Introduction

“As I fly through the air at speeds of sound, Whilst shattering through clouds new mirth I have found, Like a new way of life for a boy who is lost Wants to be a hero in glory but unsure of the cost. Civilian life, you know, was just no fun, Now what I have as I wanted, is my plane and my gun Through all the briefings, the odds were for me, I thought this would just be another cake piece. Suddenly, from nowhere, a MiG on my six, I flicked with the controls, this was not as I fixed. He fires his missile, no time to fret, I fire my countermeasures, my palms covered with sweat. He misses, a momentary win, and as just a little mock, I try to turn around him and let my cannon do the talk. But, through all the gunfire, his bullet hits my wing, As I fall to the ground, I hear my ear ring As if t’were God saying as I triggered the self eject, “Yes, my son, this is the art of war, don’t deject.”

-Venkat Krishnaraj

All through this book, we would be running along facts enveloping the current air forces, air planes, fighters and missiles. “Complete Air Dominance-A flight of a lifetime” explains the various aspects of air-forces from the strategic as well as the technical point of view. It covers almost the entire spectrum: right from the evolution of the first airplane to a sneak peek of the near future. This book explains the role of each airplane within the airforce, the strategic advantages and disadvantages associated with each plane. This book also explains the balance of power currently existing between the two major air forces, that is, United States Air Force and Russian Air Force, on basis of an online poll conducted on the “Federation of American Scientists” website. We have also packed in a survey as to which airplane would be dominating the air in the future explaining the due reasons. Along with that, we also analysed the companies which develop such airplanes, their economic position and future economic possibilities. This book is like a timeless adventure, which never ceases to entertain the minds of the readers. Throughout this book, I would be referring to the Soviet Union as Russia and this shouldn’t cause any confusion in the minds of the readers, since for all practical purposes, the Soviet Union is same as Russia.

RT I A Walk Down Memory Lane…. PA

A Walk Down Memory Lane….

A few decades ago, no man on earth would have imagined that he would be able to fly. Able to fly like all those birds that chased the clouds driven by the winds. It was only his dream. However, the current century has made this dream a reality, and while doing so, technology evolved slowly but steadily. It all started with gliders which has not electrical or electronic parts and it has not yet ended with airplanes travelling faster than speed of sounds, travelling higher than the atmosphere to discover the heights above the stratosphere. Where do we go from here on? No one has an answer to that.

No matter how the future evolves, it is very important that one knows the past. Lets take a chronological look at the evolution of the airplanes. Lets see whether the discovery of the airplane was coincidence or pure genius. Lets find out whether it would be discovery of the millenium. Lets take a walk down this memory lane… Invention of the Airplanes

As we go down the memory lane, we see two youngsters fiddling with what was supposed to be the first unmanned glider. It was an attempt at creating a human carrying “heavier than air” machine. This means that the machine was to remain aloft by its aerodynamic properties rather than by a bag of gas which was lighter than air. Upon closer observation, we find that they are brothers who took active interest in aeronautics. They were non other than Wilbur and Orville Wright.

These men, who were about to teleport the future in to such a dimension unheard of, were born in the United States in the late 19 th century (1867 and 1871 respectively). Later on, they opened a small bicycle manufacturing shop and their only dream was to build the “Flying Machine” capable of carrying humans on it.

The Wright Brothers had built their first unmanned glider in 1896, and between 1900 and 1902 they tested a series of , manned gliders at Kill Devil Hill on North I Carolina's windswept Kitty Hawk Peninsula. They recognized that the key to successful powered flight would be the degree of control which the pilot could exercise over his craft. They looked upon their project as an aircraft rather than as a modified I kite or as a machine that would be controlled in the air as a boat was in the water. The first Wright Flyer was a fabric-covered biplane with a wooden frame driven by the Wrights' own 12hp water-cooled engine connected to two contra -rotating propellers by means of belts. Wilbur and Orville completed their Flyer during the summer of 1903 and took it to Kitty Hawk in December. On the 13th, Wilbur took the first turn and succeeded only in nosing the Flyer into a dune. On December 17, however, Orville took to the air for 12 seconds, covering 120 feet (37 meters) in the first powered flight of a manned heavier-than-air craft in history. By the end of the day, each had made two successful flights, with Wilbur covering 852 feet (260 meters) in his last turn at the controls.

Starting on May 13, 1904, their Flyer 2 made a number of successful flights over the next seven months. Like the original Flyer, however, it manifested a tendency to stall in turns, and the Wrights went back to the drawing board. The result was the larger Flyer 3, which proved to be a much more reliable airplane, and was able to fly successfully over a distance of 34 miles (55 km). On October 5, 1905, it set an endurance record of 38 minutes aloft.

The brothers made numerous demonstration flights in the United States and Europe and founded the American Wright Company in 1909. Wilbur died of typhoid fever in 1912 and Orville sold his interest in 1915 to devote himself to his work as director of the Wright Aeronautical Laboratory in Dayton.

(An early Wright Flyer)

From the invention of the first Wright Flyer, there was really no looking back. With the sophistication of technology as time progressed, everything converged together to revolutionise this revolution making invention by the Wright brothers. With also the integration of computers and artificial intelligence, the growth has been in the exponential increase and will continue to do so.

So far, so good. But why do we need such sophisticated airplanes? For the purpose of travel, anything faster than the fastest car would do. Then why did we seek to break the various physical barriers such as speed of sound et all?

The answer is obvious. Using such sophisticated machines enhance defense and offense of a country. That is why, all countries who had the necessary resources, started runnin g to acquire more and more sophisticated air technology as they knew air superiority was the key to a easy win in a war as we shall see ahead when we analyze the various strategies employed during wars. The Arms Race: Need for Air Superiority

Lets have a closer look at World War II. Germany has newly acquired airplanes which had massive firepower and could destroy a small town in minutes. They implemented the use of their sophisticated technology in their “Blitz Krieg” strategy. The strategy was simple but very efficient. During World War II, most machines were confined to the ground and infantry surpassed the number of such tanks. Thus, the first round of attack would be heavy duty German bombers making an almost clean sweep of the areas with their very destructive Napalm bombs. The friendly tanks would follow suit and clean up the remains. This strategy was quick and very efficient indeed.

When America came into the picture of World War II, they completely destroyed two main towns Hiroshima and Nagasaki with their nuclear missiles deployed by their fighter airplanes (bombers). The entire city was destroyed in a matter of 3 to 4 seconds.

In both these cases it is important to note that airplanes were so effective as they provided heavy firepower in a short span of time. They served as excellent weapon delivery systems and hence became an integral part of any countries’ defense system. Later on, we will be investigating on various air forces in the world, some of the airplanes (fighters and multi-utility). Also, another important thing to note is that Airplanes were tough going for the enemies as one cannot get an airplane down with the usage of ordinary bullets. If no proper defense is there for airplanes, all you can do is pray.

Before I move on, I would like to tell you about the various classes of airplanes. Firstly, come the fighters, usually used for air to air combat. Then come the bombers for air to ground combats and lastly come the utility planes (air borne RADAR, or Mid – Air Refuellers, Cargo Transportation etc.). The Cold War

Thus, it is clearly evident than airplanes gave the best delivery of sophisticated arms. Hence, it was important to improve air technology to gain superiority. After World War II, there were only two main countries, Russia and the USA whose affairs rested precariously enough to start a cold war. (It is important to note that Russia was known as U.S.S.R. until U.S.S.R broke down to several pieces as we shall see later. Russia is just one of them today). In this cold war, each country wanted to acquire better technology. Russia was successful in stealing the Nuclear Missile technology from the U.S. and from then on, both the sides were balanced. However, U.S. continued to improve their defense (offense too) in the form of airplanes travelling at speeds of sound. They also developed Bombers which were undetectable to RADAR. This technology meant that even though the Arms were balanced, the delivery system of the U.S. is so rapid that before you can react, you are finished.

Due to this, Russia started investing in developing superior surface to air missiles. These missiles can get down almost any air fighter or bomber. These missiles also have a long range and are very effective for enemy bombers.

Also, due to the Geographic distance between U.S. and Russia, U.S. could deploy some of their aircraft only by use of “Carriers” or ships which carry large number of airplanes. Thus Russia also developed excellent anti-ship missiles. Some of these missiles go 6 times the speed of sound or more and are accurate over the area of an inch even if fired from a range of 100 KM.

Thus, even though U.S. had superior technology, they were equalled by Russia’s excellent defense system. However, all this while, Russia was playing the defensive moves, and then, Russia started developing their airplanes, fighters and bombers. Russia got so close to the U.S. that sometimes, their planes would easily outperform the American counterpart.

The Balance of Power

Times were bad in Russia, and as we know, due to the existance of a communist Government, the country broke into several pieces. This hindered Russia’s economic growth and they were unable to raise funds for improving defense systems.

On the other hand, only one thing could be said about America’s progress: it was quick and fantastic. They were able to raise enormous funds to improve defense since after the World War, they became an economic super power. The reason for this is that they were least affected by the war and no war was fought on the American soil. Thus, they kept developing their arms, airplanes and all other aspects of defense.

Despite various problems, Russia has been able to cope up with America’s technology, sometimes coming right from the back and outperforming American technology. Such was the quality and determination of the Russians. They always tried to stay one step ahead of America. Even though, now, the cold was has subsided to a great extent, still, in the back of everyone’s minds runs the raging question : Who is superior?

There are two aspects when we talk of the balance of power. One of them is the balance of Arms, and the other is that or technology. U.S. invested in creating better airplanes, fighters etc while Russia primarily concentrated on Missile development.

We shall be limiting ourselves to the Air Force. Lets see various answers given by Russia to American Technolgy :

America introduces : F-15 and F-16 Fighters : These were multirole fighters capable of performing air to air and air to ground sorties are very deadly when armed with the Maverick or AMRAAM missiles. Their effective range is 40 KM and travel 2 times the speed of sound.

Russia’s Answer : The Mig -29 Fulcrum : This incredible machine was capable of outperforming the American counterparts when it came to speed and maneuverability. It travels at 2.5 times speed of sound and makes incredibly sharp turns. However, the drawback is that iot is not fully automatic and many of the mundane operations need to be perfomed by the pilot.

America Introduces : The AGM 88 Harpoon : This is an anti- ship missile with a range of 44 km. It is a slow missile, travels at about 4 times speed of sound.

Russia’s Answer : Raduga : KH 15 : This missile travels at 6 times speed of sound (mach 6) and has an effecitve range of 115 KM.

America Introduces : AH – 64 Apache : Very effective combat ready helicopters. Can carry large number of missiles giving rise to excellent firepower.

Russia’s Answer : Black Shark : This heicopter is absolutely similar to the Apac he except that it outperforms the Apache in every department. This one is real deadly, but is still under the prototype stage.

America Plans to introduce : JSF and F-22 Raptors : These will replace almost all the aircraft present in the USAF. They have a host of new features in -built into them (mentioned in chapters ahead). It is still under prototype stages. Russia plans to get in their Mig 1.42 which would travel much faster than any plane in the world (Mach 7) and also their Sukhoi 39’s which would be almost on par with the American counterparts. Survey Results : We had requested the “Federation of American Scientists” to conduct on online survey as to how the things would look like in the future. They in turn, conducted an online poll at http://www.fas.org and these are the results : 20 50 55 60 90 2015 38.6 46.9 80 70 76 2005 50 75 60 80 1995

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350

F-16 Mig-29 Mirage 2000 Su-27 F-18 Su-35 Rafale Eurofighter JSF The above statistics are in favor of future American planes mainly due to the fact that it is from an American source. However, there are no Russian polls on the net and hence we accepted these figures from FAS. However, the polls for 1995 and 2005 seem to be accurate.

According to these statistics, the JSF would be the absolute ruler of the future. There would be no plane to match its ability but I suppose we have to wait on that since the poll doesn’t include the Mig 1.42. As for the present, the Mig’s and Sukhoi’s rule the air. Its is interesting to note that the poll says that in the near future, the new prototypes of the F-18 Hornet would outperform these Mig’s and Sukhoi’s.

Russians were always keen in keeping the technology driving the plane one step ahead over the American counterpart. This is the main reason for Russian planes to have superb maneuverability. The aerodynamics of Russian planes are much more superior to those in America. However, the major setback for Russian planes is that their system’s integration (or computer integration) is not upto the mark. Also, they don’t have sophisticated RADAR systems like the ones in U.S. Nevertheless, lets see some basic aspects :

Russians introduces the thrust vectoring system : This system has been successfully implemented in the Sukhoi and is allows the plane to make very sharp turns even at high speeds. This improves the maneuverability of the plane 10 fold and hence increases its chances of survival in a dogfight.

Russians also included this very interesting aspect in most of their Mig’s. The guns (Cannon) of all the planes are controlled directly by the pilot with a sensor on his helmet. Thus, if a pilot wants to shoot something , all he has to do is look at it and fire, no need to take aim.

Due to such technology possessed by the Russians, American fighters prefer fighting these mean machines from a distance as Americans have advantage of superior RADAR and AWACS (Air Borne Warn ing and Control Systems). Once Russian planes reach within 10 miles of the enemy, the enemy can do nothing but hope for the best.

The Corporate Beings PART II

The Corporate Beings

Everything in this world revolves around economics. Economic status greatly reflects upon the progress of the country both monetarily speaking and technically speaking. More the funds available, more of it can be pumped into research to develop new technologies. Developers, especially involved with the Air Forces burn many a pockets and sometimes, even a country cannot sustain the costs involved in a particular project. Hence, it essentially becomes more important that the economics of a project are worked out before before the project is started. Even after so much meticulous working out of the economics, many projects fail, even projects from powerful nations. For example, recently, the project for the Commanche failed after its prototype stage (almost final stages) due to lack of funds which was managed by Lockheed Martin in the USAF.

Due to high amount of money involved in defense projects, most of these projects are handled directly by the Government. For the U.S., the Air Force projects are handles by NASA, Boeing, Lockheed Martin, AirBus and so on. For Russia, it is Mikoyan Gurevich, Sukhoi, Tupelov, Antonov etc.

Lets see how the money required for the defense sector is generated by various countries, the production methods used etc. in the following chapters. The Economics of Maintaining an AirForce:

OK, you have all the necessary resources to build a particular plane, sat the nuclear bomber. Now comes the working of the economics. After producing say x numbers of these bombers, what do you plan to do? Scrape the production unit? Or close that project and assign sanctions for another one? No, you would like to produce them and try selling them, hence making money for yourself. Also, there is a readymade market out there. There are plenty of countries which don’t have the resources to come up to your level of technology buy can afford to buy your goods if and when the need them. Like for instance, India buys most of its planes from Russia and India has its own Air Force without a single plane being made by India alone. You will learn more about the Indian Air Force in the later chapters.

Hence, both U.S. and Russia sell their planes to countries agreeing to their terms and conditions and willing to buy from them. This not only generates revenue but also at times, covers up the cost needed to make another plane.

Now the next question arises is “How do the countries choose which plane to buy? There is no shop to sell planes?” Well, the answer is very simple. Most of these planes are sent to prestigious Air Shows (like the Paris Air Show) where the skills of these planes are exhibited. Usually, planes from all over the World arrive for such events and from here on, if the planes are really good, they are bought by the countries in need.

Usually, planes are sold in a contract basis and one must give order well in advance. An advanced airplane’s cost is astronomical, and it keeps changing with time. Lets see some of the corporates (design bureaus in case of Russia) in the next few chapters.

United States Air Force

Since, the U.S. government is capitalistic in nature, we have corporate giants which provide with fighters, bombers, cargo airplane etc defense and air transport solutions to the U.S.

Some of these Corporates are Boeing and Lockheed Martin. Both these companies have public shares in the stock market function just like any other big company. Lets study these two companies in detail.

Russian Air Force

The Government in Russia is communist in nature. Hence, all the defense aspects are handled by the Government itself. There are no private companies or big corporates in Russia connected with Aviation due to this reason.

However, there are many design bureaus which get the contract for a particular Aircraft from the Government. The top 2 of these bureaus are Mikoyan Gurevich (Mig) and Sukhoi. Lets study these bureaus in detail. Lockheed Martin Corporation was formed in March 1995 with the merger of two of the world's premier technology companies, Lockheed Corporation and Martin Marietta Corporation. In 1996, Lockheed Martin completed its strategic combination with the defense electronics and systems integration businesses of Loral. Lockheed Martin traces its roots back to the early days of flight. In 1909 aviation pioneer Glenn L. Martin organized a company around a modest airplane construction business and built it into a major airframe supplier to U.S. military and commercial customers. Martin Marietta was established in 1961 when the Glenn L. Martin Company merged with American-Marietta Corp., a leading supplier of building and road construction materials. In 1913, Allan and Malcolm Loughhead (name later changed to Lockheed) flew the first Lockheed plane over San Francisco Bay. The modern Lockheed Corporation was formed in 1932 after the fledgling airplane company was reorganized. The fo rmer Loral Corporation was founded in 1948 in New York City by William Lorenz and Leon Alpert as a small defense electronics firm that over the years grew into a multi-billion dollar firm. In sum, the new Lockheed Martin Corporation comprises all or portio ns of 17 heritage companies.

Our Vision: The world’s leading system integrator in aerospace, defense and technology services

Strategic Focus: Performance excellence on the core defense/aerospace businesses; divest non- core

Strategic Focus • Achieve consistently superior performance in our core defense and aerospace businesses • Reposition and extract value from adjacent businesses through participation and investment by strategic partners • Divest non-core businesses and assets

Global Aerospace/Defense Leadership • $46 billion backlog reflects increase in 1999; achieved record backlog of $57 billion in June 2000 • Future increases to U.S. DoD procurement budget expected • Program diversity; top 10 programs represent around 30% of sales • Leading U.S. defense contractor with well established positions in key businesses, technologies and major markets worldwide; well supported, high priority programs • Strong international alliances, joint ventures and partnerships • Focused to deliver consistent and reliable performance to our core aerospace/defense customers • One of the world’s premier systems integration businesses

Commitment to Technological Excellence • Enormous intellectual capital – 60,000 of the world’s premier scientists and engineers

LM21 Operating Excellence • Drive process capability to world -class levels • Improve quality while reducing cost • Achieve lean processes with Six Sigma capability throughout our extended enterprise and supply base • Capture $4 billion in annual, steady-state cost s avings by 2002 for the direct benefit of our customers and shareholders

Business-to- Business Exchange • Independent enterprise formed to develop a secure electronic marketplace for the global aerospace and defense industry • Founding aerospace and defense partners/ equity owners include Lockheed Martin, Boeing, Raytheon and BAE Systems; Commerce One is the technology partner and an equity owner • Common and consistent platform to expand e-commerce across the aerospace/ defense industry; all industry participants invited to join • Further aligns the industry with the DoD Integrated Digital Environment Initiative • Buy and sell side efficiencies provide lower transaction costs and increased value for manufacturers, suppliers, customers and service providers • Equity owners benefit from value creation of an independent business; potential IPO planned

The Boeing Company is the largest aerospace company in the world, with its heritage mirroring the history of aviation. It is the world's largest manufacturer of commercial jetliners and military aircraft, and the nation's largest NASA contractor. In terms of sales, Boeing is the largest U.S. exporter. Total company revenues for 2000 were $51 billion. Boeing is a company that is continually expanding its products and taking advantage of new technologies - from creating new versions of its family of commercial airplanes, to developing new aircraft for the U.S. military, to building launch vehicles capable of lifting more than 14 tons into orbit, to improving communications for people around the world with an advanced network of satellites. The global reach of the company includes customers in 145 countries, employees in more than 60 countries and operations in 26 states. Worldwide, Boeing and its subsidiaries employ more than 198,000 people - with major operations in the Seattle-Puget Sound area of Washington state; Southern California; Wichita, Kan.; and St. Louis, Mo. Boeing is organized into six major units: Commercial Airplanes, Space and Communications, Military Aircraft and Missiles, Shared Services, Air Traffic Management, Connexion by BoeingSM and Boeing Capital Corporation. Boeing has been the world leader in commercial flight for more than 40 years. The main commercial products consist of the 717, 737, 747, 757, 767, and 777 families of jetliners and the Boeing Business Jet. The company has more than 11,000 commercial jetliners in service worldwide. Boeing provides unsurpassed, round-the-clock technical support to help operators maintain their airplanes in peak operating conditions through its Boeing Customer Support unit. In addition, Boeing Airplane Services offers a full range of world-class engineering, modification and logistics services to its global customer base, which includes the world's passenger and cargo airlines as well as maintenance, repair and overhaul facilities. Boeing also provides training for maintenance and flight crews in the 100-seat and above airliner market through FlightSafety Boeing Training International, the wo rld's largest and most comprehensive airline-training provider. The company is a world leader in development and production of military-aircraft and defense-system products and programs. The Boeing fighter/attack aircraft products and programs include the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet, F/A-18 Hornet, F-15 Eagle, F-22 Raptor, the AV-8B Harrier, and the Joint Strike Fighter. The Joint Strike Fighter clearly represents the core tactical aircraft program for the next quarter century and winning production is the number one corporate priority. Other military airplanes include the C-17 Globemaster III, T-45 Goshawk, 767 AWACS, and the Airborne Laser. Military rotorcraft products consist of the RAH-Comanche, CH-47 Chinook, AH-64D Apache Longbow, and the V-22 Osprey. Defe nse systems include the Harpoon anti-ship missile, the Standoff Land Attack Missile (SLAM) ER and the Joint Direct Attack Munition (JDAM). Also, Boeing offers innovative life-cycle customer support, including modifications and upgrades, training systems and logistics support through its Military Aerospace Support unit, the fastest growing segment of its military business. Boeing also plays a significant role in many commercial and defense-related information and communications efforts, including the National Missile Defense initiative, the Future Imagery Architecture for the U.S. intelligence community, and Airborne Warning and Control System (AWACS) programs, among others. The company is becoming a major participant in the burgeoning space-based communications and services marketplace with new mobile broadband and remote sensing initiatives. Shared Services provides the company those services where the best value can be achieved through a single source. Its mission is to provide common services in an innovative and effective manner to give Boeing a competitive advantage. Services range from computing resources, telecommunications, e-commerce and information management to basic support such as security, transportation, facilities and purchase of all non-production goods and services. It also gives direction to safety, health and environmental planning and offers comprehensive travel services to Boeing employees and corporate customers through the Boeing Travel Management Company. In addition, Shared Services manages the sale and acquisition of all leased and owned property through the Boeing Realty Company. MIKOYAN-GUREVICH

The "A.I. Mikoyan Design Bureau" Engineering Center was founded on 8 December, 1939, as Experimental Design Department (EDD) incorporated into State Aviation Plant No 1. The main task of the team headed by A.I. Mikoyan, M.I. Gurevich and V.A. Romodin was drawing up design documentation, providing the development and tests of I-200 prototype fighters and assisting in establishing their series production. The I-200 fighter (in -series MiG) and its subsequent derivative MiG-3 exhibited higher speed, altitude and rate of climb characteristics than those of the Yak-1 and LaGG-3 aircraft produced at the same time. It was manufactured before World War II in significantly greater quantities. The MiG-1 and MiG -3 aircraft played an active role in repelling fascist aggression in the years of the Great Patriotic War. In the autumn, 1941, the EDD was evacuated to Kuibyshev city (present-day Samara) and in the spring, 1942, it was moved back to Moscow, Leningradskoye highway, 6 as part of Experimental Aviation Plant No 155 and named as MiG Design Bureau. Since then it has been located in the same premises. In 1946 the Design Bureau developed the MiG-9 aircraft, the first national fighter equipped with a turbojet engine. The aircraft opened up a new era of jet-propelled aviation in this country. On 30 December 1947, the most numerous MiG-15 fighter that was in series production at 10 aircraft plants in our country, Poland and Czech-Slovakia took off. The aircraft became famous due to the air combats in the sky of Korea. The fighters were introduced into service in many countries of the world and brought world-wide fame to the "MiG" Design Bureau. In the early 50s the MiG-17 transonic fighter was developed. There were some modifications of the fighter, including air defense fighters equipped with an airborne radar and later with air-to-air missiles and unmanned antiship cruise missiles of the Kometa type. This achievement formed the basis for establishing the naval missile -carrying aviation and shore-based aviation units. In the middle 50s the Design Bureau succeeded in developing the MiG-19 and MiG-21 supersonic fighters and K-10 and Kh-20 cruise missiles. The MiG-21 aircraft is the most widely operated supersonic fighter. Apart from Russia and Czech-Slovakia, it was in series production in India (till the middle 80s) and still remains in series production in China. The aircraft is operated by the air forces of more than 40 countries. It has demonstrated excellent performance in many war conflicts. At present time the MiG-21 fleets of a variety of countries are being upgraded. In the middle 60s the Design Bureau developed the MiG-25 aircraft which succeeded in overcoming the heat barrier and provided long- time flights at a speed of 3000 km/h and the MiG -23 light fighter with a variable-geometry wing. This aircraft was the basis for the subsequent development of the MiG-27 strike fighter. The above fighters were in series production for a long time. Presently they are operated by the air forces of many countries. MiG -23 and MiG-27 upgrading is under way now. The Design Bureau took part in the development of the K-22 cruise missiles and created the "Spiral" analogue of the aerospace plane. In the late 70s the world-best MiG-29 light frontline and MiG-31 air defense interceptor fighters were developed. The MiG-29 aircraft has the high agility characteristics, high thrust-to-weight ratio and perfect integrated weapon system. The MiG-31 aircraft is characterized by a high speed (3000 km/h), high flight altitude and long range. It was the first aircraft equipped with a phased-array radar. The aircraft is armed with long-range missiles; the possibilities of group and independent actions are realized as well. Both the aircraft are in series production till now: extensive works on the development of their new modifications are under way. Along with upgrading the aircraft produced previously and developing their new modifications, the Design Bureau working at: · new-generations fighters; · MiG-AT trainer family; · civil aircraft projects and non-aviation production. About 460 projects have been implemented under the leadership of General Designer A.I. Mikoyan and General Designer R.A. Belyakov. A third of these projects has been put in series production and a third are experimental and flaying test-bed aircraft. Altogether, there are about 60,000 vehicles of the MiG family produced by the RAC "MiG". 72 world records have been established. The "A.I.Mikoyan Design Bureau" Engineering Center is a solid body of highly skilled specialists and a modern production and laboratory base providing the whole cycle of research and development works on creating new prototypes of aviation equipment and support of its safety operation. SUKHOI

Known as one of the world's best designers of military fighter aircraft, the Sukhoi Design Bureau (SDB) set out to design the next generation of aerobatic aircraft for Russia. With the introduction of the SU-26 in 1984, their goal to establish Russian teams as leaders in World Aerobatic Competition was achieved. The SDB and their subsidiary, Advanced Sukhoi Technologies (AST), built on the great success of the SU-26 by developing the SU-29 (two -seat) and SU-31 (single seat) aerobatic aircraft. Sukhoi owners benefit from impressive engineering as well as testing to meet military specifications and to exceed FAR and JAR 23 requirements. As a result, the SU-29, SU-31 and SU-31M (Includes pilot extraction system) are the most advanced aircraft in sport aerobatics today.

Sukhoi Design Bureau is generally accepted as being the leading Fighter Design Bureau of the former Soviet Union, although ironically, probably less well known in the West than MiG, principally because the Soviet Union kept the Sukhoi aircraft for their own use, only selling Migs to the Warsaw Pact and other ‘friendly’ nations.

The range of aircraft has been most impressive and included an all-titanium Mach-3 bomber of extraordinary sophistication, which was actually cancelled by Kruschiev in the mistaken belief (although shared with a variety of contemporary Western politicians) that there was no future in manned aircraft!

The involvement of Sukhoi in aerobatic aircraft came through the brilliant designer, Slava Kondratiev, who was one of the leading lights at Yakovlev, and who indeed designed the then state of the art aircraft – the Yak-55 and –55M. He could see that the future lay in composite aircraft, but Yakovlev refused to accept that a proper aircraft could be made out of ‘plastics’ and Sukhoi, eager to show off their skills, gave Kondratiev a free hand to design a composite aerobatic aircraft, which resulted in the world-beating SU-26, and its production version the SU-26M.

The design and construction of this aircraft is in fact done by Advance Sukhoi Technologies, ni fact a privately owned company, albeit with largely the same management as the (still today) majority state -owned Sukhoi Design Bureau. The aircraft are largely manufactured within the Sukhoi Design Bureau at Policarpov Street in central Moscow, where the back of the factory opens on to the old Central Moscow Airfield, which is now disused, but does give AST the ability to wheel aircraft out of the factory for immediate test flights. Always his own man, Kondratiev began to find Sukhoi too constraining, so he left, having laid down the basis for the almost totally composite SU-29 two seater and SU-31 single seater, to set up his own design bureau, Technoavia. In the meantime Boris Rakitin took over as chief designer of AST and brought these two products to fruition. The organisation today is probably the largest producer of aerobatic aircraft in the world, having produced some 190 aircraft which have been solid literally throughout the world, as well has having been the most successful competition aircraft of all time.

In November 1949, Sukhoi's design bureau closed, and Sukhoi himself went back to work for Tupolev. Work on supersonic aircraft in the Soviet Union was curtailed until 1953, when Stalin died and Sukhoi reopened the design bureau. The production of the Flanker and the MiG-29 Fulcrum in the 1980s were seen as counters to the U.S. F-15 Eagle and F-16 Fighting Falcon. The Flanker carries a payload of 6,000 kilograms and has a maximum speed of Mach 2.35. A modified Su-27 established dozens of climb and altitude records between 1986 and 1988. The Su-27 platform has set the stage for a series of variants and upgrades, notably the Su-30/33/34/35, many of them for export to other countries. Several new fighters use thrust-vectored engines, enabling a degree of maneuverability and dogfighting never before seen. A "fifth-generation" fighter, the S-37 Berkut ("Golden Eagle") or Su- 37, introduced in 1997, has forward-swept wings. The Sukhoi Design Bureau has remained in fighter design but has also branched out into civil transport and aerobatic aircraft. Export of high-quality Sukhoi aircraft is possible with the fall of the Soviet Union and the loosening of trade barriers between Russia and the West.

Since 1983, the former fighter designers at the company have created a series of one- and two -seat aerobatic planes, the Su- 26/29/31 series, which make heavy use of composite materials to improve performance. The aircraft, flown by the Russian national team, have won scores of medals in competition as well as the 1997 Nesterov Cup, the most prestigious aerobatic trophy in the world Conclusion

Now that we have had a close look at the economics aspects, we shall go into the next exciting section, ie. Descriptions of various famous aircrafts manufactured by Russia and the U.S.

Before we go into that, some technical background. Lets see the various types of planes :

Bombers : These are air planes which are best suited for air to ground missions (called sorties). Bombers are used to bomb buildings, barracks, enemy HQ or any other stucture. They may also carry nuclear bombs and are designated by the letter “B” by the USAF.

Attack Aircraft : These are also known as close support aircraft. Close support fighters give assistance to friendly ground units. These planes are equipped with ammunition designed to bring down enemy tanks or any other land based threat to friendly forces. Thay are designated with the letter “A” by the USAF.

Fighters : Interceptors are the more appropriate name for them. These planes are usually used for air to air sorties (to bring down othe r enemy airplanes.) They are designated by the letter “F”.

Support Aircraft : These are used to enhance the capabilities of other aircraft in a particular region. Depending upon their role, they are designated appropriate names by the USAF. For example, C denotes cargo aircraft etc.

Aircraft which can perform more than one of the above functions are called as multirole fighters or simply fighters. They too are denoted by the letter “F”.

It is important to note that Russia doesn’t have any such alphabetical designation. Rather, Russia designates a particular aircraft using the design bureau which worked on the project as the suffix. For example, MiG denotes that the plane was done by Mikoyan Gurevich and so on.

Now that we have some idea about the vario us types of aircrafts used, lets see the specs of some of them.

Some of the Air Fighters… PART III

The Russian Air Force is the youngest of all its defense departments. It was setup in 1952. At that time, the fleet wa not so impressive because Russia had primarily concentrated on surface to air missile development. However, in the 1970’s, various design bureaus joined in to make the Air Force a real power, especially after the entrance of the Sukhoi Design Bureau. The Sukhoi is supposed to be the best of the lot, the Mig following Suit. Both these design bureaus produce air to air interceptors which could also be used to air to ground sorties. Another deign Bureau worth the mention is the Tupelov. The Tupelovs are the only planes in Russia which can carry a nuclear warhead (nuclear missile.) Another design bureau called Antanov specialises in Cargo Aircraft. The An- 225 is supposed to be the biggest Cargo Air Craft in the world, and it is primarily used to carry spacecraft. The An-124 which come in next are used frequently by the Air Force for transportation. Along with these Design bureaus, we also have other bureaus cipping in with deadly choppers like the Black Shark, Mi-8 and the Mi-24 which have a deadly firepower. These choppers beat any chopper in the world hands down.

TYPE: All-weather single -seat counter-air fighter with attack capability, and two-seat combat trainer.

PROGRAMME: Technical assignment (operational requirement) issued 1972, to replace MiG -21, MiG-23, Su-15 and Su-17; initial order placed simultaneously; detail design began 1974; first of 14 prototypes built for factory and State testing flew 6 October 1977; photographed by US satellite, Ramenskoye flight test centre, November 1977 and given interim Weste rn designation 'Ram-L'; second prototype flew June 1978; second and fourth prototypes lost through engine failures; after major design changes (see previous editions of Jane's) production began 1982, deliveries to Frontal Aviation 1984; operational early 1985; first detailed Western study possible after visit of demonstration team to Finland July 1986; production of basic MiG-29 combat aircraft by Moscow Aircraft Production Group (MAPO), and of MiG-29UB combat trainers at Nizhny Novgorod, for CIS air forces completed, but manufacture for export continues.

DESIGN FEATURES: All-swept low-wing configuration, with wide ogival wing leading- edge root extensions (LERX), lift-generating fuselage, twin tail fins carried on booms outboard of widely spaced engines with wedge intakes; doors in intakes, actuated by extension and compression of nosewheel leg, prevent ingestion of foreign objects during take-off and landing; gap between roof of each intake and skin of wingroot extension for boundary layer bleed; fire control and mission computers link radar with laser rangefinder and infrared search/track sensor, in conjunction with helmet-mounted target designator; radar able to track 10 targets simultaneously; targets can be approached and engaged without emission of detectable radar or radio signals; sustained turn rate much improved over earlier Soviet fighters; thrust/weight ratio better than one; allowable angles of attack at least 70 per cent higher than previous fighters; difficult to get into stable flat spin, reluctant to enter normal spin, recovers as soon as controls released; wing leading- edge sweepback 73 degrees 30' on LERX, 42 degrees on outer panels; anhedral approx 2 degrees; tail fins canted outward 6 degrees; leading-edge sweep 47 degrees 50' on fins, approx 50 degrees on horizontal surfaces. Design flying life 2500 h.

STRUCTURE: Approx 7 per cent of airframe, by weight, of composites; remainder metal, including aluminium-lithium alloys; trailing-edge wing flaps, ailerons and vertical tail surfaces of carbonfibre honeycomb; approx 65 per cent of horizontal tail surfaces aluminium alloy, remainder carbonfibre; semi-monocoque all-metal fuselage, sharply tapered and downswept aft of flat-sided cockpit area, with ogival dielectric nosecone; small vortex generator each side of nose helps to overcome early tendency to aileron reversal at angles of attack above 25 degrees; tail surfaces carried on slim booms alongside engine nacelles.

LANDING GEAR: Retractable tricycle type, made by Hydromash, with single wheel on each main unit and twin nosewheels. Mainwheels retract forward into wingroots, turning through 90 degrees to lie flat above leg; nosewheels, on trailing-link oleo, retract rearward between engine air intakes. Hydraulic retraction and extension, with mechanical emergency release. Nosewheels steerable +/-8 degrees for taxiing, T-O and landings, +/-30 degrees for slow speed manoeuvring in confined areas (selector in cockpit).

POWER PLANT: Two Klimov/Sarkisov RD-33 turbofans, each 49.4 kN (11,110 lb st) dry and 54.9 -81.4 kN (12,345-18,300 lb st) with afterburning. Engine ducts canted at approx 9 degrees, with wedge intakes, sweptback at approx 35 degrees, under wingroot leading-edge extensions. Multi-segment ramp system, including top-hinged forward door (containing a very large number of small holes) inside each intake that closes the duct while aircraft is taking off or landing, to prevent ingestion of foreign objects, ice or snow. Air is then fed to each engine through louvres in top of wingroot leading- edge extension and perforations in duct closure door. Basic 'Fulcrum-A' has four integral fuel tanks in inboard portion of each wing and in fuselage between wings; total capacity 4365 litres (1153 US gallons; 960 Imp gallons).

TYPE: Single -seat all-weather air-superiority fighter and single/two-seat ground attack aircraft; two-seat combat trainer.

PROGRAMME: Development began 1969 under leadership of Pavel Sukhoi; construction of T-10-1 prototype (first of 15 Su-27 'Flanker-As'), under Mikhail Seemonov's supervision, began 1974 and it was flown 20 May 1977 by Vladimir Ilyushin. Prototypes, had curved wingtips, rearward retracting nosewheel, tail fins mounted centrally above engine housings; development was not easy; two pilots lost their lives before major airframe redesign resulted in production configuration; production began 1979, with first flight of production aircraft 1981 and entry into service 1985; current production, for export only, centred in plant at Komsomolsk, Khabarovsk Territory; ground attack role observed in 1991; new versions being developed.

DESIGN FEATURES: Developed to replace Yak-28P, Su-15 and Tu-28P/128 interceptors in APVO, and to escort Su-24 deep-penetration strike missions; requirement was effective engagement of F-15 and F-16 and other future aircraft and cruise missiles; exceptional range on internal fuel made flight refuelling unnecessary until Su-24s received probes; external fuel tanks still not considered necessary; all-swept integrated mid-wing configuration, with long curved wing leading- edge root extensions, lift-generating fuselage, twin tail fins and widely spaced engines with wedge intakes; rear-hinged doors in intakes hinge up to prevent ingestion of foreign objects during take- off and landing; integrated fire control system with pilot's helmet- mounted target designator; exceptional high-Alpha performance; basic wing leading-edge sweepback 42 degrees; no dihedral or incidence.

LANDING GEAR: Hydraulically retractable tricycle type, made by Hydromash, with single wheel on each unit; mainwheels retract forward into wingroots; steerable nosewheel, with mudguard, also retracts forward; mainwheel tyres 1300 x 350 mm, pressure 12.25-15.7 bars (178-227 lb/sq in); nosewheel tyre 680 x 260 mm, pressure 9.3 bars (135 lb/ sq in); hydraulic brakes with two-signal anti-skid system; brake-chute housed in fuselage tailcone.

POWER PLANT: Two Saturn/Lyulka AL-31F turbofans, each 122.6 kN (27557 lb st) with afterburning. Large auxiliary air intake louvres in bottom of each three-ramp engine duct near primary wedge intake; two rows of small vertical louvres in each sidewall of wedge, and others in top face; fine-grille screen hinges up from bottom of each duct to shield engine from foreign object ingestion during take-off and landing. Pressure or gravity fuelling.

ACCOMMODATION: Pilot only, on K-36MD zero/zero ejection seat, under large rearward opening transparent blister canopy, with low sill.

AVIONICS: Track-while-scan coherent pulse Doppler lookdown/shootdown radar (antenna diameter approx 1.0 m; 3 ft 4 in) with reported search range of 130 nm (240 km; 150 miles) and tracking range of 100 nm (185 km; 115 miles); infrared search/track (IRST) sensor in transparent housing forward of windscreen; Sirena-3 360 degrees radar warning receivers, outboard of each bottom air intake lip and at tail. Integrated fire control system enables radar, IRST and laser rangefinder to be slaved to pilot's helmet-mounted target designator and displayed on wide-angle HUD; autopilot able to restore aircraft to right-side-up level flight from any attitude when 'panic button' depressed.

TYPE: Twin -engined variable geometry medium bomber and maritime reconnaissance/attack aircraft.

PROGRAMME: NATO revealed the existence of a Soviet variable geometry bomber programme autumn 1969; prototype observed July 1970 on the ground near Kazan manufacturing plant, western Russia; confirmed subsequently as twin-engined design by Tupolev OKB; at least two prototypes built, with first flight estimated 1969, up to 12 pre - production models by early 1973, for development testing, weapons trials and evaluation; production has been 30 a year.

DESIGN FEATURES: Capable of performing nuclear strike, conventional attack and anti- ship missions; low-level penetration features ensure better survivability than for earlier Tupolev bombers; not expected to become ALCM carriers, although used for development launches, deployment of RKV-500B (AS-16 'Kickback') short-range attack missiles in Tu-22Ms has increased significantly their weapon carrying capability. Low/mid-wing configuration; large-span fixed centre -section and two outer steering sleeves variable from 20 degrees to 65 degrees sweepback; no anhedral or dihedral, but wing section so thin that outer panels flex considerably in flight; leading-edge fence towards tip of centre -section each side; basically circular fuselage forward of wings, with ogival dielectric nosecone; centre -fuselage faired into rectangular section air intake trunks, each with large splitter plate and assumed to embody complex variable geometry ramps; no external area ruling of trunks; all- swept tail surfaces, with large dorsal fin.

LANDING GEAR: Retractable tricycle type; each mainwheel bogie comprises three pairs of wheels in tandem, with two forward pairs farthe r apart than rear pairs; bogies pivot inwards from vestigial fairing under centre - section on each side into bottom of fuselage.

POWER PLANT: Two unidentified turbofans, side by side in rear fuselage, each more than 2500 kg with afterburning. Fuel is in integral tanks in wing central section and steering sleeves and in fuselage tanks.

ACCOMMODATION: Pilot and co -pilot side by side, under upward opening gull-wing doors hinged on centreline; two crew members further aft, as indicated by position of windows between flight deck and air intakes.

AVIONICS: Large missile targeting and navigation radar (NATO 'Down Beat') inside dielectric nosecone; radar ('Box Tail') for tail turret, above guns. Fairing with flat glazed front panel under front fuselage, for video camera to provide visual assistance for weapon aiming from high altitude. Very advanced ECM and ECCM; infrared missile approach warning sensor above fuselage aft of cockpit; eight chaff/flare multiple dispensers in bottom of each engine duct between wingro ot and tailplane, another in each tailplane root fairing.

ARMAMENT: Max offensive weapon load three Kh-22 (NATO AS-4 'Kitchen') air- to-surface missiles, one semi-recessed under centre -fuselage, one under fixed centre -section panel of each wing; or 24,000 kg (52,910 lb) of conventional bombs or mines, half carried internally and half on racks under wings and engine air intake trunks. Internal bombs can be replaced by rotary launcher for six Kh-15P (AS-16 'Kickback') short-range attack missiles, with four more underwing as alternative to Kh-22s. Normal weapon load is single Kh-22 or 12,000 kg (26,455 lb) of bombs. Typical loads two FAB-3000, eight FAB-1500, 42 FAB-500 or 69 FAB-250 or -100 bombs (figures indicated weight in kg), or eight 1500 kg or 18 500 kg mines. One GSh-23 twin -barrel 23 mm gun, with barrels superimposed, in radar directed tail mounting.

TYPE: Single -seat variable geometry ground attack fighter, reconnaissance aircraft and two-seat combat trainer.

PROGRAMME: Prototype S-22I or Su-7IG (Izmenyaemaya Geometriya; variable geometry) was minimal conversion of fixed-wing Su-7 (NATO `Fitter-A'); only 4.2 m (13 ft 9 in) of each wing pivoted, outboard of large fence and deepened inboard glove panel; first flew 2 August 1966; shown at Aviation Day display July 1967; given NATO reporting name `Fitter-B'; two squadrons of Su-17 `improved Fitter-Bs' in Soviet air forces 1972; AL-21F-3 engine then replaced AL-7 in major Soviet air force production versions, beginning with `Fitter-C'. Production ended 1 991.

MODERNISATION: Sukhoi: Su-22 (`Fitter-F') Sukhoi/Sextant Avionique Su-22M5

OPERATORS: Versions of the Su-17/20/22 are in service with the armed forces of the following countries: Afghanistan (50), Algeria (32), Angola (15), Bulgaria (21), Czech Republic (41), Hungary (12), Iraq, Libya (90), Peru (35), Poland (90), Russia, Slovakia (20), Syria (60), Ukraine (40), Vietnam (40) and Yemen (50).

DESIGN FEATURES: Modest amount of variable geometry added to original fixed-wing Su-7 permitted doubled extern al load from strips little more than half as long, and 30 per cent greater combat radius; progressive refinements led to very effective final versions. Conventional mid - wing all-swept monoplane, except for variable geometry outer wings with manually selected positions of 28°, 45°, 63°; wide span fixed centre -section glove panels; basically circular fuselage with dorsal spine; ram intake with variable shock-cone centrebody; pitot on port side of nose, transducer to provide pitch and yaw data for fire control computer starboard; anti-flutter bodies near tailplane tips.

FLYING CONTROLS: Slotted ailerons operable at all times; slotted trailing-edge flap on each variable geometry wing panel operable only when wings spread; area-increasing flap on each centre-section glove panel; full-span leading -edge slats on variable geometry wing panels; top and bottom door type airbrakes each side of rear fuselage, forward of tailplane; all-moving horizontal tail surfaces; conventional rudder; no tabs.

STRUCTURE: All-metal; semi-monocoque fuselage; large main wing fence on each side, at junction of fixed and movable panels, square -cut at front, with attachment for external store; shorter fence above glove panel each side.

LANDING GEAR: Retractable tricycle type, with single wheel on each unit. Nosewheel retracts forward, requiring blistered door to enclose it. Main units retract inward into centre-section. Container for single cruciform brake-chute between base of rudder and tailpipe.

POWER PLANT: One Saturn/Lyulka AL-21F-3 turbojet, rated at 76.5 kN (17,200 lb st) dry and 110 kN (24,700 lb st) with afterburning. Fuel capacity increased to 4,550 litres (1,202 US gallons; 1,000 Imp gallons) by added tankage in dorsal spine fairing. Provision for carrying up to four 800 litre (211 US gallon; 176 Imp gallon) drop tanks on outboard wing pylons and under fuselage. When underfuselage tanks are carried only the two inboard wing pylons may be used for ordnance, to a total weight of 1,000 kg (2,204 lb). Two solid propellant rocket units can be attached to rear fuselage to shorten T-O run.

ACCOMMODATION: Pilot only, on ejection seat, under rearward hinged transparent canopy. Rearview mirror above canopy.

The Air Force is the youngest of all U.S. military services. Its birth date is September 18, 1947. On that day, the National Security Act became law. Signed by President Harry Truman, it set up the National Military Establishment, which was renamed Department of Defense (DOD) in 1949. The DOD was divided into three equal branches. The former War Department became the Department of the Army. The Navy Department became the Department of the Navy, which included the Marine Corps. And a brand-new branch was created; the Department of the Air Force. The head of the Department of Defense is a civilian, the secretary of defense. Each of the three branches is also headed by a civilian secretary. The first secretary of the Air Force was Stuart Symington, who had been an assistant secretary of war and who later became a U.S. senator from Missouri. The highest-ranking military officer in the Air Force is the chief of staff. The first chief of staff was General Carl "Tooey" Spaatz, a World War II veteran. All American military forces are commanded by the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS). This group meets weekly in Washington, D.C. It includes a chairman and vice chairman, the Chiefs of Naval Operations, the Commandant of the Marine Corps, and the Chiefs of Staff of the Army and Air Force. These six people advise the president in decisions about the military. The president is commander in chief of all the military forces.The job of the United States Air Force (USAF) is to protect the United States from any threat by air and to defeat aggressors. Along with the Army, Navy, and Marine Corps, the Air Force si pledged to preserve the peace and security of the United States and to defend it if necessary. Air Force Headquarters is located in the Pentagon building in Washington, D.C., as are the headquarters for all the military services. Headquarters sets policy, reviews programs, plans and budgets, and distributes resources to all Air Force units. It is the center of all Air Force activities.

The Air Force includes more than 500,000 servicemen and women on active duty. In addition, there are more than 250,000 men and women in the Air Force Reserve and the Air National Guard.

TYPE: Single -seat close support aircraft.

PROGRAMME: Fairchild Republic and Northrop each built two prototypes for evaluation under the US Air Force's A-X programme, initiated in 1967, for a close support aircraft. The first Fairchild Republic prototype (71-1369), designated YA-10A, flew for the first time 10 May 1972. It was announced 18 January 1973 that Fairchild was the winner of the competitive evaluation of the prototypes, and received a contract for six A-10A DT and E aircraft, the first of which flew 15 February 1975. The first flight by a production A-10A Thunderbolt II (75-00258) was made 21 October 1975. Purchase of a total of 739 aircraft was planned (including the six DT and E aircraft); but funding was terminated in 1983 after a total of 713 production A-10s had been ordered. Delivery was completed 20 March 1984. There were still 327 aircraft in service with the USAF, USAF Reserve and ANG in early 1994. The Thunderbolt II was used during the Gulf War of 1991. Export versions of the A-10 were available as single-seat night attack and two-seat combat-ready trainer aircraft. Night capability is provided by the addition of a Westinghouse WX-50 radar, Texas Instruments AAR-42 FLIR, Litton LN-39 inertial navigation system, Honeywell APN-194 radar altimeter, AiResearch digital air data computer, Ferranti 105 laser rangefinder and Kaiser head-up display. It is expected that night/adverse weather capability can be improved with the addition of a LANTIRN (low-altitude navigation targeting infrared for night) fire control pod. The first combat-ready A-10A wing was the 345th Tactical Fighter Wing, based at Myrtle Beach, South Carolina, to which deliveries began in March 1977.

DESIGN FEATURES: Cantilever low-wing monoplane, with wide chord, deep aerofoil section (NACA 6716 on centre-section and at start of outer panel, NACA 6713 at tip) to provide low wing loading. Incidence -1 degrees. Dihedral 7 degrees on outer panels.

FLYING CONTROLS: Wide span ailerons made up of dual upper and lower surfaces that separate to serve as airbrakes. Flaps, airbrakes and ailerons actuated hydraulically. Ailerons pilot-controlled by servo tab during manual reversion. Small leading-edge slat inboard of each mainwheel fairing. Redundant and armour-protected flight control system. Interchangeable elevators, each with an electrically operated trim tab. Rudders and elevators actuated hydraulically.

STRUCTURE: Aluminium alloy three-spar structure, consisting of one-piece constant-chord centre-section and tapered outer panels with integrally stiffened skins and drooped (cambered) wingtips. Outer panel leading-edges and core of trailing-edges are of honeycomb sandwich.

LANDING GEAR: Menasco retractable tricycle type with single wheel on each unit. All units retract forward, and have provision for emergency gravity extension. Interchangeable mainwheel units retract into non- structural pod fairings attached to the lower surface of the wings.

POWER PLANT: Two General Electric TF34-GE-100 high bypass ratio turbofan engines, each rated at 40.3 kN (9065 lb st), enclosed in separate pods, each pylon-mounted to the upper rear fuselage at a point approximately midway between the wing trailing -edges and the tailp lane leading-edges. Fuel is contained in two tear-resistant and self-sealing cells in the fuselage, and two smaller, adjacent integral cells in the wing centre-section. Maximum internal fuel capacity 4853 kg (10,700 lb).

ACCOMMODATION: Single -seat enclosed cockpit, well forward of wings, with large transparent bubble canopy to provide all-round vision. Bulletproof windscreen. Canopy is hinged at rear and opens upward. Douglas ejection seat operable at speeds of 450 knots (834 km/h; 518 mph) down to zero speed at zero height. Entire cockpit structure is protected by an armoured 'bathtub' structure of titanium, capable of withstanding projectiles up to 23 mm calibre.

TYPE: Precision attack aircraft with stealth elements, optimised for radar energy dispersion and low IR emission.

PROGRAMME: Production complete; details of development and early service appeared in the 1993-94 and earlier Jane's. Navalised F-117N proposal described separately.

DESIGN FEATURES: Multi-faceted airframe designed to reflect radar energy away from originating transmitter, particularly downward -looking AEW aircraft; vortexes from many sharp edges, including leading-edge of wing, designed to form co -ordinated lifting airflow pattern; wings have 67 degrees 30' sweepback, much greater than needed for subsonic performance, with aerofoil formed by two flat planes underneath and three on upper surface; forward underwing surface blends with forward fuselage; all doors and access panels have serrated edges to suppress radar reflection; internal weapons bay 4.7 m (15 ft 5 in) long and 1.75 m (5 ft 9 in) wide divided longitudinally by two lengthwise doors hinged on centreline; boom refuelling receptacle on port side of top plate, aft of cockpit. Frontal radar cross-section estimated as 0.01 m{2} (0.1 sq ft).

LANDING GEAR: Tricycle type by Menasco, with single wheels all retracting forward. Loral brakes (steel originally, being replaced by carbon/carbon), wheels (F-15E size) and anti-skid system. Goodyear tyres. All doors have serrated edges to suppress radar reflections. Emergency arrester hook with explosively jettisoned cover; Pioneer Aerospace braking parachute (black).

POWER PLANT: Two 48.0 kN (10,800 lb st) class General Electric F404-GE-F1D2 non-augmented turbofans. Rectangular overwing air intakes with 2.5 x 1.5 cm (1 x {5/8} in) heated grid for anti-icing and low observability. Auxiliary air intake doors in horizontal surface immediately to the rear. Part of cold air ingested bypasses engine and is mixed with exhaust gases for cooling. Narrow-slot 'platypus' exhausts, designed by Astech/MCI, in rear fuselage, 1.65 m (5 ft 5 in) long and 0.10 m (4 in) high, with extended lower lip, surrounded by heat tiles of type used on Space Shuttle and with 11 vertical, internal guide vanes. Sundstrand air turbine starter. In-flight refuelling receptacle in decking aft of cockpit, illuminated for night refuelling by lamp at apex of cockpit. Optional drop tank on internal weapons pylon.

ACCOMMODATION: Pilot only; McDonnell Douglas ACES II zero/zero ejection seat. Five Sierracin/Sylmar Corporation individually framed flat-plate windows, including single-piece windscreen. Transparencies gold-coated for radar dissipation. Canopy hinged to open upward and backward.

SYSTEMS: AiResearch environmental control, auxiliary power and emergency power systems.

AVIONICS: Forward-looking infrared (FLIR) sensor, with dual fields of view, in recessed emplacement, covered by fine mesh screen, below windscreen. Retractable downward-looking DLIR and laser designator beneath forward fuselage to starboard of nosewheel bay; FLIR and DLIR by Texas Instruments (to be replaced by improved equipment during third -phase retrofit in 1994). HUD based on Kaiser AN/AVQ-28; large head-down display for FLIR imagery flanked by two mult i-function CRTs. Retractable radio antennae beneath fuselage, ahead of port main landing gear, and on spine. Honeywell radar altimeter, Honeywell SPN-GEANS INS (replaced by Honeywell H-423/E ring laser gyro from August 1991; Rockwell Collins GPS to be added); IBM AP-102 mission computer (replacing original three Delco M362F computers); GEC -Marconi flight control computer/navigation interface and autopilot computer (NIAC) system; SLI Avionic Systems Corporation expanded data transfer system and AHRS. Harris Corporation digital moving map added as retrofit with full-colour MFDs.

TYPE: Single - and two-seat multirole fighter.

PROGRAMME: Emerged from YF-16 of US Air Force Lightweight Fighter prototype programme 1972 (details under General Dynamics in 1977-78 and 1978-79 Jane's); first flight of prototype YF-16 (72-01567) 2 February 1974; first flight of second prototype (72-01568) 9 May 1974; selected for full-scale development 13 January 1975; day fighter requirement extended to add air-to-ground capability with radar and all-weather navigation; production of six single -seat F- 16As and two two -seat F-16Bs began July 1975; first flight of full- scale development aircraft 8 December 1976; first flight of F-16B 8 August 1977. Fleet of 3,300 F-16s achieved 5 millionth flying hour late in 1993 and 3,500th aircraft delivered 27 April 1995. Backlog of over 400 aircraft in 1996, plus anticipated orders for further 500 F - 16s, expected to maintain production line in operation until 2005 - 10. F-16 air combat score was 69 for no losses, with three air forces, by mid -1996. Under original procurement plan, final 12 F-16s for USAF ordered in FY94, but anticipated shortfall in fighter assets resulted in USAF considering plan to purchase 120 F-16C/Ds by 2010; initial batch of six included in FY96 budget, and similar quantity in FY97 requests, with further contracts expected.

DESIGN FEATURES: Cropped delta wings blended with fuselage, with highly swept vortex control strakes along fuselage forebody and joining wings to increase lift and improve directional stability at high angles of attack; wing section NACA 64A-204; leading-edge sweepback 40o; relaxed stability (rearward CG) to increase manoeuvrability; deep wing-roots increase rigidity, save 113 kg (250 lb) structure weight and increase fuel volume; fixed geometry engine intake; pilot's ejection seat inclined 30o rearwards; single -piece birdproof forward canopy section; two ventral fins below wing trailing-edge. Baseline F-16 airframe life planned as 8,000 hours with average usage of 55.5 per cent in air combat training, 20 per cent ground attack and 24.5 per cent general flying; structural strengthening programme for pre -Block 50 aircraft required during 1990s.

LANDING GEAR: Menasco hydraulically retractable type, nose unit retracting rearward and main units forward into fuse-lage. Nosewheel is located aft of intake to reduce the risk of foreign objects being thrown into the engine during ground operation, and rotates 90o during retraction to lie horizontally under engine air in take duct. Oleo -pneumatic struts in all units.

POWER PLANT: One 131.6 kN (29,588 lb st) General Electric F110 -GE-129, or one 129.4 kN (29,100 lb st) Pratt & Whitney F100-PW-229 afterburning turbofan as alternative standard. These Increased Performance Engines (IPE) installed from late 1991 in Block 50 and Block 52 aircraft. Immediately prior standard was 128.9 kN (28,984 lb st) F110-GE-100 or 105.7 kN (23,770 lb st) F100-PW-220 in Blocks 40/42. Of 1,416 F-16Cs and F-16Ds ordered by USAF, 555 with F100 and 861 with F110. IPE variants have half share each in FY92 procurement of 48 F-16s for USAF, following eight reliability trial installations including six Block 30 aircraft which flew 2,400 hours between December 1990 and September 1992. F100s of ANG and AFRes F-16A/Bs upgraded to -220E standard from late 1991.

ACCOMMODATION: Pilot only in F-16C, in pressurised and air conditioned cockpit. McDonnell Douglas ACES II zero/zero ejection seat. Bubble canopy made of polycarbonate advanced plastics material. Insid e of USAF F-16C/D canopy (and most Belgian, Danish, Netherlands and Norwegian F-16A/Bs) coated with gold film to dissipate radar energy. In conjunction with radar-absorbing materials in air intake, this reduces frontal radar signature by 40 per cent. To enable the pilot to sustain high g forces, and for pilot comfort, the seat is inclined 30o aft and the heel line is raised. In normal operation the canopy is pivoted upward and aft by electrical power; the pilot is also able to unlatch the canopy manually and open it with a back-up handcrank.

TYPE: US Air Force next-generation tactical fighter, formerly known as Advanced Tactical Fighter (ATF) programme.

PROGRAMME: US Air Force ATF requirement for 750 (now 442) McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle replacements ncorporatingi low observables technology and supercruise (supersonic cruise without afterburning); parallel assessment of two new power plants; request for information issued 1981; concept definition studies awarded September 1983 to Boeing, General Dynamics, Grumman, McDonnell Douglas, Northrop and Rockwell; requests for proposals issued September 1985; submissions received by 28 July 1986; USAF selection announced 31 October 1986 of demonstration/validation phase contractors: Lockheed YF-22 and Northrop YF-23 (see 1991 -92 Jane's); each produced two prototypes and ground-based avionics testbed; first flights of all four prototypes 1990. Competing engine demonstration/validation programmes launched September 1983; ground testing began 1986-87; flight-capable Pratt & Whitney YF119s and General Electric YF120s ordered early 1988; all four aircraft/engine combinations flown. Lockheed teamed with General Dynamics (Fort Worth) and Boeing Military Airplanes to produce two YF-22 prototypes, civil registrations N22YF (with GE YF120) and N22YX (P&W YF119); USAF serial numbers 87-0700 and 87-0701 assigned, but only 87 - 0701 applied during second phase of testing, from late 1991. N22YF rolled out at Palmdale 29 August 1990; first flight/ferry to Edwards AFB 29 September 1990; first air refuelling (11th sortie) 26 October 1990; thrust vectoring in flight 15 November 1990; anti-spin parachute for high angle of attack tests on 34th to 43rd sorties; flight testing temporarily suspended 28 December 1990; 43 sorties/52 hours 48 minutes. N22YX first flight Palmdale-Edwards 30 October 1990; AIM -9M Sidewinder (28 November 1990) and AIM -120A AMRAAM (20 December 1990) launch demonstrations; achieved Mach 1.8 on 26 December 1990; temporarily grounded after 31 sorties/38 hours 48 minutes, 28 December 1990. Flight test demonstrations included 100o/s roll rate at 120 knots (222 km/h; 138 mph) and supercruise flight in excess of Mach 1.58 without afterburner.

DESIGN FEATURES: Low observables configuration and construction; stealth/agility trade-off decided by design team; target thrust/weight ratio 1.4 (achieved ratio 1.2 at T-O weight); greatly improved reliability and maintainability for high sortie -generation rates, including under 20 minute combat turnround time; enhanced survivability through 'first-look, first-shot, first-kill' capability; short T-O and landing distances; supersonic cruise and manoeuvring (supercruise) in region of Mach 1.5 without afterburning; internal weapons storage and generous internal fuel; conformal sensors. Highly integrated avionics for single pilot operation and rapid reaction. Radar, RWR and comms/ident managed by single system presenting relevant data only, and with emissions controlled (passive to fully active) in stages, according to tactical situation. Common integrated processor (CIP) handles all avionics functions, including self-protection and radio, and automatically reconfigures to compensate for faults and failures. F-22 has two CIPs, with space for third, linked by 400 Mbits/s fibre optic network (see Avionics).

LANDING GEAR: Menasco retractable tricycle type, stressed for no-flare landings of up to 3.05 m (10 ft)/s. Nosewheel tyre 23.5 x 7.5-10; mainwheel tyres 37 x 11.5-18.

POWER PLANT: Two 155 kN (35,000 lb st) class Pratt & Whitney F119-PW-100 advanced technology reheated engines reportedly developed from F100 turbofan. Two -dimensional convergent/divergent exhaust nozzles with thrust vectoring for enhanced performance and manoeuvrability.

ACCOMMODATION: Pilot only, on zero/zero modified ACES II ejection seat and wearing tactical life support system with improved g-suits, pressure breathing and arm restraint. Pilot's view over nose is -15o.

SYSTEMS: Include Normalair -Garrett OBOGS, AlliedSignal APU and Smiths 270 V DC electrical dis tribution system.

Support Aircraft PART IV

Support Aircraft

Support aircraft play a pivotal role in the Air Forces. Without these airplanes, maintaining an airforce would be an incredibly tough job. Both USAF and Russian Air Force contain such support airplanes.

For the USAF the KC -series of planes (developed by Boeing) are used for mid -air refuelling. For Russia, the An-series does the job. Also, as an added bonus, due the high payload of the An’s, it can be used to carry cargo. However, USAF uses special planes for this purpose, like the C-130 Hercules or the Chinook coppers.

Also, in addition, the USAF has various utility airplanes in their service, most of them developed by Boeing. For eg, the E3 AWACS, which act as an airborne radar station. They also have Weather detecting airplanes in their Arsenal. Russia, unfortunately has no AWACS and has to rely on the ground-based radars.

Choppers also play an important role in Air Forces. Choppers, unlike the jets consume much lesser fuel and can land on almost any terrain. Choppers are irreplaceable for rescue missions due to the features they offer. They fly low and not too fast making them almost invisible to enemy RADAR. They too can be equipped with sophisticated weapon sy stems to make them absolutely deadly. The choppers have the uncanny ability to strike at the heart of the enemy. This is mainly because choppers rely more on physics rather than aerodynamics. They can stay still in mid air, hover along few metres above the ground. This cannot be done by any plane (some planes no doubt can hover, but not like the choppers). However, choppers have disadvantage too. They are very slow (probably 1/10 the speed of an ordinary plane) and they can’t fly very high where the atmosphere gets thin.

In the next few chapters, we would be seeing some of the support aircraft used by the USAF. We didn’t bother to include the Russian counterparts, cause they are more or less similar to their US cousins.

TYPE: Strategic flight refuelling tanker/transport with numerous C-135 special-mission variants (not all with tanker capability).

PROGRAMME: Between 1957 and 1965, the US Air Force received 729 KC -135A tankers, 18 C-135A and 30 C-135B transports, 14 EC-135C and three EC-135J command posts, four RC-135A and 10 RC -135C survey aircraft (B and C versions have turbofans). Current US Air Force fleet is 730 aircraft of all versions, including 411 KC-135A/R, two C-135As, one NC -135A, 10 NKC-135As (excluding two for the US Navy), four EC -135As, four C-135Bs, seven WC-135Bs, three C- 135Cs, 13 EC-135Cs, four KC -135Ds, three C-135Es, one NKC - 135E, four EC-135Es, 163 KC -135Es, four EC -135Gs, four EC- 135Hs, four EC -135Js, two EC-135Ks, five EC-135Ls, four EC- 135Ps, 54 KC-135Qs, two RC-135Ss, one TC-135S, two RC-135Us, eight RC-135Vs, six RC-135Ws, one TC-135W, one RC-135X and two EC-135Ys. From 1975 to 7 November 1988 Boeing extended life of every KC -135 beyond year 2020 by replacing sections of underwing skins and other modifications; selection of 97.9 kN (22,000 lb st) CFM56 - 2B-1 turbofan National Guard and AFRes KC-135As and 23 special missions aircraft re -engined with used airline JT3D-3B turbofans between 1981 and 1988.

Background Because the KC -135A's original engines are of 1950s technology, they don't meet modern standards of increased fuel efficiency, reduced pollution and reduced noise levels. By installing new, CFM56 engines, performance is enhanced and fuel off -load capability is dramatically improved. In fact, the modification is so succ essful that two-re -engined KC-135Rs can do the work of three KC -135As. This improvement is a result of the KC-135R's lower fuel consumption and increased performance which allow the tanker to take off with more fuel and carry it farther. Since the airplane can carry more fuel and burn less of it during a mission, it's possible to transfer a much greater amount to receiver aircraft. The quieter, more fuel-efficient CFM56 engines are manufactured by CFM International, a company jointly owned by SNECMA of France, and General Electric of the U.S. The engine is an advanced- technology, high- bypass turbofan; the military designation is F108 - CF -100. Related system improvements are incorporated to improve the modified airplane's ability to carry out its mission, while decreasing overall maintenance and operation costs. The modified airplane is designated a KC-135R. Because the KC-135R uses as much as 27 percent less fuel than the KC -135A, the USAF can expect huge fuel savings by re -engining its fleet of KC-135s - about $1.7 billion over 15 years of operation. That's enough to fill the gas tanks of some 7.7 million American cars each year for a decade and a half. Annual savings are estimated to be about 2.3 to 3.2 million barrels of fuel, about three to four percent of the USAF's annual fuel use. This equals the fuel needed to provide electrical power for 145 days to a city of 350,000 to 400,000. Re-engining with the CFM56 engines also results in significant noise reductions. Area surrounding airports exposed to decibel noise levels is reduced from over 240 square miles to about three square miles. This results in a reduction in the noise impacted area of more than 98 percent. Maximum take-off decibel levels drop from 126 to 99 decibels. This meets the tough U.S. Federal Air Regulation standards -- a goal for commercial aircraft operated within the U.S. In addition, smoke and other emission pollutants are reduced dramatically. Boeing has delivered approximately 400 re -engined KC-135Rs and is under contract for about 432 re-engine kits. Each kit includes struts, nacelles, 12.2 miles of wiring, and other system modification components. Engines are purchased directly by the Air Force from CFM International. Boeing has completed work on a program to re-engine all KC-135As in the Air Force Reserve and Air National Guard fleet -- a total of 161 airplanes. In that modification program, which began in 1981, KC -135As were modified with refurbished JT3D engines taken from used, commercial 707 airliners. After modification, the airplanes are designated KC-135Es. This upgrade, like the KC -135R program, boosts performance while decreasing noise and smoke pollution levels. The modified KC-135E provides 30 percent more powerful engines with a noise reduction of 85 percent.

TYPE: Mobile, flexible, survivable, jamming resistant, high capacity radar station and command, control and communications centre; airborne warning and control system (AWACS).

PROGRAMME: Two prototype EC -137Ds used to test competing radars; Westinghouse selected; full-scale development completed 1976. USAF received 34 E-3s by June 1984, including two prototypes. First production E-3A delivered to 552nd Airborne Warning and Control Wing, Tactical Air Command, at Tinker AFB, Oklahoma, on 24 March 1977; initial operational capability (IOC) April 1978. At various times, E-3s deployed to Iceland, Germany, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, the Mediterranean area, South West Asia and the Pacific and in support of drug enforcement programme. E-3As began to work with NORAD continental air defence 1 January 1979. The 552nd Wing has three AWACS squadrons and supporting units. Overseas units include the 960th, 961st and 962nd AWAC squadrons based respectively at NAS Keflavik, Iceland; Kadena AB, Okinawa, Japan; and Elmendorf, Alaska, providing command and control capability to CINCLANT (through Commander, Iceland Defence Force) and CINCPAC.

DESIGN FEATURES: Cantilever low-wing monoplane. Dihedral 7 degrees. Incidence 2 degrees. Sweepback at quarter-chord 35 degrees. All-metal tw o - spar fail-safe structure. Centre-section continuous through fuselage. Normal outboard aileron, and small inboard aileron on each wing, built of aluminium honeycomb panels. Two tracked and slotted flaps and one fillet flap of aluminium alloy on each wing. Full span leading-edge flaps. Four hydraulically operated aluminium alloy spoilers on each wing, forward of flaps. Primary controls are aerodynamically balanced and manually operated through spring tabs. Lateral control at low speeds by all four ailerons, supplemented by spoilers which are interconnected with the ailerons. Lateral control at high speeds by inboard aileron and spoilers only. Operation of flaps adjusts linkage between inboard and outboard ailerons to permit outboard operation with flaps exte nded. Spoilers may also be used symmetrically as speed brakes. Thermal anti-icing of wing leading-edges.

STRUCTURE: RAF aircraft have additional wing stringers outboard of outer engines because of wingtip pods and trailing-edge HF antennae. Otherwise, as Boeing 707.

POWER PLANT: Four Pratt & Whitney TF33-PW-100/100A turbofans, each rated at 93.4 kN (21,000 lb st), mounted in pods beneath the wings. Fuel contained in integral wing tanks. Usable fuel 90,528 litres (23,915 US gallons; 19,913 Imp gallons). Provision for in -flight refuelling, with receptacle for boom over flight deck. Four CFM56-2A-2/3 turbofans on French, Saudi and UK aircraft. SOGERMA in-flight refuelling probe in addition to receptacle on E-3D and E-3F.

AVIONICS: Elliptical cross-section rotodome of 9.14 m (30 ft) diameter and 1.83 m (6 ft) max depth, mounted 3.35 m (11 ft) above fuselage, comprises four essential elements: a turntable, strut-mounted above rear fuselage, supporting rotary joint assembly to which are attached sliprings for electrical and waveguide continuity between rotodome and fuselage; structural centre-section of aluminium skin and stiffener supporting the Westinghouse AN/APY-1 surveillance radar (AN/APY-2 from No. 25 onwards, and in all export E-3s) and IFF/TADIL-C antennae, radomes, auxiliary equipment for radar operation and environmental control of the rotodome interior; liquid cooling of the radar antennae; and two radomes of multi-layer glassfibre sandwich material, one for surveillance radar and one for IFF/TADIL-C array. For surveillance operations rotodome is hydraulically driven at 6 rpm, but during non-operational flights it is rotated at only {1/4} rpm, to keep bearings lubricated. Radar operates in E/F -band and can function as both a pulse and/or a pulse Dopple r radar for detection of aircraft targets.

TYPE: Day/night twin -engined attack helicopter.

PROGRAMME: Original Hughes Model 77 entered for US Army advanced attack helicopter (AAH) competition; first flights of two development prototype YAH-64s 30 September and 22 November 1975; details of programme in 1984-85 and earlier Jane's; selected by US Army December 1976; named Apache late 1981. Deliveries started 26 January 1984; 800th delivered July 1993; 867 by December 1994, at which time US Army had ordered 821 (excluding prototypes) with export contracts totalling 104 AH-64As; latter total increased to 213 by July 1995. Self -deployment capability shown by 14th Apache with four 871 litre (230 US gallon; 191 Imp gallon) external tanks, which flew 1,020 n miles (1,891 km; 1,175 miles) Mesa - Santa Barbara - Mesa - Tucson - Mesa with 45 minutes fuel remaining on 4 April 1985; initial operating capability achieved by 3rd Squadron, 6th Cavalry Regiment, July 1986; 33 of 35 planned AH-64A battalions, includin g seven National Guard and two Army Reserve, combat-ready by July 1994; first combat use (11 AH-64As) in operation Just Cause, Panama, December 1989; used extensively (288) during January/February 1991 Gulf War against Iraq, including first air strike of conflict. First AH-64As issued to Army National Guard in 1987; fourth ArNG unit (1-211 AvRgt in Utah) established 1990; first overseas regiment 2/6 Cavalry Regiment, Illesheim, Germany, September 1987; eighth in Europe (3 -4 AvRgt at Finthen) equipped 1990; battalion consists of 18 AH-64As and 13 Bell OH-58 Kiowas; more than 160 AH-64As based in Germany at peak strength, but force now reduced. Deployed to South Korea March 1994, with 17th Aviation Brigade (5 -501st AVN) at Camp Eagle.

DESIGN FEATURES: AH-64 is required to continue flying for 30 minutes after being hit by 12.7 mm bullets coming from anywhere in the lower hemisphere plus 20o; also survives 23 mm hits in many parts; target acquisition and designation system (TADS) and pilot night vision system (PNVS) sensors mounted in nose; low airspeed sensor above main rotor hub; avionics in lateral containers; chin-mounted Chain Gun fed from ammunition bay in centre-fuselage; four weapon pylons on stub wings (six when air-to -air capability is installed); engines widely separated, with integral particle separators and built -in exhaust cooling fittings; four-blade main rotor with lifting aerofoil blade section and swept tips; blades can be folded or easily removed; tail rotor consists of two teetering two-blade units crossed at 55o to reduce noise; airframe meets full crash-survival specifications. Two AH-64s will fit in C-141, six in C-5 and three in C-17A

LANDING GEAR: Menasco trailing arm type, with single mainwheels and fully castoring, self-centring and lockable tailwheel. Mainwheel tyres size 8.50 -10, tailwheel tyre size 5.00-4. Hydraulic brakes on main units

AVIONICS: Comms: AN/ARC -164 UHF, AN/ARC-186 UHF/VHF; retrofit of SINCGARS secure radio from 1993; KY-28/58/TSEC crypto secure voice, C-8157 secure voice control; AN/APX-100 IFF unit with KIT - 1A secure encoding; Tempest C-10414 intercom. Radar: AH-64D Longbow Apache has Lockheed Martin Longbow mast-mounted 360o radar, presenting up to 256 targets on tactical situation display; detects air targets in air-to -ground mode; air-to - air mode for flying targets only. Flight: Plessey Electronic Systems AN/ASN-137 light-weight Doppler navigation system (upgrade to AN/ASN-157 on AH-64D), Litton LR-80 (AN/ASN-143) strapdown AHRS, AN/ARN-89B ADF, GPS retrofit from 1993, Honeywell digital automatic stabilisation equipment (DASE), Astronautics Corporation HSI, Pacer Systems omnidirectional, low-airspeed air data system, remote magnetic indicator, BITE fault detection and location. Doppler system, with AHRS, permits nap-of-the-earth navigation and provides data for storing target locations.

The CH-47 is a twin -engine, tandem rotor helicopter designed for transportation of cargo, troops, and weapons during day, night, visual, and instrument conditions. The aircraft fuselage is approximately 50 feet long. With a 60 -foot rotor span, on each rotor system, the effective length of a CH-47 (with blades turning) is approximately 100 feet from the most forward point of the forward rotor to the most rearward point on the aft rotor. Maximum airspeed is 170 knots with a normal cruise speed of 130 knots. However, speed for any mission will vary greatly depending on load configuration (internal or external), time of day, or weather conditions. The minimum crew for tactical operations is four, two pilots, one flight engineer, and one crew chief. For more complex missions, such as NVG operations and air assaults, commanders may consider using five crew members and add one additional crew chief. Development of the medium lift Boeing Vertol (models 114 and 414) CH-47 Series Chinook began in 1956. Since then the effectiveness of the Chinook has been continually upgraded by successive product improvements, the CH-47A, CH-47B, CH-47C, and CH-47D. The amount of load a cargo helicopter can carry depends on the model, the fuel on board, the distance to be flown, and atmospheric conditions. During Desert Storm "the CH-47D was often the only mode of transportation to shift large numbers of personnel, equipment, and supplies rapidly over the vast area in which US forces operated. The cargo capacity and speed provided commanders and logisticians a capability unequalled by any Army in the world." (Army Aviation in Operation Desert Storm, 1991) During peacekeeping operations in Bosnia, a Chinook company (A company, 5th Battalion, 159th Aviation Regiment) of 16 aircraft flew 2,222 hours, carried 3,348 passengers, and transported over 3.2 million pounds of cargo over a six month period. These numbers equate to carrying 112 infantry platoons, 545 HMMWVs, or 201 M198 Howitzers. 1st flight, in Toulouse, 2 March 1969. With Andre Turcat, Jacques Guignard, Michel Retif et Henri Perrier.Currently 14 Concorde are in service, 6 at Air France and 7 for British-Airways With these 62,19m (204.61 feet) length, it is almost as long as a Boeing 747 (70,66 m - 232.47 feet). It makes 11,32 m (37.24 feet) in height, 25,56 m (84.09 feet) of scale, 186 tons on takeoff and has an operating range of 6 200km (4030 miles) (6763 km max (4193 miles) Présidentiel flight (Singapour-Koweit)). 24 seconds to take-off , at the speed of 324 km/h (201 miles/hours). It flies at an altitude (maximum) of 19 202m (11,982 miles) That makes it the only airliner able to pass over the top of storms (cumulonimbus). Normal altitude : 16764 to 18288 m (10,417 to 11,364 miles). Able to transport 100 people at Mach 2.02, it's as the passengers had sat on a bullet (596m (1961 feet) at one second). To Mach 2.02 (2146 km/h - 1 330 miles/hour) and 18 288m (11,364 miles) of altitude at the time of the crossing of the Atlantic, the friction of the air heats the point of the nose with 130°C (266 °F) : Concorde stretches in length by up to 24 cm (9.44 inch) max. Concorde greatly showed its qualities, its robustness and its safety. From January 21th 1976 to January 21th 1996, It transported 3.7 millions passengers and exceeded 200 000 hours (140 000 hours at Mach 2.2). Single performance to date. It is the ONLY supersonic commercial transport aircraft fly ing today. The supersonic number one continues to cross the Atlantic every day (38 000 passengers between Paris and New York in 1991). Businessmen benefit most from this high-speed connection, 3h40 one way instead of Concorde will cease its activity into 2005, it appears impossible that a plane can be designed to to replace it before this date. There will be a successor about the year 2010. In the design offices located in Toulouse, people are working on the Super Concorde. It will not fly faster, but it will transport twice as many passengers (200) and fly twice as far (12 000 km - 7439 miles). This project is called ALLIANCE.

Missile Technology PART V

Heat Missiles (Infra-red Guided Missiles)

Heat missiles are the most effective type of missiles which can be used for air to air as well as air to ground sorties. These missiles track the heat given out by the target and home into the target using self propulsion. Lets see how these missiles work.

The targeting pod within the missile consists of an infrared seeker which is maintained round about –273 degrees Celsius. No object (or matter) can go below this critical temperature (atoms that make up matter cannot pack more closely than –273 degrees), hence, relative to the pod, everything is hotter. Most airplanes or ground targets (moving) give out heat as much as 100 to 200 degrees. The very sensitive infrared seeker easily detects such heat at distances over 50 to 60 km.

When such a heet seeking missile is fired, it follows the heat radiations emitted by the target. Using the internal fuel (within the missile) it self propels itself to the enemy targets and homes into the target as supersonic speeds. This type of missile is a fire and forget type as once fired, it hits the target with dead accuracy.

Also, since these missiles has an infrared scanner, bad light, bad weather, adverse conditions do not affect the accuaracy or the performance of these missiles. The very fact that these missiles could be used for sorties at the dead of night scales up the advantage of the attacker.

However, such missiles do have disadvantages. Firstly, since it uses heat propulsion, it cannot distinguish between friendly or enemy targets. Thus, a pilot has to obtain a visual Id of the target before firing. Secondly, these missiles could be fooled by usage of appropriate counter measures (simulation of a dumb target by firing flares which emit the same heat radiations).

However, these missiles are improving day by day. USA has successfully integrated Laser Guided techniques within these heat missiles increasing the accuracy 10 fold. And example of an air to air missile using this technology is AIM 9X Sidewinder and the AGM- 65 Maverick is the best example of and air to ground missile belonging to this class. These missiles are the pilot’s best friends.

RADAR Guided Missiles

The inventio n of RADAR guided missiles ushered a new era in missile technology. These missiles were very accurate as they relied on two simultaneous RADARs as we shall see ahead. Due to this ground breaking technogy, these missiles had an unimaginable accuracy and since most of them were self propelled, they had very high velocities too. Lets take a look at this new technolgy.

Imaging you are flying in a plane equipped with such a missile. The enemy plane suddenly appears in your RADAR and you set yo ur heading towards it. At a particular range (depending upon the missile), the missile locks on your target and it is ready for launch. You fire the missile. Now comes the interesting part.

For initial first half of the trajectory, the missile follows the plane according to the RADAR information coming from your plane. After half its trajectory, it switches on its own RADAR and locks onto your target. From then on, at every instant, it compares the co - ordinates given in by your plane and its own RADAR, nu llifying the effect of any countermeasures and it surely homes onto the target.

There are two advantages by the usage of such a system. Firstly, even if you lose the plane on your RADAR, the missile continues its trajectory to the target. Secondly, due to the information interchange between the missile and the plane, the missile ’s RADAR co-ordinates are transmitted back to you and hence you never lose track of the enemy plane.

RADAR guided missiles have been successfully been implemented for air to air combats and anti-ship missiles. However, they cannot be implemented on ground targets due to presence natural obstacle in the trajectory of the missile.

Laser Guided Bombs

"In World War II it could take 9,000 bombs to hit a target the size of an aircraft shelter. In Vietnam, 300. Today we can do it with one laser-guided munition from an F -117."

USAF, Reaching Globally, Reaching Powerfully: The United States Air Force in the Gulf War (Sept. 1991), p. 55. The development of laser quidided weapons has dramatically improved the accuracy of weapon quidance and delivery. With the assistance of build-up guidance kits, general GP bombs are turned into laser- guided bombs (LGBs). The kits consist of a computer- control group (CCG), guidance canards attached to the front of the warhead to provide steering commands, and a wing assembly attached to the aft end to provide lift. LGBs are maneuverable, free-fall weapons requiring no electronic interconnect to the aircraft. They have an internal semiactive guidance system that detects laser energy and guides the weapon to a target illuminated by an external laser source. The designator can be located in the delivery aircraft, another aircraft, or a ground source. All LGB weapons have a CCG, a warhead (bomb body with fuze), and an airfoil group. The computer section transmits directional command signals to the appropriate pair(s) of canards. The guidance canards are attached to each quadrant of the control unit to change the flightpath of the weapon. The canard deflections are always full scale (referred to as "bang, bang" guidance). The LGB flightpath is divided into three phases: ballistic, transition, and terminal guidance. During the ballistic phase, the weapon continues on the unguided trajectory established by the flightpath of the delivery aircraft at the moment of release. In the ballistic phase, the delivery attitude takes on additional importance, since maneuverability of the UGB is related to the weapon velocity during terminal guidance. Therefore, airspeed lost during the ballistic phase equates to a proportional loss of maneuverability. The transition phase begins at acquisition. During the transition phase, the weapon attempts to align its velocity vector with the line -of-sight vector to the target. During terminal guidance, the UGB attempts to keep its velocity vector aligned with the instantaneous line-of- sight. At the instant alignment occurs, the reflected laser energy centers on the detector and commands the canards to a trail position, which causes the weapon to fly ballistically with gravity biasing towards the target.

T.V. GUIDED BOMB

The T.V. GUIDED BOMB is an unpowered, glide weapon used to destroy high value enemy targets. It is designed to be used with F - 15E and F-111F aircraft. The T.V. GUIDED BOMB provides the capability for accurate (automatic or manual) guided delivery of a MK-84 bomb at increased ranges. The T.V. GUIDED BOMB's effective standoff range is greater than that of laser-guided munitions, since the T.V. GUIDED BOMB does not need to have acquired the target before it is released. The weapon is remotely controlled by a datalink system, and the weapon systems operator locates the target area and the specific aimpoint by observing the video transmitted from the weapon. The weapon's midcourse flight path can be adjusted either automatically or manually. Weapon video is either electro - optical (TV camera) or infrared, and generated in the nose of the weapon.

The weapon consists of consisting of various interchangeable guidance, fusing, and control systems designed to meet specific mission requirements, that are attached to either an MK-84 or BLU- 109 penetrating warhead. Each weapon has five components -- a forward guidance section, warhead adapter section, control module, airfoil components and a weapon data link.

The guidance section is attached to the nose of the weapon and contains either a television guidance system for daytime or an imaging infrared system for night or limited, adverse weather operations. A data link in the tail section sends guidance updates to the control aircraft that enables the weapon systems operator to guide the bomb by remote control to its target.

An external electrical conduit extends the length of the warhead which attaches the guidance adapter and control unit. The conduit carries electrical signals between the guidance and control sections. The umbilical receptacle passes guidance and control data between cockpit control systems of the launching aircraft and the weapon prior to launch.

The rear control section consists of four wings are in an "X"-like arrangement with trailing edge flap control surfaces for flight maneuvering. The control module contains the autopilot, which collects steering data from the guidance section and converts the information into signals that move the wing control surfaces to change the weapon's flight path. General Purpose Bombs

A blast warhead is one that is designed to achieve target damage primarily from blast effect. When a high explosive detonates, it is converted almost instantly into a gas at very high pressure and temperature. Under the pressure of the gases thus gene rated, the weapon case expands and breaks into fragments. The air surrounding the casing is compressed and a shock (blast) wave is transmitted into it. Typical initial values for a high-explosive weapon are 200 kilobars of pressure (1 bar = 1 atmosphere) and 5,000 degrees celsius. The shock wave generated by the explosion is a compression wave, in which the pressure rises from atmospheric pressure to peak overpressure in a fraction of a microsecond. It is followed by a much slower (hundredths of a second) decline to atmospheric pressure. This portion is known as the positive phase of the shock wave. The pressure continues to decline to subatmospheric pressure and then returns to normal. This portion is called the negative or suction phase. For a fixed-weight explosive, the peak pressure and positive impulse decrease with distance from the explosion. This is due to the attentuation of the blast wave. The rate of attenuation is proportional to the rate of expansion of the volume of gases behind the blast wave. In other words the blast pressure is in -versely proportional to the cube of the distance from the blast center (1/R3). When a bomb is detonated at some distance above the ground, the reflected wave catches up to and combines with the original shock wave, called the incident wave, to form a third wave that has a nearly vertical front at ground level. This third wave is called a "Mach Wave" or "Mach Stem," and the point at which the three waves intersect is called the "Triple Point." The Mach Stem grows in height as it spreads laterally, and as the Mach Stem grows, the triple point rises, describing a curve through the air. In the Mach Stem the incident wave is reinforced by the reflected wave, and both the peak pressure and impulse are at a maximum that is co nsiderably higher than the peak pressure and impulse of the original shock wave at the same distance from the point of explosion. Using the phenomenon of Mach reflections, it is possible to increase considerably the radius of effectiveness of a bomb. By detonating a warhead at the proper height above the ground, the maximum radius at which a given pressure or impulse is exerted can be increased, in some cases by almost 50%, over that for the same bomb detonated at ground level. Cluster Bombs

Cluster bombs are nothing but normal bombs containing several smaller bombs within itself. Regardless of its type or purpose, dropped ordnance is dispensed or dropped from an aircraft. Dropped ordnance is divided into three subgroups: bombs; dispensers, which contain submunitions; and submunitions.

Dispensers may be classified as another type of dropped ordnance. Like bombs, they are carried by aircraft. Their payload, however, is smaller ordnance called submunitions. Dispensers come in a variety of shapes and sizes depending on the payload inside. Some dispensers are reusable, and some are one-time-use items. Dropped dispensers fall away from the aircraft and are stabilized in flight by fin assemblies. Dropped dispensers may be in one piece or in multiple pieces. All dropped dispensers use either mechanical time or proximity fuzing. These fuzes allow the payload to be dispersed at a predetermined height above the target. Multiple - piece dispensers open up and disperse their payload when the fuze functions. Single -pie ce dispensers eject their payload out of ports or holes in the body when the fuze functions. Attached dispensers stay attached to the aircraft and can be reloaded and used again. Their payload is dispersed out the rear or from the bottom of the dispenser.

Submunitions are classified as either bomblets, grenades, or mines. They are small explosive-filled or chemical-filled items designed for saturation coverage of a large area. They may be antipersonnel (APERS), antimateriel (AMAT), antitank (AT), dual-purpose (DP), incendiary, or chemical. Submunitions may be spread by dispensers, missiles, rockets, or projectiles. Each of these delivery systems disperses its payload of submunitions while still in flight, and the submunitions drop over the target. On the battlefield, submunitions are widely used in both offensive and defensive missions. Submunitions are used to destroy an enemy in place (impact) or to slow or prevent enemy movement away from or through an area (area denial). Impact submunitions go off when they hit the ground. Area-denial submunitions, including FASCAM, have a limited active life and self-destruct after their active life has expired. The major difference between scatterable mines and placed mines is that the scatterable mines land on the surface and can be seen. Placed mines may be hidden or buried under the ground and usually cannot be seen. The ball-type submunitions are APERS. They are very small and are delivered on known concentrations of enemy personnel, scattered across an area. Like a land mine, it will not blow up until pressure is put on it. Countermeasures

Countermeasures are a very important asset of any fighter. Without countermeasures, you plane is nothing but a target in the form or a sitting duck. Without appropriate countermeasures, one missile fired at you is enough to get you down. Without countermeasures, sooner or later, you will come down in flames.

Since, basically speaking there are two types of missiles, RADAR guided and heat seeking (for air to air), there are two major countermeasure systems available for air fighters. Lets see each of them in detail.

Imagine you are a pilot of an airplane and suddenly a missile fired straight at you on the nose (from ahead). Release a dose of chaff as well as flares. (Cause you don’t know the type of missile). Take a 90 degree turn (any direction) and release another doze of chaff and flare. Then resume heading and hope that the missile has lost you. To be on the safer side, perform this maneuver atleast two to three times. Its important that you fool the missile into thinking that you are actually the countermeasure hence the need of such sudden turns after releasing the countermeasure. When the countermeasure is rele ased and you make a sudden turn, the missile continue its heading towards the countermeasure. This is the principle revolving around the countermeasures.

FLARES : Flares provide countermeasures for heat seeking missiles. Flares are nothing but hot blasts of particles from the exhaust of the engine which simuates the temperature of the plane. Flares when viewed from a distance appear as firecrackers (hence are frequently used in airshows.) These particles move 180 degrees away from the engine of the plane, thus confusing the missile to follow it instead of the plane and you are saved.

CHAFF : Chaff provide countermeasures for RADAR seeking missiles. They usually contain and electronic jamming unit which jams the RADAR signal from the enemy missile. We shall not be investigating on to how the jamming process takes place, but we will take a little closer look at what exactly happens. Chaff usually contains electromagnetic particles released in the form or a stream of particles which explode with a slight spark formation (the spark causes the jamming) and diverts the RADAR missiles towards those electromagnetic particles. Usually, chaff countermeasures do the job pretty well, and at times are good enough to fool even the smartest of missiles. It is the best countermeasure any fighter can have .

The Future PART VI

Factors Controlling the Future

No one can actually predict the future. The growth in technology is usually steady is the principle revolving around the technology remains the same. In other words, sophistication of an existing technology remains the same. If we assume that the principles governing the physics o f aviation would remain the same, then it is easy to have a look in the near future. Lets see some of the important factors revolving around aviation and what would be their impact on our tomorrow.

Speed : More speed, is no doubt, welcome. But that speed should be economically viable. We cannot have a plane which goes at Mach 10 but gulp s down gallons of fuel per second. At the same time, we would like to have a plane which is fast enough to better the velocities of missiles. There has to be a balance betw een speeds and cost. Moving from the defense industry to the transport industry, more speeds for commercial transport will definitely benefit the common masses. One would dream of travelling from say, India to America in 1 hour rather than the 18 odd hours it takes today. Radar Invisibility : This is the most sought after technology when it comes to bombers, especially stealth bombers like the F- 117 Nighthawk. RADAR invisibility means that the plane cannot be caught by any form of RADAR, be it airborne or ground based. To be invisible to RADAR, one must fly as low and as fast as possible. Also, all missiles, bombs must be hidden within the Bay of the aircraft. To reduce RADAR signature fu rther, one must design the fighter in such a way that to wave incident on it, gets reflected back to the source. Also, there are special RADAR absorbing paints available which makes the plane “invisible ” to RADAR. To remain invisible to Infrared seekers, one must also reduce heat signature. For doing this, one must incorporate special cooling technologies to the engine and avoid using the afterburner to lower temperature of the engine. Special Capabilites : Features such as vertical take off and vertical landing definitely improves the overall rating of the plane. Other special features may include flying at high speeds with low fuel consumption (supercruise), higher ceiling (the maximum altitude an aircraft can fly), ability to carry extra missiles, night vision etc. Lets now take a sneak peak on two of the most anticipated planes of the near future.

The new MiG Multirole Front-Line Fighter [MFI - Mnogofounksionalni Frontovoi Istrebiel ] was unveiled publicly on 12 January 1999. The project has been under development since 1986. This multi- functional front-line fifth-generation fighter was developed by the MIG [Mikoyan & Gurevich] aviation scientific and production complex of the MAPO military-industrial corporation. The first prototype was delivered early in 1994, and in December 1884 taxi- tests were conducted following which further work was suspended due to a shortage of funds. The 35-ton fighter features a single under-fuselage air intake with two AL41F engines of 20 tons thrust each, and a top speed of over 2,500 km/h. The twin-tail "duck" planform features an all-moving canard-type foreplane with a wingspan of about 15 meters and a length of about 20 meters. The MAPO -MiG enterprise claims the new fighter would be able to outperform the F-22 Raptor, the most advanced US air-superiority fighter. Although the primary mission of the MFI is air-superiority, unlike the F-22 the MFI is also capable of performing strike mission, and thus in both conception and configuration is more directly comparable to the similar multi-role EFA2000 Eurofighter. Like the American F-22, the MFI has a thrust vectoring system that allows it to make sharp turns. It also has similar stealth capabilities, with the canard, wing and fuselage structures incorporating carbon-fiber and polymer composite materials. Other stealth features include radar- absorbing covering, screening of radar-visible structure elements, and reduced heat signature. The fifth-generation pulse-doppler radar has a phased-array andtenna with electronic scanning to simultaneously attack over 20 targets. In March 1997, military officials scrapped plans to manufacture the MFI because it was too expensive. The Defense Ministry supports the MFI development program, and will decide on production following flight tests that could take up to seven years. The Russian air force will not gain one new, state-of-the-art warplane before the year 2005 because of insufficient financing. No new warplanes have been acquired since 1996.

The Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) is a multi-role fighter optimized for the air-to-ground role, designed to affordably meet the needs of the Air Force, Navy, Marine Corps and allies, with improved survivability, precision engagement capability, the mobility necessary for future joint operations and the reduced life cycle costs associated with tomorrow’s fiscal environment. JSF will benefit from many of the same technologies developed for F-22 and will capitalize on commonality and modularity to maximize affordability. The 1993 Bottom-Up Review (BUR) determined that a separate tactical aviation modernization program by each Service was not affordable and canceled the Multi-Role Fighter (MRF) and Advanced Strike Aircraft (A/F-X) program. Acknowledging the need for the capability these canceled programs were to provide, the BUR initiated the Joint Advanced Strike Technology (JAST) effort to create the building blocks for affordable development of the next- generation strike weapons system. After a review of the program in August 1995, DoD dropped the "T" in the JAST program and the JSF program has emerged from the JAST effort. Fiscal Year 1995 legislation merged the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) Advanced Short Take -off and Vertical Landing (ASTOVL) program with the JSF Program. This action drew the United Kingdom (UK) Royal Navy into the program, extending a collaboration begun under the DARPA ASTOVL program. The JSF program will demonstrate two competing weapon system concepts for a tri-service family of aircraft to affordably meet these service needs: USAF-Multi-role aircraft (primarily air-to-ground) to replace F-16 and A-10 and to complement F-22. The Air Force JSF variant poses the smallest relative engineering challenge. The aircraft has no hover criteria to satisfy, and the characteristics and handling qualities associated with carrier operations do not come into play. As the biggest customer for the JSF, the service will not accept a multirole F-16 fighter replacement that doesn't significantly improve on the original. USN-Multi-role, stealthy strike fighter to complement F/A- 18E/F. Carrier operations account for most of the differences between the Navy version and the other JSF variants. The aircraft has larger wing and tail control surfaces to better manage low-speed approaches. The internal structure of the Navy variant is strengthened up to handle the loads associated with catapult launches and arrested landings. The aircraft has a carrier-suitable tailhook. Its landing gear has a longer stroke and higher load capacity. The aircraft has almost twice the range of an F-18C on internal fuel. The design is also optimized for survivability.

USMC-Multi-role Short Take-Off & Vertical Landing (STOVL) strike fighter to replace AV-8B and F/A-18A/C/D. The Marine variant distinguishes itself from the other variants with its short takeoff/vertical landing capability.

UK-STOVL (supersonic) aircraft to replace the Sea Harrier. Britain's Royal Navy JSF will be very similar to the U.S. Marine variant. The JSF concept is building these three highly common variants on the same production line using flexible manufacturing technology. Cost benefits result from using a flexible manufacturing approach and common subsystems to gain economies of scale. Cost commonality is projected in the range of 70-90 percent; parts commonality will be lower, but emphasis is on commonality in the higher-priced parts

The Lockheed Martin X-35 concept for the Marine and Royal Navy variant of the aircraft uses a shaft-driven lift-fan system to achieve Short-Takeoff/Vertical Landing (STOVL) capability. The aircraft will be configured with a Rolls -Royce/Allison shaft-driven lift-fan, roll ducts and a three-bearing swivel main engine nozzle, all coupled to a modified Pratt & Whitney F119 engine that powers all three variants.

The Boeing X-32 JSF short takeoff and vertical landing (STOVL) variant for the U.S. Marine Corps and U.K. Royal Navy employs a direct lift system for short takeoffs and vertical landings with uncompromised up-and-away performance.

The Indian Air Force PART VII

Nabha Sparasham Deeptam - Touching the Sky with Glory

Introduction The Indian Air Fo rce was officially established on 8 October 1932. Its first ac flight came into being on 01 Apr 1933. It possessed a strength of six RAF-trained officers and 19 Havai Sepoys (literally, air soldiers). The aircraft inventory comprised of four Westland Wapiti IIA army co -operation biplanes at Drigh Road as the "A" Flight nucleus of the planned No.1 (Army Co- operation) Squadron.

A mature and modern force Aircraft Systems Testing Establishment (ASTE) the Tactics & Air Combat Development Establishment, (TACDE), the 'College of Air Combat' and other specialist establiments continued to mature. Work on the ADGES was resumed in 1974-75 and plans for the qualitative upgrading of the entire Air Force were continually refined. The IAF handed over its Super Constellations to the Navy in 1975. The early seventies saw force levels being consolidated, and training in new weapons -systems and evolution of new tactics being honed. By the mid '70s, the IAF was clearly in need of urgent re-equipment decisions and various requirements, better known by their acronyms DPSA, TASA, METAC and HETAC, were pursued and decisions were forthcoming at last. The period, the IAF was to benefit from a crest in the eighties, the period 1978-88 witnessing a major modernisation programme which replaced most of the earlier generation and obsolete equipment with spanking new aircraft types and weapon systems. No less than twenty new aircraft types and sub-types entered the IAF's service over these years, including various strike fighters, third -generation supersonic interceptors, tri- sonic reconnaissance aircraft, strategic heavy lift transports, medium tactical transports, light transport aircraft, heavy lift and medium-assault helicopters, basic trainers, surface-to -air missiles and an array of sophisticated weaponry propelling the IAF, or Bharatiya Vayu Sena, into one of the world's better equipped air arms. First off the mark was selection of the Jaguar strike fighter, to meet the IAF's urgent Deep Penetration Strike Aircraft (DPSA) requirement, to replace the Canberra and Hunter still soldiering on in this exacting role. After many years of evaluation and negotiation, the Anglo -French fighter was contracted for, an interim batch of ex-RAF Jaguars being accepted to re-equip No. 14 Squadron. IAF pilots and technicians received conversion training with the RAF and British Aerospace in Lossiemouth, Coltishall and Warton before ferrying the first Jaguars to India in July 1979. These were followed by a batch of U.K. built Jaguars to re-equip No. 5 Squadron even as simultaneously, HAL prepared for production of the aircraft, its powerplants, avionics and accessories in India. By the mid-80s, the Jaguar was in service with Nos. 5, 14, 16 and 27 Squadrons while a flight of No.6 Squadron was equipped with the Maritime Jaguar carrying the new generation Sea Eagle anti-ship sea-skimming missile. The Jaguar strike fighter was equipped also with Magic air-to-air missiles on unique overwing pylons, featured advanced nay-attack systems and able to carry formidab le warload till the far ends of the sub-continent.

Meanwhile, in 1976, the "third generation" MiG-21bis, considered the definitive variant of the classic tailed-delta fighter design, was to follow-on the "M" sub-type, as a multi-role air superiority/ground attack version. The MiG-21bis assumed the prime air defence mantle and sufficient numbers were acquired in 1976 -77 to equip three squadrons (Nos. 15, 21 and 23) formerly operating the Gnat light fighter. With some 580 MiG-21s delivered by HAL and nearly 250 MiG-21s (including the two-seat operational trainers) imported as "fly aways", the type remained an immense asset for the Indian Air Force for over a quarter century. The quantity vs. quality dilemma inevitably faced by most of the world's air forces as a consequence of spiralling costs was mitigated for the IAF by the large scale availability of the MiG-21, which type will surely go down as one of aviation history's all-time classics. The next requirement to be met was for a Tactical Air Strike Aircraft (TASA). With the various development programmes to enhance the operational performance of the HF-24 Marut by HAL abandoned for one reason or the other, the Government of India concluded an agreement with the Soviet Union for the MiG-23 variable-sweep fighter. Four squadrons, then flying the HF -24 and Sukhoi Su-7 were re-equipped with the MiG-23BN and induction into IAF service of this swing-wing fighter. Nos. 10 and 220 Squadrons were shortly operational on the new type and Nos. 31 and 221 followed to add a considerable measure of potency to the offensive air support formations of the IAF. The dedicated strike derivative, selected for licence production by HAL, was the MiG-27M which shared the overall configuration of the BN but was optimised for low-level, high-speed performance. The last Sukhoi Su-7 Squadron (No.222) became the first MiG-27M unit and the Ajeet light fighter squadrons were gradually re-equipped with the MiG-27ML, No.9 being followed by Nos.18,22 and lately, No.2. Induction of the new generation F -16 fighter by the PAF in 1981-82 was a "dejavu" type situation for India and in order to counter such a challenge, the Government contracted for the MiG -23MF air superiority version of the swing-wing fighter, equipped with beyond- visual range missiles, and two new squadrons (Nos. 223 and 224) were formed on the type in 1982. However, these were considered only an interim solution and, in the absence of suitable, known, Soviet equivalents, India turned to Western sources for an advanced technology interceptor. In 1982, a contract was finalised with France for the Mirage 2000 delta-wing, fly-by-wire fighter, with high agility and a formidable radar/missile combination. IAF pilots and technicians had converted to the Mirage 2000 at Mont de Marsan and ferried the fighters from France in the summer of 1985. Two squadrons (Nos. 1 and 7) were re-equipped with the new French fighter in 1985-86 and the Indian Air Force employed this multi-role advanced technology fighter to good effect in a number of actions within the next few years. Not too long afterwards, the Indian Air Force was, to be pleasantly surprised when its test pilots were invited to evaluate the Soviet Union's latest, still-under-wraps, air superiority fighter, vaguely known to the public as the Fulcrum. Officially designated the MiG- 29, the IAF team was obviously delighted by the new generation fighter's performance and handling qualities, described as "truly outstanding". Two years were to pass, however, before the Governments of India and the Soviet Union formalised an agreement for supply of the MiG-29, integrated with contemporary pulse doppler radar and new weapon systems.

AIR FORCE FLEET

The Basics Total Manpower 130,000* Flying Personnel 2847** Combat Aircraft 835 + 154*** Armed Helicopters 60 Transport Aircraft 232 Annual Flying Hours 220 – 280 *This figures includes civilian personnel. **Based on the Minister of Defence's statement to the Lok Sabha on 11 March 1999, that the IAF was 500 pilots short of its authorised strength of 3347. ***This figure refers to combat capable (conversion) trainers.

Attack Aircraft Maintenance Attrition No. of Unit Est. per Reserves Reserves Type Total Sqns. Squadron per per Squadron Squadron MiG- 3 16 2 3 63 21M/MF MiG-23BN 3 16 2 3 63 MiG-27ML 9 16 2 3 189 Jaguar IS 4 16 2 3 84 Jaguar IM 1 12 2 2 16 Total 20 - - - 415

Fighter Aircraft Maintenance Attrition No. of Unit Est. per Reserves Reserves Type Total Sqns. Squadron per per Squadron Squadron MiG-21FL 3 16 2 3 63 MiG-21bis 10 16 2 2 200 MiG-23MF 1 20 5 5 30 MiG-29B/S 3 18 2 3 69 Mirage 2 16 2 2 40 2000H Su-30K 1 16 1 1 18 Total 20 - - - 420

Combat Capable Trainers Type Total MiG-21FL (with MiGOFTU*) 40 MiG-21U/UM/US 40 MiG-21M/bis (with TACDE**) 12 MiG-23UM 26 MiG-23BN (with TACDE) 6 MiG-27ML (with TACDE) 6 MiG-29UB 6 Mirage 2000 TH 4 Jaguar IB 14 Total 154 *MiGOFTU - MiG Operational Flying Training Unit **TACDE - Tactial & Air Combat Development Est.

Transports Type No. of Squadrons Total An-32 Sutlej 4 80 IL-76MD Gajraj 2 28 HAL Do-228 2 41 HAL Hs.748 1.5 32 Total 9.5 181

Helicopters Type No. of Units Total Mil Mi-35 (Attack) 2 40 Mil Mi-25 (Attack) 1 20 Mil Mi-8 10 100 Mil Mi-17 8 80 Mil Mi-26 1 10 Chetak 2 20 Cheetah 2 20 Total 26 290

Trainers Type Total Canberra T54/TT18 10 HAL Kiran I 120 HAL Kiran II 56 TS-11 Iskra 44 HPT-32 Deepak 88 BAe Hs.748 24 HAL Chetak 20 Total 362

Recon / Electronic Warfare Type Total MiG-25R/U (Recon*) 8 Canberra PR.57/67 (Recon) 8 MiG-21R (Recon) 12 Mod MiG -23BN (EW**) 16 Mod MiG -21M (EW) 10 Canberra B(I) 58 8 Total 62 *Recon - Reconnaissance **EW - Electronic Warfare

AEW / ELINT Type Total Boeing 707C (Command Post) 2 Boeing 737 (Command Post) 2 HAL Hs.748 (Elint*) 5 Boeing 707 (Elint) 2 IL-76MD (Elint) 2 Gulfstream III SRA 2 HAL Hs.748 (AEW**) 2 IAI Astra 3 Total 20 *Elint - Electronic Intelligence **AEW - Airborne Early Warning

Survey Type Total An-32 Sutlej 3 Learjet 29 2 IAI Astra 3 Total 8

VVIP Duties (Aircraft attached to HQ Squadron) Type Total Boeing 737-200 2 HAL Hs.748M 7 Mi-8 Hip 8 SA.365N Dauphin-II 6 Total 23

Light Combat Aircraft (LCA)

The Indian Light Combat Aircraft (LCA) is the world's smallest, light weight, multi-role combat aircraft designed to meet the requirements of Indian Air Force as its frontline multi-mission single-seat tactical aircraft to replace the MiG-21 series of aircraft. The delta wing configuration , with no tailplanes or foreplanes, features a single vertical fin. The LCA is constructed of aluminium- lithium alloys, carbon-fibre composites, and titanium. LCA integrates modern design concepts and the state-of-art technologies such as relaxed static stability, flyby-wire Flight Control System, Advanced Digital Cockpit, Multi-Mode Radar, Integrated Digital Avionics System, Advanced Composite Material Structures and a Flat Rated Engine. The LCA design has been configured to match the demands of modern combat scenario such as speed, acceleration, maneuverability and agility. Short takeoff and landing, excellent flight performance, safety, reliability and maintainability, are salient features of LCA design. The LCA integrates modern design concepts like static instability, digital fly -by-wire flight control system, integrated avionics, glass cockpit, primary composite structure, multi-mode radar, microprocessor based utility and brake management systems.

Seven weapon stations provided on LCA offer flexibility in the choice of weapons LCA can carry in various mission roles. Provision of drop tanks and inflight refueling probe ensure extended range and flight endurance of demanding missions. Provisio ns for the growth of hardware and software in the avionics and flight control system, available in LCA, ensure to maintain its effectiveness and advantages as a frontline fighter throughout its service life. For maintenance the aircraft has more than five hundred Line Replaceable Units (LRSs), each tested for performance and capability to meet the severe operational conditions to be encountered.

Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) is the Principal Partner in the design and fabrication of LCA and its inte gration leading to flight testing. The LCA has been designed and developed by a consortium of five aircraft research, design, production and product support organizations pooled by the Bangalore-based Aeronautical Development Agency (ADA), under Department of Defense Research and Development Organization (DRDO). Various international aircraft and system manufacturers are also participating in the program with supply of specific equipment, design consultancy and support. For example, GE Aircraft Engines provides the propulsion.

The first prototype of LCA rolled out on 17 November 1995. Two aircraft technology demonstrators are powered by single GE F404/F2J3 augmented turbofan engines. Regular flights with the state-of-the-art "Kaveri" engine, being develo ped by the Gas Turbine Research Establishment (GTRE) in Bangalore, are planned by 2002, although by mid -1999 the Kaveri engine had yet to achieve the required thrust-to -weight ratio.

The LCA is India's second attempt at an indigenous jet fighter design, following the somewhat unsatisfactory HF -24 Marut Ground Attack Fighter built in limited numbers by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited in the 1950s. Conceived in 1983, the LCA will serve as the Indian air force's frontline tactical plane through the year 2020. The LCA will go into service in the 2003-2005 timeframe. Following India's nuclear weapons tests in early 1998, the United States placed an embargo on the sale of General Electric 404 jet engines which are to power the LCA. The US also denied the fly -by- wire system for the aircraft sold by the US firm Lockheed-Martin. As of June 1998 the first flight of the LCA had been delayed due to systems integration tests. The first flight awaits completion of the Digital Flight Control Systems, being developed by the Aeronautical Development Establishment (ADE). MISSILE ARMOURY

The Integrated Guided Missile Development Program (IGMDP) has given India the capability to produce indigenous missiles in key areas. Considerable technical expertise has made India’s military industrial base one of the most diversified in the world. After failing to reverse-engineer a SA-2 Guideline SAM as a viable ballistic missile under Project Devil in the 1970s, India formed the IGMDP in 1983 with the aim of achieving self-sufficienc y in missile development & production. Today, the IGMDP comprises of five core missile systems. The Prithvi SRBM and the Agni-II IRBM were developed in close association with India’s space industry. The other three missiles under development are the medium-range Akash SAM, the short- range Trishul SAM and the Nag ATGM. Another missile under development is the Astra AAM, but it does not come under the IGMDP. The Prithvi has been successfully test-fired on numerous occasions, completed its user trials and has been inducted into the Army's 333rd Missile Regt at Hyderabad. The Agni-II prototype was tested in April 1999 and the technology demonstrator program is now over. The missile will be inducted, as stated by Prime Minister Atal Behari Vajpayee in his Independence Day speech on 15 August 1999. The Akash & Trishul SAMs and the Nag ATGM are currently under user trials, while the Astra AAM is still under development. Western nations, like the United States and United Kingdom, are trying to prevent India from developing the Agni and Prithvi by enforcing the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) to stop supplies of all kinds of missile material. Undaunted by this high- level conspiracy, hats off to all the brilliant Indian scientists who have toiled so hard, in their dedicated efforts, that they managed to develop these missiles.

Missile Name Missile Type Status Agni-II Intermediate Range Ballistic Missile In Service ? Prithvi Short Range Ballistic Missile In Service Akash Medium Range Surface-to-Air Missile User Trials Trishul Short Range Surface-to-Air Missile User Trials Nag Anti-Tank Guided Missile User Trials Astra Medium Range Air-to -Air Missile Development

Appendix PART VIII

GLOSSARY

A

Afterburner: An extension to the exhaust of a jet engine in which additional fuel is burned to produce extra thrust - hence the term afterburning (or Reheat). The thrust of an engine can be doubled using this method but a substantial increase in the engine's fuel consumption is incurred.

Aileron: Control surface positioned on the wing trailing edge to control the rolling action of the aircraft. The ailerons are operated differentially; that is one goes up as the other goes down. The difference in effective camber on the two wings causes a difference in lift, and hence, a rolling moment.

Air- to-air refuelling: An aircraft can be refuelled in the air by a second "tanker" aircraft.

Angle of attack: The angle at which a wing is inclined relative to the air flow is known as the angle of attack. The term incidence is commonly used in Britain.

Annular combustion chamber: A single continuous, toroidal (doughnut) shaped combustion chamber.

Axial flow: Refers to a fluid flowing along a single axis.

Axial flow compressor: This term refers a to a rotating compressor through which air travels along the axis of rotation.

Axial flow turbine: This term refers a to a rotating turbine through which air travels along the axis of rotation.

Axial flow turbojet: A turbojet engine with an axial flow compressor rather than a centrifugal flow compressor. For example, the German Junkers Jumo 004 turbojet engine.

B

Bifurcated ducting: An engine duct which split's into two.

C

Centrifugal compressor: Air enters a rotating disc at the centre and is spun to the outside at increased pressure. See "Jet Principles" for more detail.

Centrifugal flow turbojet: A turbojet engine with a centrifugal compressor rather than an axial flow compressor. For example, the American J-31 turbojet engine.

Combustion chamber: The component of an engine where air and fuel are burned.

Composite powered fighter: A fighter plane with two types of propulsion. For example, the American XP-81 fighter had a turbojet and a turboprop for it's propulsion unit's.

Compre ssor: A compressor is a general term for any device which increases the pressure of a gas (usually air).

Contra- rotating propeller: In a simple propeller, a considerable amount of energy is lost in the swirling motion of the air in the slipstream. Some o f this energy may be recovered if a second propeller rotating in the opposite direction is placed just downstream. The second propeller tries to swirl the air in the opposite direction, thereby tending to cancel the initial swirl. Contra -rotation also provides a convenient method of increasing the power throughput for a given propeller diameter. Contra-rotation can also cancel the torque reaction produced by high powered piston engines, which tries to roll the aircraft in the opposite direction to the propeller rotational direction. Disadvantages of contra -rotation are the extra complexity, the weight of the necessary gearing, and the noise caused by the highly alternating flow as the second propeller chops through the vortex system of the first.

D

Diffuser: A duct with varying cross sectional area used to decelerate flow. This deceleration causes the pressure to increase.

Divergence: This problem occurs with forward swept wings . The lift force acting on the wing causes it to twist, which increases the wing's angle of attack. As the angle of attack increases, the lift force increases and there is a greater twisting effect on the wing. The wing can then suffer progressively increasing twist and eventually failure. This condition is known as divergence.

Drag: A rearwards acting force caused by air friction and the generation of lift.

E

Efficiency: The efficiency of a device is the ratio between the energy that is supplied to it and the useful work that it produces.

F

Flying wing: The all-wing configuration shown on the American YB-49 eliminates drag-producing junctions. It represents a major departure from the cla ssical aeroplane, as here, the wing provides lift, volume and stability.

Forward sweep: If an aeroplane's wings are swept forward, it's performance at high speed can be improved, but this configuration also has disadvantages.

Fuel consumption: The rate at which an engine (jet or otherwise) consumes fuel.

Führer: Adolf Hitler - the German Head of State, from 1933 until 1945.

G

Generalleutnant : A rank in the German Luftwaffe, equivalent to the American rank of Major General and to the British rank of Air Vice Marshall.

G- force: This is the force applied to the pilot and airframe when an aircraft is in a sharp turn. It is expressed in terms of the normal gravitational forces that act on a body. Hence, a 4g turn implies a force four times that of gravity.

Göring: The head of the German Luftwaffe during World War II.

I

Impeller: The impeller is a part of a gas turbine engine used in the compressor. The impeller consists of a forged disc with radially disposed vanes on one or both sides forming convergent passages in conjunction with the compressor casing. The vanes may be swept back, but for ease of manufacture straight vanes are usually used.

Interceptor: A fighter plane designed to intercept and destroy attacking enemy aircraft. L

Laminar flow: Steady non-turbulent flow.

Leading edge : The front edge of a wing.

Lift: The force generated by an aircraft wing which supports the weight of the aircraft.

Luftwaffe : The name given to the German Air Force during the Second World War.

M

Mach number: A non-dimensional ratio between the speed of an object and the speed of sound. An object travelling at Mach 1 is travelling at the speed of sound; an object travelling at Mach 2 is travelling at twice the speed of sound etc.

Monoplane: An aeroplane with a single full-span wing.

N

Nacelles: A protective, aerodynamic enclosure, often used to integrate podded engines with the wing structure.

NATO: North Atlantic Treaty Organisation.

Nozzle: A duct with varying cross -sectional area used to accelerate a fluid flow. This acceleration causes the pressure to decrease.

P

Piston engine: This type of engine is commonly found in motor cars. It uses a reciprocating piston to compress a fuel/air mixture, which is subsequently burned. The burning mixture expands, driving the piston down which delivers the power output to a shaft.

Pitching moment: Moment imparted on the aircraft due to lifting action of the wing; proportional to the magnitude of the lift force.

Powerplant: The component of a plane which produces the thrust and electrical power. Types of powerplant include the piston engine, turbojet and turboprop.

Prone pilot: A prone pilot is supposedly able to withstand more g- force in a turn, by lying down in the cockpit, than a pilot who is sitting upright.

Pulse Jet: Intermittent combustion jet engine; it relies on the induction of air through butterfly valves. The air is mixed with fuel vapour and ignited, the valves close upon combusion, and the expanding gases are forced rearwards through an accelerating nozzle resulting in the production of thrust. The cycle is then repeated.

Pusher- propeller: A propeller positioned at the back of an aircraft, rather than the more usual front position, which pushes the aircraft instead of pulling it.

R

Radar: Radio -detecting -and-ranging. A radio device or system for locating an object by means of ultrahigh-frequency radio waves reflected from the object and received, observed and analyzed by the receiving part of the device in such a way that the characteristics (such as distance and direction) of the object may be determined.

Radial engine: Piston engine with it's cylinders arranged radially around the crankshaft.

Ramjet: The ram jet engine is an athodyd, or aero- thermodynamic-duct to give it it's full name. It has no major rotating parts, and consists of a duct with a divergent entry and a convergent, or convergent-divergent, exit. When forward motion is imparted to it from an external source, air is forced into the air intake where it loses velocity or kinetic energy and increases it's pressure energy as it passes through the diverging duct. The total energy is then increased by the combustion of fuel, and the expanding gases accelerate to atmospheric pressure through the outlet duct. A ramjet is often the powerplant for missiles and target vehicles, but is unsuitable as an aircraft powerplant because it requires forward motion imparte d to it before any thrust is produced.

RATO: Rocket Assisted Take Off. RATO packs were used on early aircraft such as the Arado Ar 234 and the Junkers Ju 287, to give the aircraft additional acceleration at take off. They were jettisoned shortly after take off. Click here to see an example of an aircraft taking off using RATO packs.

Rocket: This is a type of jet pro pulsion which does not use atmospheric air as part of it's propulsive stream. Instead, it carries it's own fuel and oxidant, and hence can only be used over a short period. Rocket engines are commonly used in missiles and spacecraft.

S

Semi- wing: The distance from wing tip to the centre of the fuselage. (see Wing span).

Six- o-clock: A term used by pilots to indicate the view directly behind them. It is taken from a clock face, with the pilot facing in the twelve-o -clock direction.

Sortie : An offensive military operation is known as a sortie.

Spar: The strengthening member in a wing. Spars travel from the tip of a wing, under, through, under, or over the fuselage, and across to the other wing-tip.

Spoiler: Spoilers are small surfaces which are designed to spoil the flow over a wing and thus reduce it's lift. They normally take the form of small hinged plates which, when deployed, project up into the flow on the top surface of the wing. Spoilers were originally used as a means of producing drag to slow an aircraft down. They were fitted to gliders, both to shorten the landing run, and to ensure that once landed, the aircraft stayed down. Nowadays, spoilers are fitted to most large aircraft, being used differentially (deployed on one wing and retracted on the other) to provide roll control, or collectively (deployed simultaneously on both wings) to provide a means of increasing drag and decreasing lift.

Stability: Tendancy of an aircraft to return to steady-level flight once it has been disturbed, e.g. by turbulence, etc.

Stall: Point at which the flow over the top surface of a wing detaches and no longer follows the wings countour. When this happens, the flow is said to have separated and is not able to provide a significant suction force on the top surface. Consequently, the amount of lift then available is reduced significantly.

Stator blade: In a turbojet compressor, there are two types of blades; rotor and stator. The stator blades remain stationary and the rotor blades rotate.

Stressed-skin construction: Method of construction whereby much of the structural load is taken up by the skin of the aircraft.

Subsonic: A speed below the speed of sound.

Supersonic : A speed greater than the speed of sound.

Swept wing: The wing of a plane can be inclined at an angle relative to the air flow to increase performance at high speeds.

T

Tailless configuration: A plane which has no tail (i.e. a Flying Wing such as the American YB-49).

Testbed aircraft: An aircraft which is used for the purpose of testing or developing new equipment, such as powerplants.

Thickness/chord ratio : The ratio between the thickness of a wing section and the chord (the distance between the leading and trailing edge).

Thrust: The pro pulsive force generated by an engine.

Transonic : Flight in the range between the onset of compressibility effects (A Mach number of 0.7) and the establishment of fully supersonic flight conditions (A Mach number of 1.4) is s aid to be transonic.

Turbine : A device which extracts energy from a flowing stream of fluid (or air).

Turboprop: A configuration in which a gas turbine engine is used to power a propeller, and little or no thrust is generated by the jet exhaust. This allows aircraft to operate at low speeds whilst retaining all the benefit's of a gas turbine engine, in a role where a pure turbo -jet engine would prove inefficient.

Twin boom configuration: Method of minimising propulsive loses whereby the tail consists of two booms with the jet exhausting between, thereby minimising the length of the exhaust pipe (see de Havilland Vampire ).

V

V-1 flying bomb: A weapon used by the Germans in World War II. Its propulsio n unit was a pulse jet.

Variable geometry : An aircraft with variable geometry can alter the sweep angle of it's wing in flight.

W

Wind tunnel: A tunnel used to investigate air flow characteristics over aerodynamic objects by passing a stream of air over them. Bibliography

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