The history of ceramics Italy ΠΡΟΓΡΑΜΜΑ LEONARDO DA VINCI Pottery, meant as an expression of art, is part of the human beings’ story since 35.000 years. Its developments faithfully show and explain evolution of religious and cultural behaviours and of socio-economical and commercial affairs of Italy. From the first to the third century In Italy the origins of ceramics date back to the I century, undergoing the influence of Etruscan and Roman cultures. We are speaking about rudimentary techniques, named “technique of black figures” and “technique of red figures”, characterised by the presence of silhouettes on the rim of pots. Fictile proofs of these products were founded in the Northern part of Italy (in Este, Padova, Vicenza, Montebelluna, Altino, Adria and Adriano Polesine were discovered numerous necropolises giving back a large sample of ceramic pots and utensils and so on. In Arezzo, between the end of the I and the beginning of the III century p.c. there was the best production of a Roman ceramic type named “sealed earth”. Productions belonging to this category are characterized by a quite polished surface with a typical coral colour. Shapes were obtained through an earthenware mould; the name “sealed earth” really rises from the use of this mould that was called “sigillum”, while executing sleaves were called “sigillatores”. From the fourth to the fifth century During this period a new technique - named “engobe” – appeared, foreshadowing the coming of majolica. The surface of engobe products was covered by a white coat, decorated with graffito designs or painted with brown or green colours. The origin of this technique dates back to Greek culture, but its use was not continuative, so it was often lost and re-found, as it uses to happen to lots of craftmen techniques. Actually, englobe production spread over the Central-Southern part of Italy until the coming of majolica (XVIII century). Middle Ages (from 476 to 1492) Italian ceramists’ objective was to search for a technique that enabled them to create luminous products. They aimed at finding a white background on which it was possible to paint obtaining luminous results (they were searching for the majolica, but they didn’t know this technique jet). A good solution in this sense came from Spain (Paterna). We are speaking about the “stanniferous enamel”, that guarantees white and waterproof coverings. Ceramics belonging to this typology were founded in the Centre of Italy (Toscana, Siena, Firenze, Emilia e Veneto) and especially in Orvieto (Orvietan style ceramics). Then it was the turn of majolica. Tradition wants Italian majolica to come from the island of Majorca (whence its name); while recent archaeological studies lean towards an autonomous development of ceramic techniques, internal to Italian country (XI century), from stanniferous enamels to majolica. The use of majolica spread over Italy thanks to its contacts with Arabian people (for what concerns the techniques) and with Greek and Roman people (for what concerns the shapes and designes). The most involved regions were: Sicilia, Puglia, Abruzzo, Toscana and Romagna (in particular Orvieto, Faenza, Forlì, Rimini and Ravenna produced very precious objects). Renaissance (from 1400 to 1800) During the Renaissance ceramics reached remarkable technical results that leaded to new forms and decorations. These results were the fruits of work and experiences acquired during times and handed on from father to son. Across Central Italy, during 1500, majolica imposed itself and rapidly reached an high perfection level in techniques and artistic quality. Within this prolific production different styles distinguished. Gaetano Ballardini, a ceramist from Faenza, classified all the styles as regards to their belonging period into “families”, describing main behaviours of each “family”. A list of the “families” (from ‘400 to ‘800) follows. Severe style It imposed itself during the beginning of ‘400. Decorations of this family distinguished for the presence of vegetable or stylised motifs influenced by the oriental style, with green and brown colours. Green family This family distinguished for the almost exclusive use of green colour, obtained from copper oxide that trims shapes of men and animals. This style characterised Tuscan ceramics. Zaffre family in relief The term “zaffre” derives from the Arabian “safre” meaning cobalt, a mineral from which deep blue colour is derived. In Italy, from 1430 to 1460, zaffre was abundantly applied in order to create shiny blue shapes. Drawings represented shapes of men surrounded by flowers, leafs, birds and so on. Italo-Moresque family It was characterised by the use of yellow colour. From 1450 to 1480 Italian potters, trying to imitate Spanish ceramics production, used manganese and coloured surfaces in yellow-orange colours. The decorative motif was characterised by small leafs and shoots covering almost all the surfaces of pots. Floreal-Gothic family This family belongs to the period from 1460 to 1490 and takes down the name of decorations referring to gothic miniatures. Peacock’s eye family Peacock’s eye is the final part of peacock’s feather, that oriental people believe to be the symbol of eternal life. The polychromatic ceramics belonging to this family (1460-1495) were born after the interruption of trade relations between Italy and oriental markets (after the conquer of Constantinople by ottoman Turkish people). So importation of ceramics decorated with peacock’s eye motifs became scarce, while its request didn’t stop. So several artists imitated this decoration in order to make up for requests. Fan training Persian family Productions belonging to this family (1475- 1500) imitated drawings of Persian carpets. The motifs were made of a vertical stem with leafs and eight stylised petals. Grotesquery family It was characterised by the reproduction of monstrous human and animal shapes. Porcelain family Various Italian cities (Urbino, Pesaro, Faenza, Montelupo) used to copy ornamental motifs of Chinese porcelain (branches of plum, exotic birds and small branches of cane). Storied family From the end of ‘400 to the beginning of ‘500 there were deep changes in decorative motifs of ceramics products. These changes were due to diffusion of printing and production of illustrated sacred books, that gave to Italian makers of majolica ware lots of models to reproduce into their products. Human figure became protagonist. In the central part of pots and dishes a mythological or historical scene was reproduced. The figure of potter-painter – painting pots and dishes produced by artisans - was born in this period. These big dishes were used from painters as big cloths to be painted, and they suddenly became fashionable objects. Another phenomenon characterising this period was the patronage. Powerful figures (e.g. the Gonzagas, the Medicis, the pope Giulio XI) used to protect ceramists, that were no more forced to produce for own sustenance and had the possibility to test new techniques, especially concerning new glazes. The numerous requests from the upper classes of storied potteries lead to a copy-reproduction of the same object. At the end of ‘400 Faenza and Urbino became important production centres known at international level and, moreover, many ceramists leaved these cities to move towards other Italian centres in order to start up new shops specialised in production of storied potteries. The most used colour was blue in all its ranges. The storied majolica went suddenly out of fashion for their too long requested production work, high costs and difficulty to understand the significance of the scenes they reproduced. Family of beautiful women This period was characterised by the reproduction of human faces, especially belonging to beautiful and prosperous women. Beauty style family At the beginning of XVI century decorations drew on renaissance motifs and gave the effect of a painting. The Italian style was born in this period, after the abandon of oriental themes. In this period Italians got to like the embellishment of houses, and begun to hang dishes on the walls. This favoured the choice to paint figures and scenes in the central part of dishes. Flowery style family In this period, in the central part of potters artists used to paint trophies, leafs and garlands in yellow, green, violet and blue colours. Raphaelesque family Products belonging to this family were characterised by reproduction on their surface of subjects of fresco designed by Raphael for Vatican loggias. The period from ‘400 to ‘500 was characterised by an exportation of Italian products across Europe. Moreover, Italian makers of majolica themselves emigrated towards various European cities. European sovereigns used to buy majolica products directly from Faenza and Urbino’s shops. Even Spain, in which majolica was born, underwent the influence of Italian style (thanks to the ceramist Francisco Niculoso from Pisa). Until the end of 1600 porcelain remained a prerogative of China, that kept the secret of chemical composition of its mixture. But in Italy it was love at first side for porcelain. It was considered a precious material, incredibly perfect, something strange, nearly magic for its transparency and sonority, but it was rare, so it became a statement of prestige for nobles that possessed it. During the times there were numerous attempts to reproduce it, but its “recipe” was a real enigma. Also grand duke Francesco I De Medici, an ante litteram alchemist, ventured on attempt to define a technique of production of porcelain. He implanted within the Casino Mediceo (nearby Plaza S. Marco in Venice) a roof factory of the so called “Medicea porcelain”. Only at the beginning of ‘700 the secret of porcelain was revealed to Europe. Numerous factories rose in Italy (Venice, Capodimonte and so on). They on one side produced roof copies of Chinese porcelains, and on the other side developed own styles. In 1743 Capodimonte Bourbon factory opens and it lives a gold period until 1759, when king Carlo leaves his throne in Naples and moves towards Spain, dismantling his factory and bringing men and things with him.