SONDERDRUCKAUS:

ArchdometallurgiederAlten Welt Beitrdgezum lnternationalen Symposium ,,Old World Archaeometallurgy , Heidelberg1987

OldWorld Archaeometallurgy proceedingsof the InternationalSymposium "Old World Archaeometallurgy", Heidelberg1987

DerAnschnitt, Beiheft 7

Herausgeber: AndreasHauptmann ErnstPernicka GUntherA. Wagner

Selbstverlagdes Deutschen Bergbau-Museums Bochum1989 Effi Photos/ChaidoKoukouli-Chrysanthaki/Ronald F. Tylecote/GeorgiosGialoglou

PreciousMetals Extraction in Palaia Kavala, N.E. Greece

AnArchaeometallurgical Attempt to LocateSkapte Hyle

Abstract

The aim of this long-termstudy is to identifythe precise and the interlyingvalley, east the RiverNestos, and south locationof SkapteHyle, an area in Macedoniafamous in the delta of the same river and the Gulf of Kavala.Ar- antiquityfor its gold and silver mines. Skapte Hyle is chaeometallurgically,Palaia Kavala is renownedfor abun- knownto have been situatedin the ThasianPeraial, the dantevidence of "ancient"mining and large,as yet largely coloniesof Thasoson the coastalstretch of the mainland, undated,slag heaps.These activitiescan be attributed oppositethe island,from the 7th centuryBC to the Roman eitherto antiquityor to the Ottomanperiod or both. period. Recently re-evaluateddocumentary and ar- The long-termaim of this projectis to discoverthe location chaeologicalevidence has suggestedthat the regionof of SkapteHyle, a "villageor town oppositeThasos"2, fa- PalaiaKavala, north-east of the town prob- of Kavala,was mousin antiquityfor its preciousmetals, particularly gold. ably the main metalliferouszone of the ThasianPeraia Herodotusreports that in the Sth centuryBC Skapte Hyle andthus Skapte Hyle should be soughtthere. was includedwithin the Peraia,the coloniesof Thasoson The attemptto locateSkapte Hyle will be achievedin two the coastalstrip of the mainland3,and that the Thasians stages.The firstinvolves the evaluationof the type of ex- were benefittingconsiderably from its mineralwealth to a tractivemetallurgical practices through the analysisof ex- far greaterextent than from their own mines.In the next tensive metallurgicalwaste, ores and artefactsfound at sectionit is arguedthat Skapte Hyle should be sought PalaiaKavala. In the second,the excavationof selected withinPalaia Kavala. However, the task of locatingSkapte metal-workingsites and the dating of a numberof slag Hyle, and thus the metal-workingactivities of the Late heaoswill be undertaken. Classicaland Hellenisticperiods, is a particularlydifficult This reportconcentrates on the preliminaryresults of the one in view of the size of the areaand the enormousvol- analyticalinvestigation of the metallurgicalwaste and re- ume of metal-workingremains. Therefore, before excava- veals an elaborateprocedure for retrievingprecious met- tion and datingof one or more sites is undertaken,it is es- alsfrom mainly Mn-rich iron ores. The dateof theseopera- sentialto establishwhether Palaia Kavala was indeeda tions (antiquityandlor Ottoman) is not yet known.The re- preciousmetals producing area and therebya candidate sultspresented here have shed considerablelight on the regionfrom the pointof viewof miningand metal-working. extractivepyrometallurgical processes at Palaia Kavala, Withthat aim in mindthis reportpresents the preliminary butat thesame time have given rise to newquestions con- analyticalinvestigation of the archaeometallurgicalre- cerningthe preciselocation of that renownedmetals-pro- mains of that region as well as the documentary/ar- ducingarea. chaeologicalevidence (both in antiquityand laterperiods) whichsupport the argumentthat SkapteHyle shouldbe Introduction soughtin PalaiaKavala.

PalaiaKavala is the regionencompassing the southern The morphologyof Palaia Kavala consistsof summit flankof the Lekanimountain range, taking its namefrom ridges(max. height '1300 m) whichalternate with deep val- one of the villagesincluded in it (Fig.21.1-2).lt does not leyscriss-crossing the region.The geologyof the area is constitutea geographicalregion. The name has been crystallineschists with marbleintercallations and granites usedby the Instituteof Geologicaland MiningExploration with pegmatic and applitic offshoots penetrating the (IGME)to denotean areawith Mn-richiron mineralisation. metamorphicrocksa. The iron ore depositsof the Lekani The regionis delineatedclockwise from the west (Fig. range are of hydrothermalorigin and occur as lissure 21.1) by the Plainof Drama,north the Falakronmountain veins betweenmarble and schist.They are presentin as-

179 E. Photoset al.

t''''-'' ! t'...r.- I BULGARTA i .-._.....r-.i'''t'

,.-,..2' -.-. \.i ',' -. -/n'''' . drt 1 2. . t" \ \. ..-'-'-.f -.\-.-. x -./'-' -' *.f- i _t|r \._. -. 'ttakron ,i .. t. 'j 'a .. ,, oXanthi .Kwtlni aScrnl 4o 's'ii ". .^ .o' *i "-t -. ?i. $1"1*,.

s :>

CHALKIDIKI

: = : Fig.21 .1 : Map of EasternMacedonia with sites referredto in the text: 1 : Olympias,2 Kata$o, 3 VathytoPos,4 DikiliTqsh, ! I Siiagroi,6=Nikisiani,T:Eleftheroupolis,S:Philippoi,9:Amygdaleonas,10=Zygos, 11:Kirgia, 12:PalaiaKavala, 13:Tria Karagatsia,14: Lekani,15: Kechrokampos,16: Pyrgiskos,17 = Kastanies,18 = Makrychori,19: Petropigi,20: Perni

Fi1.21.2: Map of PalaiaKavala region, Pangaion and the ThasianPeraia

S.LG*AilI AA A .'tllF5 -all{

rryt"*'*' : " *,*"1, 1A

180 PreciousMetals Extraction in N. E.Greece sociationwith Mn (27-43% iron oxide' 18-437:o man- ganeseoxide) with the addedpresence of otherelements like Pb,Zn, As and alsoAu and Ag. The iron-manganese ores derivefrom the oxidationof sulfides(pyrite' galena, chalcopyrite)which are includedin smallamountss. Two zonesof mineralization(one with a north-eastern,another with north-westerndirection) are evident in the area and seem to be distincton both chemicaland mineralogical groundso.This distinctionmay proveto have some bear- ing on the archaeometallurgyof the region.The north- easternmineralization, which includesthe occurrenceat Korizo Lolos (1 km south of the slag heaps at Tria Karagatsia,Fig. 21.2),consists of iron-manganeseores Fig.21 .3: Dipotamos.Plates of speiss associatedwith Pb, Zn, andAg. The north-western,which includesthe occurrence at Chalkero,is associatedwith Cu and Au and occasionallyBi with low contentsof Mn, Pb, evidencefor gold and copper working,slag fragments Zn andabsence of Ag. Arsenicis presentin both7. (melting?)and crucibleslT,while at DikiliTash, the occur- of Palaia Kavala ores revealedthe lollowing Analyses rence of copper slag points to attemptsto smelt copper mean values for main elements: 26'4% Fe (range ores as earlyas the 5th millennium8C18. The smeltingof o-52%), 8.8% Mn (0-33%), 3.8% Pb (0-57%), copperat the EarlyBronze Age phaseof thissettlement is 23% As (0- 18%), 1.2% Zn (0-6 %), 0.35% Cu currentlybeing verifiedby analyticalinvestigationle. On (O-4%). The mean silverand gold valueswere 56 ppm the other hand,at Vathytopos(Fig.21 .1), there are eye- Ag (range0-420 ppm)and 1 ppm Au (range0-42 ppm). witness accountsof bloomery iron smelting furnaces, Amongother trace elements measured, the following were blown by water-poweredbellows, in operationat the turn included:Ba, Sb, Sr, Cd, Sn and Bi8. of this century20.Thus, the situationin Macedoniapres- Evidencefor undergroundmining in the regionabounds. entsa uniqueopportunity for a diachronicstudy of lerrous Ancientgalleries are concentratedin the areaoutlined by and non-ferrousore miningand metalsextraction which thevillages of Amygdaleonas,Zygos and PalaiaKavala, in hasonly recentlybegun to be sortedout. additionto othersin the regionof Chalkero,Perni an Pe- There have been two periodsof intenseactivity in the ex- tropigi(Fig. 21.2)e.The metal-workingsites lie eitheron ploitation of precious metals in Central and East mountainplateaux or slopesor the foothillsof the Lekani Macedonia:in antiquityand during the Ottomanperiod mountains.The volumeof the slag heapsranges from a (1453-1912)21.In antiquitythe classicalsources refer to few hundred tons (Makrychori,Tria Karagatsia,Di- two metals-richareas, namely Pangaion22and Skapte potamos)to a few tons (Pyrgiskos,Kastanies) (Fig. 21.2). Hyle23.Both areas are known in the classicalsources as Leadsystems for channellingwater to as yet undiscovered both silver and gold producers.Although there are few furnaces are occasionally evident. doubts as to the locationof Pangaion,the positionof product Apartfrom slag, speiss - a metallic"waste" con- SkapteHyle has beenthe subjectof muchdebate and ex- sistingof iron arsenides- was recoveredfrom the slag tended controversy. For the location of the latter, two pres- heapsbut in smallerquantitiesl0. Speissll is usually areashave been favoured: ent in the form of platesor shapelesslumps of various a) on or nearPangaion2a, sizesor prillscaught within the slag(Fig. 21'3). Speiss has b) on the southernslopes of Lekanimountain2s. alsobeen found at Nikisianion Pangaion(Fig' 21 .2\12 ' The mostimportant arguments against the firsthypothesis havebeen set out by one of us26and includethe following: Historicaland ArchaeologicalBackground a) in no classicalsource is SkapteHyle locatedon Pan- The archaeometallurgicalremains of Central and East gaion.The connectionand subsequentconfusion with the Macedoniaand the island of Thasos,Greece's richest lattercame aboutby some historiansand archaeologists, metalliferousprovince, have been the subjectof a number based on the fact that both areas were precious metals of investigationsinto metals technologyl3 as well as prove- prooucers. nance-relatedquestionsl4. In East Macedoniathere are of Xerxes' inva- indicationsof indigenousmetals productionspanning a b) Herodotusstates clearly that at the time periodof nearlysixty-five centuries, from the Late Neolithic sion (490BC) the Pangaionmines were being exploited penetrateinland in (secondhalf of theSth millennium BC) at Sitagroil5and Di- by Thracians.The Thasiansdid not whenthey found- kiliTash16, to the turn of this century.At Sitagroi,there is that regionuntil a centurylater, 360 BC,

181 E.Photos et al.

found(Figs. 21 .6-7), the lastof whichallowed that section of the heaoto be datedbetween the 4th and the 2nd cen- turiesBC3o. It is the proximityof metal-workingsites to Thasiancoastal settlementswhich suggests that a numberof slagheaps in the areamay dateto antiquity,as the sherdsfrom Makry- choriindicate3l. However, the sheersize of the slag heap at this site,as well as at othersites within Palaia Kavala, couldsuggest that, althoughexploitation may havetaken placein antiquity,the same or neighbouringmines were reworkedat laterperiods (ie. Ottoman). Until now, relevant Byzantine32or Ottoman documentary/historicalevidence has not been very forlhcoming.The survival of a place Fig.21.4: Anestias.Fragments of ore-washinginstallations (?) 'name"Madem Tsiflik" near Amygdaleonas and the mining galleriesnearby suggest some activitieson the eastern flankof the Lekanirange during the Ottomanperiod, but no otherinformation is available.On the otherhand, it is ed Krenides(subsequently Philippoi) and eventhen, their well establishedthat therewere significantmetal-working stay in the area was rather short-lived(360-356 BC). activitieson Pangaionin the Ottoman period. This is Thus, since Skapte Hyle was certainlyThasian territory documentedboth from the accountsof the 16th century duringthe 5th century,it could not have beensituated on Frenchtraveller, Belon, and also from Ottomanfirmans Pangaion(a Thracianterritory) at that,or any later,time. In whichtalk of extensivesilver production in Eleftheroupolis brief,it is arguedthat the classicalsources are quiteclear (Pravi)33.In addition,there is archaeologicalevidence of a thatSkapte Hyle was notto be foundon or nearPangaion. furnaceat Livadia,Nikisiani which has also beendated to What,then, is the archaeologicaland historicalevidence the 16thcentury3a. In view of the activitieson Pangaion, which argues in favour of PalaiaKavala? The Thasianco- the ooerationof silvermines near Serres and the attempt lonial state (Peraia) stretching between the Rivers Stry- to revivethe silvermines on Thasos3s,similar endeavours monand Nestoswas a seriesof walledsettlements found- shouldbe expectedin PalaiaKavala particularly since the with the purposeof exploitingthe naturalresources of ed presenceof largeslag heapswould have betrayed earlier the mainland.While most of these settlementswere metal-workingactivities. economically and politically dependent on Thasos, Neapolis(modern Kavala) gained its independenceand mintedits own coinage2T.lt can thus be assumedthat part of the metalliferousPeraia would have been ceded to Neapolisto providethe metal resourcesfor its mint.The Fig.21.5: Petropigi.Entrance to the mininggallery Thasianmetalliferous territory should therefore have been restrictedto the area east of Neapolis,and it is there that the minesof SkapteHyle should be sought28. The presentinvestigators'field surveying in the regionhas revealedmany galleries and slag heapsa few km northof the coastalThasian settlements on the mainland.For ex- ample,the mining galleriesof Lefki and Anestias(Fig. 21.2) andthe remainsof metal-working(slags and possi- ble fragmentsof ore washinginstallations) to the west of Anestias(Fig.21 .4) couldhave beenthe ergastiriaottwo Thasiansettlements, one of which has been identifiedas the ancientAkontisma2e (Fig. 21.2). In addition,the mining galleriesand shaftsof Perniand Petropigi(Fig. 21.5) could be associatedwith a walledsettlement, thought to be an- cientPistyros (Fi1.21.2). The greatslag heapsof Makry- choricould also be associatedwith yet a thirdThasian set- tlement,near modernPontolivado. At the south-eastend of the lr4akrychorislag heap, fragments of Thasian am- phoras,black painted pottery and Megarianskyphoi were

182 PreciousMetals Extraction in N. E. Greece

that instrumentin polishedsections. Speiss prills were of- ten lound trappedwithin the slag and analysedby the same method.Apart from slag,samples of ore were also collected(Petropigi, Fig. 21.2).This ore was rich in iron and containedan appreciableamount of As but littleMn. Twentykg weresmelted in an experimentalbloomery fur- nace. The resultingarsenic-rich bloom and associated slag were also analysedwith the ElectronMicroprobe for purposesof comparisonwith the archaeologicalmate- nal"".

MetallurgicalWaste: Slag and Speiss from PalaiaKavala were, on average,large in size Fig.21.6: Fragments ofThasian amphoras and pithos jars Slags (10cm diameter)and compact(no pores).Analyses re- vealedthat the maincharacteristic is the presenceof man- ganese (Table21 .1). Slags from Kechrokampos,Mak- The present review of the archaeological/documentary rychori,Tria Karagatsia,Pyrgiskos and Eleftheroupolis evidencehas inevitablybeen biasedtowards antiquity be- (Eastslopes of Pangaion)consist of three phases:a) a causeof the preponderanceof presentlyavailable histori- manganese-richwustite, b) a calcium-richolivine (kirsch- cal evidencerelevant to that period,as well as the long- steinite)reported here as "fayalite" and c) a matrix con- term aim of this project, namely to locate Skapte Hyle. sistingof eithera potassium,aluminium silicate of melilitic Nevertheless,it is likelythat with further researchinto compositionor, lessoften, a eutecticof meliliteand kirsch- Ottomanrecords additional evidence for contemporaryex- steinite.Polished sections of analysedslag samplesare ploitationwill be revealed. shown in Fig. 21.8,The olivineconstitutes the predomi- nant phase,the matrixmaking up the interstitialmaterial. Methodology Manganesepartitions in all three phases, zinc in the Analysesof samples taken from slag heaps have been olivineand the matrixand leadonly in the matrix.Lead and carriedusing the ElectronProbe Microanalyser (EPMA), a zinc are presentin smallamounts in only some samples CambridgeScientific Instruments Mark V, attachedto a (Table21 .1). An ironaluminium oxide phase has beende- Link860 X-raymicroanalyser. The principalmineralogical tectedin one sampleand is reportedas a spinel.Arsenic phasesof samplesof slagand speisswere analysedwith occursin the slag phaseol only one sample(Makr 13), a factwhich is not surprisingsince As normallypartitions in the metallicphase. Fi1.21.7:Sherds dating to the 4th*2nd centuryBC Speissis foundin slag heapsfrom all the sitesmentioned aboveeither in the formof plates(Fig. 21 .3) or as prillsin the slag (Fi1.21.8c).Table 21.2 givesthe compositionof ffi two phasesfor a number of speiss samples.The low ffiffi arsenicphases correspond to about8-10% As, the high- er onesto about60% As. lt is clearfrom Table21 .2 lhat PalaiaKavala speiss does not consistonly of iron and arsenicbut containsa numberof other elementswhich eitherform solid solutions with one or the otherof the main elements(like Sb in As) or are presentas matteinclusions (ironarsenic sulphides with smaliamounts of copperand antimony).These two distinctphases are evidentin metal- ffirn lographicsections of speiss(Fig.21 ,1)and can be inter- pretedin terms of the As-Fe binaryphase diagram (Fig. 21.9). The two phasesinclude a) longlaths and, occasion- ally,large dendritic globules, consisting of alpha-ironwith about10% As, and b) a eutecticof alpha-ironand Fe2As (composition35% As and 65YoFe) as the interstitial material. E.Photos et al.

{ k*v & W,

4; # & w @ #k '%, @ v ,s,'.

1;t: .. ry,, :': .';;'ti;, |r

al,' .., @

Fig.21.8: Polishedsections of mineralogicalphases In slagfrom Palaia Kavala: a : DYP1. Glassysilicate slag of kirschsteiniticcom- position(a) from Dipotamos,very differentfrom slagsfrom othersites. 50x; b : MAKRO7sp. Slag associated with lumpof speiss.Fine inter-growthof dendrites([a], light grey), calcium-rich olivine ([b], medium grey), glassy matrix ([c], dark grey) and blackpores. 200x; c : KEHRO2sp. Speiss prill in slag.1 00 x ; d : PYRG3. Calcium-richfayalite ([a], angular grains) with fine crystals of the same,(b), dispersedin the silicatematrix (c); very fine wustite ([d], bright, sparkling constituent), black holes. 400x

Fig.21.9: As-Febinary phase diagram

wt.'L As lo 20 JO 1O 50 60 The presenceof the two phases,namely As and a eutectic of alpha-ironand Fe2As,together with the higherpercen- tage of the former phasewith respectto the lattersuggest thatthe As contentin the meltmust have been hypoeutec- tic, i.e. between1OY" and 24% As (Fig. 21.9).Thus, speissmust have cooledfrom a relativelylow temperature in the PalaiaKavala furnace, c. 900'C. Goldand silver contents in the slagand speiss were below thedetection limit of the ElectronMicroprobe, so theywere analysedby AtomicAbsorption Spectrometry. Table 21.3 showsthat gold and silver partition in bothspeiss and slag, gold beingpresent in substantiallysmaller amounts than silver.The same relativeconcentrations were observedin the analysesof the ore samples.The preciousmetals must have been associatedwith the lead includedin the slagand speiss.The presenceof preciousmetals in both slagand speissand the absenceof evidencefor any sub- stantialamounts of base metalsin the slag suggeststhat precious metals extraction must have been the main As- Fe metallurgicalactivity in the region.

't84 PreciousMetals Extraction in N. E. Greece

Sampleno Phase NatO Mgo AbO' sio2 Ptou s03 K"O CaO Tio2 MnO FeO ZnO sb2os Pbo AsrO3 Kara-31 wustite 0.87 0.58 1.12 0.39 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.17 0.43 10.0585.97 0.00 0.00 matrix 0.61 0.85 0.77 10.26 0.49 0.00 0.12 0.34 11.3568.65 0.66 0.00 malrix 0.00 0.66 tnq 29.65 0.00 0.00 0.6521.97 0.31 14.35 14.35 0.00 1.94 Kara-3ll wustite 0.63 0.00 0.57 0.00 0.14 0.00 0.40 0.00 7.26 85.70 0.00 0.00 matrix 0.60 0.98 0.96 30.87 1.58 0.00 0.5622.35 0.17 13.14 28.44 0.00 0.00 EL-IV wustite 0.00 0.56 0.52 0.57 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.24 2.97 94.63 0.00 0.00 matrix 0.00 0.70 5.46 34.57 1.14 1.07 2.44 0.32 4.51 31.25 0.00 0.00 matnx 0.00 0.50 b. l/ 35.52 t.uc 1.45 2.8518.40 0.31 4.22 30.43 0.00 0.00 EL.1 "fayalite" 0.00 0.51 0.0031.92 0.69 0.00 0.1719.53 0.28 4.46 45.48 0.00 0.00 malnx 0.49 0.00 19.0447.41 0.34 0.23 17.28 1.00 0.31 0.34 14.65 0.00 0.00 wustite 0.75 0.00 0.39 0.50 0.00 0.00 0.15 0.20 0.68 1.14 93.74 0.00 0.00 '1 Kehro-3 spinel 0.00 0.Bl 20.15 noa 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.43 2.89 1.09 70.80 .11 0.00 matrix 0.00 1.59 17.1926.01 0.00 0.00 0.11 I J.ZJ 2.61 0.96 39.15 o.42 0.00 Kehro-6 "fayalite" 0.00 1.51 0.7932.21 1.O7 0.00 0.6326.99 0.30 4.96 32.73 0.00 0.00 Kehro-4 ,,fayalite" 0.00 1.33 0.0029.09 0.49 0.00 0.11 18.03 0.24 6.01 35.17 0.58 0.00 matrix 0.00 1.01 10.5832.39 0.84 0.19 0.49 15.58 0.79 28.41 0.00 0.00 u.d matrix 0.00 t.o/ 14.O427.99 0.50 0.00 0.00 14.32 1.BB 2.17 30.40 0.00 0.00 ll Dyp t matrix 11.5847.76 0.60 2.90 9.38 0.72 12.83 14.70 Makr13 matrix 12.2837.63 | .oJ 2.9218.86 0.59 7.90 10.23 t.Y

Table21 .1

f able 21.2

Sample no. Phase Fe As sb arU s Mn Ti Pb Ag

Kara-31 speiss 60.92 32.39 t -uz 2.08 1.69 0.25 0.00 0.00 49.42 43.07 '1.83 0.67 2.89 0.32 0.00 0.00 Kara-3ll speiss 56.1B 35.37 1.01 3.17 1.45 0.00 0.00 0.00 47.79 43.04 1.89 1.64 t.zo 0.00 0.00 0.00 EL-il1 speiss 59.77 36.32 1.27 0.48 0.17 0.00 0.17 0.00 EL-II sperss 91.73 6.58 1.11 0.49 0.00 0.00 0.31 0.00 s9.28 21.75 16.54 t.J/ 0.85 0.00 0.11 0.00 85.13 9.75 5.14 0.46 0.00 0.00 0.23 0.00 EL-I speiss 53.72 33.11 3.92 2.01 3.99 0.18 0.14 1.23 Kehro-1sp speiss 51.89 33.69 2.92 3.24 0.00 0.00 u. to 0.00 79.23 9.38 0.40 0.83 0.00 0.00 0.31 0.00 Kehro-2sp sperss 58.23 37.26 t.tJ 2.71 0.21 0.00 0.23 0.00 86.1I 11.08 0.31 0.74 0.00 0.00 0.37 0.00 Kehro-4sp speiss 55.66 35.05 0.00 0.00 0.83 0.00 0.1I 0.41 Dyp-3sp speiss 55.27 32.81 8.05 z. to 1.38 0.00 0.25 0.00 86.57 10.14 1.09 0.51 0.00 0.00 0.29 0.00 77.03 10.37 7.03 0.74 0.1B 0.00 0.00 0.00 43.63 23.68 18.63 1.82 3.94 0.00 0.21 0.00 Dyp-5sp sperss 87.61 10.19 | .J+ 0.40 0.00 0.00 0.39 0.00 55.72 31.33 9.49 1.89 2.07 0.00 0.00 0.00 51.41 23.01 14.09 1.81 4.04 0.00 0.18 0.60 Dyp.H. Me speiss 85.85 acq t.oz 0.50 0.13 0.00 0.10 0.00 57.14 35.15 4.42 1.83 0.19 0.00 0.22 0.00 Dyp-4sp speiss 89.36 9.38 0.64 0.00 0.00 0.32 0.00 40.09 10.99 46.26 z.zo 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 56.54 J+.J+ 6.82 1.86 0.15 0.00 0.28 0.00 Makro.gsp sperss 55.32 38.08 5.86 0.97 0.47 0.00 0.30 0.00 Makro.7sp sperss 86.39 10.23 | .JO o.27 0.17 0.00 0.28 0.00 35.19 3.78 0.19 0.18 0.00 0.30 0.00 ot.oz 10.49 2.43 0.69 24.96 0.00 0.19 0.00 matte oz.+J 0.00 0.00 0.58 36.01 0.00 0.22 0.00 Makro.8sp speiss 56.13 34.36 o. | / 3,17 0.30 0.00 0.22 0.00 matte 57.3'1 3.13 7.65 1.85 26.33 0.00 0.25 0.00 sperss 63.29 16.44 7.69 2.63 2.04 0.00 0.29 1.74 Makro.6sp speiss 87.14 10.47 0.95 neo 0.00 0.00 0.29 0.00 sperss 57.53 35.69 4.51 1.42 0.21 0.00 0.20 0.00 "speiss" 50.11 tt.co 5.14 0.79 16.05 0.00 0.16 0.00 0.72 Drrr 1lr a sperss 54.67 38.11 1.09 5.78 0.14 0.00 0.13 0.00

185 E. Photoset al

: ([b], Fio.21 .10: polished sections of mineralogicalphases in PalaiaKavala speiss: a DYPME.Low As ([a], white-grey.laths)' high.As interstiti.arr"t"r'ai. 200x; b : keHno 1sp.Low As ([a],while-grey laths and grey round globules)' high As ([b],grey intersti- i;i;;tJi;ii.'tgd"r"""lnrr"-k : MAkCVzsp. Low As ([a],white-grey^areas), high As ([bJ.fineinterstitial material and some larger areas), Matte : to KEHRO1sp. Large black areas and pores. 100x ijLi.. ii"fliighigrey-J; areas), corrosion (d). 2ooi;d KEHFiO3sp. Similar

There were scarcelyany artefactsto be found associated Table21.4: Kavala.The only evidence with the slag heapsat Palaia Slte Fe As sb Cu s a gun stoneof basaltlava lound was a cannonshot and Dendrites 88.03 10.07 0.55 n el 0.12 nextto each other nearthe Lekanislag heap (Fig.21 '1 )' Interstitial 58.35 37.25 1.33 1.69 0.31 Matteincl. 70.77 15.67 2.25 0.83 4.63 Theyboth had a diameterof 7.58cm, andthe cannonshot weighedabout 2 kg. ElectronMicroprobe analysis (Table 21.4\ of the latterrevealed two phasessimilar to thoseob- servedin the speiss.The characteristicdendrites suggest, been expected,that the cannon shot was as might have Fig.21.11 : Cannonshot (left)from Lekaniand gun stone(right) cast. of same diameter

Table21 .3:

Site Au (ppm) Dipotamos(sp) 0.0 Kechrokampos(sp) 32.0 Kechrokampos(sp) 2.9 Eleftheroupolis(sp) 9,9 Makrychori(sl) 0.4 Kechrokampos(sl) 12.1 sP : speiss;sl : slag

186 PreciousMetals Extraction in N. E. Greece

Suggested Mechanism of Precious Metals Extraction in PalaiaKavala Analysesof the PalaiaKavala ores have indicatedthat apartfrom Mn and Fe,the orescontained As, Pb,Ag, Au and Zn, the relative concentrationsvarying accordingto the directionol mineralisation.The Au contentwas in gen- eral very low. AlthoughMn variedconsiderably, As was consistentlypresent as a minorelement. Mn and oftenPb wereto be foundin the slag,while As occurredconsistent- Sb (Tables21.1 and 2). The ly in the speiss,as did Cu and Speiss(with some Ag/Au) presenceof Au and Ag in both slag and speissindicated thatthe oresdid containprecious metals, thereby demon- stratingthat the archaeometallurgicalevidence supports the archaeologicalproposition argued above that Skapte Hyleshould indeed be locatedwithin Palaia Kavala. Whatwas the extractiveprocess by which preciousmetals were recoveredfrom the PalaiaKavala ores? A key to the process presenceof Pb in some involvedmay lie in the remelt and cast slagsamples. In view of the smallquantity of Ag and the as cannonshot evensmaller amount of Au in slagand speiss (Table 21 .3), it is possiblethat Pb was addedduring smelting to actas a preciousmetals collector. A suggestedmechanism for the processis the following:Mn-rich iron ore with varying fas/Arl amountsot Pb,Zn, As, Au and Ag was chargedin the fur- nacewith PbO/PbS.The productwas Pb with Au and Ag Fig.21.12: Flowchartof orecious metals exlraction in Palaia Kavala collectingin the bottomol the furnace,speiss floating on topol the Pb layerand slagfloating on top of both(relative specilicgravities in gm/cm3:Pb (11),speis (5-8), slag(4). Au and Ag wouldalso collectin speiss,but the affinityof the preciousmetals for Pb is greaterthan for speiss.In ad- an iron rod and threw it away before it solidifiedon the probably dition,some of the Au-richor Ag-richlead wouldfind its metal.This dross was most speiss since the way intothe slag.No mattelayer would be produceddue author differentiatesit from silver slag which he calls to the absenceof sulphurin the ore. "scoria"37. pyrite Speissand slag wouldsubsequently be tappedout of the In brief,it is suggestedby Belonthat co-smeltingof place furnace,slag being discardedwhile speiss was either and roastedgalena was taking in one furnaceand thrownaway or collectedfor reuse. Pb containingAu and that slag and speisswere tappedout of the furnacefirst precious Ag musthave subsequently been cupelled in a cupellation andthen the metals-richPb layer38. hearth,the resultinglitharge being collected and probably Agricola3edescribes a similarprocess for the smeltingof chargedback in the smeltingfurnace. A flowchartof the Au/Ag-containingpyrite, but employingtwo furnaces.In suggestedmechanism is presentedin Fig.21.12. thefirst, the roastedpyrite was smeltedresulting in speiss, Documentarycorroboration of the extractionscheme gi- matteand slag.In the second,Pb was addedand mixed ven in Fig.21.12 comes from a passageof Belon(1553) withthe speiss;the productwas not slag but only Pb, rich describinghis observationsof the metallurgicalactivities in gold and silver and some speiss forming from the at Siderokapsia(Olympias) in Chalkidiki(Fig. 21.1) at the arsenicwhich did notevaporate as oxide.The slagtapped beginningof the 16th century. In the furnaces("four- from the first furnacein Agricola'sscheme would have neaux"), roasted pyrite and charcoal were charged in a containedno Pb aoartfrom the smallamounts included in layeredform together with galena. Belon does not explain the ore.Since some of the PalaiaKavala slag contains Pb, the reasonsfor the additionof galenaand seemsto as- it is morelikely that the leadwas mixedwith the ironoxides sumethat this was a well-knownpractice. Galena seems in one furnaceas opposedto the two describedby Agrico- to have been roasted before being added to the furnace. la and that the Palaia Kavala extractiveoractices resem- The productscoming out of this furnacewere gold,silver bledmore closely those given by Belon. and lead as well as "dross".Belon mentionsthat dross Evidencefor the remeltingof speiss for cannon shot was uselessand thatthe workerslifted it littlebv littlewith comesfrom the specimen found at Lekani(Fig. 21 .1 1). lt is

187 E. Photoset al.

documentedthat a foundryfor cannonballs and iron for the archaeometallurgicalremains are related solely to constructionmaterial was establishedin 1698 at Elef- silver extraction.lt is proposedthat PbO/PbSwas co- theroupolis(Pravi), the goodsbeing shipped to the naval smeltedwith ironore in one furnace,Pb actingas a pre- baseat Constantinopleao.There is no suggestionwhat the ciousmetals collector. Hellenistic-Roman sherds collected Pravicannon balls were made of, namelyspeiss or cast fromthe slag heap at Makrychorisuggest that this process iron but if it were soeissthen the raw materialwas most may have been known as early as the 4th-2nd century probablycoming from Pangaion rather than PalaiaKavala. BC.Scientific dating of the slag heapsis pending. The analyticalinvestigation of the archaeometallurgical data and the flowchart of the extractive practices pre- sentedhere raise two importantquestions:

a) The extractivemetallurgical practices by which Pb was NOTES usedas a preciousmetals collector were common practice 1 HerodotusVl, 46. in the 16th centuryAD. However,at Makrychorithe evi- 2 StephanusByzantius 573, 19. denceof sherdtypology suggests that metal-workingac- 3 Lazaridis1971. 4 Gialoglou/Drymonitis1983. tivitiesmay dateas earlyas the 4th-2nd centuryBC. ls it 5 Maratos/Andronopoulos1966; Anastopoulos/Koukouzas/Hat- possiblethat the sameextractive processes were used as ziyannis1976; GialoglouiDrymonitis 1983. 6 SpathiiKouvelosiPerdikatsis1982, 107. earlyas the Hellenisticperiod in Macedonia?lf that is in- 7 tbid. deed the case,Mn-rich iron oxides must then have been B Spathi/KouvelosiPerdikatsis1982, Table 25. IGMEis current- ly expandingits chemicaldata bankby samplingextensively smelted in a furnace similar to those of the Ottoman variousdeposits in the regionwith a view to establishingthe period.The extentto whichsuch technology was available potentialfor possiblefuture exploitation of these ores for their preciousmetals values (A. Papavassiliouand V. Perdikatsis, in antiquitymust remain for the presenta matterof debate. oers.comm.). 9 Ancient galleries have been surveyed and mapped by b) lt has been argued above that on the basis of ar- Krikelas(1979) and Favas(unpublished). Others have been chaeologicalevidence, it can now be safelyassumed that investigatedby the Greek SpelaeologicalSociety particularly in Kryonerion(Hatzilazaridis 1981 , 347).A projectis currently Skapte Hyle lay within Palaia Kavala.Furthermore, the beingformulated to dateand surveythe minesin detail. classicalsources refer to SkapteHyle as both argentifer- 10 Speissis iron,copper or nickelarsenides or antimonidespro- ducedin thesmelting either of complexores or of a copperore ous and auriferous,and oral tradition has keptthe memory containingsubstantial amounts of ironand arsenic.Speiss is of gold more alive.However, at this preliminarystage of hard, grey, brittle and magnetic. The fractured surface is brightand crystallineand resemblescast iron. Speiss can be the archaeometallurgicalinvestigation it is apparentthat argentiferousor auriferousor even containmembers of the the regionwas primarilya Ag-producingarea since the Au platinumfamily. Platinum and gold have higheraffinities for speissas opposedto matte (a copper-ironsulfide), while contentof the analysedore, speiss and slagappears to be silverhas the same affinityfor both (Rosenquist1983, 343). very low. Where,then, is the gold of PalaiaKavala? lt is Thesethree metalshave a higheraffinity for leadcompared to speissand matte.Concentrations of preciousmetals in speiss possiblethat eitherthe gold-bearingveins of SkapteHyle have been reportedat levelsin excessof 1000gm/ton (Lupu/ were situatedalong the north-easternzone of mineralisa- Dragan1961,196). 11 The earliestevidence for speissoccurs in MyceneanGreece tion of PalaiaKavala or gold-bearingpyrites were pref- at Tiryns(13th century BC), as a samplekindly provided to us erentiallyselected from the manganese-ironoxide miner- by the excavatorhas testified (Kilian 1983, 306). The analysis (Photos 1987, 311) showed two phases: a high arsenic alisationthrough some type of enrichmentprocessal not (64.90%Fe, 31.05% As, 2.29'k S, 1.03%Cu) and a low yet evident. arsenicone (86.14%Fe, 12.39%As, 0.18% S, 0.34% Cu) suggestingthat it was producedfrom the localsmelting of The long-termaim of this projectwill haveto answerboth complexcopper ores. '12 precious questions. presented Papastamataki19BOa. The nature of metalsde- these The results here constitute positson Pangaionhas been a matterof controversyprimarily only the preliminarystages of the project,The bulkof the dueto the lack,until recently, of geologicaland archaeological data. However,ancient galleries as well as smeltingsites work,namely the excavationand datingof a selectedslag have recentlybeen discoveredon Pangaion,in the courseof heao.lies ahead. a collaborativeprogramme of research between the Ar- chaeologicalService (East Macedonia Division) and IGME.A number of slag heaps have been surveyedand sampledby Conclusions Papastamatakiand her co-workers(1975, 1986a, 1986b). She has publishedimportant chemical analyses for oresand In thisrepoft it has beenargued that the locationof Skapte slags but unfortunatelydid not make an attemptto elucidate Hyle should be sought archaeologicallywithin Palaia the metallurgicalprocesses involved. Some analyses of Pan- gaionslags and speisshave been carried out in thecourse of Kavala,the regionextending East of Kavalato the River thiswork (Photos 1987) Nestosand in the Northinto the Lekanimountains. The 13 Pernicka/Gentner,ryVagner/Vavelidis/Gale 1980: Wagner/Per- nicka/Vavelidis/Baranyi/Bassiakos1987: Photos/Koukouli- sameregion is archaeometallurgicallyvery rich with exten- Chrysanthaki/Gialoglou1987; Photos 1987. sive ironore depositscontaining Mn, As, Pb, Cu, Ag, and 14 Gale/GentnerMagner1980. 15 RenfreMcimbutas/Elster1987. someAu, and abundantevidence for as yet undatedmin- 16 Theocharis/Romioooulou1961 . ing and smeltingactivity. Analytical investigation of ore, 17 Theocharis1973, Fig.120. 1B Seferiadis1983, 647. slag and occasionalartefacts (cannon shot) revealed that 1I Photos/Koukouli-Chrysanthakiforthcoming.

188 PreciousMetals Extraction in N. E. Greece

.1987. 20 Photos and the knownconditions of operationof our furnacewhich 21 Varioussections of Macedoniacame under Ottoman occupa- elucidatedthe mechanismof preciousmetals extraction in tionabout two decadesearlier than the fallof Constantinople PalaiaKavala. in 1453.However, this date is usedas a generalstarting point 37 There is a similarpassage rn Agricola(Translators Hoover lor the occupationof Byzantiumand the Greek lands in and Hoover1950, 408) about white silvery "dross" being pick- Europeand Asia minoralike. On the otherhand, 1912 is the ed from the metalwith an iron rod after the slag layerwas re- dateof the liberationof Thessalonikiby the Greekarmy, which movedand beforethe silverdisappeared in it. Althoughno togetherwith the treatyof Bucarest(1913) signify the end of particularname was givento this crust,Agricola was most the Balkanwars and the annexation of Macedoniawith its pre- probablyreferring to speiss. sentborders to the Greekstate. lt shouldbe addedhere that 38 Belonmentions a numberof otherminerals apart from pyrite Macedoniais a geographicalrather than a politicalunit being presentat Siderokapsia.All these names are not spreadingover Greece,Bulgaria and Yugoslavia.lt was the mineralogicallyaccurate and couldonly serve as a broadde- Treatyof Bucarest(1 0 August 191 3) whichceded 10 % of the scriptionof the ores available.Nevertheless, pyrite was the regionto Bulgaria,51 % to Greeceand 39% to Yugoslavia mainore used, first roasted in a pitto removethe sulfur. Belon (Sakellariou1982. 482). usestwo words"chemindes" and "fourneaux".The first could 22 HerodotusV,23 and Vll, 112;Aeschylus, frg 12; Euripedes, be translatedas hearthsor chimneysaccording to the narra- Ressus921 and 970; Aristolle,Athenaeus 15 and 11' 42b: tive.While pits for roastingof pyritewere built in the openair, Strabo,Geography XlV, 5, 28 and Vll, 31, frg 34; Plinius'His- furnaces/hearthswere constructedindoors in the middleof toria NaturalisVll, 56 and '1987;Clemes of Alexandria, the workshop,and of thick masonry,particularly their back Stromat.l. XVl,75, B. wall.Furnaces and hearthswere situatedalong streams and 23 HerodotusVl, 46;Thucidides l, 100,2 and l, 101,3; Plutarch' were operatedby water power.They had an arch in the front. KimonXIV; Diodorus Siculus Xl, 70, 1; LucretiusVl, 808,810. "Spodos",the precipitateof probablyarsenious oxide, con- 24 Pedrizet1910; Casson 1926, 77 , Collart1934, 40; Lazaridis densedon the outsideof the archof the {urnace,while "pom- 1971, 40 Samsaris1978, 37, Tsekourakis1981 , 76; Unger/ pholix",probably zinc carbonate, also produced in the smelt- Schutz1982, 163. ingwas usuallycollected. 25 Meiggs1943,21; Hereward 1965; Hammond 1979; Koukouli- 39 Agricola(Translators Hoover and Hoover,1950, 556). Chrysanthaki1980. 40 Anhegger1943,206. 26 Koukouli-Chrysanthaki1980. The authorhas reevaluatedher 41 Parentheticallyand in relerenceto pyrites,it shouldbe men- argumentsin a more recentpublication, Koukouli-Chrysan- tionedthat there is the interestingreference in Lucretius(Vl, thaki(in press). 808-810) to "smelly"Skapte Hyle. Upon hammering, pyrites 27 Bakalakis1936; According tc archaeologicaland literaryevi- can give off a smell of sulfur as can, to a larger extent, dence,Neapolis, Oesyme and possiblyGalepsos were found- arsenopyrite,although this alone may not be sufficientto have ed by the 3rd quarterof the 7th centuryBC. Othercolonies giventhe mineits appelatton. A morecritical factor may have such as Antisara,Apollonia and possiblyPhagres and the beenthe spontaneouscombustion that pyritescan undergo small coloniesto the east of Neapolisseem to have been when brokenup. Withtime, evolution of H2Soccurs followed foundedlater at the end of the 6th centuryBC. See Fig.21 '2 by subsequentsintering of the pieces. for the spreadof theThasian colonies on the mainland 28 The regionwest of Neapolis/Kavalaencompassing the Sym- volonrange (Fig. 21 .1 ) hasnot yet providedany indicationsof goldand silverand so can be excludedas a preciousmetals producingarea. Manganese-irondeposits have been iden- tifiedin the Symvolonnear the villageof Pholia(Maratos and Andronopoulos1966, 61) and slag and metal-workingre- mainsat the siteof ancientApollonia (Fig. 21 .2). Analyses of slag from the latter site showed it to be that of bloomery smelting. 29 Koukouli-Chrysanthaki1980. The remainsof an "ancient" towerat Lefkibrings to mindsimilar towers located on Thasos BIBLIOGRAPHY nearmetal-working and marblequarrying sites (see Fig' 21 .2 for thedistribution of thesetowers on the mainland). ANASTOPOULOS,M. C,/KOUKOUZAS, C./HATZIYIANNIS, C.: 30 lt is notclear how far to the norththe frontiersof the Thasian 1976 The ironore depositsof Greece,in: lronOre Depositsof Peraiaextended. An inscriptiondating to the Romanperiod Europel, Hannover1976,187-191. foundnear the villageof Petropigidefines these frontiers be- tweenthe Thasian Peraia and the Thracians. lt is possiblethat AGRICOLA,G.: in the Classicalperiod, the bordercould have extended up to De Re Metallica.Translated by H.C. Hooverand L.H. Pyrgiskos.By the sametoken it cannotbe excludedthat many Hoover,Dover, NY. 1950. of the metallurgicalsites inland could have been exploited by theThracians instead. ANHEGGER,R.: 31 The characterisationof some sherdsin the Makryhorislag 1943 Geschichtedes Bergbausim OsmanischenReich l, ls- heapsas possiblyRoman may corroborate the Romanliterary tanbul1943. sources (LucretiusVl, B0B-810, and Festus, 442-443) whichpoint to SkapteHyle as a silverproducing area in the BAKALAKIS,G.: Classicalperiod. 1936 Neapolis-Christoupolis-Kavala,in: Archaeologiki Ephe- 32 Vryonis1962. meris1936, 1 -48. 33 Belon1553; Murphey 1980. 34 Papastamataki1986b. BELON.P.: 35 Anhegger1943,178 and 335. 1553 Les observationsde plusieurssingularit6s et choses 36 Theexoerimental smelts were carried out in fieldconditions at m6morablestrouv6es en Grdce, Asie, Inde, Egypte, AshdownForest, Sussex, with the generousassistance of Mr Arabieet autrespays etrangdres,Paris 1553. R. Adams(Photos 1987). The purposeof the experimentwas to establishwhether slag picked up near Petropigimine was CASSON,S.: indeedproduced from the smeltingof Petropigiore. This was 1926 Macedonia,Thrace and lllyria,Oxford 1926. confirmed,the only difference being the end products. Our fur- nacewas builtand operated to makebloomery iron, which in- COLLART,P.: deedit produced,while the Petropigifurnace must have been 1937 Philippes,Paris 1937. madeto producelead which would subsequently be cupelled for its silvervalues. The operatingconditions for our furnace GALE,N. H./GENTNER, W./WAGNER, G. A.: weremore reducing, while these of the Petropigifurnace were 1980 Mineralogicaland geographicalsilver sources of Archaic moreoxidising. Nevertheless, it was the arsenic-rich bloom (c. Greek coinage,in: D. M. Metcalf (ed.), Metallurgyin 10% As)produced by the solidstate diffusion of As in the iron Numismatics,Oxford 1980, 3 54.

189 E.Photos et al.

GIALOGLOU,G./DRYMONITIS, D. : PEDRIZET,P.: 1983 NorthernGreece: mining activities, mineral exploration 191 0 Scaptesyle,in: Klio10, 1 91 0, 1-25. and futuredevelopments, in: Transactionsof the lnstitute of Miningand Metallurgy,Section A, MiningIndustry' 92' PERNICKA,E./GENTNER, W.ANAGNER, G. A./VAVELIDIS, M./ 1983,180-185. GALE,N. H.: '1981 Ancientlead and silver production on Thasos,Greece, in: GILCHRIST,J. D.: Revued'Arch6ometrie, Suppl. lll, 1981,217 -227. 1980 ExtractionMetallurgy, Oxford 1980. PHOTOS,E.: HAMMOND.N./GRIFFITH, G. T.: 1987 Earlyextractive iron metallurgyin NorthernGreece: a un- 1979 Historyof Macedoniall, Cambridge1979. ified approach to regional archaeometallurgy,unpub- lishedPh. D. Thesis,University of London,London. HATZILAZARIDES,K.: 1981 Rock carvings at Kryoneri, Kavala, in: Deltion of the PHOTOS,E,/KOUKOULI.CHRYSANTHAKI, Ch.: Greek SpelaeologicalSociety 18, 1981' 346-366 (ln i. pr. Analyticalinvestigation of some metallurgicalmaterial Greek). fromDikili Tash.

HEREWARD,D.: PHOTOS, E./KOUKOULI-CHRYSANTHAKI,Ch./GIALOGLOU, 1965 Where is Skaptesule?,in: Palaeologiae12' 1965' G.: 50-54. 1987 lronmetallurgy in E. Macedonia:a preliminaryreport, in: B. S. ScotVH.Cleere (eds): The craftsof the blacksmith' KILIAN,K.: Belfast1987, 113-120. 1983 Ausgrabungenin Tiryns,in: ArchAologischerAnzeiger 98, 1983,277-328. RENFREW,C./GIMBUTAS, M./ELSTER, E.: 1987 Excavationsat Sitagroil, Los Angeles1987. KOUKOULI.CHRYSANTHAKI,Ch. : 1973 Notesfrom the ThasianYpeiro, in: Archaiologika Analek- ROSENQUIST,T.: ta ex Athenon6, 1973,230-240 (ln Greekwith English 1983 PrinciplesoJ extractive metallurgy, New York 1983. Summary). SAKELLARIOU,M. V. (ed.). of Thasosin the NorthAegean, in: Kavala 1980 The colonies 1982 Macedonia:4000 years of Greek historyand civilisation, ldryma MeletonTou Haimou,1980, and its Environs, Athens1982. 309-325 (ln Greek). the ThasianPeraia, in: Polisand Horain i. 'or. The minesof SAMSARIS,D.: Ancient Macedonia and Thrace, Festschrift to D. 1976 Historicalgeography ot East Macedoniaduring antiquity, Lazarides,Thessaloniki. Thessaloniki1976.

KRIKELAS,O.: SEFERIADES,M.: 1979 Contributionto the study of the auriferousregions around 1983 DikiliTash: introduction a la pr6histoirede la Macedoine PangaionMountain, 1972-5, IGME, Athens 1979 (ln oriental,in: Bulletinde CorrespondenceHellenique 107, Greek). 1983,635-676.

LAZARIDES,D,: SPATHI,K./KOUVELOS, C./PERDIKATSIS, V.: 1971 Thasosand its Peraia,Athens 1971. 1982 The manganese-ironmineralisation in the area of Palaia Kavala,in: Mineralogicaland PetrologicalResearch 3, LUPU,A./DRAGAN, L.: IGME,Athens 1982 (ln Greekwith English summary). 1961 Contributiicu priverela natirasi possibilitatilede valorifi- carea speisuluide la uzinelede plumbdiu regiuneaMa- THEOCHARIS,D. (ed.): ramures, in: Studii di cercetaride MetallurgieExtras 2' 1973 NeolithicGreece, Athens 1973. AnnulVl. (ln Romanian). D./ROMIOPOULOU,K.: MARATOS,G./ANDRONOPOULOS, B.: THEOCHARIS, Excavationsat DikiliTash, in: Praktikatis Archaeologikis 1966 The mineralwealth of Greece,IGME, Athens 1966 1961 Etairias1 961 , 81-89. MEIGGS,R.: 1943 The growthof the Athenianimperialism, in: Journalof TSEKOURAKIS,D.: HellenicSociety 63, 1943,21-34' 1981 The locationof ancient Skapte Hyle, MakedonikaKA 1981,74-91(ln Greek). MURPHEY,R.: 1980 Silverproduction in Rumeliaaccording to an officialOtto- UNGER,H./SCHUTZ, E.: man report,c. 1600,in: Ost Forschung1980' 75-102. 1982 Pangaeon,ein Gebirgeund sein Bergbau,in: B. HAnsel (ed.):Siidosteuropa zwischen 1600 und 1000 v.Chr., PAPASTAMATAKI,A.: Berlin1 982 (PrdhistorischeArchdologie in Siidosteuropa 1975 The exploitationof mineral wealth of ancient Greece; 1),145-172. study on the gold and silver content of ancient greek IGME,Athens 1975 (ln Greek). metallurgicalslags, VRYONIS,S.: 1986 a A study of ancientslags and lheir contributionto the re- 1962 The questionof the Byzantinemines, in: Speculum37, vealingof ancientmetallurgical technology, in: Geologi- 1962,1 -17 . cal and GeophysicalResearch, Special lssue, IGME' Athens1986, 329-339 (ln Greek). WAGNER,G.A./PERNICKA, E./VAVELIDES, M./BARANYI, I.i 1986b Ancientgreek metallurgicalslags, in: Proceedingsof BASSIAKOS,Y.: Conferenceon AncientGreek Metallurgical Slags, IGME, 1986 ArchaeometallurgischeUntersuchungen auf Chalkidiki, Athens1986, 40-67 (ln Greekwith English summary). in: DerAnschnitt 38, 1986,166-186.

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