Saracens landed on the coast below the Massif des Maures in the year 889.

The

Written by Robert W. Lebling of IllustratedSaracens by Norman MacDonald St. Tropez nder cover of darkness, they beached their small, lateen-rigged sailing vessel on the rocky shore and began the slow, silent climb to the manor house on the hill. storm clouds shrouded the moon, darkening the coastal mediterranean landscape; sporadic rain and gusting winds concealed the sailors’ approach. Uthey were 20 men, armed with daggers and short swords, and clad in the fighting tunics of al-andalus—islamic spain. they climbed carefully, avoiding the bram bles that covered the slopes to their left and right. a few lights still burned in the manor house. the Provençal nobleman and his household had finished the last meal of the day.a fter listening to the songs of a visiting

32 Saudi Aramco World

25482araD6R2.indd 32 8/25/09 12:40 PM trouba dour, the residents of the manor educated, pious man who lacked polit ical are silent, the Europeans left records of the house were preparing to sleep. But it would skills, struggled desper ately to maintain his original incur sion and its aftershocks, and not be long before the evening serenity of realm, but by 912 the amirate had virtual ly from them we can reconstruct the story. that coastal villa would be shattered. disintegrated, and ‘Abd Allah controlled lit- One of the most detailed accounts comes This was the opening act in an 85-year tle beyond the walls of his capital, Córdo ba. from Liudprand of Cremona, a 10th- drama played out along the coast of In that year, he was succeeded by his tal- century Ital ian cleric and diplomat. He in the ninth and 10th centu ries of our era. ented grandson ‘Abd al-Rahman iii, who was de scribed the 20 men who carried out the This little-known but significant Provence operation as “Saracen projection of Arab military power pirates”; they would have viewed into the land of the Franks was the themselves as special forces of second of its kind in less than the caliphate. Their personal three centuries. The first, identities are lost to history. E. launched almost two centuries Lévi-Provençal, perhaps the before, is the one most of us know greatest western historian of about. Conducted from al-Andalus al-Andalus, believed such crews by an army on horseback, it was were often a mix of Arabs, Ber- thwart ed by Eudes of at bers, muwalladun and even in 721 and by Charles Christians. They may have acted Martel at in 732. under specific orders from the The second projection, over- Umayyad government at looked by most of our history Córdoba; it is also possible they books, began as a small-scale mili- operated with greater freedom tary operation along the beautiful and flexibility under the Muslim stretch of coastline now known as equivalent of a letter of marque, the French Riviera. Frankish with official authority to raid chroniclers, in unabashedly one- Franki sh lands. Whatever the sided and hostile accounts, sought case, Liudprand confirms to dismiss the operation as a their role as an instrument of “pirate raid.” It may have appeared Andalusi foreign policy when he so to some at the time. But the pas- Abd al-Rahman III informs us that the base they sage of time and subsequent eventually estab lished in south- events proved these chroniclers ern operated under the wrong. Pirate raids are normally protec tion of ‘Abd al-Rahman iii isolated, sporadic events. The operation on destined to become one of the great est lead- and in fact paid tribute to him. the Provençal coast, as we shall see, revealed ers in the history of Islamic Spain. Over the The Saracens, as Andalusis and other itself eventually to be an integral part of the com ing years, ‘Abd al-Rahman would Arab were known in those days, foreign policy of the in end the rebel lions, establish a caliphate were quite sensibly attracted to the Spain. The “raid” unfolded into something much more ambitious, giving the forces of al-Andalus, for the better part of a cen- tury, effec tive control of the coastal plain linking France and Italy and of the mountain passes into Switzerland— Arab chroniclers wrote little about these events, some of ’s most vital trade and communication routes. which perhaps paled alongside the Arab chroniclers of the period— that is, those whose works have come challenges the Umayyad dynasty then faced down to us—have little to say about on the Iberian Peninsula. Saracens St. Tropez this unique occurrence on the Pro- vençal coast. Perhaps they did not regard it as sufficiently important, compared with the momentous events then taking place to the south- west, in the Iberian Peninsula. in al-Andalus and preside over a “golden Provence region, whose natural beauty and At that time, the Umayyad dynasty of al- age” of prosperity that saw Córdoba become fertility were enhanced by the fact that no Andalus, which had ruled Spain for scarcely the leading intellectual and political center kingdom or empire currently ruled it. The a century, was being challenged from all of Europe. Mediterranean coast from to direc tions. Revolts were under way in scores All this occurred while Andalusi forces, Italy, with its rocky head lands and lush, of Span ish cities, some led by Arabs, some building on a minor beachhead in Provence, wooded coves, studded with palm trees and by North African Berbers, and others by were gradually extending their control into brilliantly colored flowers, must have been un, or Muslims of Spanish stock. neighboring areas of France, northern Italy as alluring to Muslim adventurers of the The Umayyad amir ‘Abd Allah, an and even Switzerland. But if Arab historians ninth century as it is to travelers today.

September/October 2009 33

25482araD6R2.indd 33 8/25/09 12:41 PM Indeed, the 17th-century Arab historian few decades before in response to the Norse the mountain ridge known as the Massif des al-Maqqari related with some amusement raids that also struck the coasts of Maures. Some say the ridge takes its name the folk belief of an earlier age that the al-Andalus. from the invading Arabs, who were also Franks would be barred from Paradise The 20 Saracens set sail from a Spanish known as Moors; others claim it derives because they had already been blessed by port or island, apparently intent on a mili- from a Proven çal cor ruption of the Greek their Creator with a paradise on earth: tary target in the east. Whether the Gulf of word amauros, meaning “dark” or “gloomy”— fertile lands abounding in fig, ches tnut and St. Tropez was their primary target cannot an apt descrip tion of the mountain’s thick pistachio trees, forests of cork amid other oak and chestnut. natural Before sun- bounties. rise, the Andalu- The Sara- sis stormed and cens estab- captured the lished their manor house beachhead on and secured the the coast of sur rounding Provence in area. When about 889, at a dawn finally time of great broke, they could confusion and see, from the misery. Just 30 heights of the years earlier, massif, towering France’s south- Alpine peaks to ern coast had the north, unde- been plun- fended but dered and thickly forested pillaged by slopes below and Norse pirates. the broad blue Entire towns expanse of the had been Mediterranean leveled and to the south. many local Berbers from The Saracens in habitants decided to hold put to the mountainous North Africa their position. sword. Duke were probably employed in the Andalusi alpine forces. They began Boso of Lyons, building stone a usur per fortifi ca tions on related by the surround ing marriage to Franc e’s ruling Caroling ian be said for certain. According to Liudprand, heights. As further defense against Frankish dynasty, took advantage of the chaos and, stormy weather forced them to retreat into at tack, Liudprand says, the Arabs encour- with the support of local counts and bishops, the gulf, where they beached the craft with- aged the growth of particularly fierce bram- set up his own breakaway kingdom in Pro- out being spotted. The gulf opens toward ble bushes that proliferated in the area, vence in 879. The Carolingian kings could the east; the present-day fishing port of “even taller and thicker than before, so that not evict him. When Boso died in 887, his son and heir, Louis, was too young to rule effective ly; local lords and princes began asserting their inde- pendence and challenging one anoth er. The Carolingian empire was splitting into western and eastern In 911, the bishop of was reportedly Frankish kingdoms. There was no central author ity along the southern unable to return to France because the Saracens French coast, and Pro vence was ripe for the plucking. controlled all the passes in the . Saracen naval forces and corsairs struck often along these shores. Just as in later centuries British pri vateers— pirates—often worked hand-in-glove with St. Tropez, fashionable vacation spot the Royal Navy, so Andalusi corsairs plied of artists, film stars and the well-to-do, is sit- now if anyone stumbled against a branch it the west ern Mediterranean in the sympa- uated on the southern shore. The Saracens ran him through like a sharp sword.” Only thetic shadow of a large Saracen naval fleet, landed north west of there and, drawn by the “one very narrow path” offered access to the built up by the Umayyad government only a torch lights of the manor house, headed up Saracens’ fortifi cations. “If any one gets into

34 Saudi Aramco World

25482araD6R2.indd 34 8/25/09 12:41 PM this entangle ment, he is so impeded by the of the afore said Sara cens...and in company conducted operations against Marseilles and winding brambles, and so stabbed by the with them pro ceeded to crush their neigh­ Aix­en­Provence, then headed up the sharp points of the thorns, that he finds it a bors.... The Sara cens, who in themselves Rhône Valley and into the Alps and Pied­ task of the greatest difficulty either to were of insignificant strength, after crush­ mont. Historians believe that North African advance or to retreat,” the cleric wrote in his ing one faction with the help of the other, Berber soldiers, experienced in mountain history, titled Antapo dosis, or Tit for Tat. increased their own numbers by continual warfare, were probably used extensively in Their defenses secured, the Andalusis reinforcements from Spain, and soon were the Alpine operations. By 906, Andalusi reconnoitered the countryside. They sent attacking everywhere those whom at first forces had seized the mountain passes of the messengers back to al­Andalus with word of they seemed to defend. In the fury of their Dauphiné, crossed Mont Cénis and occupied their success, praising the lands of Provence onslaughts...all the neighborhood began the valley of the Suse on the Piedmontese and making light of the military abil ity of to tremble.” frontier. The Saracens erected stone for­ the local inhab itants. As a result, a new band European chroniclers claim that the tresses in areas they conquered—in the of about 100 Andalusi fighters, certainly Saracens sacked the coastal territory Daup hiné, and Pied mont—often includ ing cavalrymen (fursan) and their around Fraxinet, today called the Côte des naming them Fraxi net, after their base. The mounts, soon arrived from Spain to bolster Maures, and then moved into neighboring name survives to this day in these areas in the orig inal 20. various forms Many more followed as the like Frais sinet Andalusis asserted their military or Frainet. presence in the area and scored It did not take victories over scattered Frankish much longer opposition. Administrators and before the Sara­ supplies arrived from Córdoba. In cens were able to time, the Saracen presence along control direct the Riviera grew to such an communications extent that military expeditions between France sometimes involved thousands of and Italy. Pil­ troops. The Gulf of St. Tropez grims bound for became a regular port of call for Rome through Andalusi naval and cargo ships in such Alpine val­ the western Mediterra nean. leys as the Doire, The Saracens called their base Stura and Chi­ Fraxinet (in , Farakhsha­ sone often were nit), after the local village of Frax­ forced to turn inetum, named in Roman times back in the face for the ash trees (fraxini) then of Andalusi mil­ common in surrounding forests. itary actions. In Today, this village survives as La­ 911, the bishop of Garde­Freinet, a pictur esque, Narbonne, who unspoiled settlement tucked amid had been in forests of cork oak and chestnut Rome on urgent some 400 meters (1300') up in the church business, Massif des Maures, between the was reportedly Argens Plain and the Gulf of St. unable to return Tropez. About a half­hour’s hike to France up from the village are the ruins be cause the Sar­ of a stone fortress said to be the Andalusi colonists taught Franks to make acens controlled one built by the original 20 Sara­ all the passes in cens. Other high points in the corks for bottles from cork-oak bark. the Alps. By area were also fortified by the about 933, says Andalusis, but local authorities Lévi­Provençal, state that nothing remains of “light columns, those structures. areas in search of targets. First, pressing very mobile, held—at least during the sum­ Gradually, local Frankish lords, seeking eastward, they “visit ed the county of Fréjus mer—all the country[side] ... while the bulk to take advantage of the new political and with fire and sword, and sacked the chief of the Muslim forces was entrenched in the mili tary realities, sought the aid of the town,” according to E. Lévi­Provençal. The mountain ous canton of Fraxinetum, in the Andalusi s in settling their private quarrels. town of Fréjus, a major seaport founded by immediate vicinity of the sea.” The strategy back fired, according to Liud­ Julius Caesar in 49 bc and given the name Frankish historical accounts often por­ prand: “The people of Provence close by, Forum Julii, was reportedly razed but its tray the Saracens as frightening and swayed by envy and mutual jealousy, began popula tion spared. immensely powerful. For example, 19th­ to cut one another’s throats, plunder each The Andalusis drove on, hitting one century historian J. T. Reinaud, drawing on other’s sub stance, and do every sort of con­ town after another along the Côte d’Azur. the accounts of the period, ob serves: “One ceivable mis chief.... They called in the help Eventually they looped back to the west, saw ample evidence forthcoming for the

September/October 2009 35

25482araD6R2.indd 35 8/25/09 12:41 PM oft- repeated saying that one Muslim was the cork in dustry is the area’s chief local enough to put a thou sand [Franks] to flight.” enter prise. The Saracens also showed the This is a strange claim to make about a mot- Provençals how to produce pine tar from ley band of “pirates,” as the Frankish histori- the resin of the maritime pine, and to use ans often described them. The claim makes the product for caulk ing boats. Reinaud much more sense if the Saracens were in believes the Umayyads of Córdoba kept a fact not pirates but rather a large and well- naval fleet permanently based in the Gulf of organized military force under the com- St. Tropez, in part to facilitate communica- mand of a government. As for fearing the tions throughout the western Mediterra- Andalusis, those who feared them most nean. The tar of Fraxinet would have been were doubtless the clergy of Provençal, who used by those sailors. Today in France, pine stood to lose their power base if local popula- tar is called goudron, a word derived from tions turned to Islam, as had happened the Arabic qitran, with the same meaning. in al-Andalus. The Saracens also taught the villagers Not all Provençals feared the Andalusis medical skills and introduced both ceramic of Fraxinet, however. Some formed alli ances tiles and the tambourine to the area, and with them. “There are...reasons to be lieve Reinaud believes the Arab colony at Fraxi- that a number of Christians made net had a “consid er able influence” on the common cause with the development of local agriculture. Some French scholars believe the Saracens of Fraxinet introduced the cultivation of

to Acqui, some 50 kilometers (30 mi) northwest of Genoa. But about all we learn of Sagittus is that he died in bat- tle at Acqui in about 935. A leader of Fraxinet itself, Nasr ibn Ahmad, is mentioned in the Muqtabis of Ibn Hayyan of Córdoba, the greatest historian of medieval Spain. Accord- Muslims and took part in their attacks,” buckwheat, a grain that has two names in ing to that 11th-century chronicle, ‘Abd Reinaud notes in his Invasions des Sarrazins modern French, blé noir (black wheat) and al-Rahman iii made peace in 939-940 with a en France, et de France en Savoie, en Piémont et blé sarrasin (Saracen wheat). Further more, number of Frankish rulers and sent copies en Suisse. If the villagers and townsfolk of strong similari ties have been noted between of the peace treaty to Nasr ibn Ahmad, Provence and neighboring regions feared the the poetry of the Pro vençal troubadours and described as qa‘id, or “commander,” of Farakh Saracens as much as contempo rary chroni- that of Andalusi poets, but this particular shanit, as well as to the Arab governors clers claim, they somehow managed none- case of cross-fertilization may have occurred of the and the seaports of theless to cooperate with them in a wide even earlier than the Arab settlement al-Andalus—all of them subject to the range of social, economic and artistic fields. of Provence. Umayyad caliphate. Nothing else is revealed The Arabs of Fraxinet were not simply We know little of the individuals who about the Fraxinet commander. warriors; careful reading of the chronicles directed or took part in this Arab enterprise The first serious Frankish effort to expel reveals that many Andalusi colonists settled in France. Rarely are the Saracens of Fraxi- the Saracens from Fraxinet was made by peace fully in the villages of Provence. They net mentioned by name in the European Hugh of Arle s, king of Italy, in about 931. taught the Franks how to make corks for chronicles of this period. Liudprand tells of Hugh, seeking control of Provence for bottles by stripping the bark every seven one Arab military commander with the himself, enlisted the aid of Byzantine years from the cork oaks that proliferate in Latinized name Sagittus (perhaps Sa‘id) who warships on loan from his broth er-in-law the forests of the Massif des Maures. Today, led an Andalusi fighting force from Fraxinet Leo Porphyrogenitus, emperor of

36 Saudi Aramco World

25482araD6R2.indd 36 8/25/09 12:42 PM In the early to mid-960’s, the Saracens began a slow but steady withdrawal from the Alpine regions. To some extent this was due to growing Frank- ish military pressure, and perhaps to the diplomatic initiatives of Otto i. But one modern scholar, Middle East spe- cialist Manfred W. Wenner, suggests the withdrawal may have been prompted by a foreign-policy change in Córdoba. ‘Abd al-Rahman iii died in 961 and was succeeded by his son Hakam ii, a peaceful man who did not share his father’s enthusiasm for military opera- tions in southern France and the Alpine regions. Wenner believes Hakam may have “withheld permission for rein- forcements to leave for Fraxinetum from Spanish ports,” making it increas- ingly difficult for the colony to maintain a military presence in the Alps. By 965, the Andalusis had evacu- ated and the valley of the Graisivaudun under continuing pres- sure by the troops of various Frankish nobles. The fertile farmlands and pros- perous villages they relinquished were divided up among the Frankish forces who replaced them, in proportion to each soldier’s valor and service. According to Reinaud, writing in about 1836, “even today such families of Dau- Byzantine ships on loan to Hugh of Arles attacked phiné as the Aynards and Montaynards Saracens with early flamethrowers using “.” trace the turn of their fortune to this struggle with the Muslims.”

Constantinople. The war ships, hurling Saracens, was out raged by “Greek fire,” attacked and destroyed an Hugh’s ac tions; in the midst of Andalusi fleet in the Gulf of St. Tropez. his chronicles, the historian Meanwhile, in a coordinated land assault, chides the king: “How strange, Hugh’s army besieged the fortress at Fraxi- indeed, is the manner in net and succeeded in breaching its defenses. which thou defendest thy The Saracen defenders were forced to with- domin ions!” draw to neigh bor ing heights. But just when After seizing the Great the end of the Andalusi colony in southern St. Bernard and other key France seemed inevi table, local politics Alpine passes, the Andalusi intervened. forces spread out into the sur- Hugh received word that his rival rounding valleys. Greno ble Bérange r, then in Germa ny, was planning a and the lush valley of the return to France in a bid to capture the Graisivaudun were captured throne. The king, desperate for allies, sent in about 945. the Greek fleet back to Constan ti nople and About 10 years later, Otto i, formed a hasty alliance with the Saracens he king of Germa ny and later had just sought to expel. He signed a treaty Holy Roman Emperor, per- conceding control of Fraxinet and other haps fearing the Saracens areas to the Andalusis and stipulating that would score successes in his Arab forces should occupy the Alpine own realm, sent an envoy to heights—from Mont Genèvre Pass in the the caliph at Córdo ba, ‘Abd al-Rahman iii, urging an end to west to the Septimer Pass in the east—and I block any attempt by Béran ger to cross into military operations in the Alps King Otto France. Liudprand, ever hostile to the by the Andalusis of Fraxinet.

September/October 2009 37

25482araD6R2.indd 37 8/25/09 12:42 PM As late as 972, the Saracens still con- trolled the Great St. Bernard Pass. In that year, they detained a party of travelers that included a political opponent, the famed Frankish cleric Maiolus, abbot of Cluny, who was traveling through the pass on his return from Rome. Maiolus and his large Andalusis made later attempts to establish entourage were eventually released, but the incident provoked outrage throughout the footholds along the coast—in 1003, 1019 Frankish realms and sparked further efforts to dislodge the Fraxinet colony and and 1047—but never again were they able its satellites. Shortly after 972, the Saracens were to repeat the success driven from the heights around the Great St. Bernard. One of the leaders of the oppos- of Fraxinet. ing forces in this hard-fought battle was Bernard of Menthone, for whom the moun- strong hold, and the Franks laid siege to tain pass was later named. (Its name at the the fortress. The Andalusis, realizing their time was Mons Jovis, Latin for “Mount fate was sealed, abandoned the castle in the Jupiter”—a term the Arabs of that era incor- dark of night and fled into the surrounding porated into their name for the entire Fraxinet and woods. Many were either killed or captured Alpine region, Jabal Munjaws.) Bernard, of “came down from by Count William’s forces, according to con- course, later founded the well-known hos- their mountain ous resort temporary accounts, and those who laid pice for travelers in the heights of the Great in serried ranks,” as Reinaud says, to down their arms were spared. It is said that St. Bernard that exists to this day. Some encounter the Frankish forces at Tourtour, the Frankish army also spared the lives of scholars believe the Maiolus incident fur- near Dragui gnan, about 33 kilometers those Andalusi colonists living peace fully in nished the impetus for building that refuge. (20 mi) northwest of Fraxinet. The Saracens neighboring villages. Bernard’s name, incidentally, was also given were driven back to their mountain Fraxinet had served as the administra- to the celebrated tive capital of all Saracen dogs trained there settlements in France, to rescue travelers nort hern Italy and Swit- trapped in the win- zerland, and its castle is ter snows. believed to have held vast Along the Riv- quantities of trea sure. All iera itself, local lords the booty from Count Wil- gradually overcame Another surviving echo of liam’s con quest was said to their differences have been distrib uted and, in about 975, the period are the old round among his officers and joined forces with men. His second-in-com- Count Wil liam of towers erected for defense mand, Gibelin de Arles, later marquis and as watch posts by Grimaldi of Genoa—an of Provence, in a bid ancestor of Prince Ranier to consolidate all of the Saracens and by iii, who ruled present-day southern France Monaco until 2005— under his rule. Wil- local townsfolk. received the area where liam was a popular the hillside village of Gri- leader, and man- maud stands today, over- aged to persuade looking the port of St. war riors from Tropez. Ruins of Grimal- Provence, the lower di’s feudal castle, built in Dau phiné and the the Saracen style, still county of to crown the village. join his cause Thus ended the Arab against the colonization of southern Saracens. France. Andalusis made The Andalusis, later attempts to establish realizing the seri- footholds along that coast: ousness of the They conducted military threat being operations at Antibes in mounted against 1003, at Narbonne and them, consolidated Maguelone in 1019 and in their forces at the Lérins Islands off

38 Saudi Aramco World

25482araD6R2.indd 38 8/25/09 12:42 PM Cannes in 1047. But never again were the peace and order, peasants began leaving the forces of al-Andalus able to repeat the stun- hill villages and mov ing down into the val- ning success of Fraxinet. leys. Today, some of these villages lie wholly The mountainous regions of inland or par tially abandoned, but many are being Chronology Provence are dotted with hundreds of old re stored, their old stone structures converted fortified hill villages, like Grimaud, whose into weekend or summer homes for the very existence is a reminder of the “Saracen afflu ent or housing small colonies of artists 711 Arabs enter Spain. period.” These vil lages were first built for and craft smen. Old mines and remnants of 717 Al-Hurr’s army enters France. protection against Saracen raids and later forges at Tende in the Maritime Alps north- 721 Al-Samh’s forces routed served to protect the Frankish villagers from east of Monaco and at La Ferrière, near at Toulouse. marauders of their own faith. The peas ants Barcelonnette, have been identified as sites 728 Andalusi fleet raids Lérins Islands, lived within their walls, venturing out to where Saracens extracted iron ore and off Cannes. work their fields by day. By the 19th century, manufactured weapons. 732 Abd al-Rahman al-Ghafiqi’s forces however, with the establishment of durable Another surviving echo of the Fraxinet lose Battle of and Poitiers. period is the old round towers 759 Franks recapture Narbonne. erected for defense and as 827 Andalusis launch naval raid on Oye watch posts not only by the in Brittany. Saracens but also by local 831 Andalusis launch naval attack on townsfolk. The Frankish Mar seilles; sail up estuary of towers mimic the style of the Rhô ne. Arab ones. Ruins of what 848 Arles in Saracen hands. are called “Saracen towers” are found all along 869 Andalusis raid Provence and con- struct a harbor in the Camargue. the coast, as well as in nearby Alpine valleys. 889 Twenty Andalusis sail up the Gulf of St. Tropez and found a colony at These are the remain- Fraxi net (Farakhshanit). ing physical traces of the 906 Andalusis cross the defiles of the Arabs of Fraxin et: courses Dauphiné and Mont Cénis. of cut stone, jutting from the underbrush, as 908 Andalusis occupy the valley of the Suse. fragmen tary and mysteri- ous as the tale that under- 911 Andalusis hold the Alpine passes. lies them. Beyond this, the 920 ‘Abd al-Rahman, uncle of ‘Abd al- Saracens of St. Tropez and Rahman iii, amir of al-Andalus, cros ses the Pyrenees and reaches their cohorts live on as part Tou lou se; Mar seilles, Aix, Pied- of the folk memo ry of mont at tacked from Fraxi net. Provence, remembered as 929 Fraxinet forces advance to borders soldiers, merchants and of . agents of change in a dark 931 Hugh of Arles invites Byzantine and trou bled era. fleet to help him against the colonists, but then makes peace Ibn Hayyan of Córdoba with them; Andalusis occupy Alpine heights. 940 Andalusis occupy and colonize . 942-952 Andalusi settlement at Nice; Robert W. Lebling (lebling@yahoo. Canadian free-lance artist Norman Andalusi occupation of Greno ble; com), former assistant editor of MacDonald, a frequent contributor Andalusi for tresses in : Aramco World, is a staff writer and to Saudi Aramco World, used Fressineto and Fenes t relle. communication specialist for Saudi parchment paper and drew with 965 Andalusis evacuate Grenoble. Aramco in Dhahran. He is author of twigs rather than brushes for a the forthcoming Jinn: Legends of the Fire “medieval effect” in his illustrations. 970 Evacuation of Savoy by Andalusis. Spirits From Arabia to Zanzibar. 973 French town of Gap evacuated by Andalusis; Battle of Tourtour and Related articles from past issues can be found on our Web site, www.saudiaramcoworld. Andalusi evacuation of most com. Click on “indexes,” then on the cover of the issue indicated below. of Pro vence. Battle of Toulouse: M/A 93 Córdoba caliphate: J/F 93, S/O 03 975 Andalusi evacuation of Fraxinet. Greek fire: J/F 95 1003 Andalusis attack Antibes. Quotations from Reinaud are taken from the English translation of his work, Muslim 1019 Andalusis attempt to recapture Colonies in France, Northern Italy & Switzerland, translated by Haroon Khan Sherwan Narbon ne; Maguelone at tacked and published in Lahore in 1955 by Sh. Muhammad Ashraf. Excerpts from the Antapodosis are by Andalusis. from The Works of Liudprand of Cremona, translated by F. A. Wright and published in London in 1047 Andalusi raid on Lérins Islands. 1930 by George Routledge & Sons, Ltd.

September/October 2009 39

25482araD6R3.indd 39 8/25/09 6:31 PM