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Japanese Audio Flashcard Lessons, by itself, if you mean 'it's delicious.' Grammar Guide You may use either desu or da after a na adjective. For example, kono heya wa shizuka desu = kono

heya wa shizuka da = ‘as for this room, it’s quiet.’ General Notes Verbs Lesson 1 There are 2 main kinds of verbs in Japanese: u パスーウトを見せてください。 verbs and ru verbs. Both of these verb types have Pasupooto o misete kudasai. plain speech forms and masu forms. The masu (‘Please show the passport.’) forms are more polite. O, sometimes written as wo, is used to show that the The root of a verb is the pre-u or pre-ru form. The preceding term is a direct object. For example, hon o stem of a verb is the pre-masu form. For an ru verb, kau = hon o kaimasu = ‘I will buy a book’ or ‘I buy the root and the stem forms are the same. a book’ (or books). For example, nomu is a u verb; it means ‘drink.’ Misete is the te form of miseru = ‘show.’ Since the Nomimasu is the masu form of nomu. The root of te or de form of a verb sometimes adds the meaning nomu is nom. The stem of nomu is nomi. ‘ing,’ misete can sometimes be translated as Taberu is an ru verb; it means ‘eat.’ Tabemasu is ‘showing.’ Verbs ending in ru, tsu, ku, su and u the masu form of taberu. The root of taberu is tabe. have te forms. Verbs ending in mu, nu, gu and bu The stem of taberu is also tabe. have de forms. Verbs also have past forms, which Nomu and taberu are plain speech verbs. Their end in ta or da. For example, the plain speech past masu forms are nomimasu and tabemasu. form of miseru is miseta = ‘showed.’ U and ru verbs are often used as adjectives. For Kudasai = ‘please.’ Kudasai is often preceded by example, watashi ga taberu pan = ‘the bread I eat.’ the te or de form of a verb. For example, hon o katte Anata ga nonda biiru = ‘the beer that you drank.’ kudasai = ‘please buy the book.’ (Kau = ‘buy’; Desu (meaning ‘it is’) is a copula, or linking verb. It katte is the te form of kau.) Kudasai is the is neither a u verb, nor an ru verb. Its plain speech imperative form of kudasaru, a polite verb meaning form is da. ‘someone gives to me or to someone in my in-

group.’ For example, sensei ga hon o kudasaru = Adjectives ‘the teacher gives a book to me’ (or to someone in There are 2 main kinds of adjectives in Japanese: i my in-group). (pronounced ‘ee’) adjectives and na adjectives. I adjectives end in ‘i’ and modify a noun directly. マイケルウエブさんですね。 For example, oishii = ‘delicious.’ Oishii pan = Maikeru Uebbu san desu ne. ‘delicious bread.’ (‘It’s Michael Webb, huh.’) To make the stem of an i adjective remove the final San is an honorific term used after another person’s ‘i.’ For example, the stem of oishii is oishi. name. Na adjectives are followed by na when they are used to modify a noun. For example, shizuka = ‘quiet.’ Shizuka na heya = ‘a quiet room.’ 観光ですか仕事ですか。 Kankoo desu ka shigoto desu ka. You may use desu after an i adjective. However, (‘Is it sightseeing? Is it work?’) you may not use da after an i adjective. Oishii Ka is used to indicate a question. desu (meaning, 'it's delicious') is OK. Oishii da is not OK. Using plain speech, you may simply say oishii 観光じゃありません。 Lesson 1. 1

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Lesson 1. Kankoo ja arimasen. begins with a noun or pronoun followed by wa (‘It isn’t sightseeing.’) (indicating a topic) and then goes on to ask a Ja is the short form of dewa, which forms the first question about, or make a comment on, this topic. part of the phrase dewa arimasen = ja arimasen = For example, kono mise wa ookii desu = ‘as for this ‘something is not something else.’ For example hon store, it's big.’ dewa arimasen = hon ja arimasen = ‘it isn't a book.’ Nan = nani = ‘what.’ Nan is the shorter form of Arimasu is the masu form of the plain speech verb this pronoun. Use nan, rather than nani, before the aru = ‘exist’ (used for inanimate things, including verb desu. plants). Arimasen is the negative form of arimasu. The masu form of u verbs is formed by adding じゃ何ですか。 ‘imasu’ to the root (the pre-u form). For example, Ja, nan desu ka. nomu = nomimasu = ‘drink.’ (‘Well, what is it?’) You may be surprised to learn that aru is a u verb, Ja can also mean ‘well.’ not an ru verb. There are a number of u verbs that end in ru, including aru (‘exist’). What these verbs はい。いいですよ。 have in common is that you ‘double the t’ when 。 (‘Yes. It’s good for sure.’) making the te or ta forms. In this case, aru = Hai Ii desu yo. ‘exist.’ Atte = ‘existing.’ Atta = ‘existed.’ Ii is an i adjective meaning ‘good.’ Ru verbs always end with iru or eru. The masu Yo is used for emphasis. It can be roughly translated form of ru verbs is formed by replacing ‘ru’ with as ‘for sure.’ ‘masu.’ With ru verbs, you do not 'double the t’ when making the te or ta forms. For example, どれですか。 taberu = tabemasu = ‘eat.’ Tabete = ‘eating.’ Dore desu ka. (‘Which is it?’) Tabeta = ‘ate.’ Dore = ‘which.’ There are three irregular verbs: Suru = shimasu = ‘do.’ Shite = ‘doing.’ Shita = ‘did.’ 本を見せてくださいませんか。 Kuru = kimasu = ‘come.’ Kite = ‘coming.’ Kita = Hon o misete kudasaimasen ka. ‘came.’ (‘Won’t you show the book and give?’) Iku= ikimasu = ‘go.’ Itte = ‘going.’ Itta = ‘went.’ The te or de form of a verb can add the meaning To change a masu verb (whether u verb, ru verb or ‘and’ to a verb. For example, tabete ikimasu = irregular verb) to a negative form, change the ‘u’ at “I (or ‘someone,’ since the subject is often not the end to ‘en.’ For example, nomimasu = ‘I specified in Japanese sentences) will eat and go.” drink’or ‘I will drink.’ Nomimasen = ‘I don’t Kudasaimasu is the ‘masu’ form of kudasaru = drink ’ or ‘I won’t drink.’ ‘give to me or someone in my in-group.’ Kudasaimasen is the negative form of kudasaimasu. これは何ですか。 Kudasaimasenka means ‘won’t you ... and give?’ or Kore wa nan desu ka. ‘won’t you do it for me?’ (‘As for this, what is it?’) Kore = ‘this,’ sore = ‘that,’ are = ‘that over there.’ はい。わかりました。 Wa is used to show the topic, as opposed to the Hai. Wakarimashita. subject, of a sentence. Ga is used to show the (‘Yes, I understood.’) subject. In this key sentence, the subject is the To make the past form of a masu verb, change silent pronoun ‘it,’ and ga does not appear. This ‘masu’ to ‘mashita.’ For example, Lesson 1. sentence is an example of sentence pattern A: it 2

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Lesson 1. taberu = tabemasu = ‘I eat’ (or ‘I will (‘Thank you for what you did.’) eat’). Tabemashita = ‘I ate’; the plain speech form Gozaimashita is the past form of gozaimasu = ‘to is tabeta. Nomu = nomimasu = ‘I drink’ (or ‘I will exist humbly’ (or ‘honorably,’ depending on the drink’). Nomimashita = ‘I drank’; the plain speech situation). form is nonda. Da = desu = ‘it is.’ To make the past form of desu, どういたしまして。 say deshita. To make the past form of da, say datta. Doo itashimashite = ‘you’re welcome’ or ‘it’s nothing.’ 申し訳ないんですが。 Mooshiwake nain desu ga... すみませんがもう一度名前を書いてくださ (‘There’s no excuse, but ...’) いませんか。 Nai is the plain speech form of arimasen = ‘not Sumimasen ga, moo ichido namae o kaite exist’ or ‘nothing.’ Nain is a softened form of nai. In order to make your speech more friendly, you can kudasaimasenka. (‘Excuse me, but one more time, won’t you write the ‘soften’ the word nai, as well as i adjectives and plain speech verbs, by adding ‘n’ or ‘no’ to them. name and give?’) If you soften a word by using ‘n,’ you must follow Moo = ‘another,’ ‘more,’ or ‘again’; moo can also it with the copula ‘desu’ or ‘da’ (or by their mean ‘already.’ negative equivalents ‘ja arimasen’ or ‘jai nai’; or by Do means ‘times.’ Ichido = ‘one time’; nido = ‘two kamoshiremasen = kamoshirenai = ‘it might be’) times,’ etc. You can only soften plain speech verbs, not ‘masu’ verbs. Lesson 2 For example, nai = nai desu = nain desu = nai no = どなたですか。 ‘it doesn’t exist.’ Oishii = oishii desu = oishiin Donata desu ka. desu = oishii no = ‘it’s delicious.’ Ikimasu = iku = (‘Who is it?’) ikun desu = iku no = ‘I will go.’ Donata and dare both mean ‘who’; donata is more When asking questions, you can soften the word polite. desu by putting no in front of it. For example, nai no desu ka = ‘is there nothing?’ Oishii no desu ka = 安部産業の土田です。 ‘is it delicious?’ You can use no with a rising intonation to suggest a Abe sangyoo no tsuchida desu. question and soften the sentence at the same time. (‘It’s Tsuchida of Abe Industries’) For example, iku no = ‘will you go?’ Oishii no = ‘is The speaker is referring to himself and therefore it delicious?’ Nai no = ‘is there nothing?’ doesn’t say tsuchida san. You can soften nouns and na adjectives by adding No is used to show possession or belonging. For nan to them. For example, kuruma desu = kuruma example, watashi no hon = ‘my book.’ nan desu = ‘it’s a car.’ Shizuka desu = shizuka nan desu = ‘it’s quiet.’ はじめまして。どうぞよろしく。 Ga can mean ‘but.’ For example, ikimasu ga, sugu Hajimemashite. Doozo yoroshiku. kaerimasu = ‘I will go, but I will soon return.’ (‘How do you do? Pleased to meet you.’) Hajimeru = hajimemasu = to start; hajimemashite 有難うございました。 is the te form of the verb and is usually translated Arigatoo gozaimashita. ‘how do you do?’ Since the te form of a verb can add the meaning ‘ing,’ hajimemashite Lesson 2. 3

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Lesson 2. could also be understood to mean ‘I am Eeto, kono toori no mukoo ni, honya ga arimasu. starting ...’ Doozo means ‘go ahead.’ (‘Uh, at this street’s far end, there’s a bookstore.’) Yoroshiku is the ku form (or adverbial form) of the Kono = ‘this,’ sono = ‘that,’ ano = ‘that over there.’ polite adjective yoroshii = ‘good,’ so doozo Kono, sono and ano are always followed by a yoroshiku can be understood as ‘go ahead, in a good noun, unlike the equivalent kore, sore and are, way,’ or ‘please be good to me.’ It is often which also mean, respectively, ‘this,’ ‘that’ and ‘that translated as ‘pleased to meet you.’ over there.’ For example, kore = ‘this’; kono hon = ‘this book.’ こちらは奥さんですか。 Toori = ‘street.’ Mukoo ni = ‘at farther away.’ Kochira wa, okusan desu ka. Use ya after a product to indicate a store selling (‘As for this way, is it the honorable wife?’) that product, e.g., hon = ‘book’; honya = Kochira = ‘this way,’ sochira = ‘that way,’ achira = ‘bookstore.’ ‘that way over there.’ You may recall that aru = arimasu (‘exist’) is used Okusan = ‘someone else’s wife’; kanai or tsuma = for inanimate objects including plants. ‘my wife.’ By contrast, iru = imasu (‘exist’) is used for animate objects like animals and people, not どうぞよろしくお願いします。 including plants. Iru is an ru verb, since you don’t ‘double the t’ when making its te and ta forms, i.e., Doozo yoroshiku onegai shimasu. ite = ‘existing’ and ita = ‘existed.’ (‘Go ahead be good to me, I humbly beg.’) When you say that something or someone exists in a This is a longer, even more polite version of doozo particular place, using aru or iru, follow the place yoroshiku (‘pleased to meet you’ or ‘please be good description with ni. to me’). Another common version is yoroshiku For example, machi ni honya ga arimasu = ‘at the onegai shimasu. town, a bookstore exists.’ Mise ni tanakasan ga Negau = negaimasu = to beg or pray. imasu = ‘Mr. Tanaka is at the store.’ Suru = shimasu = to do. In the target sentence above, use ga rather than wa To form a humble verb construction, referring to after honya because you’re talking about a particular actions that you perform, put o in front of the verb bookstore. Also you should generally use ga with stem, and follow the verb stem with suru or both imasu and arimasu – see the document ‘Ga vs. shimasu. See Lesson 21. For example, onegai Wa’ on the web site for more information. shimasu = ‘I humbly beg.’ Omise shimasu = ‘I will humbly show it.’ (miseru = misemasu = ‘show’) いいえ、大きくありませんが、すぐわかり

土田さん、銀行はどこにありますか。 ますよ。 Tsuchida san, ginkoo wa, doko ni arimasu ka. Iie, ookiku arimasen ga, sugu wakarimasu yo. (Tsuchida, as for a bank, where does it exist?) (‘No, it isn’t big, but soon you will understand for Doko = where. sure.’) Use wa rather than ga because the subject is the Ookii is an i adjective meaning ‘big’; ookiku is the silent pronoun ‘it,’ and ‘bank’ is the topic. This ku form. To make the negative form of an i sentence illustrates sentence pattern A, described adjective, remove the final i and add ku; then on page 2. add arimasen or nai. For example, oishii = delicious. Oishiku arimasen = oishikunai = ‘it isn’t ええと、この通りの向こうに本屋がありま delicious.’ Please note that you may not say oishii ja nai, or oishii ja arimasen. Lesson 2. す。 4

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Lesson 2. You must use the ku form when you Kanai ga imasen = kanai ga inai = ‘my wife doesn’t make i adjectives negative. exist’ (meaning, ‘she isn’t here’). Similarly, Hon ja arimasen = hon ja nai = ‘it isn’t a book.’ Hon ga じゃ、行って来ます。 arimasen = hon ga nai = ‘there isn’t a book.’ Ja, itte kimasu. (‘Well, I will go and come.’) どこですか。 Iku = ikimasu = ‘go.’ Itte is the te form of iku. Doko desu ka. Kuru = kimasu = ‘come.’ Itte kimasu is a standard (‘Where is she?’) expression that you use when you leave a place and Doko = where. intend to come back. The appropriate response to this expression, from a person who intends to stay バーバラさんはあそこの宝石やにいますよ。 behind, is itterasshai (‘see you later’). Baabara san wa, asoko no hoosekiya ni imasu

yo. お待たせしました。 (‘As for Barbara, she is in that place’s jewelry store, Omatase shimashita. for sure.’) (‘I’m sorry to have kept you waiting.’) Use wa because Barbara has already been introduced Omatase shimashita is a standard polite phrase used as a topic into the conversation. when one is late. This is another humble verb Koko = here, soko = there; asoko = over there. construction. Mataseru is the causative tense of matsu = ‘wait.’ Mataseru = ‘make someone wait.’ どの店ですか。 Shimashita is the past tense of shimasu = suru = to Dono mise desu ka. do, so this phrase means, ‘I humbly made you wait.’ (‘Which store is it?’)

Dono = ‘which.’ Dono is always followed by a 家内がいませんね。 noun. Dore also = ‘which,’ but it’s used without a Kanai ga imasen ne. noun. For example, dore desu ka = ‘which is it?’ (‘The wife doesn’t exist huh,’ meaning ‘she isn’t Dono mise desu ka = ‘which store is it?’ here.’)

Imasen = inai = ‘does not exist.’ This is the その前のきれいな店です。 negative form of imasu = iru = ‘exist.’ Use ga rather than wa because you’re introducing the wife Sono mae no, kirei na mise desu. into the conversation. However, if you had already (‘It’s that front’s pretty store,’ meaning ‘the pretty introduced her into the conversation, you could say store in front of that.’) kanai wa imasen. Mae = ‘front.’ Ushiro = ‘rear.’ For example, sono To change a plain speech u verb to a negative form, mae no mise = ‘the store in front of that.’ Sono add anai to the root (the pre-u form). For example, ushiro no mise = ‘the store behind that.’ nomu = nomimasu = ‘I will drink.’ Nomanai = Kirei = ‘pretty.’ Kirei is a na adjective; when you nomimasen = ‘I won’t drink.’ use it to modify a noun, follow it with na. To change a plain speech ru verb to a negative form, add nai to the root. For example, taberu = あの人は目が大きいです。 tabemasu = I will eat. Tabenai = tabemasen = I Ano hito wa, me ga ookii desu. won’t eat. (‘As for that person over there, the eyes are big.’) Try not to confuse these two sentence patterns: This sentence illustrates another common Japanese Kanai ja arimasen = kanai ja nai = ‘it isn't my wife.’ construction, sentence pattern B. Lesson 2. 5

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Lesson 2. In this pattern, a topic is followed by (‘It exists on that place’s desk’s top,’ meaning ‘on wa, and then a subject is followed by ga. top of that desk.’) Ue = ‘above or top.’ Shita = ‘below’ or ‘bottom.’ どれがマイケルさんのパスポートですか。 Dore ga maikerusan no pasupooto desu ka. あそこの机の中にあります。 (‘Which is Michael’s passport?’) Asoko no tsukue no naka ni arimasu. Use ga because you’re asking a question that was (‘It exists in that place over there’s desk’s inside.’) formed using an interrogative pronoun (dore) as Naka = ‘inside.’ Soto = ‘outside.’ the subject of the sentence. Interrogative pronouns include dore = ‘which,’ nani = ‘what,’ 机の右。 doko = ‘where,’ dare = ‘who,’ ikutsu = ‘how many,’ Tsukue no migi. ikura = ‘how much,’ and itsu = ‘when.’ Doo (‘The desk’s right side.’ Side is understood.) (‘how’) and dooshite (‘why’)are also interrogative Migi = ‘right.’ Hidari = ‘left.’ pronouns, but they are never followed by ga.

Lesson 3 これがマイケルさんのパスポートです。 じゃあ、行きましょう。 Kore ga maikerusan no pasupooto desu. (‘This is Michael’s passport.’) Jaa, ikimashoo. Use ga because you’re answering a question that (‘Well, let’s go.’) was formed with an interrogative pronoun (dore) The shoo ending replaces the su ending on a masu as the subject. verb like ikimasu when you want to say ‘let’s do something’ or ‘I shall do something.’ The shoo ending is also used to convert the word desu to the この店は静かじゃありません。 word deshoo = ‘it probably is.’ Kono mise wa shizuka ja arimasen.

(‘This store is not quiet.’) ここからホテルまでどのくらいかかります To make the negative form of a na adjective, like shizuka, follow the adjective with ja arimasen, か。 dewa arimasen, ja nai or dewa nai. Ja is the plain speech form of dewa. In this target sentence, Kono Koko kara, hoteru made, dono kurai kakarimasu mise wa shizuka dewa arimasen, also OK. ka. (‘From here, as far as the hotel, about how long will 今日は都合がいいですか。 it take?’) Kyoo wa tsugoo ga ii desu ka. Kakaru = ‘take’ (time) or ‘cost’ (money). (‘As for today, are the circumstances good?,’ Kurai = ‘about,’ ‘approximately,’ ‘almost,’ or meaning ‘is it convenient for you?’) ‘something like’; this is often softened to gurai. Tsugoo ga ii is an expression used to say that a Dono kurai (or dono gurai) means approximately person’s circumstances are good, meaning that there ‘how many,’ ‘how long,’ ‘how much,’ or ‘how is time available. often.’ For example, dono kurai kakarimasu ka = dono gurai kakarimasu ka = ‘about how long will it take?’ そこの机の上にあります。

Soko no tsukue no ue ni arimasu. 電車もありますがあまり便利じゃありませ ん。 Lesson 3. 6

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Lesson 3. Densha mo arimasu ga, amari benri 毎日東京に行きます。 ja arimasen. Mainichi tookyoo ni ikimasu. (‘A train also exists, but it isn’t very convenient.’) (‘Every day, I go to Tokyo.’) Mo = ‘also’; it replaces wa and ga when used after Mainichi tookyoo e ikimasu, also OK. a topic or subject. You may use either ni or e to mean ‘to’; e means Amari = ‘not very,’ in negative constructions; ‘very ‘toward’ and refers to the direction of movement, much’ or ‘excessively,’ in positive constructions. while ni means ‘to’ and refers to the destination itself, but you may consider the words 今日はタクシーで行きましょう。 interchangeable when you want to say ‘to.’ Kyoo wa, takushii de ikimashoo. (‘As for today, let’s go by taxi.’) いつも本を読みます。 De = ‘by means of.’ Itsumo hon o yomimasu. (‘I always read books.’) 道がすいていますね。 Itsu = ‘when.’ Itsumo = ‘always’ in positive Michi ga suite imasu ne. constructions, ‘never’ in negative constructions. (‘The street is being uncrowded, huh.’) Itsudemo = ‘anytime.’ Suku = be uncrowded; suite is the te form of this verb. 三時ごろ成田空港へ行きます。 The te or de form of a verb can carry the meaning Sanji goro, narita kuukoo e ikimasu. ‘ing,’ especially when combined with iru or imasu. (‘About 3:00, I will go to Narita airport.’) Such verb combinations can be used with both Goro means ‘approximately,’ but it’s only used with animate and inanimate objects. For example, uchi o time of day, time of year, etc. By contrast, kurai (or dete iru = uchi o dete imasu = ‘I am leaving home.’ gurai, which is a softer version of kurai) can be used Inu o dashite iru = inu o dashite imasu = ‘I am after nouns in general to mean ‘approximately.’ putting the dog out.’ 三時にバーバラさんに会います。 バーバラさん、いつか一緒に行きましょう。 Sanji ni, baabarasan ni aimasu. Baabarasan, itsuka issho ni ikimashoo. (‘At 3:00, I will meet Barbara.’) (‘Barbara, sometime together let’s go.’) Four meanings for ni (see the index for more Itsu = ‘when,’ itsuka = ‘sometime’; doko = ‘where,’ meanings): Ni is used before the verb au = ‘meet,’ dokoka = ‘somewhere,’ dare = ‘who,’ dareka = to indicate whom is met. Ni is also used to mean at ‘someone’; nani = ‘what,’ nanika = ‘something.’ a time (sanji ni = ‘at 3:00’). Ni can be used to mean Issho ni = ‘together.’ to a place (Oosaka ni iku = ‘I will go to Osaka’), and it can mean at a place when used with imasu (iru), 天気はあまりよくありません。 arimasu (aru) and other ‘inactive’ verbs. For Tenki wa, amari yoku arimasen. example, Oosaka ni iru = ‘I am at Osaka.’ (‘As for the weather, it isn’t very good.’) Ii means ‘good’; it’s an i adjective. To make the 時間はどのくらいかかりますか。 adverbial ku form of ii, don’t say iku; instead use Jikan wa, dono kurai kakarimasu ka. the similar word yoi = ‘good,’ and convert this to (‘As for time, about how much does it take?’) yoku. Lesson 3.

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Lesson 3. Jikan = ‘time.’ Kan means ‘duration.’ Maikeru wa dokodemo yoku nemasu. For example, ichijikan = ‘1 hour duration,’ (‘Michael sleeps well anywhere.’) nishuukan = ‘2 weeks duration,’ sannenkan = ‘3 Doko = ‘where’; dokodemo = ‘anywhere’; dokoka = years duration,’ etc. ‘somewhere’; dokomo = ‘everywhere’ in positive constructions, ‘nowhere’ in negative constructions. Lesson 4 少し休んだ方がいいですね。 肉と野菜でした。 Sukoshi yasunda hoo ga ii desu ne. Niku to yasai deshita. (‘It would be better to rest a bit, huh.’) (‘It was meat and vegetables.’) Yasumu = yasumimasu = ‘rest;’ the polite past tense To = ‘and’; it can also mean ‘with.’ For example, is yasumimashita. Pan to gohan ga arimasu = ‘bread and rice exist.’ The plain past tense is yasunda. Keikosan to nihon ni ikimasu = ‘I will go to Japan The idea ‘it would be better to do’ such and such is with Keiko.’ expressed by using the plain past tense of a verb followed by hoo ga ii. For example, tabeta hoo ga ii マイケルさんはおすしが好きですか。 = ‘it would be better to eat.’ To say ‘it would be Maikerusan wa, osushi ga suki desu ka. better not to do’ something, follow the negative (‘As for Michael, is honorable sushi liked?,’ plain speech form of the verb with hoo ga ii, e.g., meaning ‘do you like it?’ This question is addressed tabenai hoo gai ii = ‘it would be better not to eat.’ to Michael.) Suki desu = ‘it is liked’; the item being liked is 飛行機の中でよく寝ました。 usually followed by ga. Kirai desu = ‘it is disliked.’ Hikooki no naka de yoku nemashita. (‘Inside the plane, I slept well.’) 前はあまり好きじゃありませんでしたが今 De is always used with ‘active’ verbs like hashiru は何でも食べます。 = ‘run,’ to indicate the place where the action takes Mae wa amari suki ja arimasen deshita ga, ima place. In Japanese, there are also a number of so- wa nandemo tabemasu. called ‘inactive’ verbs, like neru = ‘sleep,’ that (‘As for before, she didn’t like it very much, but as can be used with either ni or de, depending on the for now, she eats anything.’) intended meaning. When using these verbs, think Nanika = ‘something’; nanimo = ‘nothing’ in of the particle de as meaning ‘in’ and the particle negative constructions; minna, mina or subete = ni as meaning ‘at.’ In the sentence above , de is ‘everything’ in positive constructions. Nandemo = used to show that I slept ‘in’ the plane. It is also OK ‘anything,’ to say koko ni nete kudasai = ‘please sleep at here.’

Other ‘inactive’ verbs that can be used with either ni あそこは狭くなかったです。 or de, depending on what you mean, include dekiru = ‘be able to,’ suteru = ‘throw away,’ ochiru = ‘fall,’ Asoko wa, semakunakatta desu.(‘As for over tomaru = ‘stop, intransitive,’ tomeru = ‘stop, there, it was not tight or narrow.’) transitive,’ suwaru = ‘sit,’ and tatsu = ‘stand.’ It Nai, meaning ‘not,’ is the plain speech form of seems that nokoru = ‘stay behind’ can only be used arimasen. To form the past form of nai, drop the with ni. For example, kaisha ni nokoru = ‘she will final i and add katta = nakatta. Desu may be added, stay behind at the company.’ but desu is optional. In the above sentence, Semaku arimasen deshita, OK. Semakunai deshita, not OK. マイケルはどこでもよく寝ます。 Lesson 4. 8

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Lesson 4. 高かった。 Kyoo wa atatakai kara, biiru ga nomitai desu ne. Takakatta. (‘It was expensive.’) (‘As for today, since it’s warm, I want to drink beer, To form the past plain speech form of an i huh.’) adjective, drop the final i and add katta; this may be Use -tai after a verb stem to add the meaning followed by desu, but desu is optional. Takai ‘desire.’ Often the resulting i adjective is followed deshita, not OK. by desu. You may use either o or ga after –tai. For example, Sushi o tabetai desu = sushi ga tabetai こんなにうるさくありませんでした。 desu = ‘I want to eat sushi.’ Both Japanese sentences are correct. Desu is optional. Konna ni urusaku arimasen deshita.

(‘It wasn't noisy like this.’) Garu is used to indicate that another person Konna = ‘like this,’ sonna = ‘like that,’ anna = ‘like appears to have certain feelings. Add garu to the that over there,’ donna = ‘what kind of.’ When you stem of an i adjective, or to a na adjective. For add ni to any of these adjectives, they become example, if you add garu to the stem of tabetai, you adverbs, modifying a verb or another adjective. can say things like sushi o tabetagatte imasu = ‘he For example, konna ni oishii = ‘delicious like this.’ appears to want to eat sushi.’

今日は映画に行きましょう。 じゃあ、私はえびがいいわ。 Kyoo wa, eiga ni ikimashoo. Jaa, watashi wa ebi ga ii wa. (‘As for today, let’s go for the purpose of a movie.’) (‘Well, as for me, shrimp is good.’) Use ni after a verb stem, or after an activity, to Wa is used by women for emphasis. indicate doing something for a purpose. For example, tabe ni ikimasu = ‘I will go for the purpose Counting long thin objects: Ippon = ‘1 bottle,’ of eating.’ Tenisu ni ikimasu = ‘I will go for the Nihon = ‘2 bottles,’ Sanbon = ‘3 bottles,’ Yonhon = purpose of tennis.’ ‘4 bottles,’ Gohon = ‘5 bottles,’ Roppon = ‘6

bottles,’ Shichihon or Nanahon = ‘7 bottles,’ 本を読んでます。 Happon or Hachihon = ‘8 bottles,’ Kyuuhon = ‘9 Hon o yondemasu. bottles,’ Juppon or Jippon = ’10 bottles.’ Nanbon = (‘He is reading a book.’) ‘How many bottles?’ In ordinary speech, te imasu is often shortened to temasu, and de imasu is shortened to demasu. For ビールを三本。 example, tabete imasu = tabetemasu = ‘I'm eating.’ Biiru o sanbon. Nonde imasu = nondemasu = ‘I'm drinking.’ (‘Beer, 3 bottles.’)

Use o after beer because it’s an object in this CNN のニュースをよく見ます。 sentence. CNN no nyuusu o yoku mimasu. (‘I watch CNN’s news often.’) ずいぶん人が多いですね。 Yoku is the ku form of ii = yoi = ‘good.’ It means Zuibun hito ga ooi desu ne. ‘often.’ It also means ‘well.’ For example, yoku (‘Extremely, people are numerous, huh.’) benkyoo o shimashita = ‘you studied well.’ Ooi is an i adjective meaning ‘numerous.’ You cannot use ooi by itself to modify a noun. For Lesson 5 example, ooi hito ga kimasu, not OK. Instead, say 今日は暖かいからビールが飲みたいですね。 Lesson 5. 9

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Lesson 5. ooku no hito ga kimasu = ‘a lot of Days of the week: Nichiyoobi = Sunday, people will come.’ Getsuyoobi = Monday, Kayoobi = Tuesday, Ooi can also mean ‘the majority.’ For example, Suiyoobi = Wednesday, Mokuyoobi = Thursday, gakusei no ooku wa otoko da = ‘the majority of Kinyoobi = Friday, Doyoobi = Saturday. Nanyoobi students are male.’ = ‘What day of the week?’ Oozei means ‘a crowd of people’; oozei is a noun, not an adjective. It’s OK to substitute oozei for ooi 来週の日曜日にはどんなことをしたいです in the target sentence above. か。 For example, hito ga ooi = hito ga ooi desu = hito Raishuu no nichiyoobi ni wa donna koto o shitai ga oozei = hito ga oozei desu = hito ga oozei imasu = ‘there are a lot of people.’ Higo ga ooi imasu, not desu ka. OK. Another example: oozei no hito ga kimasu = (‘As for on next week’s Sunday, what kinds of ‘a lot of people will come.’ things would you like to do?’) The opposite of ooi is sukunai (‘few’). For example, Koto ga shitai, also OK. kuruma ga sukunai = ‘there are few cars.’ Hito ga Koto = intangible things or facts. Mono = tangible sukunai = ‘there are few people.’ However, don’t things, or intangible things to which the speaker use the ku form of sukunai in the way you would attaches an emotion. use the ku form of ooi. In other words, don’t say sukunaku no hito. Instead say sukunai hito (‘few 疲れたからもう寝ます。 people’). Tsukareta kara moo nemasu. (‘Because I got tired, I'm going to bed already,’ ビール三本ください。 meaning ‘now.’) Biiru sanbon kudasai. Node and kara both mean ‘because.’ Tsukareta kara moo nemasu = tsukareta node moo nemasu = (‘Beer 3 bottles, please.’) ‘since I got tired, I will go to bed now.’ You don’t need to use the particle o after an object if you follow it with a number. For example, kitte sanmai kaimashita = ‘I bought 3 いい天気なので公園へ行きましょう。 stamps.’ Kitte o sanmai kaimashita, also OK. Ii tenki na node, kooen e ikimashoo. (‘Since it’s good weather, let's go to the park.’) Counting objects up to 10: hitotsu, futatsu, mittsu, You cannot use da or desu before node; instead yottsu, itsutsu, muttsu, nanatsu, yattsu, kokonotsu, you must use na to mean ‘it is.’ too. You cannot use da or desu before no; instead you must use na. For example, taihen da = ‘it's terrible.’ Names of months: Ichigatsu, Nigatsu, Sangatsu, Taihen na no (using no as a softening word) = ‘it's Shigatsu, Gogatsu, Rokugatsu, Shichigatsu, terrible.’ Hachigatsu, Kugatsu, Juugatsu, Juuichigatsu, Juunigatsu すみません。道が込んでいたので。 Sumimasen. Michi ga konde ita node. st nd Days of the month: Tsuitachi =1 , Futsuka = 2 , (‘Excuse me. Because the streets were crowded.’) rd th th th Mikka = 3 , Yokka = 4 , Itsuka = 5 , Muika = 6 , Note that although you can say kara desu, you can th th th Nanoka = 7 , Yooka = 8 , Kokonoka = 9 , Tooka = never say node desu. For example, michi ga konde th th th 10 , Juu ichi nichi = 11 , Juu ni nichi = 12 , Juu ita kara = ‘because the streets were crowded.’ th th th yokka = 14 , Hatsuka = 20 , Nijuu yokka = 24 . Michi ga konde ita kara desu = Lesson 5.

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Lesson 5. ‘it’s because the streets were crowded.’ The verb hoshigaru, ‘appear to desire,’ is a Michi ga konde ita node desu, not OK. combination of hoshii and garu (‘appears’). Hoshigaru is preceded by o. For example, biiru o なぜですか。 hoshigatte imasu = ‘he appears to be wanting beer.’ Naze desu ka. Mono means ‘tangible thing,’ but it also has other (‘Why is it?’) idiomatic meanings. Here it means something like Naze and dooshite both mean ‘why?’ and can be ‘because’ and suggests an emotional component to used interchangeably. Naze desu ka = dooshite desu Michael’s complaint. Baabara ga atarashii no o ka = ‘why is it?’ hoshigatte iru kara, also OK.

Lesson 6 ちょっとお待ちください。 Chotto omachi kudasai. ええ、みんな親切で明るい人たちでした。 (‘Please honorably wait a moment.’) Ee, minna shinsetsu de, akarui hitotachi deshita. To make a veru polite honorific form of a verb (‘Yeah, all of them were kind and cheerful people.’) request, in order to ask someone to do something in Minna means ‘everyone.’ Minasan (‘honorable business or official situations, put o before the verb everyone)’ and minasama (‘very honorable stem and follow the verb stem with kudasai, as everyone’) are terms often used to address a group. shown in this sentence. See Lesson 21. Minna de = ‘all together.’ Minna no hito = ‘all the The most common expression used when asking people.’ someone to wait is Chotto matte kudasai = ‘please -tachi is a suffix used to make a noun plural. -tachi wait a moment.’ A still more polite way to ask is optional when used with hito, since hito can mean someone to wait is shooshoo omachi kudasai. either ‘person’ or ‘people.’ However, -tachi is mandatory when used with watashi and anata, i.e., それではこんなのはいかがですか。 watashitachi = ‘we’; anatatachi = you.’ Sore de wa, konna no wa ikaga desu ka. (‘Well then, as for this type, how is it?’) バーバラが新しいのをほしがっているもの Sore de wa = sore ja = ‘well then, in that case.’ ですから。 It’s OK to use konna mono instead of konna no. For Baabara ga atarashii no o hoshigatte iru mono example, konna mono ikaga desu ka = ‘as for this desu kara. kind of thing, how is it?’ Ikaga is a polite way to (‘Since Barbara new ones seems to be wanting thing say ‘how.’ Doo also means ‘how.’ it is.’) (In this sentence, Michael is commenting on his wife’s shopping.) でもとても楽しいです。 To make a noun phrase with an i adjective, add no Demo totemo tanoshii desu. to the adjective, e.g. ‘atarashii no’ = the new one. (‘But it’s very pleasant.’) To make a noun phrase with a na adjective, add no Demo (meaning 'but') is used only at the beginning after na, e.g. ‘shizuka na no’ = the quiet one. of a sentence. To make a noun phrase with a verb, add no to the verb, e.g., ‘katta no’ = the purchased one. しかし田中さんは来ませんでした。 The verb hoshii means ‘desire.’ It is typically preceded by ga. For example, biiru ga hoshii = Shikashi tanakasan wa kimasen deshita. ‘beer is desired’ or ‘I want some beer.’ (‘However, as for Tanaka, he didn’t come.’) Shikashi (meaning 'however' or 'but') is used only at the beginning of a sentence. Lesson 6. 11

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Lesson 6. Shikashi is bookish. return’) is the stem form of kaeru = kaerimasu = ‘return.’ 広くて明るいです。 Hirokute akarui desu. Lesson 7 (‘It’s spacious and well-lighted,’ referring to a 行ったことがありますか。 room.) Itta koto ga arimasu ka. Te and De. When you are juxtaposing two terms (‘Have you ever gone there?’) (nouns, adjectives or verbs) in one sentence and One response to this question could be ee, itta koto want to insert and between them, use te or de after ga aru = ‘yeah, I have gone.’ the first term. When you want to insert and after an Koto = intangible thing. Itta koto ga aru means i adjective, remove the final i and add kute. For ‘went thing exists’ = ‘have ever gone.’ Tabeta koto example, in the above sentence, hiroi (‘spacious’) ga aru = ‘ate thing exists’ = ‘have ever eaten.’ becomes hirokute. 込んでいるかもしれませんよ。 Counting people: Hitori = ‘1 person,’ futari = ‘2 Konde iru kamoshiremasen yo. people,’ san nin = ‘3 people,’ yo nin (or yonnin) = 4 (‘It might be crowded, for sure.’) people), gonin = ‘5 people,’ etc. Kamoshiremasen = kamoshirenai = ‘there’s a

chance that.’ どうぞ好きなのを取ってください。

Doozo suki na no o totte kudasai. 初めてです。 (‘Please go ahead and take the ones you like.’) Hajimete desu. Suki is a na adjective, e.g. suki na hon = ‘the book I (‘It’s starting,’ meaning ‘this is my first time.’) like.’ Examples of how to use hajimete: Kono omatsuri

wa hajimete desu = ‘it's the first time I've been to ええ、それで結構です。 this festival.’ Hajimete sukii o suru hito = sukii o Ee, sore de kekkoo desu. hajimete suru hito = a person first learning to ski. (‘Yeah, that will be fine.’) Kore ga hajimete desu and kondo ga hajimete desu, To say ‘something will be all right,’ say de kekkoo both OK. Kono toki wa (or ga), hajimete desu, not desu, de ii desu, or de yoroshii desu. For example, OK. Ima wa (or ga) hajimete desu, also not OK. It kono resutoran de yoroshii desu = ‘this restaurant just sounds awkward to use toki and ima with will be fine.’ hajimete. However, kyoo ga hajimete desu is OK. Don’t confuse these phrases with the ones used to give permission, te mo ii, te mo yoroshii and te mo 行くつもりです。 kamaimasen. (see Lesson 17.) For example, tabete mo ii desu = ‘it’s all right to eat.’ Ikutsumori desu. (‘I plan to go.’) Ikanai tsumori desu = ‘I plan not to go’ (a mild 帰りに小さい店があったのでぼくも入った。 statement). Ikutsumori wa arimasen = ‘There is no Kaeri ni chiisai mise ga atta node, boku mo intention of going’ (a strong statement). haitta. Tsumori = ‘plan to’ or ‘intend to.’ (‘At the return, because a small store existed, I also entered.’) きっと来るでしょう。 In some cases, you can form a noun from a verb’s Kitto kuru deshoo. Lesson 7. stem form, i.e., the pre-masu form. Kaeri (‘the 12

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Lesson 7. (‘It’s certain that he will come.’) example, gohan o tabe nagara terebi o mimasu = おそらく来るでしょう。 ‘while eating rice, I watch TV.’ Osoraku kuru deshoo. (‘It’s very likely that he will come.’) でも日本語の教科書ほどじゃありませんよ。 たぶん来るでしょう。 Demo, nihongo no kyookasho hodo ja arimasen Tabun kuru deshoo. yo. (‘But not as much as a Japanese language textbook, (‘Probably he will come.’) for sure.’)

When hodo, meaning ‘not as ... as,’ is preceded by a Lesson 8 noun, the verb must be negative, e.g., kuruma wa それに通勤の電車は、込んで大変でしょう。 densha hodo hayaku arimasen = ‘as for the car, Sore ni tsuukin no densha wa konde taihen compared to the train, it isn't fast’ (ie., ‘the car is not deshoo. as fast as the train’). However, when hodo means 'to (‘Moreover, since the commuter trains get crowded, a degree,' the verb can be either positive or negative, they're probably terrible.’) e.g., sono shigoto wa sore hodo yasashiin desu ka = Use the te or de form to express a reason, to mean ‘is that work that easy?’ ‘because.’ For example, kaze o hiite ikimasen Saki hodo = ‘a little while ago.’ deshita = ‘because I caught cold, I didn't go.’ When hodo is used with a quantifier, it means ‘about,’ e.g. biiru o sanbon hodo nomimashita = ‘I 行きの方がひどいと思いますよ。 drank about 3 bottles of beer.’

Iki no hoo ga, hidoi to omoimasu yo. マイケルが買った本。マイケルの買った本。 (‘Going is more awful I think, for sure.’) Iki is a noun meaning ‘to go’ or ‘going’ and is the Maikeru ga katta hon. Maikeru no katta hon. stem form of ikimasu (‘go’). Again, the stem form (‘A book that Michael bought.’) of a verb can be used to make a noun. Ga v. no. When modifiying a noun using a clause, Hoo means ‘direction’ or ‘side.’ Hoo ga is used to the subject of the modifying clause may be show an alternative and is combined with adjectives marked with either ga or no. For example, Ashi like hidoi (‘awful’) to mean ‘more than’ or ‘less ga nagai hito = ashi no nagai hito = ‘a person with than.’ Iki no hoo ga hidoi could be translated as ‘the long legs.’ Kuruma ga nai hito = kuruma no nai going’s side is more awful.’ hito = ‘a person without a car.’ To is used indicate quotation marks; for example, kuru to iimashita = ‘he said he will come.’ Counting months: Ikka getsu, Nika getsu, Sanka getsu, Yonka getsu, Goka getsu, Rokka getsu, イヤホンで音楽を聞きながら新聞を読んで Nanaka getsu, Hakka getsu or Hachika getsu, Kyuuka getsu, Jikka getsu or Juuka getsu, Juuyonka いる人もいますね。 getsu, Nijikka getsu or Nijuuka getsu. Iyahon de ongaku o kiki nagara, shinbun o yonde iru hito mo imasu ne. Counting weeks: Isshuukan, nishuukan, (‘While listening to music with earphones, there are sanshuukan, etc. Jisshuukan or jusshuukan = ‘10 also newspaper-reading people, right?’) weeks.’ Nijisshuukan or nijusshuukan = ‘20 weeks.’ To express the idea of doing something while doing something else, follow the stem form (the Kan, meaning duration, is required for weeks and pre-masu form) of the verb with nagara. For hours, e.g. isshukan = ‘1 week,’ Lesson 8. 13

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Lesson 8. nijikan = ‘2 hours.’ Kan is optional ookiku arimasen = ‘not as big as Tokyo, Osaka, etc.’ for years, months, days and minutes, e.g. ichinen or Ookii desu ga, tookyoo hodo ja arimasen = ‘it's big, ichinenkan (‘1 year’), nikkagetsu or nikkagetsukan but not compared to Tokyo.’ Basu de iku yori, (‘2 months’), mikka or mikkakan (‘3 days’), yonpun kuruma de iku hoo ga, chotto hayai desu = or yonpunkan (‘4 minutes’). ‘compared to going by bus, going by car is a little Do not use the optional kan before mae ni, ato ni, faster.’ (cannot say iku no hoo ga or iki no hoo ga) or go ni. For example, mikkakan no ryokoo ni ikimasu = ‘I'm going on a 4-day trip.’ Mikka mae ni いいえ、高いとは思いません。 nihon ni kimashita = ‘I came to Japan 4 days ago.’ Iie, takai to wa omoimasen. (‘No, I don't think they are high.’ Referrring to 三度も乗り換えます。 prices.) Sando mo norikaemasu. Use wa after to in negative sentences, when to is (‘I transfer all of 3 times!’) used to indicate quotation marks. Use mo after a number or quantity for emphasis, to indicate that it is more than expected; or with バーバラさんは日本の物価は高いと思って negative verbs, to indicate that it is less than います。 expected. For example, nijikan mo machimashita = Baabarasan wa nihon no bukka wa takai to ‘I waited all of one hour.’ Hitotsu mo arimasen = ‘there isn't even one.’ omotte imasu. (‘As for Barbara, she thinks Japanese prices are high.’) 空港には銀行やレストランなどがあります。 To state someone else's opinion, say to omotte iru. Kuukoo ni wa ginkoo ya resutoran nado ga To state your own opinion, say either to omou or to arimasu. omotte iru. For example, nihon no bukka wa takai (‘As for at the airport, there are banks, restaurants, to omoimasu = nihon no bukka wa takai to omotte etc.’) imasu = ‘I think Japanese prices are high.’ To say etcetera, you may use ya, nado and/or toka. Here’s another example: Shitsu toka, airon toka, Lesson 9 iroiro na mono o kaimashita = ‘sheets etc., an iron 三枚あるから一枚あげましょう。 etc., I bought various things.’ San mai aru kara, ichimai agemashoo. Comparisons. B wa A yori ookii desu = ‘B is bigger (‘Since 3 exist, I shall give you one.’) than A.’ A yori B no hoo ga takai desu = ‘B is more San mai ga aru, not OK; you don’t need to use ga expensive than A.’ A wa B hodo takakunai desu = or wa after numbers, and here ga sounds wrong. ‘A is not as expensive as B.’ A mo B mo takai desu Mai is a counter for flat thin items (stamps,in this = ‘A and B are both expensive.’ Densha to kuruma case). to, dochira no hoo ga hayai desu ka = ‘train v. car, which is faster?’ Densha wa, kuruma yori, hayai 主人は今晩遅いと言ってましたからどうぞ desu = ‘the car is faster than the train.’ Sushi to ごゆっくり。 tempura to, dochi ga suki desu ka = ‘sushi or Shujin wa konban osoi to ittemashita kara, tempura, which do you like better?’ Tenpura no hoo doozo goyukkuri. ga suki = ‘I like tempura better.’ Sushi mo tenpura (‘Since my husband was saying “tonight late,” go mo suki = ‘I like both sushi and tempura.’ Dochira ahead, take your honorable time.’) Lesson 9. mo suki = ‘I like both.’ Tookyoo ya oosaka hodo 14

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Lesson 9. Goyukkuri shite kudasai, also OK. The ‘tai’ form is inflected like an i adjective. Yukkuri = ‘slowly,’ ‘taking time,’ ‘leisurely.’ The prefix go is honorific, similar to o. Words of 漢字を覚えるのは大変です。 Japanese origin may be preceded by o to show Kanji o oboeru no wa taihen desu. respect, e.g., osushi (‘honorable sushi’). Words of (‘To memorize kanji is terrible.’) Chinese origin may be preceded by go, e.g., Noun Phrases. No and koto turn a previous phrase goshinpai (‘honorable worry’). into a noun. No is preferred for something directly Women use honorific prefixes more often than men perceived by the senses. Koto is more formal or do. Don’t use such prefixes when referring to your bookish. For example, Samui no wa ii kedo, atsui no own affairs. wa iya desu = ‘as for cold, it's OK, but as for heat, it's irritating.’ Ashita ga yasumi na no wa ureshii 来月六つになると言ってました。 desu = ‘that tomorrow is vacation is pleasing.’ (You Raigetsu muttsu ni naru to ittemashita. cannot say yasumi da no, since you cannot use da (‘They were saying he will become six next month.’) before no. So you must use na to mean ‘is,’ instead Rokusai, also OK, instead of muttsu (both mean ‘six of da. Also you cannot say yasumi da koto.) years old’) No or ‘n can also be used to make the pronouns Naru = narimasu = to become; usually preceded by ‘one’ or ‘ones.’ For example, anata ga tsukuttan ni. For a noun, add ni and naru to describe a desu ka = ‘are they the ones that you made?’ change in state. For example, Otooto wa Another example: ichigo o kureta no wa, dare? = suupaaman ni naritai to omotte imasu = ‘as for the ‘as for the one who gave us strawberries, who?’ little brother, he thinks he wants to become Superman.’ 冷たい風が吹くのを感じました。 Tsumetai kaze ga fuku no o kanjimashita. 部屋がきれいになりました。 (‘I felt the cold wind blow.’) Heya ga kirei ni narimashita. Since the wind is directly perceived by the senses, (‘The room became clean.’) you may not substitute koto for no in this sentence. For a na adjective, add ni and naru to describe a Tsumetai is used for cold objects; samui is used for change in state. cold weather, cold days etc. Fuku = ‘blow,’ ‘breathe,’ or ‘whistle.’ Kanjiru = 子供は大きくなります。 ‘feel’ or ‘sense.’ Kodomo wa ookiku narimasu. (‘Children become big,’ meaning ‘they grow up.’) マイケルは日本語を話すことができます。 For an i adjective, remove the final i, and then add Maikeru wa nihongo o hanasu koto ga dekimasu. ku and naru, to describe a change in state. For (‘Michael can speak Japanese.’) example, samuku narimasu = ‘it will become cold.’ A plain speech verb followed by koto ga dekiru means ‘can do.’ For example, Puuru de oyogu koto 日本語が上手になったから日本に行きたく ga dekimasu = ‘one can swim in the pool.’ なりました。 先生に本を差し上げました。 Nihongo ga joozu ni natta kara, nihon ni ikitaku narimashita. Sensei ni hon o sashiagemashita. (‘Since the Japanese became skillful, it developed ‘I gave a book to the teacher.’ that I want to go to Japan.’) Use sashiageru if you or someone else give to someone not in your in-group, Lesson 9. 15

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Lesson 9. showing extra respect. Kono hon o jiroosan kara moraimashita. ‘I received this book from Jiroo.’ けい子さんはまき子さんに本を上げました。 Use morau if you or another person receives from Keikosan wa makikosan ni hon o agemashita. an equal or inferior. This can be used in almost any ‘Keiko gave a book to Makiko.’ situation. あなたにこの本をあげましょう。 社長からこの本をいただきました。 Anata ni kono hon o agemashoo. ‘I shall give this book to you.’ Shachoo kara kono hon o itadakimashita. Use ageru if you or someone else give to someone ‘I received this book from the president.’ who is not in your in-group, showing normal respect. Use itadaku if you or a member of your in-group receives from an equal or superior (polite speech). Say itadakimasu before eating or drinking, or when 犬にえさをやりました。 you accept a gift of food or drink. Also, use this Inu ni esa o yarimashita. word to indicate your choice in polite situations, ‘I gave animal food to the dog.’ e.g., kore o itadakimasu = ‘I’ll take this one.’ 弟に本をやりました。 Otooto ni hon o yarimashita. 子供の誕生日に何をやろうか。 ‘I gave a book to little brother.’ Kodomo no tanjoobi ni nani o yaroo ka. Use yaru if you give to a member of your in-group, (‘What shall we give for the child's birthday?’) or if you or someone else give to someone outside To say a plain speech ‘shall’ or ‘let’s’ for a u verb, your in-group who is definitely inferior. add oo to the root (the pre-u form). For example,

nomoo (from nomu) = ‘I shall drink’ or ‘let’s drink.’ 家内はこの本をくれました。 To say a plain speech ‘shall’ or ‘let’s’ for an ru Kanai wa kono hon o kuremashita. verb, add yoo to the root. For example, tabeyoo ‘The wife gave me this book.’ (from taberu) = ‘I shall eat’ or ‘let’s eat.’ 友達が娘にその本をくれました。 Tomodachi ga musume ni sono hon o Lesson 10 kuremashita. お茶でもいかがですか。 ‘A friend gave that book to my daughter.’ Ocha demo ikaga desu ka. Use kureru if something is given to you or to a (‘Honorable tea, at least, how is it?’ Meaning, member of your in-group by someone in your in- ‘would you like some tea, at least?’) group, or by someone outside your in-group who has Demo means ‘but.’ It can also mean ‘at least’ or ‘or equal or inferior status. something.’ For example, toranpu demo shimashoo ka = ‘shall we play cards or something?’ 先生がこの本をくださいました。 Sensei ga kono hon o kudasaimashita. もういっぱいお茶を入れましょうか。 ‘The teacher gave me this book.’ Moo ippai ocha o iremashoo ka. Use kudasaru if something is given to you or to a (‘Another cup, tea shall I make?’) member of your in-group by someone outside your Hai is a counter used for cups, bowls etc; ippai (‘1 in-group who has equal or greater age or status. cup’), nihai (‘2 cups’), sanbai (‘3 cups’) etc. Transitive and intransitive verb pairs like akeru この本を次郎さんからもらいました。 and aku (both meaning ‘open’) Lesson 10.

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Lesson 10. are common in Japanese. For example, by either o or ga, e.g., doa o shimete aru = doa ga mado o akeru = ‘I open the window.’ Mado ga aku shimete aru = ‘the door is closed by someone.’ Both = ‘the window opens.’ of these Japanese sentences are correct. The ‘e rule’ says that, looking at such verb pairs, transitive verbs tend to end in eru; e.g., いいえ、消さないでください。 akeru(‘open’) is transitive, aku is intransitive; Iie, kesanai de kudasai. shimeru (‘close’) is transitive, shimaru (‘close’) is (‘No, please don't turn it off.’) intransitive. However, su trumps eru in To make a negative request, follow the negative determining which verbs are transitive, e.g. kesu plain speech form of the verb with de kudasai. For (‘extinguish’) v. kieru (‘go out’), dasu (‘put out’) v. example, tabenai de kudasai = ‘please don't eat.’ deru (‘go out’ or ‘exit’); nekasu (‘put to sleep’) v. neru (‘sleep’). 子供がお菓子を食べてしまいました。 Exceptions to the e rule include: kiru (‘cut,’ transitive) v. kireru (‘be cut’); uru (‘sell something’) Kodomo ga okashi o tabete shimaimashita. v. ureru (‘be sold’); nuru (‘paint’ or ‘get something (‘The child ate up the sweets.’) wet’) v. nureru (‘get wet’). Shimau can be added to the te or de form of a verb The te or de form of intransitive verbs like aku to suggest that the action is done thoroughly and (open) is followed by imasu when describing a completely. fixed condition or an ongoing action, e.g., mado ga In ordinary speech, te shimau is shortened to chau. aite imasu = ‘the window is open’ or ‘the window is In ordinary speech, de shimau is shortened to jau. opening.’ For example, Oboete shimau = oboechau = “I will The te or de form of transitive verbs is followed memorize it completely.’ Oboete shimaimashita = by iru (imasu) when describing an ongoing action, oboechatta = ‘I memorized it completely.’ e.g. mado o akete imasu = ‘I’m opening the Ocha o nonde shimaimasu = ocha o nonde shimau = window.’ ‘I will drink the tea completely.’ Ocha o nonde However, the ‘transitive aru rule,’ or transitive shimaimashita = ocha o nonjatta = ‘I drank the tea rule, states that the te or de form of transitive completely.’ verbs is usually followed by aru (arimasu), when describing a fixed condition, e.g., mado ga akete この魚は新しいから刺身にしましょう。 arimasu = ‘the window was opened by someone.’ Kono sakana wa atarashii kara, sashimi ni Doa ga shimete arimasu = ‘the door was closed by shimashoo. someone.’ (‘As for this fish, since it’s fresh, let's make sashimi Some verbs are exceptions to the transitive aru out of it.’) rule, e.g., hajimete imasu = ‘it is begun by Turning something into something else. To someone,’ nakushite imasu = ‘it is lost by someone.’ express the idea of turning a noun into another noun, Another exception to the transitive aru rule such as changing fruit to juice, or of changing occurs when you want to imply that the speaker something using a na adjective, such as making did something, e.g., denki o tsukete imasu = ‘the something clean, add ni suru or ni shimasu to the light is on (because I turned it on).’ resulting noun or na adjective. For example, Heya Mado o akete imasu = ‘the window is open (because o kirei ni shimasu = ‘I will make the room clean.’ I opened it).’ (Note that ni suru also means ‘I choose.’ See Lesson 12.) Ga v. O: In ‘te aru’ or ‘de aru’ constructions, the direct object of a transitive verb may be indicated 部屋を暖かくします。 Lesson 10. 17

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Lesson 10. Heya o atatakaku shimasu. Made ni is used after a plain non-past form of a verb (‘I'll make the room warm.’) or various time words to indicate the time by or To express the idea of changing something into before which an action is completed. For example, something else using an i adjective, such as juuji made ni ikimasu = ‘I will go by 10 o'clock.’ making something warm, remove the final i and add ku suru or ku shimasu to the i 田中は席をはずしておりますが。 adjective. For example, Koori o irete juusu o Tanaka wa seki o hazushite orimasu ga. tsumetaku shimashoo = ‘Adding ice, let's make the (‘Tanaka is leaving the seat humbly, but ...,’ juice cold.’ meaning ‘he’s absent’) Seki o hazusu = ‘leave one's seat.’ Lesson 11 Orimasu = oru = humble form of iru = imasu; oru 新しい漢字を十回づつ書いて練習する。 is used in very polite situations to refer to yourself or Atarashii kanji o jikkai zutsu kaite renshuu suru. members of your in-group. (‘Writing new kanji 10 times each, I practice.’) Kai means ‘times,’ similar to ‘do.’ For example, Lesson 12 ikkai, nikai, sankai = ‘1 time,’ ‘2 times,’ ‘3 times.’ 少し飲みすぎたんですね。 (Juudo doesn’t sound as good as jikkai here. Juukai Sukoshi nomisugitan desu ne. also OK.) Zutsu = ‘each.’ (‘A little, you drank too much, huh?’) The suffix -sugiru means ‘to excess’; this may be 会議があるから資料をコピーしておきまし combined with a verb stem, e.g., nomi plus sugiru = ょう。 nomisugiru = ‘drink too much.’ Or it may be Kaigi ga aru kara, shiryoo o kopii shite combined with the stem of an i adjective, e.g., okimashoo. ookisugiru = ‘too big.’

(‘Since a meeting exists, let's copy the literature in advance.’) 田中さんは六時までに来るはずでしたが、 Te oku means to do something as advance なかなか来ませんでした。 preparation. For example, sooji o shite okimasu = ‘I Tanaka san wa rokuji made ni kuru hazu deshita will clean in advance.’ ga, nakanaka kimasen deshita. (‘Tanaka was supposed to come by 6:00, but he 電車に乗って行きましょう。 didn't come readily.’) Densha ni notte ikimashoo. To show that something ought to, should or is (‘Riding by train, let’s go,’ meaning ‘let's go riding supposed to be, use hazu desu after the plain form by train.’) of a verb, or after an i adjective. For example, The te (or de) form of a verb can be used as an Kono mise no koohii wa oishii hazu desu = ‘This adverb, i.e., it can mean ‘ing.’ For example, hon o shop's coffee ought to be good.’ mite tabemasu = ‘reading a book, I eat.’ Nakanaka means ‘considerably,’ ‘quite,’ ‘not easily,’ ‘not readily.’ コピーは十時までにできる。 Kopii wa juuji made ni dekiru? 掃除をしたから部屋はきれいなはずです。 (‘As for the copying, will it be ready by 10:00?) Sooji o shita kara heya wa kirei na hazu desu. Kopii ga, also OK.. (‘Since I cleaned, the rooms ought to be clean.’) Lesson 12. 18

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Lesson 12. To show that something ought to, Kaigi wa juuji ni hajimeru koto ni shimasu. should or is supposed to be, use na hazu desu after (‘As for the meeting, I decide to begin at 10:00.’) a na adjective. To show that a person himself decides upon or chooses an action, follow a plain speech verb with これはバーバラさんのハンドバッグのはず koto ni suru. です。 Kore wa baabarasan no handobaggu no hazu 熱いからビールにしましょうか。 desu. Atsui kara, biiru ni shimashoo ka. (‘I expect this is Barbara's handbag.’) (‘Since it's hot, shall I choose beer?’) To show that something ought to, should or is To show that one decides on a noun, follow the supposed to be, use no hazu desu after after a noun with ni suru. noun. 広告を見ながら漢字の勉強をすることにし 田中さんはまだ仕事をしているから来ない ています。 はずです。 Kookoku o mi nagara, kanji no benkyoo o suru Tanaka san wa mada shigoto o shite iru kara, koto ni shite imasu. konai hazu desu. (‘While I look at advertisements, my routine is to do (‘Since Tanaka is still working, I expect him not to kanji’s study.’) come.’) To indicate that you have decided upon or set a To show that something is not supposed to be or course of action for yourself , or that you do some not expected to be, follow a negative verbal or action routinely, follow a plain speech verb with adjective with hazu desu. koto ni shite iru.

田中さんは今旅行しているから来るはずが 会議は十時から始めることになりました。 ありません。 Kaigi wa juuji kara hajimeru koto ni Tanaka san wa ima ryokoo shite iru kara, kuru narimashita. (‘As for the meeting, it was decided that someone hazu ga arimasen. will start it from 10:00.’) (‘Since Tanaka is traveling now, it's impossible that To show that an action is to be decided on (an he will come.’) impersonal decision), follow a plain speech verb To say that something is impossible, follow hazu with koto ni naru. with ga nai, wa nai, ga arimasen, or wa arimasen.

来週ヨーロッパに出発することになってい 私は明日会議に出るつもりです。 ます。 Watashi wa asu kaigi ni derutsumori desu. (‘As for me, tomorrow, I plan to attend the Raishuu yooroppa ni shuppatsu suru koto ni meeting.’) natte imasu. To state what you intend to do, add tsumori to the (‘Next week, I'm scheduled to leave for Europe.’) plain speech form of a verb. For example, nihon e When stating the way things are, such as schedules, ikutsumori desu = ‘I plan to go to Japan.’ rules, customs etc., follow a plain speech verb with koto ni natte iru. For example, Nihon de wa ie no 会議は十時に始めることにします。 naka de wa kutsu o hakanai Lesson 12.

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Lesson 12. koto ni natte imasu = ‘As for in Japan, Nihon no bunka o benkyoo suru tame ni nihon as for inside houses, it's the custom not to wear ni kimashita. shoes.’ (‘In order to study Japanese culture, I came to Haku = ‘put on’ or ‘wear’ shoes, socks or pants. Japan.’) Tame ni means ‘in order to.’ It is usually used after 時間があったら。 a plain speech verb. For example, Shinkansen ni Jikan ga attara. noru tame ni, tookyoo eki ni iku = ‘In order to board (‘When or if there is time.’) a bullet train, I go to Tokyo Station.’ To express the idea ‘if’ or ‘when,’ add ra to the past plain speech form of a verb. This is called the ‘tara’ Lesson 13 form. For example, atta (‘it existed’) becomes 三週間で届くかどうかわかりませんよ。 attara (‘if or when it exists’). Nonda (‘I drank’) Sanshuukan de todoku kadooka wakarimasen yo. becomes nondara (‘if or when she drinks’). (‘I don't know/understand whether it will arrive in 3

weeks, for sure.’) もし風呂が熱すぎたら水を入れてください。 Kadooka = ‘whether or not.” For example, iku Moshi furo ga atsusugitara mizu o irete kudasai. kadooka wakarimasen = “I don’t know whether I (‘Supposing the bath is too hot, please add water.’) will go or not.’ To say ‘supposing,’ or ‘in the event that,’ use moshi or moshimo. For example, Moshimo ame ga futtara Question word with ka: If you follow a question ohanami wa yamemasu = ‘If it rains, as for the word with ka, it means some. For example, nanika honorable flower viewing, it will be stopped by = something, itsuka = sometime, doreka =one of someone.’ Both moshi and moshimo are optional them. and can be omitted without any loss of meaning. Question word with mo: If you follow a question word with mo, it means all or every in positive あした晴れたらいいですね。 constructions; never, none or nowhere in negative Ashita haretara ii desu ne. constructions. However, in affirmative (‘It would be nice if it were sunny tomorrow, huh?) sentences,use one of the following 3 words instead Tara ii means ‘it would be nice if...’ For example, of daremo or nanimo: minna, mina, or subete. Tanaka san mo issho ni kitara yokatta desu ne = ‘If Doremo means ‘any of them’ in positive Tanaka also together had come, it was good, huh?’ constructions, ‘none of them’ in negative constructions. でも明日は映画も見たいし。 Question word with demo: If you follow a question word with demo, it means any. Doredemo means Demo, ashita wa, eiga mo mitai shi .. ‘any of them’ or ‘whichever one.’ (‘But, as for tomorrow, I also want to see a movie, and so therefore ...’) 誰にも会いませんでした。 Shi is used after plain speech verbs to mean and or etc. If used after enumerating facts, it suggests that Dare ni mo aimasen deshita. such facts justify one's actions, feelings or opinions. (‘I didn't meet anyone;’ literally, ‘I didn’t meet no one’) 日本の文化を勉強するために日本に来まし When the particles ni and e are used with some pronouns ending in mo, they are located in the た。 middle of the pronoun. For example, Lesson 13.

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Lesson 13. Doko e mo ikimasen deshita = ‘I (‘Don’t discard garbage.’) didn't go anywhere.’ (literally, ‘I didn’t go to For a plain ‘do not,’ used by men or on signs, nowhere’) follow a plain non-past verb with na. For example, taberu na = ‘do not eat.’ 忘れないでください。 Wasurenai de kudasai. Lesson 14 (‘Please don't forget.’) むこうのおすしは日本のと同じですか。 To make a negative request, add one of the Mukoo no osushi wa nihon no to onaji desu ka. following phrases after a verb stem: (‘Is the honorable sushi on the other side the same as Nai de kudasaimasen ka = ‘won’t you please not do the Japanese?’) and give’ (very polite form) Onaji means ‘the same.’ Chigau means ‘different.’ Nai de kudasai = ‘please don't’ (polite form) For example, onaji booshi o kabutte imasu = ‘they Nai de choodai, or nai de ne = ‘please don’t’ are wearing the same hat.’ Chigau zubon o haite (colloquial form) imasu = ‘they are wearing different pants.’ Onaji is For example, tabenai de kudasaimasenka = tabenai an adjective, while chigau is both an adjective and a de kudasai = tabenai de choodai = tabenai de ne = verb. Say onaji kutsu (‘the same shoes’), not onaji ‘please don’t eat.’ no kutsu. Say chigau kutsu (‘different shoes’). Kutsu ga onaji desu = ‘the shoes are the same.’ 芝生の中に入ってはいけません。 Kutsu ga chigaimasu = ‘the shoes are different.’ Shibafu no naka ni haitte wa ikemasen. (‘You must not enter inside the grass.’) Ichi nichi juu = ‘all day long.’ Hitoban juu = ‘all To form a negative command and say that night long.’ Ichinen juu = ‘all year long.’ Natsu someone must not do something, use the te form of juu = ‘all summer long.’ the verb followed by wa followed by one of the following: ikemasen, ikenai, dame desu, or Juu ni and Chuu ni. These phrases mean 'sometime komarimasu. For example, tabete wa ikemasen = during,' 'anytime during' or 'before the end of.' Kyoo tabete wa ikenai = tabete wa dame desu = tabete wa juu ni = ‘sometime today.’ Kotoshi juu ni = komarimasu = ‘you must not eat.’ ‘sometime this year.’ Konshuu chuu ni (juu ni also OK) = ‘sometime this week.’ Kongetsu chuu ni (juu 芝生に入っちゃだめだよ。 ni also OK) = ‘sometime this month.’ Juugatsu Shibafu ni haitcha dame da yo. chuu ni (juu ni, not OK) = ‘sometime in October.’ (‘To enter the grass is bad for sure.’) Natsuyasumi chuu ni (juu ni also OK) = ‘sometime Haitcha = haite wa. during summer vacation.’ In colloquial speech, cha is a contraction of te wa and ja is a contraction of de wa. Hashitte wa = Still do = mada + affirmative. For example, mada hashitcha (‘as for running’); otte wa = otcha (‘as for kaisha de shigoto o shite imasu = ‘he is still working bending or picking’); haitte wa = haitcha (‘as for at the company.’ entering’); sutete wa= sutecha (‘as for discarding’); No longer do = moo + negative. For example, moo asonde wa= asonja (‘as for playing’); shite wa = tsukaimasen = ‘I won't use it anymore.’ shicha (‘as for doing’). Ni yoru to = ‘According to someone.’

ごみを捨てるな。 No hanashi de wa (literally, ‘as for Lesson 14. Gomi o suteru na. 21

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Lesson 14. from someone’s story or speech’) = それじゃ体によくないですね。 ‘according to what someone says.’ Sore ja, karada ni yoku nai desu ne. Soo desu, No da soo desu, ‘n da soo desu = (‘In that case, for the body it’s not good, huh.’) ‘Something is reportedly true.’ Note that karada ni yoku nai means ‘it isn’t good N desutte, Desutte = ‘Something is reportedly true.’ for the body.’ Karada ni iin ja nai has a very Used by women in informal casual conversations. different meaning: ‘isn’t it good for the body?’ N datte, Tte = ‘something is reportedly true.’ Used by men or women in informal casual conversations. 彼は来週旅行に行くのにまだ用意をしてい Ga or de plus to itte imashita, or ga or de plus tte ittemashita = ‘someone was saying.’ ません。 Ni plus to kaite arimashita, or ni plus tte kaite Kare wa raishuu ryokoo ni iku noni, mada yooi arimashita = ‘something was written.’ o shite imasen. Kara plus to kikimashita or kara plus tte (‘As for him, even though next week he is going on kikimashita = ‘I heard something from someone.’ a trip, he still isn't doing preparations.’) To say ‘even though,’ or ‘in spite of the fact that,’ 田中君病気なのです。 follow a verb (either past or non-past) or a plain i Tanaka kun byooki na no desu. adjective (either past or non-past) with noni. Here’s another example, using an i adjective: Ano (‘Young man Tanaka is sick.’) hito wa, wakai noni, iroiro na koto o shitte imasu = In this sentence, no is used as a softening word. You ‘that person over there, even though young, is must use an alternative to da (i.e., na) if you follow knowing various things.’ da with no (as a softening word).

花子さんは絵が上手なのにあまりかきませ Lesson 15 ん。 太郎だけが休んでいる。 Hanako san wa, e ga joozu na noni, amari Taroo dake ga yasunde iru. kakimasen. (‘Only Taro is being off.’) Taroo dake yasunde iru, (‘As for Hanako, even though she is skillful at also OK. Taro dake yasumi desu, also OK. pictures or drawing, she hardly draws.’) 太郎ばかりやすんでいる。 To say ‘even though,’ or ‘in spite of the fact that,’ Taroo bakari yasunde iru. follow a na adjective with na noni. (‘Only Taro is being off,’ implying as usual and that it's not fair.) 春なのに暖かくなりません。 To convey the idea of ‘only’ or ‘just,’ use either Haru na noni atatakaku narimasen. dake or bakari after a noun. Bakari implies that two (‘Even though it’s spring, it doesn’t become warm.’) choices have been compared and could mean ‘all the To say ‘even though,’ or ‘in spite of the fact that,’ time,’ ‘every time,’ ‘all over,’ or ‘everywhere,’ and follow a noun with na noni. may express the speaker's feeling that the imbalance is not right or is unfair. Bakkari is more emphatic than bakari. The meaning of bakari following a te 月曜日だったのに会社に行きませんでした。 verb form is similar to that following a noun. For Getsuyoobi datta noni, kaisha ni ikimasen example, terebi o mite bakari iru = ‘he’s only deshita. watching TV.’ It's OK to omit wa, ga or o after (‘Even though it was Monday, he didn’t go to the either dake or bakari. company.’) Lesson 15.

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Lesson 15. 元気だったのに仕事をしませんでした。 手が雪のように白い。手が雪みたいに白い。 Genki datta noni, shigoto o shimasen deshita. Te ga yuki no yoo ni shiroi = te ga yuki mitai ni (‘Even though he was healthy, he didn’t do work.’) shiroi. To say ‘even though,’ or ‘in spite of the fact that,’ (‘The hands, like snow, are white.’) in past constructions, follow a noun or a na No yoo and mitai are na adjectives meaning ‘like.’ adjective with datta noni. When you add ni to a na adjective, it becomes an adverb, modifying a verb or another adjective. 雨が降っているけれどテニスに行きましょ う。 朝起きたら雪が降っていました。 Ame ga futte iru keredo, tenisu ni ikimashoo. Asa okitara yuki ga futte imashita. (‘Although it's raining, let's go to play tennis.’) (‘Morning, when I got up, it was snowing.’) Do not use noni with volitional expressions like To express a conditional when or whenever, ‘let's’ or ‘I will.’ follow the past form of a verb or an i adjective with ra. This is described as ‘using tara’ in these lessons. 毎日雨が降ってまるで梅雨のようです。 In this example, okiru = ‘get up.’ Okita = ‘I got up.’ Okitara’ = ‘if I get up’ or ‘when I get up.’ Here’s Mainichi, ame ga futte, maru de tsuyu no yoo another example, using an i adjective: oishii = ‘it’s desu. delicious. Oishikatta = ‘it was delicious.’ (‘Every day, since it rains, it’s completely like the Oishikattara = ‘if it’s delicious’ or ‘when it’s rainy season.’) delicious.’ When modifying a noun, to express the ideas ‘is like,’ ‘similar to,’ ‘same as,’ or to describe the way 朝起きると雪が降っていました。 something appears in comparison to some other noun, use no yoo after the noun. Asa okiru to yuki ga futte imashita. (‘Morning, when I get up, it was snowing.’) 毎日雨が降ってまるで梅雨見たいです。 Another way to express a conditional when or whenever is to follow a plain speech non-past verb Mainichi, ame ga futte, maru de tsuyu mitai with to. This is more bookish but is preferred desu. when the relationship is causal or inevitable, as in (‘Every day, since it rains, it’s completely like the giving directions or discussing natural laws. rainy season.) When modifying a noun, another way to express 雨が止んだらハイキングに行きましょう。 the ideas of ‘is like,’ ‘similar to,’ ‘same as,’ or to describe the way something appears in comparison Ame ga yandara haikingu ni ikimashoo. to some other noun, is to use mitai after the noun. (‘When the rain stops, let’s go hiking.’) You may not follow ‘to’ with a request, command, No yoo can be used with any style of speech, while suggestion, or wish. Ame ga yamu to, haikingu ni mitai is more colloquial. When used as adjectives, ikimashoo, not OK. both no yoo and mitai are na adjectives. For example, Soba wa supagetti no yoo na tabemono タバコを吸ったらだめですよ。 desu = ‘soba is a food like spaghetti. Soba wa Tabako o suttara dame desu yo. supagetti mitai na tabemono desu = ‘soba is a food (‘When you smoke tobacco, it’s bad for sure.’) like spaghetti.’ Lesson 15.

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Lesson 15. Use tara when you want your statement (‘The dog, for the purpose of walking, I will take to sound more personal. along and give.’) Tsurete iku = ‘take a person or animal along.’ タバコを吸うとだめですよ。 Tabako o suu to dame desu yo. お父さんこの本を買って。 (‘When one smokes tobacco, it’s bad for sure.’) Otoosan, kono hon o katte. Use to when you want to make your statement sound (‘Father, buy this book.’) more general and less direct. When addressing one’s parent or older siblings directly, it’s appropriate to use otoosan, okaasan, Lesson 16 oniisan or oneesan. Use chichi, haha, ani and ane 曜日や授業料について書いてあります。 only when talking about your family with outsiders.

Yoobi ya jugyooryoo ni tsuite kaite arimasu. (‘Concerning the days of the week, the tuition, etc. Lesson 17 are written.’) ちょっとお願いしてもういいかしら。 Ni tsuite = ‘concerning,’ ‘regarding,’ ‘pertaining to.’ Chotto onegaishite moo ii kashira. If you use ni tsuite, you omit ga. In the sentence (‘A little, doing begging is OK, I wonder.’) above, you could say ni tsuite wa, but wa and ni Kashira and kana mean ‘I wonder.’ Kashira used tsuite are similar, so it’s best to omit wa as well. more by women; kana more by men.

今日は忙しくてこの仕事はとってもできま あのう家内を連れて行ってもいいですか。 せん。 Anoo, kanai o tsurete itte mo ii desu ka. Kyoo wa isogashikute kono shigoto wa tottemo (‘Say, is it OK if I take the wife?’) dekimasen. Permission: Te mo ii = te mo yoroshii = ‘it’s OK.’ (‘As for today, since I'm busy, this work is Te mo kamaimasen = ‘it doesn’t matter.’ For completely unable to be accomplished.’) example, tabete mo ii desu ka = ‘is it OK if I eat?’ Totemo = ‘very.’ Tottemo = ‘terribly,’ ‘extremely,’ Hai, tabete mo ii = ‘yes, it’s OK to eat.’ Yasunde or ‘completely’ (can also be spelled totemo). mo kamaimasen = ‘it doesn’t matter if you rest’ (meaning, ‘take time off’).

社長の荷物を持って差し上げました。 あの、ちょっとテ－ブルの上の塩を取って Shachoo no nimotsu o motte sashiagemashita. (‘I carried the president's luggage and gave.’) ほしいんだけど。 Use the te or de form of a verb to express the idea Ano, chotto, teburu no ue no shio o totte hoshiin of giving or receiving an action (as opposed to a dakedo. thing). (‘Say, for a moment, I desire you to pass the on-the- Here are some other examples: Shachoo ga homete table salt, but..’) kudasatta = ‘the president praised and gave.’ To say that you desire someone to do something, Shachoo ni homete itadakimashita = ‘by the use the te form of the verb plus hoshii. president, I received praise.’ この荷物を運んでもらいたいんですけど。 犬を散歩に連れて行ってやる。 Kono nimotsu o hakonde moraitain desu kedo. Inu o sanpo ni tsurete itte yaru. (‘I would like you to carry and I to receive this luggage, but.’) Lesson 17. 24

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Another way to say that you would prefer that Tookyoo de niban me ni takai biru desu yo. someone do something is to use the te or de form (‘Of Tokyo, it's the second tallest building for sure.’) of the verb plus moraitai or itadakitai. Here’s Ni turns the word nibanme = ‘second’ into an another example: Buchoo, kono shorui ni sain o adverb, modifying takai. Incidentally, nibanme can shite itadakitain desu ga = ‘division manager, I also be combine with no and used as an adjective, would like for you to sign to this document and I e.g., nibanme no hikidashi = ‘the second drawer.’ humbly receive, but ..’ 朝早く起きなさい。 Lesson 17. 母が病気で寝ているので大きい Asa hayaku okinasai. 音を出さないでほしいんですが。 (‘Get up early in the morning.’) Haha ga byooki de nete iru node, ookii oto o Okiru = ‘get up.’ dasanai de hoshiin desu ga. Nasai may be added to the stem form of a verb to (‘Since Mother is sleeping due to illness, I desire give a command to a child or a subordinate. that you do not put out big sounds, but.’) However, the te kudasai form is much more polite When you want to say that you would prefer that when addressing an adult. For example, Asa hayaku someone not do something, use the plain speech okite kudasai = ‘Please get up early in the morning.’ negative non-past form of the verb, followed by de, plus hoshii, moraitai, or itadakitai. Lesson 18 テレビもゆっくり見られません。 人の悪口は言ってもらいたくないですね。 Terebi mo yukkuri miraremasen. Hito no warukuchi wa, itte moraitakunai desu (‘I can't leisurely watch even TV.’) ne. Mo means ‘even’ in this sentence. (‘As for a person's slander, I don't want you to say Mo can mean ‘also.’ For example, terebi mo and I receive it, huh.’) arimasu = ‘there is also a TV.’ Another way to ask someone not to do something Mo can mean ‘more than expected.’ For example, is to use the te form of the verb, followed by Nijikan mo kakarimasu = ‘It takes 2 full hours.’ hoshikunai, moraitakunai, or itadakitakunai. With negative verbs, mo can mean ‘less than expected.’ For example, Jippun mo kakarimasen = 鉛筆を使いすぎないで。 ‘It doesn't even take 10 minutes.’ Hitotsu mo Enpitsu o tsukai suginai de. arimasen = ‘not even one exists.’ (‘Don’t use too many pencils.’) Sugiru = ‘too much’; suginai is the negative form. そういえば。 Osugiru = ‘too much quantity.’ For example, satoo Soo ieba. ga osugiru = ‘there's too much sugar.’ Kooto ga ooki (‘If you say, then,’ usually meaning ‘come to think sugimasu = ‘the coat is too big.’ Mizu ga of it.’) atsusugimasu = ‘the water is too hot.’ Iresugiru to Reba and eba mean 'if, then.' To make the eba verb nuruku naru = ‘if we put in too much, it will become tense, add eba to the root of a u verb. In this case, lukewarm.’ Hatarakisugi ja nai = ‘isn’t it too much the root of iu (‘say’) is i; add eba, and you get ieba. labor?’ (Hatarakisugi is a noun derived from Another example is kakeba (from kaku) = 'if I write, hatarakisugiru = ‘labor too much.’) then.' Lesson 18. 東京で二番めに高いビルですよ。

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Lesson 18. 最初は天気予報が正確に聞き取 yakyuu o shitari shite wa ikemasen = ‘at here, do れればいいですよ。 baseball etc. you mustn't do.’

Saisho wa tenki yohoo ga seikaku ni したりしなかったりです。 kikitorereba ii desu yo. (‘As for the beginning, if you are able to listen/take Shitari shinakattari desu. the weather report accurately, then it will be good, Sometimes I do, sometimes I don't do. for sure.’) To express the idea ‘sometimes yes, sometimes no,’ To make the eba verb form, add reba to the root of combine the past plain speech stem of the same verb an ru verb. Note that toru (‘take’) is a u verb, since in the affirmative and in the negative and follow its te form is totte and its ta form is totta. Kikitoru each verb with tari. (‘listen/take’) which is derived from kiku and toru, is also a u verb. However, kikitoreru (‘able to 手紙を書ける。手紙が書ける。 listen/take’) is an ru verb, since its te form is Tegami o kakeru. Tegami ga kakeru. kikitorete and its ta form is kikitoreta. The root (pre- (‘It's possible to write a letter.’) ru form) of kikitoreru is kikitore; add reba to that, Potential Tense: To show that something is and you get the eba form. possible, add eru to the root of a u verb. For example, nomeru = 'I can drink.' スペイン語ができたら一度メキシコへ行っ When using a potential verb with an object, you て見たいですね。 may use either o or ga. Supeingo ga dekitara, ichido mekishiko e itte 電話をかけられる。電話がかけられる。 mitai desu ne. (‘If I could do Spanish, one time, I would like to go Denwa o kakerareru. Denwa ga kakerareru. to Mexico and see, huh.’) (‘I can make a phone call.’) Dekiru means 'able to do.' For example, denwa ga To show that something is possible, add rareru to dekinakatta = ‘I could not do a phone call.’ Zensen the root of an ru verb. For example, taberareru = 'I oyogu koto ga dekimasen deshita = ‘I was not able can eat.' Sometimes, rareru is shortened to reru, to swim at all.’ Shitsumon o suru koto ga dekimasen meaning the ar is removed. For example, denwa o deshita = ‘I was not able to ask a question.’ kakereru = denwa ga kakereru = ‘I can make a phone call.’ Again, you may use either ga or o. 夜はテレビを見たりレコウドを聞いたりし There are 3 irregular verbs. Their potential forms てすごします。 are: Ikareru = ikeru = 'can go.' Korareru = koreru = Yoru wa terebi o mitari, rekoodo o kiitari shite 'can come.' Dekiru = ‘can do.’ sugoshimasu. (‘As for evenings, watch TV etc., listen to records, テニスをすることができます。 etc., I do and spend.’) Tenisu o suru koto ga dekimasu. Use tari after the past plain speech forms of verbs, (‘One can play tennis.’) when you mean etcetera, usually but not always As discussed in Lesson 9, another way to say that when you are listing various actions. The last verb one can do something is to use the phrase koto ga listed (or the only verb, if you are listing only one), dekiru. For example, gohyaku metoru oyugu koto is followed by suru or desu. Here’s an example of ga dekiru = ‘I am able to swim 500 meters.’ the use of tari with only a single verb: koko de, Lesson 18.

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Lesson 18. To indicate a period during or throughout which an パーティーに行けなくなってしまいました。 action occurs, i.e., to say ‘while,’ or ‘as,’ follow a Paatii ni ikenaku natte shimaimashita. noun plus no, or a plain non-past verb with aida ni. (‘It completely became unable to go to the party.’) The potential form of iku (‘go’) is ikeru, an ru verb. 先生の話を聞いているうちに眠くなって来 The negative form of ikeru is ikenai. た。 To make the negative form of a u verb, add anai to Sensei no hanashi o kiite iru uchi ni, the root. To make the negative form of an ru verb, nemukunatte kita. add nai to the root. For example, nomanai = 'I won't (‘As I am listening to the teacher's speech, it became drink.' Tabenai = 'I won't eat.' sleepy and came,’ meaning ‘I got sleepy.’)

Uchi ni, like aida ni, can also be used to mean 自転車に乗れるようになりました。 ‘as,’ i.e., as an action is being done. Jitensha ni noreru yoo ni narimashita. (‘I got to the point that I was able to ride a bicycle.’) ちっとも疲れが取れません。 Yoo ni naru means 'come to be such that,’ ‘get to be Chittomo, tsukare ga toremasen. such that,’ or ‘ get to the point that.' (‘Not at all, I can't take the fatigue’ out of myself.)

Nouns can be made from some verb stems. For もっと漢字を覚えるようにします。 example, tsukare (from tsukareru) = ‘fatigue.’ Kaeri Motto kanji o oboeru yoo ni shimasu. (from kaeru) = ‘the return.’ Hajime (from hajimeru) (‘I'll make an effort to memorize more kanji.’) = ‘the beginning.’ Mukae (from mukaeru) = ‘the Yoo ni suru = 'to see to it,’ ‘to make an effort,’ or ‘to greeting.’ Hanashiai (from hanashiau) = ‘the take care that.' consultation.’ Iki (from iku) = ‘the outbound trip.’

Yoo can be understood as 'manner,' generally 一人で何もかもしないで部下に仕事を任せ speaking. Hoo can be understood as 'direction,' ることを進めています。 generally speaking, e.g., migi no hoo = ‘right side.’ Hitori de nanimokamo shinai de, buka ni shigoto o makaseru koto o susumete imasu. どうぞ熱いうちに食べてください。 (‘By oneself, not to do everything, and entrust work Doozo, atsui uchi ni tabete kudasai. to subordinates thing is being advised.’) (‘Go ahead, while it's still hot, eat please.’) Nanimokamo = everything. Makaseru = to entrust. To indicate a period within which an action occurs, In Lesson 6, you learned that hirokute akarui desu i.e. to say ‘while still’ (or ‘before,’ in negative means ‘it’s spacious and well-lighted’ and that kute constructions), follow a noun plus no, or a plain non- means ‘and.’ Therefore you might assume that it past verb or i adjective, or a na adjective plus na, would be OK to substitute shinakute for shinai de with uchi ni. here. That is not the case. The te in nakute is used

to mean ‘since’ and cannot be used to mean ‘and.’ 雨が止んでいる間に買い物に行って来まし For example, Tomodachi ga sukunakute, sabishii ょう。 desu = ‘since friends are few, I’m lonely.’ Ame ga yande iru aida ni, kaimono ni itte kimashoo. Lesson 19 (‘While the rain is stopping, let's go for shopping ボーナスってなにかしってます。 and come.’) Boonasu tte nani ka shittemasu? Lesson 19. 27

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Lesson 19. (‘As for the one called bonus, what desu = 'he appears to be mortified.' Kuyashisoo na (question) are you knowing?’) hito = 'a person who appears to be mortified.' Tte can mean 'speaking of.' Tte can substitute for wa as a topic marker, but only if the predicate expresses 花田さんを映画に誘って上げたらきっと喜 the speaker’s emotive evaluation/judgment. For ぶでしょう。 example, you can say, Keikosan tte hen na hito desu Hanada san o eiga ni sasotte agetara, kitto = ‘Keiko is a strange person,' but you can’t say, Keikosan tte sensei desu (meaning, ‘Keiko is a yorokobu deshoo. teacher'). (‘If you invite Hanada to a movie and give, certainly she will get delighted probably.’) To say that someone probably has certain feelings, なんだ 0.8 か月分しか出ないのか。 use daroo or deshoo. Nanda, rei ten hachikagetsu bun shika denai no ka. ホンコンと言うのはどんなところですか。 (‘What do you mean, except for 0.8 month quantity Honkon to iu no wa, donna tokoro desu ka. only, it doesn’t come out?’) (hakkagetsu, also OK) (‘As for the one called Hong Kong, what kind of Nanda = ‘what do you mean?,’ ‘do you mean to place is it?’) say?,’ ‘is this all?,’ ‘it’s nothing!’ cf. nante = ‘what To ask about things like identity, definition, sort of,’ ‘such a thing.’ cf. nande = ‘why?’ description or explanation concerning unfamiliar (colloquial) items, in other words, to say ‘as for the one called,’ Shika = 'except for only.' Use shika with a negative ‘what is it’ or ‘how is it’ or ‘why is it,’ etc., use one verb. It can be used with or without dake (‘only’). of the following three phrases plus a question word For example, Kore dake shika nain desu ka = kore plus desu. The second one is more bookish and the shika nain desu ka = 'except for only this, is there third one is colloquial. nothing?' To iu no wa. To wa. Tte.

For example, honkon to iu no wa = honkon to wa = 太郎君はくやしがっていました。 honkon tte = 'as for the one called Hong Kong.' Taroo kun wa kuyashigatte imashita. (‘As for young man Taroo, he appeared to be 風邪を引かないように気をつけてください。 mortified.’) Kaze o hikanai yoo ni, ki o tsukete kudasai. Kuyashigaru comes from kuyashii (‘mortified’) plus (‘So as to not catch cold, please be careful.’) garu and means ‘appears to be mortified.' Instead of using tame ni, meaning ‘for the sake of,’ To say that someone appears to have certain or ‘for the purpose of,’ if you just want to make a feelings, use an i adjective stem, or a na adjective, milder statement, like ‘such that,’ ‘so as to,’ or ‘in plus garu. such a way as to,’ use yoo ni.

For example, Daredemo yomeru yoo ni, ji o kirei ni ずいぶん楽しそうでしたよ。 kaite kudasai = ‘so that any of them can read, please Zuibun tanoshi soo deshita yo. write characters cleanly.’ Watashi ni mo wakaru (‘Extremely pleasant it seemed for sure.’) yoo ni, motto yasashiku setsumei shite kudasai = ‘in (Zuibun tanoshikatta soo desu yo, also OK.) such a way that to me also will understand, more Another way to say that someone seems to have easily do explanation please.’ certain feelings, is to use an i adjective stem, or a na adjective, plus soo. The resulting word can be Lesson 19. used as a na adjective. For example, kuyashisoo 28

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Lesson 20 finished running' or 'is at the point of having just As mentioned in Lesson 9, to say a plain speech finished running.' ‘shall’ or ‘let’s’ for a u verb, add oo to the root (the pre-u form). To say a plain speech ‘shall’ or ‘let’s’ 父は帰って来たばかり。 for an ru verb, add yoo to the root. Chichi wa, kaette kita bakari. There are 3 irregular verbs. Ikoo = ikimashoo = ‘I (‘As for my father, he returned and came a while shall go’ or ‘let’s go.’ Koyoo = kimashoo = ‘I shall ago.’) come’ or ‘let’s come.’ Shioo = shimashoo = ‘I shall Another way to express the idea of just having do’ or ‘let’s do.’ done something, besides using the past tense of a verb followed by tokoro, is to use the past tense of ジュースを飲もうとしてこぼしてしまいま the verb followed by bakari. The past tense した。 followed by tokoro implies that the action was done just now, while the past tense followed by bakari Juusu o nomoo to shite, koboshite implies that the action was done a while ago. shimaimashita.

(‘Trying to drink juice, I spilled it completely.’) ああ、黒田さんが転んだ。 To express the idea ‘to try to do something,’ implying that one failed or that one is not succeeding Aa, Kuroda san ga koronda. very well, use the plain let’s form of the verb, (‘Ah, Kuroda is falling!’) followed by to suru. For example, tabeyoo to shite Use the past tense of a verb to report what you imasu = 'I'm trying to eat.' see as an exclamation. This is called the exclamatory form. For example, kita kita = 'He’s coming, he’s coming!' Utta. Homu ran desu = これから出かけるところなんです。 ‘He’s hitting! It’s a home run.’ Kore kara dekakeru tokoro nan desu. (‘From now, I’m on the verge of leaving.’) As mentioned in Lesson 18, to express the Tokoro can be used after a plain speech non-past conjectural or hypothetical idea, ‘if, then,’ add eba verb to mean 'on the verge.' For example, hashiru to the root of a u verb. Add reba to the root of an tokoro desu = 'he's on the verge of running.' ru verb. For example, ikeba = ‘if I go, then...’ Suite ireba = 'if it's uncrowded, then ...' 勉強をしているところです。 Benkyoo o shite iru tokoro desu. 高ければ。 (‘I’m in the middle of studying.’) Takakereba. Iru tokoro used after the te or de form of a verb (‘If it’s expensive, then ...’) means 'in the process or in the middle.' For example, To make the eba form of i adjectives, including hashitte iru tokoro = 'he's in the process of running.' nai, add kereba to the stem. For example, Tenki ga yokereba = 'if the weather is good, then...' 父は今お風呂に入ったところなんです。 Yasukunakereba kaimasen = ‘if it isn’t cheap, then I Chichi wa, ima, ofuro ni, haitta tokoro nan desu. won’t buy.’ (‘As for my father, now, into the honorable bath, he has just entered.’) きれいであれば。 Tokoro after a past plain speech verb means 'has Kirei de areba. just finished' or 'is at the point of having just (‘If it’s clean, then ...’) finished.' For example, hashitta tokoro = 'has just Kirei nara and kirei naraba Lesson 20. 29

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Lesson 20. may be substituted for kirei de areba. ‘in case it’s hot, it’s OK to open that place’s window, To make the eba form of na adjectives, add nara or for sure.’ naraba or de areba to the adjective. Referring to nouns, to say ‘if it is, then...,’ use de その部屋がきれいだったら借ります。 areba. (It doesn’t matter if the noun is animate or Sono heya ga kirei dattara, karimasu. inanimate.) To say 'if it isn’t, then...,' use de (‘If that room is clean, I'll rent it.’) nakereba. Dattara also means ‘if it is’ or ‘in case it is,’ and it can often be substituted for nara. 走れ。 Hashire. 今朝は何時にお出かけになりましたか。 (‘Run!’) Kesa wa, nanji ni, odekake ni narimashita ka. To form the imperative form, used at sporting (‘As for this morning, at what time did you events to shout encouragement, for a u verb, follow honorably depart?’) the verb root with e. Hashiru is a u verb because Honorific verbs include irassharu, meaning ‘be,’ you ‘double the t’ when making hashitte and ‘come’ or ‘go’; and ossharu, meaning ‘say.’ hashitta. To form an honorific verb construction with other verbs, put o in front of the verb stem, and follow the 投げろ。 verb stem with ni naru or ni narimasu. For example, Nagero. shachoo ga omochi ni narimasu = 'the president will (‘Throw!’) honorably hold it.' To form the imperative form for an ru verb, follow the root with ro. 電話代をお払いしたいんですが。 Denwa dai o oharai shitain desu ga... For the 3 irregular verbs, the imperative forms are: (I would like to humbly pay the phone cost, but...’) Ike = ‘go!’ Koi = ‘come!’ Shiro = ‘do it!’ To form a humble verb construction, referring to actions that you perform, put o in front of the verb Lesson 21 stem, and follow the verb stem with suru or shimasu. 旅行に行くなら北海道はどうですか。 For example, omochi shimasu = 'I will humbly hold Ryokoo ni iku nara, hokkaidoo wa doo desu ka. it.' (In practice, this often means ‘I will humbly (‘In the case of to go for travel, as for Hokkaido, bring it.’ Another way to say ‘I will humbly bring how is it?’) it’ is motte mairimasu.) To express the idea ‘if it is,’ or ‘in case it is,’ in addition to the to, tara and eba forms that you’ve あら。もうお帰りですか。 learned, there’s a 4th conditional form, often used Ara. Moo okaeri desu ka. to clarify the subject under discussion in order to (‘My goodness. Are you already honorably make a comment. The word nara functions much returning?’) like the topic marker wa, but implies a greater For a limited number of verbs, including machimasu, emphasis. Naraba may be used instead of nara, mochimasu, kaerimasu, kikimasu, yomimasu and especially in written text. tsukaimasu, you can form an honorific verb After a noun or a na adjective, add nara. After an construction, used to say what someone else is i adjective or a plain verb, you may use no or ‘n, doing, by putting o in front of the verb stem, and before nara, but they are optional. For example, following the verb stem with desu. For example, Atsuin nara, soko no mado o akete mo ii desu yo = Okyakusama ga oosetsushitsu de Lesson 21. 30

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Lesson 21. omachi desu = ‘a very honorable plain speech verb (not the stem). For example, customer is honorably waiting in the reception Taberu soo desu = 'reportedly, she will eat.' room.’ It may also follow an i adjective (not the stem). For example, oishii soo desu = 'reportedly, it's delicious.' もしもし。先生はおいでになりますか。 (You cannot say oishii da soo desu, since you can’t Moshi moshi, sensei wa, oide ni narimasu ka. use da after i adjectives.) When soo in this sense is (‘Hello, as for teacher, is he there?’) used with na adjectives or nouns, it must be An honorific word used to mean ‘come,’ ‘go’ or preceded by da. For example, Ano mise wa, ‘exist’ is oide. Oide ni narimasu =‘he exists’ = ‘he nigiyaka da soo desu = ‘as for that store over there, is here’ = ‘he is there.’ Oide kudasai can mean reportedly it’s lively.’ Kuruma da soo desu = either ‘please come’ or ‘please go.’ ‘reportedly, it's a car.’

ここにお名前とご住所をお書きください。 雨が降りそうです。 Koko ni onamae to gujuushoo o okaki kudasai. Ame ga furi soo desu. (‘Please honorably write your honorable name and (‘It looks like it will rain.’) honorable address here.’) Soo has a second meaning: ‘seems to be.’ When To form an honorific form of a verb request, in used in this sense, it may be combined with verb order to ask someone to do something in business stems, i adjective stems, and na adjectives. It is not or official situations, as opposed to personal or preceded by da. It cannot be used with nouns. social situations, put o in front of the verb stem and Examples of the use of soo (meaning ‘seems’) follow the stem with one of the following five include Tabesoo desu = ‘it appears he will eat.’ responses: kudasai, kudasaimasenka, Oishisoo = ‘it appears to be delicious.’ Ano mise wa, kudasaimasen deshoo ka, itadakimasenka, or nigiyaka soo desu = ‘as for that store over there, it itadakemasenka. For example, osuwari kudasai = appears lively.’ okake kudasai = 'please honorably sit.' (Suwaru is You may use na after soo (meaning 'seems to be'), used for sitting on zabuton cushions, and kakeru is to make an adjective. For example, oishisoo na used for sitting on chairs.) keeki = 'a delicious-appearing cake.'

To say please come or please go, in this formal 雨が降りそうじゃない。 honorific construction, don’t use kuru or iku. Instead Ame ga furisoo ja nai. say oide kudasai. (‘Appears-it-will-rain doesn’t exist.’) Another way to say please come, in this formal To say that something does not appear to be, add honorific construction, is okoshi kudasai. soo ni nai (arimasen), soo mo nai (arimasen), soo To say please do, in this formal honorific dewa nai (arimasen), or soo ja nai (arimasen) to a construction, say nasatte kudasai. verb stem, an i adjective stem, or a na adjective. For example, tabe soo ni nai = tabe soo mo nai = Lesson 22 tabe soo dewa nai = tabe soo ja nai = ‘it appears she 雨が降るそうです。 will not eat.’ Oishisoo ni nai = oishisoo mo nai = oishisoo dewa nai = oishisoo ja nai = ‘it doesn’t Ame ga furu soo desu. appear delicious.’ Nigiyakasoo ni nai = nigiyakasoo (‘Reportedly it will rain.’) mo nai = nigiyakasoo dewa nai = nigiyakasoo ja nai As discussed in Lesson 14, soo desu can mean = ‘it doesn’t appear lively.’ ‘reportedly.’ When used in this sense, it follows a Lesson 22. 31

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Lesson 22. 雨が降らなさそうです。 Yoo also means ‘it appears,’ based on evidence. It Ame ga furanasa soo desu. may be used with i adjectives and verbs. (‘Will-not-rain seems to be.’) For example, oishii yoo desu = 'it appears to be Another way to say that something appears not to delicious.' Taberu yoo desu = 'it appears that she be is to follow the pre-nai form of a negative verb or will eat.' the pre-nai form of an i adjective with nasa soo desu. Some other examples of the use of nasa include: あの声はマイケルさんのようですね。 Mondai wa nasa soo desu = ‘as for problems, Ano koe wa, maikeru san no yoo desu ne. nothing, it seems’= ‘there seem to be no problems.’ (‘As for that voice over there, it seems to be Michael, Tabenasa soo desu = 'will-not-eat seems to be.' huh.’) Oishikunasa soo desu = 'not-delicious seems to be.' After a na adjective, you may use na yoo to mean ‘it seems.’ For example, genki na yoo desu = ‘he 天気はよさそうです seems to be healthy.’ Tenki wa yosa soo desu. To say that a noun seems to be, you may follow the (‘As for weather, goodness seems to be’ or ‘the noun with no yoo. For example, tori no yoo desu = weather seems to be good.’) ‘it seems to be a bird.' When you want to say that something appears to be You may use na after yoo to make an adjective but good, instead of saying i soo desu, say yosa soo only after a noun, not after another adjective or desu. For example, Ano sensei wa yosa soo desu = after a verb. For example, you may say kuruma no ‘as for that teacher over there, she seems to be yoo na katachi = ‘a shape that looks like a car.’ But good.’ Oishii yoo na tabemono, not OK. Kirei na yoo na (Recall that, if you say tenki wa ii soo desu, that heya, not OK. Taberu yoo na hito, not OK. means ‘reportedly the weather is good.’) 今日は雨が降るらしいですね。 Kyoo wa, ame ga furu rashii desu ne. 明日はまた元気になれそうな気がする。 (‘As for today, it appears that it will rain, huh.’) Ashita wa, mata, genki ni nare soo na ki ga suru. Rashii also means ‘it appears,’ based on slim or (‘As for tomorrow, again, to health I’ll be able to indirect evidence. You may use it after verbs, i become, it appears, I have a feeling.’) adjectives, na adjectives, and nouns. Ki ga suru = ‘to have a feeling that.’ In the sentence Rashii implies more uncertainty than yoo. above, ki is modified by the na-adjective phrase Since rashii is an i adjective, you cannot say rashii genki ni nare soo = ‘appears to be able to become da, but rashii desu is OK. Rashii no da is also OK. healthy.’ Ki means ‘spirit,’ ‘soul,’ ‘feeling,’ or Don’t use na after rashii; instead use rashii alone as ‘intention.’ an i adjective. Other phrases that employ ki include ki ni iru = ‘it pleases me’; ki ni shinai = ‘to not care’; ki o otosu 今日は雨が降るみたい。 = ‘to get downhearted’; and ki o tsukeru = ‘to be Kyoo wa ame ga furu mitai. careful.’ (‘As for today, it looks like it will rain.’) Ame ga furu mitai desu, also OK. 雨が降ったようです。 Mitai also means ‘it appears.’ You may use it after Ame ga futta yoo desu. verbs, nouns, & both i and na adjectives. (‘It seems that it rained.’) Lesson 22.

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Lesson 22.木みたいな形です。 add rareru to an ru verb root. Therefore, an ru Ki mitai na katachi desu. verb’s passive form is the same as its potential form. (‘It’s a tree-like shape.’) For example, watashi ga omatsuri o miraremashita You may use na after mitai to make an adjective, = ‘I was able to look at the festival.’ Watashi wa but only when you use it after a noun, rather than kanojo ni miraremashita = ‘I was looked at by her.’ after another adjective or after a verb. このレポートを書かなければならないんで 中国の薬で風邪によく効くらしいですよ。 す。 Chuugoku no kusuri de, kaze ni yoku kikurashii Kono repooto o kakanakereba naranain desu. desu yo. (‘I must write this report.’) (‘It’s Chinese medicine, and to a cold it seems to To say that one must do something, Japanese have a good effect, for sure.’) people say something like ‘if not, it will not become’ Kiku = ‘be good for’ or ‘have an effect.’ It also or ‘if not, it will be bad.’ means ‘hear’ or ‘ask.’ There are a number of ways to say 'must do': Nakereba naranai (narimasen), nakereba ikenai Lesson 23 (ikemasen), nakereba dame desu. Nakute wa naranai (narimasen), nakute wa ikenai (ikemasen), 名前を呼ばれるまでそこのいすにかけてい nakute wa dame desu. Nai to naranai (narimasen), てください。 nai to ikenai (ikemasen),nai to dame desu. Namae o yobareru made, soko no isu ni kakete In colloquial speech, nakereba is often shortened ite kudasai. to nakya or nakerya. In colloquial speech, (‘Until the name is called, on that place’s chair, be nakutewa is often shortened to nakucha. For sitting please.’) example, Motto hayaku oki nakya dame deshoo = In a passive sentence, the subject is also an object ‘you must get up earlier, probably.’) that receives the effect of an action. For example, in It is common for speakers to omit the second English, ‘I kick the ball’ contains a subject, an active phrase when saying that one must do something. verb and an object. By contrast, ‘The ball is kicked’ For example, kaze no toki wa, yukkuri yasumanakute contains a passive verb, and the subject ‘ball’ is the wa = ‘as for the cold’s time, you must leisurely rest.’ object of the action. To form a passive verb form in Japanese, add areru 八時までに来なくてもいいですよ。 to a u verb root; add rareru to an ru verb root. Hachiji made ni konaku te mo ii desu yo. In a passive sentence, the object of the action is (‘You don’t have to come by 8:00, for sure.’) followed by wa or ga. The doer of the action is To say that something is not necessary, combine a followed by ni. For example, Watashi wa inu ni negative verbal form (ending with naku) with two oikakerareta = ‘I was chased by a dog.’ phrases. The first phrase can be either of the following two possibilities, with the second one Irregular passive verb forms: iku, becomes being colloquial: Te mo. Tatte. The second phrase ikareru; kuru, becomes korareru; suru, becomes can be one of the following 6 possibilities: Yoi. Ii sareru, in the passive tense. desu. Kamawanai. Kamaimasen. Daijoobu desu. (However, do not combine tatte with yoi.) For In contrast to the passive tense, you may recall that example, tabunakute mo ii desu = tabenaku tatte ii the way to show that something is possible (the desu = ‘you don’t have to eat.’ potential form), is to add eru to a u verb root & Lesson 23. 33

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Lesson 23. 八時までに来ることはありませ hours or days etc. When applied to days, ichinichi んよ。 oki = ‘every 2 days,’ futsuka oki = ‘every 3 days.’

Hachiji made ni kuru koto wa arimasen yo. (‘You don’t have to come by 8:00, for sure.’) Lesson 24 Another way to say that something is not 帰りましたら電話をするようにお伝えしま necessary is to combine a plain non-past verb with す。 either koto wa nai or koto wa arimasen. Kaerimashitara, denwa o suru yoo ni otsutae shimasu. そんあ必要はありません。 (‘When he returns, to do a phone call I will humbly Sonna hitsuyoo wa arimasen. tell.’) (‘That kind of necessity doesn’t exist.’ Meaning, Tsutaeru = ‘report’ or ‘tell.’ ‘such a thing is not necessary.’) Yoo ni is used between two verbs, after a verb of A third way to say that something is not suggested action, and before a verb like ‘say,’ to necessary is to use hitsuyoo wa arimasen. report a suggestion, command, request or warning Hitsuyoo = ‘necessary’ or ‘necessity.’ given by someone. Yoo ni may or may not be followed by to, meaning ‘quotation marks.’ For 食事は一日に三度きちんと食べてください。 example, shachoo ga kuru yoo ni to osshatte imasu Shokuji wa ichinichi ni sando kichinto tabete yo = shachoo ga kuru yoo ni osshatte imasu yo = kudasai. ‘the president is honorably saying to come, for sure.’

(‘As for meals, three times per day, properly eat please.’) スピードを出さなければよかったのに。 Kichinto means ‘properly’ or ‘tidily.’ Supiido o dasanakereba yokatta noni. Ichinichi ni sankai = hi ni sankai = ichinichi ni (‘If you don’t put out speed, it was good if only,’ sando = hi ni sando = 'three times per day.' (The ni meaning ‘if only you hadn’t put out speed.’) is optional for ichinichi; but mandatory for hi, i.e., To say 'if only something were,' use ii noni or ‘hi sankai’ or ‘hi sando,’ are not OK .) yokatta noni. Do not use noni, in the sense of ‘if Isshukan ni ikkai = shuu ni ikkai = isshukan ni only,’ with actions that you yourself did. ichido = shuu ni ichido = 'one time per week.' (The ni is optional with isshukan; but mandatory for shuu, 来週ヨーロッパに行くはずだったのに。 i.e., ‘shuu ikkai’ and ‘shuu ichido,’ are not OK.) Raishuu, yooroppa ni iku hazu datta noni. Hitotsuki ni nikai = ikkagetsu ni nikai = tsuki ni (‘Next week, he was supposed to go to Europe, too nikai = hitotsuki ni nido = ikkagetsu ni nido = tsuki bad.’) ni nido = 'two times per month.' (The ni is optional Noni can also mean 'too bad.' It’s OK to use it for all.) when referrring to yourself, if you mean ‘too bad.’ Ichinen ni yonkai = nen ni yonkai = ichinen ni yondo = nen ni yondo = ‘four times per year.' (The ここにはお弁当を食べるのにちょうどいい ni is optional for all.) わね。

Koko ni wa, obentoo o taberu noni, choodo ii 二年おきに新しい車を買うんですよ。 wa ne. Ninen oki ni, atarashii kuruma o kaun desu yo. (‘As for at here, for the purpose of to eat honorable (‘Every 2 years, he buys a new car for sure.’) box lunches, it’s just right, huh.’) Lesson 24. Oki ni means 'every so often,' i.e., every so many

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Lesson 24. Noni can also mean 'for the 田中さんは来られましたか。 purpose of,’ ‘in the process of doing,’ ‘in order to Tanaka san wa koraremashita ka. do'; similar to tame ni. (‘Did Tanaka honorably come?’) The passive form of a verb is commonly used in もう少し安いのがいいんですけど。 daily speech as an honorific expression, not quite Moo sukoshi yasui no ga iin desu kedo... as polite as the honorific expressions already learned. (‘A little cheaper one would be good, but...’) Noni, meaning ‘if only,’ is a forceful expression. A 仕事が忙しくても月に一度は映画を見に行 milder, more thoughtful way of expressing regret is きます。 to use expressions like no desu ga or n desu kedo. Shigoto ga isogashikutemo, tsuki ni ichido wa, eiga o mi ni ikimasu. Lesson 25 (‘Even though work is busy, as for once a month, I 原田様とおっしゃる方がいらっしゃいまし go for the purpose of seeing a movie.’) た。 To express the idea 'even if,’ ‘even though,’ or ‘no matter how,' use temo after i adjectives and verbs, Harada sama to ossharu kata ga, by combining mo with their te forms. Use demo irasshaimashita. after na adjectives and nouns. For example, Nihon (‘A person whom they honorably call Very de wa, doyoobi demo, kodomotachi wa gakkoo ni Honorable Mr. Harada honorably came.’) ikimasu = ‘as for in Japan, even Saturday, as for To go, honorific = Irassharu (irasshaimasu). To go, children, they go to school.’ Gaikokugo o narau toki humble = Mairu (mairimasu). To come, honorific = wa, heta demo, takusan shabetta hoo ga iin desu yo Irassharu (irasshaimasu). To come, humble = Mairu = ‘as for to learn a foreign language time, even if (mairimasu). To be, honorific = Irassharu unskillful, it’s better to chatter many, for sure.’ (irasshaimasu). To be, humble = Oru (orimasu).

To say or tell, honorific = Ossharu (osshaimasu). To Recall the permission form you learned on page 24: say, humble = Moosu (mooshimasu), Mooshiageru tabete mo ii desu = ‘it’s OK to eat.’ This sentence (mooshiagemasu). To eat or drink, honorific = can be translated ‘even if you eat, it’s good,’ and it’s Meshiagaru (meshiagarimasu). To eat or drink, really just another example of the temo form. humble = Itadaku (itadakimasu). To do, honorific =

Nasaru (nasaimasu). To do, humble = Itasu たとえ雨が降っても運動会はおこないます。 (itashimasu). To be doing, honorific = Te irassharu. To be doing. humble Te oru. To be knowing, Tatoe, ame ga futtemo, undookai wa, honorific = Gozonji desu. To be knowing, humble = okonaimasu. Zonji de orimasu. (zonjiru = to humbly know) To (‘Supposing, even if it rains, as for the sports see or meet someone, honorific = Oai ni naru. To tournament, we will hold it.’) see or meet someone, humble = Ome ni kakaru. To Okonau = to perform, conduct, hold. think/feel, honorific = Omoi ni naru. To Some words that are commonly used with the temo think/feel/know, humble = Zonji suru. To visit or construction are tatoe, meaning ‘supposing,’ ikura, ask, honorific = Otazune ni naru. To visit or ask, meaning ‘how much,’ and donna ni, meaning humble = Ukagau (ukagaimasu). To look at or see, ‘whatever kind.’ For example, Ikura tsuyoi otoko honorific = Goran ni naru. To look at, see or read, demo, oya ga shinda toki ni wa, naku deshoo = ‘how humble = Haiken suru. much strong male even though, as for at the parent died time, he will cry probably.’ Donna ni samukutemo, watashi wa tsutoobu o Lesson 25. 35

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Lesson 25. tsukemasen = ‘whatever kind of cold, 近くても車で行きます。 as for me, I don’t turn on the space heater.’ Chikakutemo, kuruma de ikimasu. (‘Even though close, I will go by car.’) 仕事は遅くても午後八時には終わるでしょ It isn’t OK to use noni in this sentence. う。 Temo may be used for describing hypothetical Shigoto wa, osokutemo, gogo hachiji ni wa, situations, while noni is not used in that way. owaru deshoo. (‘As for the work, at the very latest, as for at 8 p.m., Lesson 26 I will probably finish.’) 課長がマイケルさんに報国書を作らせた。 With some adjectives expressing amount, temo is Kachoo ga, maikerusan ni, hookokusho o equivalent to ‘at the very most or least, etc.’ For tsukuraseta. example, Fuyu no boonasu wa, ookutemo, san ten go (‘The section manager made Michael make a kagetsu bun gurai ja nai ka to omoimasu = ‘as for report.’) the winter’s bonus, at the very most, about 3.5 Tsukuru is a u verb, so the root is tsukur; add aseru month’s portion, isn’t?, I think.’ and you get tsukuraseru. Causative Tense: to express the idea, ‘to cause 先日のデモには少なくとも二千人の人が参 someone to do something,’ for a u verb, follow the 加したようです。 root, meaning the pre-u form, with aseru. For Senjitsu no demo ni wa, sukunakutomo, nisen example, kakaseru = 'to make someone write.' nin no hito ga sanka shita yoo desu. To express the idea, to cause someone to do (‘As for to the other day’s demonstration, at the very something, for an ru verb, follow the root with least, 2,000 people’s people participated, it seems.’) saseru. For example, tabesaseru = 'to make someone Sometimes temo is replaced by tomo, but this is eat.' bookish. Tomo is used with adjectives but not with Irregular verbs: Ikaseru = 'to make someone go.' verbs. Kosaseru = 'to make someone come.' Saseru = 'to make someone do.' マイケルさんはお茶を出しても飲まなかっ When using this causative verb tense, the person causing the action is followed by ga, and the たんです。 person who is being induced to do the action is Maikerusan wa, ocha o dashitemo, followed by ni or wo. nomanakattan desu. In colloquial speech, aseru is sometimes shortened (‘As for Michael, even though I put out honorable to asu; saseru can be shortened to sasu by tea, he did not drink’ – a neutral statement.) removing ‘er.’ For example, Kodomo ni kusuri o マイケルさんはお茶を出したのに飲まなか nomashitan desu = ‘to the child, I made drink ったんです。 medicine.’ In this sentence, the causative form of nomu is nomaseru; this is abbreviated to nomasu by Maikerusan wa, ocha o dashita noni, removing ‘er.’ nomanakattan desu. (‘As for Michael, even though

I put out honorable tea, he did not drink’ – an 社長さんに書いていただきましょう。 emotional statement.) The temo form, meaning ‘even though,’ and noni, Shachoo san ni kaite itadakimashoo. meaning ‘in spite of,’ are similar, but temo doesn’t (‘To Mr. President write and let’s receive,’ meaning carry the emotional overtones suggested by noni. ‘let’s get the president to write.’) Lesson 26. 36

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Lesson 26. 黒田さんに書いてもらいまし To make the causative passive form, for a u verb, ょう。 combine the root with aserareru. (mnemonic: ‘aspirin era rerun’) Kuroda san ni kaite moraimashoo. For u verbs that don’t end in su, this may be (‘To Kuroda, write and let’s receive,’ meaning ‘let’s shortened to asareru, by removing the first ‘er.’ get Kuroda to write.’) (mnemonic: ‘asa rerun’ or ‘morning rerun’) The causative form implies that the person being Revising the example above, Seitotachi wa, sensei ni, made to do something is inferior to you. If the sakubun o kakasareru (think ‘morning rerun’) = ‘as person is equal or superior, it’s better to use the for the students, by the teacher, they will be made to forms te morau or te itadaku. write a composition.’

However, the longer form is used with u verbs that お母さん、アイスクリームを食べさせて。 do end in su, like hanasu. For example, the Okaasan, aisukuriimu o tabesasete. causative passive form of the verb ‘to talk’ is (‘Mother, let me eat ice cream.’) hanasaserareru (think ‘aspirin era rerun’). The causative 'te' form can be combined with verbs of giving and receiving to mean ‘let me do 子供はお母さんに野菜を食べさせられてい something.’ These verbs include kudasaru, ageru, ます。 yaru, kureru, itadaku and morau. Kodomo wa okaasan ni yasai o tabesaserarete For example, Buchoo, sono shigoto o watashi ni sasete kudasai = ‘Division manager, that work, to imasu. me, let do please.’ (‘As for the child, by the honorable mother is being made to eat vegetables.’) To make the causative passive form of an ru verb, お茶を入れさせないでください。 combine the root with saserareru. (mnemonic: Ocha o iresasenai de kudasai. ‘Saskatchewan era rerun’) (‘Please don’t make me make tea.’) The negative te form of the causative tense, nai de, Irregular Verbs: The causative passive form of the plus kudasai, means ‘please don’t make me do verb to go is ikasareru (think ‘morning rerun’). The such and such.’ For example, Amari, zangyoo o causative passive form of the verb to come is sasenai de kudasai = 'very much, overtime don’t kosaserareru (think ‘Saskatchewan era rerun’). The make me do, please.' causative passive form of the verb to do is saserareru (think ‘Saskatchewan era rerun’). 生徒たちは先生に作文を書かせられる。 Seitotachi wa, sensei ni, sakubun o 財布を持たないで出かけたので何も買えな kakaserareru. かった。 (‘As for the students, by the teacher, they will be Saifu o mota nai de dekaketa node, nani mo made to write a composition.’) kaenakatta. The causative passive verb form implies that (‘Since I left without holding my wallet, I was not someone is forced to do an action which he does able to buy anything.’) not wish to do and thus suffers discomfort, etc. The person who causes the action is marked by ni, 財布を持たずに出かけたので何も買えなか and the person who suffers the action is marked った。 by ga or wa. Saifu o motta zuni dekaketa node, nani mo kaenakatta. Lesson 26. 37

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Lesson 26. (‘Since I left without holding my doing a meal, to depart times also exist, for sure.’ wallet, I was not able to buy anything.’) Shinamono ga nai baai mo arimasu = ‘merchandise To express the idea of doing something without doesn’t exist cases also exist.’ doing something else, combine the negative stem of verb 1 with either nai de or zuni and then add verb 2. Of these two forms, zuni is more formal.

When using zuni with suru verbs, say se zuni, not shi zuni. For example, Maikerusan wa, kitamura san ni aisatsu o se zuni, ie ni kaette shimaimashita = ‘as for Michael, to Kitamura not doing greeting, to the house he returned completely.’

日本では靴を履いたまま部屋に入いてはい けません。 Nihon de wa, kutsu o haita mama, heya ni haite wa ikemasen。 (‘As for in Japan, you put on the shoes state, to a room you must not enter.’) To express the idea of doing, or not doing, something in a particular state, use the past tense of verb 1 followed by mama, meaning ‘state,’ followed by verb 2.

朝、食事をしないで出かけることがありま す。 Asa, shokuji o shinai de dekakeru koto ga arimasu. (‘Mornings, not doing a meal, to depart thing exists,’ meaning, ‘sometimes I leave without eating.’) To express the idea that sometimes such is the case, there are times when such things occur, or sometimes I do such a thing, combine either a non- past or a negative verb with koto ga aru. For example, Taitei wa, irasshaimasu ga, tama ni, sanpo ni irassharu koto ga arun desu yo = ‘as for usually, he honorably exists, but, occasionally, for the purpose of a walk, to honorably go thing exists, for sure.’ You may form similar expressions to indicate that sometimes something is the case, using toki or baai, rather than koto. For example, Asa, shokuji o shinai de, dekakeru toki mo arimasu yo = ‘mornings, not 38

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Index. Achira – 4 Doo – 6, 11 Itsumo – 7 Active verbs – 8 Doo itashimashite – 3 Ja – 2, 21 Adverbs, forming – 7,9,17,23,25 Dooshite – 6, 11 Jau – 17 Ageru – 16, 37 Doozo yoroshiku – 4 Juu (ni) – 21 Aida ni – 27 Dore – 2, 5 Ka – 1, 20 Amari – 7 E (to a place) - 7 Ka dooka – 20 Anna – 9 ‘E’ rule – 17 Kai – 18, 34 Ano – 4 Eba – 25, 30 Kakaru (kakarimasu) – 7 Are – 2 Eru – 26 Kamau (kamaimasu) – 24 Areru – 33 Etcetera - 14 Kamoshirenai (-masen) – 12 Aru (arimasu) – 2, 4 Exclamatory form – 29 Kan – 8, 13-14 Aru rule - 17 Frequency (per week etc.) – 34 Kana – 24 Aseru – 36 Ga (but) – 3 Kara – 10 Asoko – 5 Ga vs. no – 13 Kashira – 24 Bakari (only, just) – 22 Ga vs. o – 9, 17 Kereba – 29 Bakari (a while ago) – 29 Ga vs. wa – 5 Ki (ga suru) (ni iru, shinai, o Causative form – 36, 37 Garu – 9, 11, 28 otosu, o tsukeru) – 32 Causative passive form – 36 Go – 15 Kiku (have effect) – 32-33 Cha – 21 Goro – 7 Kirai – 8 Changing something – 18 Gozaimasu – 3 Kitto – 12 Chau – 17 Gurai – 7 Kochira – 4 Chuu(ni) – 21 Hai (counter) – 16 Koko – 5 Commands – 21 Hajimemashite – 3 Konna – 9 Counting objects – 10 Hajimete – 12 Kono – 4 Counting people – 12 Hazu – 18-19 Kore – 2 Da (desu) – 1, 2, 10, 22 Hitsuyoo – 33-34 Koto (intangible thing) – 10, 12 Dake – 22 Hodo – 13 Koto (noun phrase) – 15 Dare – 3, 7 Hon (counter) – 9 Koto ga aru – 12, 38 Dareka – 7 Honorific verbs – 11, 30, 34-35 Koto ga dekiru – 15 Dattara – 30 Hoo ga – 8, 14 Koto ni naru – 19 Datte – 22 Hoshigaru – 11 Koto ni suru – 19 Days of the month – 10 Hoshii – 11, 24, 25 Koto wa nai (arimasen) – 34 Days of the week – 10 Humble verbs – 30, 35 Ku form – 4-5, 7 De (by means of ) – 7 I adjective – 1, 2, 3, 4-5, 9, 18 Ku naru – 15 De areba, de nakereba – 30 Ii – 7 Ku suru – 17-18 De form –1,7,12,13,17,18,24 Iin ja nai – 22 Kudasaru, kudasai – 1, 16, 37 De ii (kekkoo, yoroshii) desu – Ikaga – 11 -Kunai – 25 12 Ikemasen – 21, 33 Kurai – 7 De vs. ni (place) – 8 Iku – 2, 5 Kureru – 16, 37 Dekiru – 26 Ikura – 6, 35 Kuru – 2,5 Demo – 11, 16, 20, 35 Ikutsu – 6 Kute – 12 Desu (da) – 1, 2, 10, 22 Imasu (iru) – 4, 5, 7 Mada – 21 Desutte – 22 Imperative form – 30 Made ni – 18 Dewa – 2 Inactive verbs – 8 Mama – 38 Do (times) – 3, 34 -ing – 7 Mina (minna) – 8 Doko – 5, 7 Intentions – 12 Mitai – 23, 32-33 Dokodemo – 8 Interrogative pronouns – 6 Mo – 7, 14, 20, 25 Dokoka – 7, 8 Intransitive verbs – 16-17 Mo nai – 31 Dokomo – 8 Iru tokoro (in the process) – 29 Months (counting) – 13 Donata – 3 Issho ni – 7 Months (names) – 10 Donna – 9 Itadaku – 16, 25, 37 Mono – 10, 11 Donna ni – 35 Itsu – 6 Moo – 3, 21 Dono – 5 Itsudemo – 7 Morau – 16, 24, 25, 37 Dono kurai (gurai) – 7 Itsuka – 7 Index. 39

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Index. O (object marker) – 1 Tara – 19-20, 23-24 Moshi, moshimo – 20 O vs. ga – 9, 17 Tara ii – 20 Must do – 33 Oide – 31 Tari – 26 Na adjectives – 1, 5 Oki ni – 34 Tatoe – 35 Na (do not) – 21 Okoshi – 31 Te form –1,7,12,13,17,18,24,37 Na (is) – 10, 22 Oku – 18 Te mo ii – 24 Nado – 14 Onegai shimasu – 4 Te oku – 18 Nagara – 13 Oo (I shall) – 6, 16, 29 Temo – 35, 36 Nai – 3,5,8,21,26,29,31,33,37 Ooi – 9-10 Times per (day, etc.) – 34 Nai de – 21, 37-38 Oozei – 9-10 To (and vs. with) – 8 Nakatta – 4 Opinions – 14 To (if) – 23-24 Nakereba – 20 Oru (orimasu) – 18 To iu no wa – 28 Nakute – 18 Osoraku – 13 To (tte) itte imashita – 22 Nan (nani) – 2 Passive verbs –33, 35 To (tte) kikimashita – 22 Nanda – 19 Past tense of i adjective – 8 To omou (omoimasu) – 14 Nande – 19 Per (year, month, etc.) – 34 To (quotation marker) – 13 Nandemo – 4 Permission – 24 To suru (try to do) – 29 Nanika – 3, 4, 7 Plain speech – 1, 3,5,9,16 To wa – 28 Nanimo – 9 Potential tense – 26, 33 Toka – 14 Nante – 28 Rareru – 26, 33 Tokoro (on the verge, in the Nara (naraba) – 29-30 Rashii – 32 process or just finished) – 29 Naru (narimasu) – 15 Reba – 26, 29 Tomo – 35-36 Nasa – 32 Requests – 11, 17, 20-21, 31, 37 Totemo (tottemo) – 24 Nasai – 25 Root of verbs – 1,5 Transitive (aru) rule – 17 Nasaru – 31, 35 Ru verb – 1, 2, 5 Transitive verb – 16-17 Naze – 11 Sa (nasa, yosa) – 32 Try to do – 29 Negative commands – 21 Saseru – 36 Tsugoo ga ii – 6 Negative form, i adject. – 4-5 Sashiageru – 15 Tsumori – 12,19 Negative form, na adjective – 6 Sentence Pattern A – 2 Tsurete iku – 24 Negative requests - 17,21,36-37 Sentence Pattern B – 5-6 Tte (speaking of) – 28 Negative verbs – 2, 3, 5, 27 Shall – 6, 16, 29 Tte (reportedly) – 21 Ni (before au) – 7 Shi – 20 Uchi ni – 27 Ni (making adverbs) – 9, 23, 25 Shika – 28 U verb – 1, 2, 5 Ni (place) – 4, 7, 8 Shimau – 10 Wa – 2, 6, 14 Ni (purpose) – 9 Shoo – 6, 16, 29 Wa (emphasis) – 9 Ni (time) – 7 Sochira – 4 Wa vs. ga – 5 Ni (to a place) – 7 Softening speech – 3 Weeks, counting – 13-14 Ni nai (arimasen) – 31 Soko – 5 Week, days of – 10 Ni naru – 15, 19 Sonna – 9 Wo (object marker) – 1 Ni naru (honorific) – 30 Sono – 4 Ya – 14 Ni suru – 17, 19 Soo (appears) – 28, 31 Yaru – 16, 37 Ni tsuite – 24 Soo desu (reportedly) – 22, 31 Yo (emphasis) – 2 Ni vs. de – 8 Sore – 2 Yoku – 7, 9 Ni yoru to – 21 Sore de wa – 11 Yoo (I shall) – 16, 28 No hanashi de wa – 21 Sore ja – 11 Yoo (appears) – 23, 32 No (noun phrase) – 15 Stem of i adjectives – 1 Yoo ni – 28, 34 No (possession) – 3 Stem of verbs – 1 Yoo ni naru – 27 No vs. ga – 13 Subete – 8, 20 Yoo ni suru – 27 No yoo – 23, 32 Sugiru – 18, 25 Yori – 14 Node – 10 Suki – 8, 12 Yosa – 32 Noni – 23, 34, 35, 36 Tabun – 13 Yukkuri – 15 Not necessary – 33 Tachi – 11 Zuni – 37, 38 Noun phrases – 12, 15 Tagaru – see Garu Zutsu – 18 Nouns made from verbs – 12, 27 Tai – 9, 15, 25 O (honorific) – 4, 14 Tame (ni) – 20, 28 Index.

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