Race in the Crucible of War: African American Soldiers and Race Relations in the “Nam” A dissertation presented to the faculty of the College of Arts and Sciences of Ohio University In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy Gerald F. Goodwin August 2014 © 2014 Gerald F. Goodwin. All Rights Reserved. 2 This dissertation titled Race in the Crucible of War: African American Soldiers and Race Relations in the “Nam” by GERALD F. GOODWIN has been approved for the Department of History and the College of Arts and Sciences by Chester Pach Professor of History Robert Frank Dean, College of Arts and Sciences 3 Abstract GOODWIN, GERALD F., Ph.D., August 2014, History Race in the Crucible of War: African American Soldiers and Race Relations in the “Nam” Director of Dissertation: Chester Pach For African Americans soldiers serving in the armed forces during the Vietnam War the domestic scene loomed large. African Americans perceived racial issues—race relations, prejudice, and discrimination—in Vietnam through a lens heavily influenced by their earlier experiences in the United States. Issues related to race and race relations helped to define the African American experience in the United States, and these same issues defined the experiences of black soldiers in Vietnam. Race relations in combat were typified by cooperation, shared sacrifice, and a sense of brotherhood. These positive relations were largely a reflection of the fact that black and white soldiers in combat were heavily dependent on one another. Despite these positive interactions with whites, African Americans did not view the armed forces as an institution free of racial prejudice. Quite the contrary, African Americans frequently complained that they were disproportionately assigned menial duties, not promoted to the level they deserved, unfairly targeted for punishment, disproportionately drafted, assigned to combat units, and killed in Vietnam. Relations outside of combat were typified by racial tension and violence. Between 1969 and 1971 hundreds, if not thousands, of incidents of racial violence occurred in and around American military bases 4 in Vietnam. In many respects, the armed forces’ failure to address adequately black complaints of racial discrimination contributed to these outbreaks of violence. During their time in Vietnam, many African American soldiers developed strong opinions and perceptions about the Vietnamese. Knowing very little about the Vietnamese or Vietnam in general, African American soldiers interpreted what they observed in Vietnam from a perspective shaped almost entirely by their own experiences back home. They empathized with Vietnamese civilians as persons of color and as victims of poverty and white mistreatment. Many also believed that the Vietnamese were similarly empathetic towards the African Americans struggle against racial prejudice and discrimination in the United States. This perception of empathy extended towards PAVN and NLF forces. Vietnamese communists actually promoted this idea through the use of leaflets and radio broadcasts, both of which gave the impression that they meant no harm to black soldiers and distinguished them from whites. 5 Dedication “Only you saw what took many time to see, I dedicate this to you for believing me” Mom, Dad, and Maria 6 Acknowledgments In the course of researching, writing, and revising my dissertation I have received significant advice and support from numerous individuals. My name alone appears at the front of this dissertation, but the truth is I did not do it alone. It was in many ways a cumulative effort. First, I would like to thank my dissertation advisor, Dr. Chester Pach. It was Dr. Pach’s positive attitude and interest in my subject that convinced me back in 2008 that Ohio University was the right place for me. He has been a source of support and insight ever since. I would also like to thank Dr. Robin Muhammad who not only designed a number of courses in African American history for me to take, but also was a constant source of optimism and encouragement. Committee members Dr. Ingo Trauschweizer and Dr. Katherine Jellison are also owed considerable thanks for their support. I would also like to thank Dr. Patrick Barr-Melej, Dr. William Frederick, Dr. Steven Miner, and the Contemporary History Institute at Ohio University. At the University of Kentucky, where I attended for my master’s degree, I would like to thank my thesis director Dr. Ronald Eller, as well as Dr. Joanne Pope Melish and Dr. Lien- Hang Nguyen. I am grateful to Professors Muhammad Ali, Susanne Klausen, James Miller, and John Walsh, all members of Carleton University’s history department who wrote recommendation for my admission to graduate school. I would also like to thank my high school English teacher, David Kennedy, and math teacher, John Poggione, who were two of the first adults, outside of my parents, to treat me as if I was capable of academic achievement. 7 I would like to extend my heartfelt appreciation and thanks to each and every veteran who shared his experiences with me. I found the interview process to be extremely rewarding which is a great credit to the veterans I interviewed. It may read like a cliché, but I could not have completed my dissertation without their participation and continued support. Thank you. I would like to make special notice of a few veterans who went above and beyond in their support. In 2008, I met James T. Gillam at a conference in Texas and he was the first black Vietnam veteran I ever spoke to about his experiences. He not only allowed a thoroughly “green” historian to interview him on the spot, but he has also provided me with many words of encouragement ever since. I would also like to thank Horace Coleman for his continued support and for thinking of me whenever he finds something interesting about the war or veterans’ experiences. Wayne Smith is owed particular thanks for handing out flyers on Veterans day and for the brotherhood. Ron Armstead is also owed considerable thanks for his continued support. Many of the veterans I interviewed graciously told their friends and fellow veterans about my project, none more than Wes Geary and George Brummell. Their interest in my project was so steadfast that I sometimes wondered if they were under the impression that they were receiving a finder’s fee for each referral. I first met Wes in 2009 and he has been supportive ever since, doing his level best to convince as many veterans as possible to speak with me. When I met George in 2011, he not only welcomed me into his home, but he began calling every veteran he knew to arrange an interview with me. Who could ask for anything more? Thank you both. 8 I would also like to thank the following veterans for their participation: Melvin Adams, Arthur C. Barham, Theodore Belcher, Walt Boomer, Ron Bradley, Thomas Brannon, Lorenzo Clark, Ron Copes, Bruce Crawford, Lewis Downey, Freddie Edwards, Wes Geary, James T. Gillam, Eddie Greene, Mike Hagee, George Hicks, Jim Houston, Clyde Jackson, Richard Jacobs, Rueben “Sugar Bear” Johnson, Jack Keane, James Lewis, Frank Libutti, Robert Louis Jr., Karl Marlantes, Anthony Martin, Patrick McLaughlin, Nate Mondy, Ron Osgood, Lawrence Parsons, Louis Perkins, Cephus “Dusty” Rhodes, Stanley Ricketts, Tom Rogan, Brian Settles, Jake Shaky, Gary Skogen, Bob Steck, Sinclair Swan, Willie J. Thomas Jr., Lawrence Van Kuran, Robert Vonner, Jack Whitted, and Anthony Zinni. I would also like to thank the following veteran’s organizations Vietnam Veterans Against the War, Vietnam Veterans of America, Blind Veterans Association, and the National Association of Buffalo Soldiers & Troopers Motorcycle Club. I would also like to thank Janice Terry, the widow of Wallace Terry, Lynn Novick, Lap Siu, and Mel McMurty. I have been blessed with a wonderful group of friends. I would like to give particular credit to those friends who knew me when I was a mediocre student with few educational aspirations. They were supportive then and have remained so as my aspirations have grown. I would like to thank my friend Zach Cox, whom I have known since our glory days at Carleton Preschool. I would also like to thank Mark Baldwin, Pollyanna Ling, Patrick McGuire, Thomas Jolicoeur, and Robert Soun, all of whom learned a PhD’s worth of information as we traveled through school together. Patrick and Thomas are owed particular thanks. They are not only great friends, but Patrick served as 9 my research assistant on a trip to Pennsylvania and Washington, D.C., and Thomas helped with transcriptions. Thanks guys, C.L.A, JYD. Other friends should also be recognized: Ed Sloane, Heather Petsche, Gabrielle Lazarovitz, Kerry Rennie, Jeff Keith, Rayna Gellert, Joe Venosa, Sabrina Sahle, Rafi Hasan III, Steven Williamson, Francesca White, Chrissy Matzen, Carly Muetterties, Sebastian Hurtado-Torres, Huong Diu Nguyen, San Nguyen, and Nancy McKean. Each of you has helped in your own way, and I am forever appreciative. Joe is owed particular thanks for his continued encouragement and support. I have been equally blessed to have such a supportive family. I would like to thank the Goodwin and Johnson families, and especially my sister Gillian, my brother Graham, and my little brother Gibson. My grandfathers, George F. Goodwin and Francis Meridith Johnson, served in World War II, and there military service served as an inspiration. I would also like to thank the Zoretic and Jadi families, especially my mother-in-law Zlata and father-in-law Ivan. Three people have gone above and beyond in their support of my dissertation; my mother Adrienne Johnson Goodwin, my father Fred Goodwin, and my wife Maria Zoretic-Goodwin. I could write another dissertation detailing the level of love and support each of you has given me over the years, if only I could find enough paper.