metals and metalworking. A research framework for archaeometallurgy. London: Historical Metallurgy Society INST ARCH KEA Qto BAY, ISSUE DESK IOA BAY 2, or online at: http://hist-met.org/arch_comm.html

Basic (but very useful) introductions to archaeometallurgy:

Rehren, Th. 2008. Metals: chemical analysis, and Metals: primary production, in Pearsall, D. M. (ed.), Encyclopedia of Archaeology, 1614-1620. New York: Academic Press. INST ARCH AG PEA

Craddock, P. T. 1991. Mining and smelting in Antiquity, in Bowman, S. (ed), Sience and the Past, 57-73. London: British Museum Press. INST ARCH AJ BOW

Killick, D. and Fenn, T. 2012. Archaeometallurgy: the study of preindustrial mining and metallurgy. Annual Review of Anthropology 41, 559–575. Online

Lambert, J. B. 1997. Metals, in Traces of the Past. Unraveling the Secrets of Archaeology Through Chemistry, 168-213. Cambridge, Mass.: Perseus Publishing. INST ARCH JD LAM

Archaeometallurgy: Guidelines for Best Practice. Historic England, 2015. https://historicengland.org.uk/images-books/publications/archaeometallurgy- guidelines-best- practice/

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Collections of articles (and note that there are many more!):

Archaeometallurgy in Europe. Proceedings of the International Conference, 24-26 September 2003, Milan, Italy, 2 vols. Milano: Associazione Italiana de Metallurgia INST ARCH KEA 1 ASS

Archaeometallurgy in Europe. Proceedings of the Second International Conference, June 2007, Aquileia, Italy. Milano: Associazione Italiana de Metallurgia INST ARCH KEA 1 ASS

Cech, B. and Rehren, Th. (eds.) 2014. Early Iron in Europe. Momographies Instrumentum, 50. Montagnac: Editions Monique Mergoil.

Craddock, P.T. and Lang, J. (eds.) 2003. Mining and Metal Production through the Ages, London, British Museum Press. INST ARCH KE CRA, ISSUE DESK IOA CRA 7

Hauptmann, A. and Modarressi-Tehrani, D. (eds.) 2015. Archaeometallurgy in Europe. Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference, Deutsches Bergbau-Museum Bochum, June 29 – July 1, 2011. Der Anschnitt Beiheft 26. Bochum: Deutsches Bergbau-Museum Bochum.

Hosek, J., Cleere, H., Mihok, L., Pleiner, R. (eds.) 2011. The archaeometallurgy of iron: recent developments in archaeological and scientific research. Prague: Institute of Archaeology of the ASCR. INST ARCH KEB 2 HOS

Humphris, J. and Rehren, Th. (eds) 2013. The World of Iron. London: Archetype. INST ARCH KEA 2 Qto HUM

La Niece, S., Hook, D.R., and Craddock, P.T. (eds) 2007. Metals and Mines - Studies in Archaeometallurgy, London: Archetype, British Museum. INST ARCH KE Qto LAN, ISSUE DESK IOA LAN 1

Mei, J. and Rehren, Th. (eds) 2009. Metallurgy and civilisation. Asia and beyond. 6th International Conference on the Beginings of the Use of Metals and Alloys (BUMA, Beijing 2006). London: Archetype. INST ARCH KEA Qto MEI

Meller, H., Risch, R. and Pernicka, E. (eds.) 2014. Metals of Power – Early gold and silver [Metalle der Macht: Frühes Gold und Silber]. Halle: Landesamt für Denkmalpflege und Archäologie Sachsen- Anhalt - Landesmuseum für Vorgeschichte Halle.

Montero, I. (ed.) 2010. Archaeometallurgy: Technological, Economic and Social Perspectives in Late Prehistoric Europe (TESME). Trabajos de Prehistoria 67/2. INST ARCH Pers, online.

HMS Datasheets

The Historical Metallurgy Society produces excellent introductions to archaeometallurgical topics. These are superb starting points for many of the topics covered in this course. The list below gives the ones available at the moment, but it keeps being expanded: http://hist-met.org/resources/datasheets.html

(you should consider joining HMS – a bargain for students!)

HMS Datasheet 101 The archaeology of metalworking sites: introduction to the field evidence HMS Datasheet 102 Metalworking evidence and archaeological project management HMS Datasheet 103 Geophysical techniques for metalworking sites HMS Datasheet 104 Introduction to post-excavation and lab techniques for metalworking sites HMS Datasheet 105 Textures, microstructures and metallography HMS Datasheet 106 Chemical analysis of metalwork and metalworking debris HMS Datasheet 107 X- radiography

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HMS Datasheet 108 Care, curation and conservation of metallurgical samples HMS Datasheet 201 Metals and their properties HMS Datasheet 202 Copper: smelting and production of alloys HMS Datasheet 203 Tin: smelting and production of alloys HMS Datasheet 204 Other metals: smelting and production of alloys HMS Datasheet 301 Iron: bloomery smelting and associated processes HMS Datasheet 302 Steelmaking HMS Datasheet 303 Iron: hand blacksmithing HMS Datasheet 304 Foundries HMS Datasheet 305 Supply, sourcing and production of fuels for metallurgical processes HMS Datasheet 1 Crucibles and moulds HMS Datasheet 2 Precious metal refining HMS Datasheet 3 Iron working processes HMS Datasheet 4 Geophysical techniques applied to early metalworking sites HMS Datasheet 5 Bloomery iron smelting, slags and other residues HMS Datasheet 6 Bloom refining and smithing, slags and other residues HMS Datasheet 8 Currency bars and other forms of trade iron HMS Datasheet 9 Excavation and sampling HMS Datasheet 10 Hammerscale HMS Datasheet 11 Metallographic examination HMS Datasheet 12 Chemical analysis of metalwork and metalworking debris HMS Datasheet 14 X-radiography and archaeometallurgy HMS Datasheet 15 The care and curation of metallurgical samples and other residues HMS Datasheet 16 Metalworking evidence and the management of archaeological sites

Technical ceramics

Crucibles and technical ceramics generally are key elements of archaeometallurgical research. These are some introductory references covering technical ceramics from many periods.

Bayley, J., & Rehren, Th. (2007). Towards a functional and typological classification of crucibles. In: S. LaNiece, D. Hook,&P. Craddock (Eds.), Metals and Mines–Studies in Archaeometallurgy (pp. 46–55). London: Archetype.

Craddock, P. T. 2013. Refractories: ceramics with a purpose. The Old Potter’s Almanack 18/2, 9-18.

Craddock, P. T. 2014. Refractories with a purpose II: ceramics for casting. The Old Potter’s Almanack 19/1, 2-17.

Freestone, I. C. and Tite, M. S., 1986. Refractories in the ancient and preindustrial world, in W. D. Kingery (ed), High-Technology Ceramics: Past, Present and Future. The Nature of Innovation and Change in Ceramic Technology, 35-63. (Ceramics and Civilization 3). Westerville (OH): The American Ceramic Society.

Kearns, T., Martinón-Torres, M., Rehren, T. 2010. Metal to mould: alloy identification in experimental casting moulds using XRF. Historical Metallurgy, 44 (1), 48-58.

Liu, S., Wang, K., Cai, Q. and Chen, J. 2013. Microscopic study of Chinese bronze casting moulds from the Eastern Zhou period. Journal of Archaeological Science 40 (5): 2402–2414.

Martinón-Torres, M., Rehren, T. 2014. Technical ceramics. In Archaeometallurgy in Global Perspective: Methods and Syntheses, 107-131. Springer New York. Available online.

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Rehren, Th., 2003. Crucibles as reaction vessels in ancient metallurgy, in P. T. Craddock and J. Lang (eds), Mining and Metal Production through the Ages, 207-215. London: The British Museum Press.

Ingots

This is a good reference to follow up our handling session on ingots, as it discusses several types. You will find references to more focused studies on earlier ingots under the readings for each session.

Craddock, P. and Hook, D. 2012. An economic history of the post-medieval world in 50 ingots: the British Museum collection of ingots from dated wrecks. The British Museum Technical Research Bulletin 6, 55-68.

Some more online resources:

Arch-metals online discussion list. This is an excellent forum to stay informed of archaeometallurgical events, as well as keeping up with ongoing research and debates. You can subscribe here: https://www.jiscmail.ac.uk/cgi-bin/webadmin?A0=arch- metals

Bibliography for archaeometallurgy by Chris Salter (not up to date!): http://users.ox.ac.uk/~salter/arch-metals/met-bib-ak.htm

Art and Archaeology Technical Abstracts (AATA): http://aata.getty.edu/NPS/

In addition to these general resources, the last pages of each issue of the journal Historical Metallurgy include abstracts of recent archaeometallurgical publications. In this journal, as well as in Archaeometry, the Journal of Archaeological Science and Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences you will find many relevant archaeometallurgical studies.

You should also consider joining the following websites, where you can find numerous papers on all kinds of subjects (including many that we cannot include in our online reading lists owing to copyright restrictions!) www.academia.edu and www.researchgate.net

The course co-ordinator is willing to give you further directions for relevant literature on specific topics, but you are expected (and encouraged) to do your own bibliographic search in preparation for your essays. Don’t forget that we expect you to develop (and demonstrate) your research skill.

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SESSION 1 : INTRODUCTION. TECHNICAL BACKGROUND Ores, minerals and metals. Prospection. Mining. Beneficiation. Roasting. Smelting and melting. Slag formation.

Miljana Radivojević LECTURE

The first session is scheduled to identify the students’ background and interests in preparation for the later lectures. You will get an introduction to the course, its structure and aims, and an explanation of what is involved with back up teaching and assessment.

We will then turn to the raw materials for metallurgy. Ancient men and women were confronted by a wide range of raw or natural materials, such as wood, bone, stone, shell, etc. Of these, they came to use naturally occurring compounds as pigments, some of which later turned out to yield metals when treated appropriately. In this session, we will discuss how different materials appealed differently to our ancestors, and how they learned to transform natural materials into artificial ones.

Ores are a mixture of useable minerals and waste materials. Mining implies the identification of the usefulness of certain minerals, their identification in the field, and the successful extraction from the ground. We will try and understand these processes from the ancient peoples’ point of view, and to then analyse it with our modern understanding of materials. Examples will be used to give a very rough overview of the most important types of ore deposits and mineral species relevant in antiquity.

We will discuss the mechanical treatment of these ores and minerals (‘beneficiation’) in order to prepare them for the smelting process. In addition, we will provide some of the technical background to understand processes such as the smelting and melting of metals, and the formation of slag.

*Craddock, P. T. 1991. Mining and smelting in Antiquity, in S. Bowman (ed), Science and the Past, 57-73. London: British Museum Press. INST ARCH AJ BOW, ISSUE DESK IOA BOW

*Ottaway, B. 2001. Innovation, production and specialization in early Prehistoric copper metallurgy. European Journal of Archaeology 4(1), 87-112. INST ARCH Pers, available online

*Tylecote, R. 1987. The early History of Metallurgy in Europe, chapter 4, pp. 106-125. London and New York: Longman. ANCIENT HISTORY A 68 TYL, ISSUE DESK IOA TYL 2

Craddock, P. 1995. Early Metal Mining and Production. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. (chapter 1, pp. 1-22). INST ARCH KE CRA, ISSUE DESK IOA CRA 6

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Crew, P. and Crew, S. (eds) 1990, Early mining in the British Isles: proceedings of the Early Mining Workshop at Plas Tan y Bwlch, Snowdonia National Park Study Centre, 17-19 November, 1989). (Plas Tan y Bwlch Occasional Paper, 1) Tan y Bwlch, Gwynedd : Plas Tan y Bwlch, Snowdonia National Park Study Centre. INST ARCH DAA 100 Qto CRE

Hoover, H. and Hoover, H. 1950 [1556]. Georgius Agricola De Re Metallica. New York: Dover (Book II: pp. 25-42). INST ARCH KE AGR

Hunt Ortiz, M. 2003. Prehistoric Mining and Metallurgy in South West Iberian Peninsula. (BAR International Series 1188). Oxford: Archaeopress. INST ARCH DAPA Qto HUN

Killick, D. 2014. From ores to metals, in W. B. Roberts and C. P. Thornton (eds). Archaeometallurgy in Global Perspective: Methods and Syntheses, 11-46. New York: Springer. Online

Notis, M. R. 2014. Metals, in W. B. Roberts and C. P. Thornton (eds). Archaeometallurgy in Global Perspective: Methods and Syntheses, 47-66. New York: Springer. Online

O’Brien, W.F. 1996, Bronze Age Copper Mining in Britain and Ireland. (Shire Archaeology, 71). Princes Risborough: Shire. INST ARCH DAA 150 OBR

Patterson, C., 1971. Native copper, silver and gold accessible to early metallurgists. American Antiquity 36, 286-321.

Pigott, V. and Weisgerber, G. 1998. Mining archaeology in geological context. The prehistoric copper mining complex at Phu Lon, Nong Khai Province, northeast Thailand, in Th. Rehren, A. Hauptmann, and J. Muhly (eds), Metallurgica Antiqua, 135-162. (Der Anschnitt Beiheft 8). Bochum: Deutsches Bergbau-Museum. INST ARCH KE Qto REH

Timberlake, S. 2003. Early Mining Research in Britain: The Developments of the Last Ten Years. In P. Craddock and J. Lang (eds), Mining and Metal Production Through the Ages, 22- 42. London: The British Museum Press. INST ARCH KE CRA, ISSUE DESK IOA CRA 7

Timberlake, S. 2003. Excavations on Copa Hill, Cwmystwyth (1986-1999): an early Bronze Age copper mine within the uplands of Central Wales. (BAR British Series, 348). Oxford: Archaeopress. INST ARCH DAA Qto Series BRI 348.

SESSION 2: PRACTICAL STUDYING ARCHAEOMETALLURGICAL REMAINS

Miljana Radivojević and Mike Charlton HANDLING SESSION

In this practical session, we will review the technical concepts introduced last week by handling relevant archaeological materials such as different metals, minerals, crucibles and slag. We will also introduce basic analytical techniques employed for the technological study of archaeometallurgical remains.

The references below are overviews of the scientific analysis of archaeometallurgical materials. You will also find relevant references in the introductory reading for this course, with several papers (and HMS datasheets) focused on technical ceramics, ingots, specific kinds of analyses, etc.

Craddock, P.T. 1989. The scientific investigation of early mining and smelting, in J. Henderson (ed), Scientific analysis in archaeology, 178-212. Oxford and Los Angeles: Oxford University Committee for Archaeology and UCLA Institute of Archaeology. INST ARCH AJ HEN; ISSUE DESK IOA HEN 13

Hauptmann, A. 2014. The investigation of archaeometallurgical slag, in W. B. Roberts and C. P. Thornton (eds). Archaeometallurgy in Global Perspective: Methods and Syntheses, 91-106. New York: Springer. Online

Henderson, J. 2000. The Science and Archaeology of Materials. An investigation of inorganic materials. London and New York: Routledge (chapter 5: Metals, pp. 208-296). INST ARCH JDA HEN, ISSUE DESK IOA HEN 11

Lambert, J. B., 1997. Traces of the Past: Unraveling the Secrets of Archaeology Through Chemisty. Reading (Mass.): Helix Books and Addison-Wesley (chapter 7: Metals, pp. 168-213). INST ARCH JD LAM; TEACHING COLL IoA 2413

Scott, D. 1991. Metallography and microstructure of ancient and historic metals. Marina del Rey, CA: Getty Conservation Institute. INST ARCH KEB Qto SCO, ISSUE DESK IOA SCO 1 and available online

ARCL3001 Archaeometallurgy - 13

SESSION 3: THE INCEPTION OF METALLURGY Where: Mostly the Balkans. Also broader Europe and Near East When: Late Neolithic and Chalcolithic

Miljana Radivojević LECTURE

Why was metallurgy invented? How and where did it take place? How many times did this happen? Just as we are interested in finding out how metals were made, so do we want to explain why they were produced in the first instance. Several explanations have been put forward to interpret the inception and spread of metallurgy in different areas of the world. In this session, some of the main theories will be outlined, including discussion about the environmental, social and technical stimuli for metallurgy, and theories about technological diffusion versus autonomous developments.

Chernych, E. N. 2002. Some of the most important aspects and problems of early Metal Age studying, in M. Bartelheim, E. Pernicka and R. Krause (eds), The Beginnings of Metallurgy in the Old World, 25-31. Rahden: Leidorf. INST ARCH KE Qto BAR

Killick, D. 2001. Science, Speculation and the Origins of Extractive Metallurgy, in D. R. Brothwell and A. M. Pollard (eds), Handbook of Archaeological Sciences, 483-492. Chichester, New York, Weinheim, Brisbane, Singapore, Toronto: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. INST ARCH AJ BRO

Ottaway, B. 2001. Innovation, production and specialization in early Prehistoric copper metallurgy. European Journal of Archaeology 4(1), 87-112. INST ARCH Pers, available online

*Radivojević, M., Rehren, Th., Pernicka, E., Sljivar, D., Brauns, M. and Boric, D. 2010. On the origins of extractive metallurgy: new evidence from Europe. Journal of Archaeological Science 37, 2775 - 2787. INST ARCH Pers, and available online

Radivojević, M., Rehren, Th., Kuzmanović-Cvetković, J., Jovanovic, M. and Northover, P. 2013. Tainted ores and the rise of tin bronzes in Eurasia, c. 6500 years ago. Antiquity 87:1030-1045. Online

*Roberts, B. W., Thornton, C. P. and Pigott, V. C. 2009. Development of metallurgy in Eurasia. Antiquity 83 (322), 1012-1022. INST ARCH Pers, and available online

SESSION 4: COPPER AND BRONZE Copper smelting. Early crucibles and furnaces. The emergence of alloys and large-scale metal production and trade.

Where: Mostly Europe, Near East, Central Asia, China When: Chalcolithic, Bronze Age and Iron Age (plus glimpses of later periods)

Miljana Radivojević

LECTURE

We will look at the early metallurgy of copper in the Old World, and the development of bronze (an alloy of copper and tin), as well as other copper alloys. We will examine a range of case studies illustrating the industrial-scale production of metals for the international trade, and archaeological and analytical approaches to these questions. At a practical level, we will look at early technical ceramics such as crucibles, furnaces and moulds, their technical study and their informative potential as archaeological remains.

Some of the main issues and analytical approaches will be illustrated with case studies including the polychrome evolution of metallurgy, large scale production of copper in Kazakhstan and Iran, imperial China, circulation of bronzes in the European Bronze Age and studies of their provenance.

Levy, T. E., Adams, R. B., Hauptmann, A., Prange, M., Schmitt-Strecker, S., and Najjar, M. 2002. Early Bronze Age metallurgy: a newly discovered copper manufactory in southern Jordan. Antiquity 76: 425-437. INST ARCH Pers, and available online

*Martinón-Torres, M., Li, X. J., Bevan, A., Xia, Y., Zhao, K. and Rehren, Th. 2014. Forty thousand arms for a single Emperor: from chemical data to the labor organization behind the bronze arrows of the Terracotta Army. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory, 21, 534- 562. Online

*Pulak, C., 2000. The copper and tin ingots from the Late Bronze Age shipwreck at Uluburun, in Ü. Yalcin (ed), Anatolian Metal I, 137-157. (Der Anschnitt Beiheft 13). Bochum: Deutsches Bergbau- Museum.

Craddock, P. T. 1999. Paradigms of metallurgical innovation in prehistoric Europe. In A. Hauptmann, E. Pernicka, Th. Rehren and U. Yalcin (eds), The Beginnings of Metallurgy, 175- 192. (Der Anschnitt, Beiheft 9). Bochum: Deutsches Bergbau-Museum. INST ARCH KE Qto HAU, ISSUE DESK IOA KE Qto HAU 14

Craddock, P. T. 2001. From Hearth to Furnace: Evidences for the Earliest Metal Smelting Technologies in the Eastern Mediterranean. Paléorient 26/2, 151-165. INST ARCH Pers

Hauptmann, A. 2003. Developments in Copper Metallurgy During the Fourth and Third Millennia BC at Feinan, Jordan. In P. Craddock and J. Lang (Eds), Mining and Metal Production Through the Ages, 90-100. London: The British Museum Press. INST ARCH KE CRA, ISSUE DESK IOA CRA 7

Hauptmann, A. 2007. The archaeometallurgy of copper: evidence from Faynan, Jordan. Berlin: Springer. INST ARCH DBE 10 HAU

Kassianidou, V. and Knapp, A. B. 2005. Archaeometallurgy in the Mediterranean: the social context of mining, technology and trade, in E. Blake and A. B. Knapp (eds), The Archaeology of Mediterranean Prehistory, Oxford: Blackwell, 215-251. INST ARCH DAG 100 BLA, Issue Desk INST ARCH BLA 9

Pearce, M. 1998. Reconstructing prehistoric metallurgical knowledge: the Northern Italian Copper and Bronze Ages. European Journal of Archaeology 1(1), 51-70. INST ARCH Pers, and available online

Pernicka, E., Lutz, J., and Stöllner, T. (2016). Bronze Age copper produced at Mitterberg, Austria, and its distribution. Archaeologia Austriaca 100, 19-55. INST ARCH Pers, and available online

Pigott, V. C. 1999. Reconstructing the copper production process as practised among prehistoric mining/ metallurgical communities in the Khao Wong Prachan Valley of central Thailand, in S. M. M. Young, A. M. Pollard, P. Budd, and R. A. Ixer (eds), Metals in Antiquity, 10-21. (BAR International Series, 792). Oxford: Archaeopress. INST ARCH KEA Qto YOU

Pigott, V. C. and Ciarla, R. 2007 On the origins of metallurgy in prehistoric Southeast Asia: the view from Thailand, in La Niece, S., Hook, D.R., and Craddock, P.T. (eds), Metals and Mines - Studies in Archaeometallurgy, 76-88. London, Archetype, British Museum. INST ARCH KE Qto LAN, ISSUE DESK IOA LAN 1

Radivojević, M., Roberts, B., W., Pernicka, E., Stos-Gale, Z. A., Martinón-Torres, M., Vandkilde, H., Ling, J., Brandherm, D., Bray, P., Mei, J., Kristiansen, K., Rehren, Th., Shennan, S., and Broodbank, C. 2019 The provenance, use and circulation of metals in the European Bronze Age: The state of debate. Journal of Archaeological Research 27, 131-185. INST ARCH Pers, and available online

*Rehren, Th., Boscher, L., and Pernicka, E. 2012 Large scale smelting of speiss and arsenical copper at Early Bronze Age Arisman, Iran. Journal of Archaeological Science 39, 1717-1727. INST ARCH Pers, and available online

Renfrew, A. C. 1973. Before Civilisation: the Radiocarbon Revolution and Prehistoric Europe. London: Pimlico. INST ARCH DA 100 REN, ISSUE DESK IOA REN 1

Rothenberg, B., 1990, The Ancient Metallurgy of Copper: Archaeology, Experiment, Theory. London: IAMS and Institute of Archaeology, pp. 8-73. INST ARCH DBE 10 Qto ROT

SESSION 5: CHEMICAL ANALYSES OF METAL ARTEFACTS, THEORY AND PRACTICE

Mike Charlton SEMINAR AND PRACTICAL

A lot of time and resources are spent analysing the chemical composition of archaeological metal artefacts but… what’s the point? In this practical session, we will introduce some archaeological questions that can actually be answered through chemical analysis, and discuss some practical examples of how the data can be processed and presented in order to become meaningful.

In addition, we will be conducting some chemical analyses by ourselves, employing a portable X- ray fluorescence spectrometer (XRF), and trying to make archaeological sense of the results.

*Rehren, Th. 2008. Metals: chemical analysis, in D. M. Pearsall (ed), Encyclopedia of Archaeology, 1614-1620. New York: Academic Press. INST ARCH AG PEA

Bray, P. J. and Pollard, A. M. 2013. A new interpretative approach to the chemistry of copper- alloy objects: source, recycling and technology. Antiquity 86: 853-867.

Bayley, J. and Butcher, S. 2004. Roman Brooches in Britain: A Technological and Typological Study based on the Richborough Collection. London: The Society of Antiquaries of London.

Dungworth, D. 1997. Roman copper alloys: analysis of artefacts from Northern Britain. Journal of Archaeological Science 24, 901-910.

Dungworth, D. 1997. Iron Age and Roman Copper Alloys from Northern Britain. Internet Archaeology 2. http://intarch.ac.uk/journal/issue2/

SESSION 6: SEM ANALYSIS OF ARCHAEOMETALLURGICAL REMAINS

Miljana Radivojević and Mike Charlton

LAB PRACTICAL: Thursday (G1) and Friday (G2)

The scanning electron microscope is one of the most versatile techniques used in archaeology in general, and archaeometallurgy in particular. This practical session will take place in two groups at the SEM suite of the Wolfson Archaeological Science Laboratories (room B04). You will be introduced to some of the main applications of SEM in archaeometallurgy, including the study of the microstructure and composition of slag, crucibles and metallic artefacts, and conduct some analysis by yourself.

The references below are some examples of applications, but you will find many more examples of SEM uses in the case studies cited throughout this handbook.

Martinón-Torres, M., Uribe-Villegas, M.A. (2015). The prehistoric individual, connoisseurship and archaeological science: The Muisca goldwork of Colombia. Journal of Archaeological Science, 63 136- 155. Online

Radivojević, M., Rehren, Th., Pernicka, E., Sljivar, D., Brauns, M. and Boric, D. 2010. On the origins of extractive metallurgy: new evidence from Europe. Journal of Archaeological Science 37, 2775-2787. Online

SESSION 7: LEAD, SILVER AND GOLD Lead and silver smelting. Cupellation. Gold making. Where: Europe and South America When: Prehistory to modern times

Miljana Radivojević

Lead and silver are geologically and metallurgically closely related, and are hence treated in one joint session. The vast majority of silver is extracted from lead ores, and lead often appears as a by-product of silver smelting. We will discuss the production and the use of both metals, and find out why they are typically treated at such different levels in archaeology.

Following and introduction to the metallurgy of lead an silver, different case studies will be presented, including examples from Europe and South America.

The metallurgy of gold in America developed independently from European and Asian influences. Thus, a number of characteristic differences is discussed, trying to explain them from their social and environmental context. Given the importance of gold and gold alloys in South American metallurgy, this session will also address some general issues related to this metal.

Against this background, we will then look at the crucial role played by metals in the relationship between Europeans and indigenous peoples during the contact period in the Caribbean, and how metals illustrate completely different perceptions of matter and value systems.

Silver and lead:

*Craddock, P., 1995, Early Metal Mining and Production, Chapter 5, Lead and silver, 205-233. INST ARCH KE CRA, ISSUE DESK IOA CRA 6

*Rehren, Th. 2011. The production of silver in South America. Archaeology International 13/14, 76- 83.

*Van Buren, M. and Mills, B. H., 2005. Huayrachinas and Tocochimbos: Traditional smelting technology of the Southern Andes. Latin American Antiquity 16(1), 3-25. INST ARCH Pers

Bayley, J. 2008. Medieval precious metal refining: archaeology and contemporary texts compared, in M. Martinón-Torres and Th. Rehren (eds), Archaeology, history and science: integrating approaches to ancient materials, 131-150. (UCL Institute of

Archaeology Publications). Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press. INST ARCH AJ MAR, ISSUE DESK IOA MAR 9

Bartelheim, M., Contreras Cortés, F., Moreno Onorato, A., Murillo-Barroso, M., and Pernicka, E. 2012. The silver of the South Iberian El Argar Culture: A first look at production and distribution. Trabajos de Prehistoria 69: 293-309. INST ARCH Pers, and available online

Cohen, C. R., Rehren, Th. and van Buren, M. 2009. When the wind blows: environmental adaptability in current day silver production within the Bolivian Andes, in J-F. Moreau, R. Auger, J. Chabot and A. Herzog (eds), Proceedings of the 36th International Symposium on Archaeometry, April 2006, Quebec, 465-475. (Les cahiers d'archeologie du CELAT, 25; Series Archeometrie, 7), Quebec: Universite Laval. INST ARCH AJ MOR

Hunter, F. and Davis, M. 1994. Early Bronze Age lead – a unique necklace from southeast Scotland. Antiquity 68(261), 824-830. INST ARCH Pers, and available online

Martinón-Torres, M., Thomas, N. Rehren, Th. and Mongiatti, A. 2008. Some problems and potentials of the study of cupellation remains: the case of post-medieval Montbéliard. ArcheoSciences: Revue d’Archeometrie 32, 59-70. INST ARCH Pers, and available online

Murphy, S. and Baldwin, H. 2001. Early lead smelting sites in the Swaledale area of Yorkshire. Historical Metallurgy 35(1), 1-22. INST ARCH Pers

Kassianidou, V. 1998. Was silver actually recovered from speiss in antiquity? , in Th. Rehren, A. Hauptmann, and J. Muhly (eds), Metallurgica Antiqua, 69-76. (Der Anschnitt Beiheft 8). Bochum: Deutsches Bergbau-Museum. INST ARCH KE Qto REH

Pernicka, E., Rehren, Th., and Schmitt-Strecker, S. 1998. Late Uruk silver production by cupellation at Habuba Kabira, Syria, in Th. Rehren, A. Hauptmann, and J. Muhly (eds), Metallurgica Antiqua, 123-134. (Der Anschnitt Beiheft 8). Bochum: Deutsches Bergbau- Museum. INST ARCH KE Qto REH

Rehren, Th. and Prange, M. 1998. Lead metal and patina: a comparison, in Th. Rehren, A. Hauptmann, and J. Muhly (eds), Metallurgica Antiqua, 183-196. (Der Anschnitt Beiheft 8). Bochum: Deutsches Bergbau-Museum. INST ARCH KE Qto REH

Rehren, Th., Schneider, J. and Bartels, Chr. 1999. Medieval lead-silver smelting in the Siegerland, West Germany. Historical Metallurgy 33, 73-84. INST ARCH Pers

Gold:

*La Niece, S. and Meeks, N. 2000. Diversity of Goldsmithing Traditions in the Americas and the Old World, in C McEwan (ed), Precolumbian Gold. Technology, Style and Iconography, 220-239. London: British Museum Press. INST ARCH DF 300 MCE

*Martinón-Torres, M., Valcárcel Rojas, R., Cooper, J. and Rehren, Th. 2007. Metals, microanalysis and meaning: a study of metal objects excavated from the indigenous cemetery of El Chorro de Maíta, Cuba. Journal of Archaeological Science, 34, 194-204. INST ARCH Pers, and available online

La Niece, S. and Craddock, P. T. 1993 (eds). Metal plating and patination: cultural, technical and historical developments. Oxford, Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann.

Lechtman, H., 1973, The gilding of metals in pre-Columbian Peru. In: W. Young (ed.) Application of Science in Examination of Works of Art, 38-52. Boston: Museum of Fine Arts. INST ARCH K BOS

Lechtman, H N, 1984. Pre-Columbian Surface Metallurgy. Scientific American, 250(6), 56-63. PHYSICAL SCIENCE Pers, GEOSCIENCE Pers

Leusch, V. Armbruster, B., Pernicka, E. and Slavcev, V. 2015. On the invention of gold metallurgy: the gold objects from the Varna I Cemetery (Bulgaria) – Technological consequence and inventive creativity. Cambridge Archaeological Journal 25/1, 353-376. Online

Lleras-Pérez, R. 1999. Prehispanic metallurgy and votive offerings in the Eastern Cordillera Colombia. (BAR International Series 778). Oxford: Archaeopress. INST ARCH DGA Qto LLE

Martinón-Torres, M. and Rehren, Th. 2007. Trials and errors in search of mineral wealth: metallurgical experiments in early colonial Jamestown. Rittenhouse: the Journal of the American Scientific Instrument Enterprise 21: 82-97.

Martinón-Torres, M., Cooper, J., Valcárcel Rojas, R. and Rehren, Th. 2008. Diversifying the picture: Indigenous responses to European arrival in Cuba. Archaeology International 10, 37- 40. INST ARCH Pers, and available online

Martinón-Torres, M., Valcarcel Rojas, R., Guerra, M. F. and Saenz Samper, J. 2012 Metallic encounters in Cuba: the technology, exchange and meaning of metals before and after Columbus. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology, 31/4, 439-454. INST ARCH Pers, and available online.

McEwan, C. (ed) 2000. Precolumbian Gold: Technology, Style and Iconography. London: British Museum Press. INST ARCH DF 300 MCE

Ramage, A. & Craddock, P. (eds) 2000. King Croesus’ Gold – Excavation at Sardis and the History of Gold Refining. London: British Museum Press. INST ARCH DBC 10 RAM

Schrimptff, M. C. (ed) 2005. Calima and Malagana. Art and Archaeology in Southwestern Colombia. Bogotá: Pro Calima Foundation. INST ARCH DGA CAR

Uribe Villegas, M. A. and Martinón-Torres, M. 2012. Composition, colour and context in Muisca votive metalwork (Colombia, AD 600-1800). Antiquity 86 (333), 772–791. INST ARCH Pers, and available online

Williams, D. and Ogden, J. 1994. Greek Gold: Jewelry of the Classical World. New York: Abrams. YATES QUARTOS T 50 WIL, YATES T 50 WIL

SESSION 8: IRON AND STEEL Bloomery iron smelting. Iron smithing. Crucible steel. Cast iron. Where: Europe, Near East, Central Asia and Africa When: Late Bronze Age to Industrial Revolution LECTURE Mike Charlton

The advent of iron in the Late Bronze Age led to the emergence of an entirely new approach to smelting metal, where the metal itself is never liquid, but remains in a solid state throughout the working cycle. The technological implications of this are discussed, together with the social and economic implications of the much more widespread availability of iron ores as compared to copper and tin ores.

The Roman era saw a tremendous expansion of iron production, both within the empire and outside, from Sudan in the South to Norway in the North, and from Britain in the West to Anatolia in the East. At the same time, evidence for iron working, i.e. smithing, becomes ubiquitous. During this session, we will explore the distinguishing features for these two activities, smelting and smithing, and what the archaeological record tells us about them.

The technical basis of iron smelting remained unchanged for almost two millennia. Only from about 1000 AD onwards do we witness the appearance of a new, and much more productive, smelting process, resulting first in cast iron which had to be treated further by fining before it could be used for tools and such like. This indirect process, eventually leading up to the Industrial Revolution, is discussed in both technical, social and environmental contexts.

*Craddock, P. 1995. Early Metal Mining and Production. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press (chapter 7: Iron and Steel, pp. 234-283). INST ARCH KE CRA, ISSUE DESK IOA CRA 6

Humphris, J. and Rehren, Th. (eds) 2013. The World of Iron. London: Archetype. INST ARCH KEA 2 Qto HUM

*Pleiner, R. 2000. Iron in Archaeology - The European Bloomery Smelters. Prague: Archeologicky Ustav AVCR. ISSUE DESK IOA PLE

*Pleiner, R. 2006. Iron in Archaeology - Early European Blacksmiths. Prague: Archeologicky Ustav AVCR. INST ARCH KEA 2 Qto PLE

Benoit, P. and Fluzin, Ph. (ed) 1995. Paléométallurgie du fer & Cultures. Paris: AEDEH. INST ARCH KEA Qto BEN

Biggs, L., Bellina, B., Martinón-Torres, M. and Pryce, O. P. 2013. Prehistoric iron production technologies in the Upper Thai-Malay Peninsula: metallography and slag inclusion analyses of iron artefacts from Khao Sam Kaeo and Phu Khao Thong. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences 5(4): 311-329.

Blakelock, E., Martinón-Torres, M., Veldhuijzen, H.A. and Young, T. 2009. Slag inclusions in iron objects and the quest for provenance: an experiment and a case study. Journal of Archaeological Science 36, 1745-1757. INST ARCH Pers, and available online

*Charlton, M. F., P. Crew, Th. Rehren, and S. Shennan, 2010. Explaining the evolution of ironmaking recipes—An example from northwest Wales. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology, 29, 352-367.

Charlton, M. F., Blakelock, E., Martinón-Torres, M. and Young, T. 2012. Investigating the production provenance of iron artifacts with multivariate methods. Journal of Archaeological Science 39, 2280-2293. INST ARCH Pers, and available online

Buchwald, V. F. 2005. Iron and steel in ancient times. Copenhagen: Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab. INST ARCH KEA 2 BUC

Crossley, D. 1996. The blast furnace at Rockley, South Yorkshire. Archaeological Journal 152, 291-380. INST ARCH Pers

Gassmann, G. 2002. Recent discoveries and excavations of 6th-2nd century BC furnaces in SW Germany. Historical Metallurgy 36(2), 71-77. INST ARCH Pers

Hayman, R. 2005. Ironmaking. The history and archaeology of the iron industry. London: Tempus. INST ARHC KEA 2 HAY

Paynter, S., Blakelock, E. and Belford, P. 2014 (eds). Iron and Ironworking. Historical Metallurgy 48. INST ARCH Pers.

Joosten, I. 2004. Technology of Early Historical Iron Production in the Netherlands. (Geoarchaeological and Bioarchaeological Studies 2). Amsterdam: Vrije Universiteit. INST ARCH DAHB Qto JOO

Nørbach, L. C. (ed) 2003. Prehistoric and Medieval Direct Iron Smelting in Scandinavia and Europe. Aspects of Technology and Science. Aarhus: Aarhus University Press. INST ARCH KEA 2 NOB

Rehren, T., Belgya, T., Jambon, A., Kali, G., Kastovszky, Z., Kis, Z., Kovács, I., Maróti, B., Martinón- Torres, M., Miniaci, G., Pigott, P., Radivojević, M., Szentmiklósi, L., Szökefalvi- Nagy, Z.2013. 5,000 years old Egyptian iron beads made from hammered meteoritic iron. Journal of Archaeological Science 40(12), 4785–4792. INST ARCH Pers, and available online

Rostoker, W. and Bronson, B. 1990. Pre-Industrial Iron – Its Technology and Ethnology (Archeomaterials monograph 1). Philadelphia: Archeomaterials. ISSUE DESK IOA ROS 3, INST ARCH KEA 2 ROS

Rovira, S., Lopez-Medina, M. J., Roman-Diaz, M. P. and Martinez-Padillar, C. 2004. Los Callejones: a Roman Republican iron mining and smelting centre in the south east of the Iberian Peninsula. Historical Metallurgy 38(1), 1-9. INST ARCH Pers

Sim, D. 1998. Beyond the Bloom - Bloom refining and iron artifact production in the Roman world. (BAR International Series 725). Oxford: Archaeopress. INST ARCH KE Qto SIM

Starley, D. 1999. Determining the technological origins of iron and steel. Journal of Archaeological Science 26, 1127-1134. INST ARCH Pers, and available online

Tylecote, R. 1987. The early history of metallurgy in Europe. London and New York: Longman (chapter 7: Forging and hammering techniques, pp. 243-279). ANCIENT HISTORY A 68 TYL, ISSUE DESK IOA TYL 2

Veldhuijzen, H.A. and Rehren, Th. 2007. Slags and the city: early iron production at Tell Hammeh, Jordan and Tell Beth-Shemesh, Israel, in: La Niece, S., Hook, D.R., and Craddock, P.T. (eds) Metals and Mines - Studies in Archaeometallurgy, 189-201. London, Archetype, British Museum. INST ARCH KE Qto LAN, ISSUE DESK IOA LAN 1

Waldbaum, J. 1999. The coming of iron in the eastern Mediterranean, in V. Pigott (ed), Archaeometallurgy of the Asian Old World, 27-57. (University Museum Monograph). INST ARCH KEA PIG

Wagner, D. B. 2003. Chinese blast furnaces from the 10th to the 14th century. Historical Metallurgy 37(1), 25-37. INST ARCH Pers

Wertime, T. A. and Muhly, J. D. (eds) 1980. The coming of the Age of Iron. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. INST ARCH KEA 2 WER; Issue Desk INST ARCH KEA 2 WER

SESSION 9: METALLURGY, ETHNOGRAPHY AND RITUAL

SEMINAR AND FILM SESSION

Miljana Radivojević and Mike Charlton

The archaeological and ethnographic record of Sub-Saharan Africa offers an extraordinary demonstration of how metallurgical technologies are adapted to changing environmental and cultural contexts. In spite of the technical constraints, there is scope for substantial cultural variation, as documented across the continent in the multiplicity of furnace shapes and sizes, and the variety of rituals, taboos and beliefs associated to metal smelting and and artefact manufacture in different contexts.

This session will start with an overview and some selected case studies of African archaeometallurgy. We will then watch the video Inagina: The Last House of Iron, which records the practical activities of a group of iron smelters working in Mali, and demonstrates how the building of the furnaces and the work involved in the actual smelting and smithing are deeply entwined with ritual, symbolism and gender. This video should prompt some interesting discussion about the the tensions between culture and nature in metallurgical technologies, as well as the advantages and risks of using ethnographic parallels when interpreting archaeometallurgical data.

*Iles, L. and Childs, S. T. 2014. Ethnoarchaeological and historical methods, in W. B. Roberts and C. P. Thornton (eds). Archaeometallurgy in Global Perspective: Methods and Syntheses, 193-216. New York: Springer. Online

*Killick, D. 2009. Cairo to Cape: the spread of metallurgy through eastern and southern Africa. Journal of World Prehistory 22(4). 399-414. INST ARCH Pers, and available online

*Rehren, Th, Charlton, M, Chirikure, S, Humphris, J, Ige, A. and Veldhuijzen H.A. 2007 Decisions set in slag: the human factor in African iron smelting, in S. La Niece, D. R. Hook, and P. T. Craddock (eds) Metals and Mines - Studies in Archaeometallurgy, 211-218, London, Archetype, British Museum. INST ARCH KE Qto LAN, ISSUE DESK IOA LAN 1, and online

Bisson, M. S. et al. (eds) 2000. Ancient African Metallurgy: The Sociocultural Context. Oxford: Altamira Press. INST ARCH DC 100 BIS

Chirikure, S. and Rehren, Th. 2004: Ores, furnaces, slags, and prehistoric societies: aspects of iron working in the Nyanga Agricultural Complex, AD 1300-1900. African Archaeological Review 21, 135-152. INST ARCH Pers

Herbert, E. W. 1984. Red gold of Africa: copper in precolonial history and culture. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.

Humphris, J., Martinón-Torres, M., Rehren, Th. and Reid, A. 2009. Variability in single smelting episodes - a pilot study using slag from Uganda. Journal of Archaeological Science 36, 359-369. INST ARCH Pers, and available online

Iles, L. and Martinón-Torres, M. 2009. Pastoralist iron production in the Laikipia Plateau, Kenya: wider implications for archaeometallurgical studies. Journal of Archaeological Science 36, 2314-2326. INST ARCH Pers, and available online

Killick, D. 2004. What do we know about African iron working? Journal of African Archaeology 2(1):97-112. INST ARCH Pers

Miller, D. 1994. Early metal working in sub-Saharan Africa: A review of recent research. Journal of African History 35, 1-36. ANTHROPOLOGY Pers

MacDonald, K.C., Vernet, R., Martinón-Torres, M. and Fuller, D. Q. 2009. Dhar Nema: from early agriculture to metallurgy in southeastern Mauritania. Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa 44(1), 3-48. INST ARCH Pers, and available online

Schmidt, P. R. 1997. Iron technology in East Africa: symbolism, science, and archaeology. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press; Oxford: James Currey. INST ARCH DCD SCH

Thondhlana, T. P. and Martinón-Torres, M. 2009. Small size, high value. Composition and manufacture of copper-base beads from Second Millennium AD northern Zimbabwe. Journal of African Archaeology 7(1), 79-97. INST arch Pers, and available online

Woodhouse, J. 1998. Iron in Africa: the metal from nowhere, in G. Connah (ed) Transformations in Africa: essays on Africa’s later past, 160-185. London: Leicester University Press. INST ARCH DC 200 CON, INST ARCH DC 100 CON, ISSUE DESK IOA CON 8

SESSION 10: ALCHEMY AND METALLURGY Distillation and cementation. Lab-scale metallurgy. Alchemical laboratories. Where: Europe, Near East, India, China When: Roman times to present day (plus earlier glimpses) LECTURE

Historians of science have tended to disregard historical alchemy as a pseudoscientific waste of time that has more to do with ambition and fraud than actual metallurgy and chemistry. While this is certainly the case for present-day alchemy, a focus on archaeological remains shows that alchemists contributed greatly to advances in metallurgy and chemistry, and that we should not regard them as social outcasts.

In this session, we will cover some selected case studies of the archaeology of alchemy, with particular emphasis on the metallurgical dimensions of their quest. We will talk about silver and gold but also about brass, and about the challenges of reconstructing changing ideas based on the study of material remains of practical activities.

*Craddock, P. (ed). 1998. 2000 years of zinc and brass. (BMOP 50, 2nd edition). London: British Museum. (Read any chapter of your choice) INST ARCH KEA 5 CRA, INST ARCH KEA 5 Qto CRA

*Martinón-Torres, M. and Rehren, Th. 2005. Alchemy, chemistry and metallurgy in Renaissance Europe. A wider context for fire assay remains. Historical Metallurgy 39(1), 14-31. INST ARCH Pers, and available online

Craddock, P. and Eckstein, K. 2003. Production of brass in Antiquity by direct reduction. In P. Craddock and J. Lang (eds), Mining and Metal Production Through the Ages, 216-230. London: The British Museum Press. INST ARCH KE CRA, ISSUE DESK IOA CRA 7

Martinón-Torres, M. and Rehren, Th. 2002. Agricola and Zwickau: theory and practice of Renaissance brass production in SE Germany. Historical Metallurgy 36, 95-111. INST ARCH Pers

Martinón-Torres, M. and Rehren, Th. 2009. Post-medieval crucible production and distribution: a study of materials and materialities. Archaeometry, 51(1), 49-74. INST ARCH Pers, and available online

Martinon-Torres, M. (2012). The archaeology and alchemy and chemistry in the early modern world: an afterthought. Archaeology International, 15 33-36. Online.

Martinón-Torres, M. 2012. Inside Solomon’s House: An Archaeological Study of the Old Ashmolean Chymical Laboratory in Oxford. Ambix 59/1, 22-48

Martinón-Torres, M., Rehren, Th. and von Osten, S. 2003. A 16th century lab in a 21st century lab: archaeometric study of the laboratory equipment from Oberstockstall (Kirchberg am Wagram, Austria). Antiquity 77(298). Available online

Ponting, M. J. 2002. Keeping up with the Romans? Romanisation and Copper Alloys in First Revolt Palestine. IAMS 22, 3-6. INST ARCH Pers

Rehren, Th. 1996. Alchemy and fire assay – an analytical approach. Historical Metallurgy 30, 136-142. INST ARCH KEA Qto YOU

Rehren, Th. 1999. The same… but different: A juxtaposition of Roman and Medieval brass making in Central Europe. In S. Young et al. (eds.), Metals in Antiquity, 252-257. (BAR International Series, 792). Oxford: Archaeopress. INST ARCH KEA Qto YOU

Rehren, Th. and Martinón-Torres, M. 2008. Naturam ars imitata: European brassmaking between craft and science, in M. Martinón-Torres and Th. Rehren (eds), Archaeology, History and Science: Integrating Approaches to Ancient Materials, 167-188. (UCL Institute of Archaeology Publications). Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press. INST ARCH AJ MAR, ISSUE DESK IOA MAR 9

Zacharias, S. 1989. Brass making in medieval western Europe. In M. L. Wayman (ed), All That Glitters: Reasings in Historical Metallurgy, 35-40. Montreal: The Metallurgical Society of the Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy. INST ARCH KEA WAY, INST ARCH TYLECOTE WAY

Zhou, W., Martinón-Torres, M., Chen, J., Liu, H. and Li, Y. 2012. Distilling zinc for the Ming Dynasty: the technology of large scale zinc production in Fengdu, southwest China. Journal of Archaeological Science, Journal of Archaeological Science 39, 908-921. Available online

ASSESSMENT

Assessment of the course is by one essay of 1425-1575 words (50% of final mark), and a 4- 6 minute documentary video (50% of final mark). The essay is due on 25th November, and the video on 20th January.

ASSESSMENT 1: STANDARD ESSAY

Essay topics are negotiable, and students are encouraged to suggest their own. What follows is a list of possible general topics, with some introductory reading (in addition to that given for relevant lectures), but you will be expected to carry out further bibliographic research. Essays may concentrate on specific aspects of these topics, or on completely different ones, by prior discussion with the course co-ordinator. In all cases, it is expected that students will combine their own ideas with reference to published case studies.

The writing assignment is the following: “Present an argument that supports, rejects or modifies the given thesis, and support your response with factual evidence”. You are given a choice of controversial theses that brings this course’s subject matter into problematic focus. These are designed to prompt you to take a strong stand and focus on problem-based rather than topic-based writing.

Please make sure that your essay is well-structured (including subheadings), and try to show some originality or insight: having done your literature review… where do we go from here? what are the main questions remaining? who do you agree or disagree with, and why?

Like the rest of the bibliographic references in this coursebook, many of the references below are available as PDFs via Moodle wherever possible. Needless to say, the fact that a publication is not available online is not an excuse for not consulting it!

Experimental archaeometallurgy is a universal answer to reconstructing past metallurgical processes

Bareham, T. 1994. Bronze casting experiments. Historical Metallurgy 28 (2), 112-116.

Crew, P. 1991. The experimental production of prehistoric bar iron. Historical Metallurgy 25, 21- 36. Dungworth, D. and Doonan, R. C. P. 2013. Accidental and Experimental Archaeometallurgy. HMS Occasional Publication 7.

Ottaway, B. S. and Wang, Q. 2004. Casting Experiments and Microstructure of Archaeologically Relevant Bronzes. (BAR International Series 1331). Oxford: Archaeopress.

Pryce, T.O., Bassiakos, Y., Catapotis, M. and Doonan, R. C. 2007/ “De Caerimoniae”: technological decisions in copper smelting furnace design at early bronze age Chrysokamino, Crete. Archaeometry 49(3), 543–557.

The emergence of metallurgy is followed by significant social changes in prehistoric societies

Shennan, S. 1999. Cost, benefit and value in the organization of early European copper production, Antiquity, 73, 352-363.

Matthews, R. and Fazeli, H. 2004. Copper and complexity: Iran and Mesopotamia in the fourth millennium B.C. Iran. Journal of the British Institute of Persian Studies 42, 61-75.

Diaz-Andreu, M. and Montero, I. 2000. Metallurgy and social dynamics in the later prehistory of Mediterranean Spain, in C. F. E. Pare (ed), Metals Make the World Go Round. The Supply and Circulation of Metals in Bronze Age Europe, 116-132. Oxford: Oxbow Books.

Mei, J. 2009. Early metallurgy in China: some challenging issues in current studies, in J. Mei and Th. Rehren (eds), Metallurgy and Civilisation: Eurasia and Beyond, 9-16. London: Archetype.

The origins of metallurgy in Africa can be explained by diffusionist models (you can focus on other regions, such as Britain or China)

Alpern, S. 2005. Did they or didn’t they invent it? Iron in Sub-Saharan Africa. History in Africa 32: 41-94. Holl, A. F. C. 2009. Early West African Metallurgies: New Data and Old Orthodoxy. Journal of World Prehistory 22 (4), 415-438.

Killick, D. 2009. Cairo to Cape: the spread of metallurgy through eastern and southern Africa. Journal of World Prehistory 22(4), 399-414.

Tin for Bronze Age metals in Eurasia comes from a single source

Begemann, F., Kallas, K., Schmitt-Strecker, S., and Pernicka, E. 1999. Tracing tin via isotope analyses. In: A. Hauptmann et al. (eds), The Beginnings of Metallurgy, 277-284. (Der Anschnitt, Beiheft 9).

Giuimlia-Mair, A. and Lo Schiavo, F. (eds) 2003. The Problem of Early Tin (BAR International Series 1199). Oxford: Archaeopress

Haustein, M., Gillis, C., and Pernicka, E. 2010. Tin isotopy – a new method for solving old questions. Archaeometry 52/5, 816-832.

Yener, K. A. 2000. The Domestication of Metals: The Rise of Complex Metal Industries in Anatolia (c. 4500-2000 B.C.). Amsterdam: E.J. Brill.

Is it not possible to provenance iron objects to their source of origin

Coustures, M.P., Béziat, D., Tollon, F., Domergue, C., Long, L., Rebiscoul, A., 2003. The use of trace element analysis of entrapped slag inclusions to establish ore - Bar Iron links: Examples from two Gallo-Roman ironworking sites in France (Les Martys, Montagne Noire and Les Ferrys, Loiret). Archaeometry 45, 599-613.

Desaulty, A-M., Dillmann, P., L’Heritier, M., Mariet, C., Gratuze, B., Joron, J-L. and Fluzin, P. 2009. Does it come from the Pays de Bray? Examination of an origin hypothesis for the ferrous reinforcements used in French medieval churches using major and trace element analyses. Journal of Archaeological Science 36, 2445-2462.

Høst-Madsen, L. and Buchwald, V.F., 1999. The characterization and provenancing of ore, slag and iron from the Iron Age settlements at Snorup. Historical Metallurgy 33, 57-67.

Schwab, R., Heger, D., Hoppner, B. and Pernicka, E. 2006. The provenance of iron artefacts from Manching: a multi-technique approach. Archaeometry 48, 433-452.

ASSESSMENT 2: A DOCUMENTARY VIDEO

Are you ready to make history? For the first time in the history of UCL we are asking all the students in a course to submit videos as a form of course assessment. The rationale behind this is the hope that this will help you develop your digital literacy, expand your transferable skills, and prompt you to engage with a different type of audience (namely, the public, i.e. the main owners of the heritage we study).

Your task will be to create a 4-6 minute documentary video on any archaeometallurgical topic of your choice, aimed at general, educated but non-specialist audiences. I would normally expect you to select a metal object, artefact type, relevant collection, metallurgical process or site that is somehow accessible to you (e.g. at the Institute’s collections, London museums, etc) and build your story around that. Having said this, you may wish to take a different angle (but you should discuss this with me). The only prerequisite is that the video contains educational, factual, accurate information relevant to this course – but obviously this should not curtail creativity and originality.

For many of you, this may be the first time you make a video, from storyboarding through shooting and up to post-production, but we don’t want you to feel overwhelmed by the technicalities. Instead, we would like to turn this into an opportunity for you to learn new skills. For this purpose, we have created two model videos and extended guidance to take you through the various steps. This is in the form of a tutorial wiki that you can access from Moodle (and which you are welcome to contribute to!) or directly from UCL Confluence. In addition, I will be available throughout the term to provide individual support as needed.

Making documentary videos (a basic tutorial): https://wiki.ucl.ac.uk/pages/viewpage.action?pageId=36285513

Capturing and editing video https://wiki.ucl.ac.uk/display/UCLELearning/Capturing+and+editing+audio+and+video

Using audio https://wiki.ucl.ac.uk/display/UCLELearning/Audio

More on video https://wiki.ucl.ac.uk/display/UCLELearning/Video

Submission and assessment You are strongly encouraged (though not obliged) to upload your video to a website where anyone can watch it, such as Youtube, Vimeo, or your own blog page. In addition, you should submit it as a CD or memory stick, together with a relevant cover sheet, stapled to a ca. 200 word abstract for your video and a list of sources employed (including publications, interviews, etc.). I would be grateful if you could also add a ca. 500 word evaluation of your

own experience making the video (expectations, challenges, skills learned, overall experience…) – but this will not be formally assessed.

Please also indicate if you agree to your video being uploaded to Youtube or similar after the course has ended. This is not compulsory, but we would like to publish them online in order to help democratise access to knowledge.

You do not need to submit the video to Turnitin, and you are welcome to submit using your own name so that due credit to you is included in the video itself. The marking criteria for this assignment are detailed in the special coversheet that is available via Moodle. In general, the video assessment will cover the following aspects (though not all of them have equal weight)

 Content: breadth and depth of research, clarity of information  Technical quality: organisation of the material, quality visuals and sound  Educational objectives: clarity of the educational aim, and coherence  Planning and presentation of the research  Visual interpretation and originality  Creativity and impact on viewer  Overall communication  Credits and references

The credits of your film should include the following statement: “This educational film is an unrevised version submitted by XXXXX for assessment at the undergraduate Archaeometallurgy course at the UCL Institute of Archaeology, 2019