Fish and Fishing in Holocene Cis-Baikal, Siberia: a Review Robert J

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Fish and Fishing in Holocene Cis-Baikal, Siberia: A Review

Robert J. Losey,1 Tatiana Nomokonova,1 and Dustin White2,3 1Department of Anthropology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada 2Institute of Archaeology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK 3Department of Archaeology, School of Humanities, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK

ABSTRACT

Eastern Siberia’s Lake Baikal and its tributaries are productive fisheries, and the region’s Holocene archaeological sites confirm that this is a long-standing phenomenon. Recent zooarchaeological investigations of sites here allow Holocene fishing practices to be examined in more detail than was previously possible. Along much of the lake’s coast, bathymetry is very steep and the water very cold; here fishing appears to have been supplemental to other subsistence practices such as sealing and ungulate hunting. In shallower areas, waters were warmer and supported very productive fisheries for littoral species, perhaps through the use of nets or traps. The region’s rivers offered their own resident species but also were used as spawning grounds by some lake fishes. The lake’slittoralfisheries,whileproductive,likelyproducedfishthroughout the year and did not require complex labor organization to be effec-

Downloaded by [Robert Losey] at 18:52 03 April 2012 tively used. Some sections of the region’s rivers, particularly those that were spawning grounds for some lake fishes, may have required more complex sociopolitical organization to be exploited efficiently. Such fish runs were short-lived and the best fishing places likely were spatially restricted. This potentially created the need for pools of labor, required organization of harvesting and processing, and generated surpluses that could be stored and manipulated.

Keywords zooarchaeology, economy and subsistence, ﬁshing, social organization, Russia, Siberia

Received 13 December 2010; accepted 10 June 2011. Address correspondence to Robert J. Losey, Department of Anthropology, University of Alberta, 13-8 Tory Building, Edmonton, AB T6G 2H4, Canada. E-mail: [email protected]

126 Fish and Fishing in Holocene Cis-Baikal, Siberia

INTRODUCTION assemblages have been systematically ana- lyzedusingmodernmethods,andfieldrecov- Lake Baikal and its nearby rivers offer an ery techniques typically have not involved abundance of aquatic food resources un- the use of sieves. Existing collections are matched in the rest of the interior south- often biased toward the remains of large- ern boreal region of Siberia (Figure 1). The bodied fauna, and interpretations of ancient archaeological record of Holocene hunter- subsistence practices previously were quite gatherers and pastoralists here in part re- speculative and based on little hard data. Fur- flects this abundance. Much fishing equip- ther, faunal remains rarely have been quan- ment is found in some sites, seal (Phoca tified systematically here, and most available sibirica) bones are numerous in settlements data consists of simple lists of taxa present. along portions of the Baikal coast, and stud- The work of the BAP has sought to address ies of diet through isotope analyses of hu- these issues in recent years by employing man remains indicate long-standing use of modern recovery techniques at several sites, aquatic foods. Here we review and discuss building a faunal skeletal comparative col- patterns in aquatic fauna use by Holocene lection for zooarchaeological research, and occupants of Cis-Baikal focusing specifically publishing detailed accounts of faunal re- on fishes. To start, we outline characteristics mains analyzed (Losey et al. 2011; Losey et of Lake Baikal and its fauna that we consider al. 2008; Nomokonova et al. 2009a, 2009b, significant for understanding Holocene sub- 2010, 2011). sistence practices. A review of Cis-Baikal’s Reviews of the region’s Holocene ar- zooarchaeological record of fishing is then chaeological record can be found in Weber offered, including several new sets of data. et al. (2010) and Weber and Bettinger (2010) Finally, we speculate on patterns in Middle and are only briefly outlined here to provide Holocene fishing in Cis-Baikal and their re- context for the rest of the paper. Habitation lationships to other phenomena, including sites dating to the Early Holocene have been issues of labor organization and climate and identified along the shore of Baikal and in environmental change. To begin, basic in- Cis-Baikal’s river valleys, but specifics about formation about recent research here is pro- subsistence strategies during this period are vided, along with a very brief review of Cis- limited and human remains rare. Recurrently Baikal’s Holocene culture history. used burial places (cemeteries) first appear TheBaikalArchaeologicalProject(BAP), in this region during the period from 8000 a large multidisciplinary research endeavor to 7000 cal BP (the Early Neolithic). From centered at the University of Alberta, has ∼7000 cal BP to 6000 cal BP (the Middle Ne- been investigating the Holocene archaeolog- olithic), burials essentially cease to be made, ical record of the Cis-Baikal region for over 10 but the region continued to be occupied. At Downloaded by [Robert Losey] at 18:52 03 April 2012 years, and much of the data presented here ∼6000 cal BP, burials once again reappear derive from this project. Cis-Baikal, follow- in the region (Late Neolithic, 6000–5000 cal ing Michael (1958), encompasses the area BP) and continue to be made throughout north and west of Lake Baikal, including the the Bronze Age (∼5000–2500 cal BP). Vir- Angara River and its tributaries downriver tually all Cis-Baikal Middle Holocene ceme- from the lake to Ust’-Ilimsk, the upper Lena teries are located on the Angara downstream River to Kirensk, and the west coast of the from the lake, the Little Sea coastline, or the lake itself (including the lake’s largest island, upper Lena River—almost none have been Ol’khon; Figure 2). Archaeology in this re- documented in the vast stretches between gion traditionally (and as part of the BAP) these three waterways. The hiatus in buri- has been heavily focused on its abundant als corresponds in time with pronounced cli- Holocene hunter-gatherer cemeteries, while mate change in the region, which included its habitation sites and the materials within significant warming and drying, decreased them have garnered far less recent scientific seasonal fluctuations in temperature and pre- attention. Zooarchaeological research in par- cipitation, and a suite of local environmental ticular has been very under-developed. Few changes (few of which are well understood;

JOURNAL OF ISLAND & COASTAL ARCHAEOLOGY 127 Robert J. Losey et al.

Figure 1. Map of northern Eurasia. The box marks the location of the map in Figure 2.

White and Bush 2010). Ancient DNA stud- to the Neolithic and later periods. Stable car- ies of human remains indicate that popula- bon and nitrogen isotope studies of several tions in the region before and after the hiatus hundred sets of Neolithic and Bronze Age (the Early Neolithic versus the Late Neolithic human remains show that diets in this region and Early Bronze Age) are genetically discon- were variable, but nearly all individuals, re- tinuous, likely indicating population replace- gardless of the sub-region they were buried Downloaded by [Robert Losey] at 18:52 03 April 2012 ment. Early and Middle Holocene dwellings in,reliedtosomeextentonaquaticresources of any sort are undocumented here, sug- (fishes and the lake’s freshwater seals; see gesting high residential mobility throughout Katzenberg et al. 2009, 2010; Katzenberg these periods. The period from about 3000 and Weber 1999; Weber et al. 2002). The sta- to 2500 cal BP marks the arrival of pastoral- ble isotope data seems to indicate that fish ists in Cis-Baikal (the Iron Age, followed by use was most extensive among the popula- the Mongolian Time), who relied on a mix- tionslivingontheAngaraandontheLittleSea ture of herding (primarily sheep, goats, cat- coast of the lake, and least extensive among tle, and horses), hunting, and fishing. Pas- the populations living on the upper Lena toralism persisted in the area throughout the River. Unfortunately, no stable isotope data Late Holocene. Some millet and barley culti- currently is available for Late Holocene hu- vation also occurred during the latter portion man remains here. While the stable isotope of the pastoral period (Dashibalov 1995). data values of individuals and populations Stable isotope studies of human diets are can be analyzed and compared in numerous restricted by the availability of human re- ways that make them extremely useful, in mains, which in Cis-Baikal are largely limited many cases they are ambiguous about which

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Figure 2. Map of Lake Baikal, Russia, with major geographic features and archaeological sites noted. Inset shows the Little Sea region on the lake’s west coast.

particular animals were consumed. This is berg et al. 2010:184–185), and because vari- the case at least in this area because many ous diets can produce similar isotope signa- of the potentially exploited aquatic species tures in humans. Further, they tell us little have quite similar isotope values (see Katzen- about how, when, and where animals were

JOURNAL OF ISLAND & COASTAL ARCHAEOLOGY 129 Robert J. Losey et al.

procured, all of which are important for in- Lake Baikal has some stretches of wa- ferring various aspects of past lifeways. We ter that are comparatively warmer and shal- do not mean this as a critique of stable iso- lower, and these regions and their fauna also tope studies, but rather point out these short- were important for human subsistence. The comings to emphasize the need to integrate lake’s gulfs, sors, lagoons, and river mouths these research findings with those produced support a variety of fishes. For example, com- through zooarchaeological studies. To un- monly encountered fish in these compara- derstand both datasets, a basic understand- tively shallow waters include perch (Perca ing of the region’s aquatic fauna is needed. fluviatilis),roach(Rutilus rutilus lacustris), dace (Leuciscus leuciscus baicalensis), ide (L. idus), pike (Esox lucius), whitefish (Core- gonus lavarentus baicalensis), and burbot FAUNA OF LAKE BAIKAL AND ITS RIVERS (Lota lota). Locations such as the southern reaches of the Little Sea of Lake Baikal (Figure Most descriptions of Lake Baikal begin by dis- 2),wheremanyHolocenehumancemeteries cussing its great age and considerable depth. and habitation sites are found, are particu- These features are important because the larly rich in these littoral species. Sturgeon two have allowed for the development of (Acipenser baeri stenorhychus), taimen a unique aquatic environment within which (Hucho taimen), and lenok (Brachymystax humans have long participated. Lake Baikal lenok) are also present but far less abun- reaches a maximum depth of 1642 m (IN- dant in the lake; today they are extremely TAS project 99–1699 Team 2002), and un- rarethroughoutBaikalduetooverfishingand like most other deep lakes, is oxygenated habitat degradation (Matveyev et al. 1998). throughout its water column (Martin et al. At present, taimen and lenok are relatively 1998). The lake’s exact age is debated, common in nearly all of the region’s rivers; but it is clearly millions of years old. A this pattern likely has persisted throughout unique deep-water fauna has evolved here, the Holocene. While several hundred rivers and many of these species are major prey drain into Lake Baikal, very few of any size items for animals utilized by the region’s meet the lake along its western shore. Most Holocene hunter-gatherers (for a detailed de- of our archaeological research has occurred scription of Cis-Baikal major fishes and their along this western shoreline, on the Angara habitats, see Weber 2002:57–58; Weber et River (the lake’s only outlet), and on the up- al. 2002:241–245). For example, the lake’s perLenaRiverjustoutsideofthelake’swater- seals (Phoca sibirica), which are a fresh- shed to the northeast. The major rivers drain- water adapted species most closely related ing into the lake such as the Upper Angara, to the arctic’s ringed seal, feed largely on Barguzin, Turka, and Selenga drain areas to Downloaded by [Robert Losey] at 18:52 03 April 2012 endemic sculpins, golomianka (Comepho- the north, east and south of the lake. Most rus dybowskii, C. baicalensis,andCotto- lands just west of the lake drain into tribu- comephorus grewingki) and various am- taries of the Angara or Upper Lena. All of phipods, all relatively small fauna adapted these rivers and streams have been modified to the lake’s deep waters (Kozhova and in some way by human activities during the Izmest’eva 1998). The sculpins and golomi- recent past. All have been intensively fished anka make up over 95% of the total fish and some, particularly the Angara River be- biomass in Baikal’s pelagic waters (Sideleva low the lake, have been dammed for the pro- 2003). The bulk of the modern commercial duction of hydroelectricity. fishery, however, is focused on omul’ (Core- The rivers connected to the lake have gonus autumnalis migratorius), a herring- their own resident fishes such as taimen, like whitefish averaging about 30 cm in lenok, pike, roach, arctic grayling (Thymal- length and closely related to the arctic cisco. lus arcticus), tugun (Coregonus tugun), and Omul’ are primarily commercially taken in sterlet (Acipenser ruthenus ruthenus), but relatively deep waters in the open lake using importantly also were utilized by some lake large fine-gauge trawl nets. fishes as spawning areas. Populations of

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omul’ spawn in mid-summer in the Upper Khlobystin 1965, 1969; Medvedev 1969, Angara and Selenga rivers while other runs 1971; Okladnikov 1950, 1955). No Pleis- of these fish use rivers and streams enter- tocene sites with fish remains have been ing the Posolsky Sor and Chvyrkui Gulf along identified on Lake Baikal, but several such thelake’seastcoast(KozhovaandIzmest’eva sites have been found nearby on the lake’s 1998). Very few omul’ spawn in streams tributaries (Abramova 1962; Tashak 1996). along the lake’s west coast; the most notable Harpoons and barbed bone points have been (and perhaps the only) population to do so argued to be the earliest fishing implements, utilizes the Sarma River (see inset, Figure 2), a and these appear here during the late Pleis- small stream near the south end of the Little tocene (Medvedev 1969, 1971; Okladnikov Sea. Baikal black and white graylings (T.a. 1955). Single-piece bone and antler fish- baicalensis and T.a. baicalensis brevipin- hooks are evident in the early Holocene nis), both highly prized fatty fish, also use the (Medvedev 1969, 1971; Novikov and Gori- rivers and streams entering the lake. In early unova 2005; Okladnikov 1955; Svinin 1971, spring black grayling exploit small streams 1976). Composite fishhooks with stone for spawning, including the Sarma, Anga, shanks and barbs appear to become rela- Bugul’deika,andGoloustnaiariversalongthe tively abundant about 8,000 years ago, par- lake’s western shore, but also use the Angara ticularly in mortuary sites (Medvedev 1971; between Irkutsk and the lake. White grayling Novikov and Goriunova 2005; Okladnikov prefer larger rivers, particularly those enter- 1950, 1955; Svinin 1976). During the Early ing the lake’s eastern shore. Neolithic period, stone fish hook shanks were quite variable, ranging in length from ∼2 to 20 cm, probably indicating efforts to target fish of a wide size range. Possible stone FISHING AND THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL fish lures also first appear during this pe- RECORD riod (Georgievskaia 1989; Okladnikov 1948, 1950; Studzitskaia 1976). Archaeologists have for decades speculated Direct evidence for fishing nets or traps on the role of fish and fishing in the an- is lacking on Lake Baikal, but many investi- cient economies of Lake Baikal (Khlobystin gators have argued for their presence in the 1969; Okladnikov 1948; Petri 1926). Despite mid- to late Holocene. Supposed net sinkers this, studies of fish remains from sites on (notched stones), bone needles (interpreted the lake and its tributaries are extremely as netting needles), and cordage impressions rare; prior to 2006, only three assemblages on pottery have all been used to argue for with small NISP counts had been described the use of fishing nets (Georgievskaia 1989; (Ulan-Khada, NISP = 78; Nizhniia Berezovka, Novikov and Goriunova 2005; Okladnikov Downloaded by [Robert Losey] at 18:52 03 April 2012 NISP = 78; Nizhne-Ivolginskoe Gorodistche, 1950, 1955). Based on the size of fish har- NISP = 203; Tsepkin 1966, 1976). Most vested at the Ityrkhei habitation site (de- faunal studies in the Lake Baikal region scribed below), Losey et al. (2008) also ar- only have tended to list the presence or gued for the use of nets or traps on Lake absence of fish, with little further quan- Baikal during the Early and Middle Holocene. tification provided (but see Tsepkin 1966, Several researchers have suggested that the 1976, 1980; Mamontov et al. 2006). Methods employment of nets on the lake required the for identifying archaeological specimens are use of boats (Georgievskaia 1989; Medvedev virtually never stated. As such, most specu- 1971; Okladnikov 1955), but no ancient lation about the roles of fish and fishing at boats have been found. Some place the ap- Lake Baikal has been based on patterns in pearance of boats during the Developed site distribution and the abundance of and (or Late) Neolithic period (∼6000 cal BP) diachronic changes in fishing technologies. (Novikov and Goriunova 2005) or the Bronze Many scholars have argued that fishing Age (∼4500 cal BP) (Khlobystin 1963). was not a major focus of subsistence prac- Stable isotope studies have been made tices until the Holocene (Everstov 1988; on human remains from multiple Holocene

JOURNAL OF ISLAND & COASTAL ARCHAEOLOGY 131 Robert J. Losey et al.

hunter-gatherercemeteriesintheLakeBaikal which were fish bones. Excavations in 2005 area (Katzenberg et al. 2009, 2010; Katzen- of ∼7m3 of deposits and using 2 mm sieves berg and Weber 1999; Weber et al. 2002). produced 11,300 faunal remains, over 99% of As stated earlier, these studies indicate all which were fish. The faunal recovery rate us- analyzed groups in Cis-Baikal were eating ing the 2 mm sieves was just over 1,600 spec- fish, but fish use was variable depending imens per cubic meter. If such density of fau- upon time period, location, and individual. nal remains was characteristic of the entire In the most detailed analyses of human nitro- site area, this suggests that if the same recov- gen and carbon isotope values in Cis-Baikal, ery techniques were used during the early Katzenberg et al. (2009) assessed aquatic excavations at Ityrkhei, over 450,000 fish re- food use among individuals buried in the mains could have been collected. Clearly, Khuzhir-Nuge XIV cemetery near the south- when Ityrkhei was being most intensively ern end of the Little Sea; nearly all of the occupied, subsistence activities focused on tested sets of human remains from this ceme- fishing. Notably, while recovery rates of fish tery are from the Bronze Age (here ∼4700 remains were clearly impacted by the use of to 5000 cal BP; Weber et al. 2005). The sieves, the overall rank order of fish species isotope analyses indicated that all individu- did not change with their use. This suggests als were consuming aquatic foods, includ- that the unsieved collections from the re- ing both seals and fishes. Katzenberg et al. gion likely retain useful information about (2009:671) suggest that the fishes likely con- the ordinal ranking of fishes used at particu- tributing most to the diet here were lenok, lar sites, but not about fish bone deposition dace, and some perch. In addition, diets var- rates. ied within the cemetery, with one group of The taxonomic composition of Ityrkhei spatially associated individuals perhaps de- varies little through time and reflects a prox- pending more on terrestrial herbivores than imity to the lake’s warm, shallow waters; others, or another group possibly depending perch, roach, and dace, all common lit- more on seals and high trophic level fish such toral species, account for 93% of the iden- as sturgeon and pike. tified specimens. Coregonidae (whitefishes, including omul’) account for only 5% of the total, followed by pike at 2%. Sturgeon and Zooarchaeology lenok, two species inferred through stable isotope analyses to have been important in Our analyses of fish remains from the re- someindividual’sdietsatthenearbyKhuzhir- gion’s archaeological sites was based upon Nuge XIV cemetery, were absent. The taxo- the use of a comprehensive fish skeletal com- nomic abundances observed in the Itrykhei parative collection made by Nomokonova data match well with historic fish catches Downloaded by [Robert Losey] at 18:52 03 April 2012 and Losey in Irkutsk, Russia, and the quantifi- in this region, providing little evidence for cation procedures utilized followed widely substantial changes in fish distributions here accepted standards (e.g., Reitz and Wing during the Holocene. Seasonality of site oc- 1999). Losey et al. (2008) and Nomokonova cupation is unclear; all identified fishes are et al. (2009a, 2009b) first examined previ- currently present near Ityrkhei year-round. ously collected and newly excavated faunal The southern Little Sea region today is a remains from the Ityrkhei habitation site. Lo- popular ice fishing location for perch, pike, cated at the southern end of the Little Sea roach, dace, and in some areas whitefish, but around 8 km from the Khuzhir-Nuge XIV is also commonly fished during periods of cemetery,Ityrkheiappearstohavebeenused open watervia small watercraftandnets.The through most of the Holocene but was most open-water fishery is particularly productive intensively occupied from ∼8000 to 4300 cal in spring when perch, roach, dace, and pike BP. Despite originally being excavated with- congregate in the shallows for spawning and out the use of sieves, the early excavations feeding. here of ∼290 m3 still resulted in the recov- Following the initial analysis of Ityrkhei, ery of 8,400 (NISP) faunal remains, 97% of we sought to assess which fishing tech-

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nologies were employed by the ancient tions of Berloga (Nomokonova et al. 2009b). inhabitants of this site. Very little fishing Only 507 total faunal specimens (NISP) were equipment was recovered from Ityrkhei present in this collection, and 337 of these itself; possible fishing-related implements were fish, with only 69 specimens being include a Mesolithic bone harpoon and a sin- identified to at least the family level (Table 1). gle ground stone fishhook shank and ‘net- All but 12 of the fish remains were recovered ting’ needle from the Neolithic. An unspec- from the Mesolithic and the Neolithic layers. ified number of notched stones, interpreted As at Ityrkhei, perch are by far the most abun- as net weights, were also found in the Ne- dant taxon followed by pike, sturgeon, and olithic deposits. Using a sample of modern Cyprinidae. perch of various sizes collected from the Lit- The second recently analyzed assem- tle Sea, we developed a series of regression blage was from Ulan-Khada (Figures 2 and formulas that allowed us to assess the size 3). This site is located about 2.1 km from of perch harvested at Ityrkhei (Losey et al. Ityrkhei on a peninsula overlooking Mukhor 2008). Our calculations indicated that almost gulf;theKhuzhir-NugeXIVcemeteryisabout no perch under about 20 cm in total length 4.5 km directly northwest of Ulan-Khada were taken. As Baikal perch reach maturity across the gulf. We analyzed faunal remains when around 15 to 20 cm in length, this sug- recovered from the site during excavations gests a focus on adult individuals. We sug- in 1974, 1982, and 1990 (Nomokonova et al. gested that these fish size estimates indicate 2011); the total number of identified spec- selectivity resulting from the use of technolo- imens was 2746 of which 1567 were fish gies such as large-gauge nets or traps; acquir- (Table 1). Ulan-Khada appears to have been ing fish solely through hook and line fishing used intermittently throughout much of the would almost certainly result in the inclu- Middle Holocene; 11 radiocarbon dates from sion of many smaller individuals as perch this site range in age from roughly 3250 of any size readily take baited hooks. Fish- to 5500 uncalibrated years before present, ermen using large-gauge monofilament gill but typological assessment suggests a period nets in the Little Sea today commonly har- of occupation spanning from 3100 to 6600 vest catches dominated by perch, roach, and years before present (Goriunova 1984; Gori- dace, along with smaller numbers of pike, unova et al. 1996). Unlike at the previously a taxonomic pattern closely matching our discussed Little Sea sites, Salmonidae here data from Ityrkhei. Furthermore, roach and are the most abundant taxon by NISP. All of dace have very small mouths relative to their these specimens are vertebrae centra, which body size and are difficult to take with hook are notoriously difficult to identify past the and line when using anything but extremely family level. Many of these may be from small hooks (Sabaneev 1996). whitefish; head elements of this group of Downloaded by [Robert Losey] at 18:52 03 April 2012 In 2009, two other Little Sea faunal as- fishes were identified in the assemblage, and semblages were analyzed, both of which Mukhor Bay is a well-documented whitefish- contained fish but were excavated with- spawning region (Kozhov and Misharin out the use of sieves. The first of these is 1958; Nomokonova et al. 2009a:85). White- Berloga, located about 200 m east of Ityrkhei fish enter Mukhor bay in fall prior to ice for- on Berloga Cove. This site was occupied at mation for spawning. Like the Cyprinidae, various points in the Holocene, but its pri- whitefish have very small mouths and are dif- mary periods of occupation seem to be the ficult to take with a hook and line; today nets early and middle Holocene (Mesolithic and are a commonly used and effective means of Neolithic) as well as the Bronze/Iron Age taking whitefish in this region. The relative transition; only three radiocarbon dates are abundance of Salmonidae specimens may in- available for this site, and assignment of lay- dicate that an open water net fishery was ers to temporal periods is based largely on ar- in operation during the fall at Ulan-Khada. tifact typology (Goriunova 1984; Goriunova As at the other southern Little Sea sites we et al. 1996). Our analyses focused on ma- analyzed, perch are also present in substan- terials recovered during the 1977 excava- tial numbers, being nearly as abundant as

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Table 1. Fish remains identiﬁed at Berloga, Ulan-Khada, and Sagan-Zaba II (S-Z II) by number of identiﬁed specimens (NISP).

Iron/Bronze Age transition Bronze Age Neolithic Mesolithic

Common Ulan- Ulan- Ulan- Ulan- S-Z Taxa name Berloga Khada S-Z II Berloga Khada S-Z II Berloga Khada S-Z II Berloga Khada II Total

Acispenser baeri Siberian 8 3 28 12 7 4 62 sturgeon Esox lucius Pike 1 1 1 4 2 14 6 29 Perca fluviatilis Eurasian perch 2 1 2 248 5 44 48 3 353 Lota lota Burbot 22 Leuciscus Baikal dace 3 1 4 baicalensis Rutilis rut. Roach 1 1 2 lacustris Cyprinidae Cyprinidae 21 1 13 14 family Thymallus Arctic grayling 3 1 3 4 articus Coregonus sp. Whitefish 6 43 8 3 60 Salmonidae Salmonidae 459 333 363 29 1330 family Pisces— 1 199 926 141 212 67 56 107 1709 unidentified Total NISP 3 3 682 0 1560 548 259 0 176 75 4 110 3499 Fish and Fishing in Holocene Cis-Baikal, Siberia

Figure 3. The southern Little Sea of Lake Baikal near Ulan-Khada (color ﬁgure available online).

Salmonidae; trace amounts of sturgeon, pike, almost entirely through the use of sieves, and Cyprinidae were also identified. Again, and around 1,000 of these could be iden- this suggests that historically observed fish tified to at least the family level. The ma- distributionpatternsintheLittleSeaarequite jority was found in deposits dating to the long-standing. last 2,000–4,000 years, but smaller quanti- Faunal samples from the open coast of ties also were found in the earlier Neolithic

Downloaded by [Robert Losey] at 18:52 03 April 2012 Lake Baikal are much more limited in scope. and Mesolithic layers. In the later deposits, Our only existing sample comes from the Salmonidae strongly dominate the identified Baikal Archaeological Project’s recent exca- specimens. A few specimens could be iden- vation of Sagan-Zaba II, located about 50 tified as grayling and Coregonus sp., but the km south of the Little Sea on the lake’s remainder could not be more specifically west coast (Figures 2 and 4). Occupied identified. In the Neolithic deposits fish re- throughout the early and middle Holocene mains are not very abundant and are nu- by hunter-gatherers, and in the late Holocene merically dominated by perch followed by by pastoralists (who also hunted and fished), Salmonidae, and smaller quantities of pike, Sagan-Zaba appears to have been utilized sturgeon, whitefish, burbot, and Cyprinidae mostly as a sealing camp. Despite the con- also are present. The Mesolithic layers con- sistent use of 3 mm sieves for the recov- tain only trace amounts of grayling. The ap- ery of archaeological materials here, fish re- parent relatively minor importance of fish mains account for less than 1% of the total hereisinkeepingwithourknowledgeoffish- NISP at the site (Nomokonova et al. 2010). ing conditions in this immediate area today. Just over 1,500 fish remains were recovered, Analyses of seal remains from Sagan-Zaba

JOURNAL OF ISLAND & COASTAL ARCHAEOLOGY 135 Robert J. Losey et al. Downloaded by [Robert Losey] at 18:52 03 April 2012

Figure 4. View of Sagan-Zaba from the cliffs north of the cove (color ﬁgure available online).

suggest that during most of the Holocene, islimited,inpartduetoitsdistancefrompass- the primary season of site occupation was able roads, but also due to the comparatively early spring, likely when the lake was still low density of fish in the area. It is possible ice-covered (Nomokonova 2011). The wa- that the ancient fish remains recovered from ters adjacent to Sagan-Zaba are deep and Sagan-Zaba represent low-intensity ice fish- cold, and the region is not a popular fishery at ing that supplemented and helped to even any time of year. Small quantities of grayling out variability in food availability that re- are taken from the shore via hook and line, sulted from less consistently productive sub- and small quantities of omul’ are captured sistence practices such as sealing and ungu- with nets here in summer; winter ice fishing late hunting. Similar modes of fishing may

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have been practiced at many spring sealing DISCUSSION locations along the coast. The final recent zooarchaeological study Understanding the roles of fish and fishing in in the region was conducted on fish remains Holocene Cis-Baikal cultural developments recovered from the Ust’-Khaita habitation requires combining the available archaeolog- site on the Khaita River (Mamontov et al. ical data, which is admittedly limited, with 2006), a tributary of the Belaia River which an understanding of fish behavior, habitat meets the Angara about 140 km downstream preferences, nutritional characteristics, and from the lake. Five radiocarbon dates on un- availability relative to other subsistence re- specified materials from several layers where sources. Additional factors to consider in- fish remains were found range from 6625 to clude human demography and settlement 8350uncalibratedyearsbeforepresent.Only patterns, available technologies, and issues portions of the site were sieved (primarily related to differential access and control of hearths) and it is unclear what collection pro- food and harvesting, processing, and stor- cedures were employed to obtain the speci- age equipment; environmental change dur- mens reported. Neither absolute numbers of ing the Holocene is also likely extremely im- specimens nor minimum numbers of individ- portant for understanding temporal trends in uals are indicated in the report, but identifi- fish use. While it is impossible to address all cations (always to species) were apparently of these issues in detail here, we highlight made on both bones and scales. Results are several key points that have been largely un- reported in terms of percent represented by addressed in both the Russian- and English- each taxon per layer, and an overall ‘average’ language literature on the region. of taxonomic abundance is also presented. Many researchers have suggested that Grayling, burbot, pike, whitefish, sturgeon, omul’ was the most important fish to an- taimen, lenok, roach, and ide are all identi- cient foragers of Lake Baikal (Everstov 1988; fied as being present. The investigators also Novikov and Goriunova 2005; Svinin 1976). summarize earlier work by the ichthyologist However, the zooarchaeological data avail- Tsepkin on other Angara River area archae- able to date provides no evidence for their ological fish bone assemblages (Ust’-Belaia, use. Omul’ likely were not important sub- located where the Belaia River meets the An- sistence resources in Cis-Baikal because of gara, and Verkholenskaia Gora in Irkutsk). their habitat preferences and distribution. These assemblages too were obtained with- These fish are primarily associated with the out the use of sieves, consist of only a hand- cold and deep regions of the lake (pelagic ful of specimens from each site, and all fau- areas), except when they enter rivers for nal remains were identified to the species spawning. As stated earlier, nearly no omul’ or even subspecies level. All are quantified spawning streams are found on the lake’s Downloaded by [Robert Losey] at 18:52 03 April 2012 in the same manner as the material from western shore, nor do they appear to have Ust’-Khaita. The sites are reported to con- spawned in the Angara River. Notably, dur- tain many of the same species seen at Ust’- ing some seasons these fish do feed in waters Khaita but also include perch. While these near shore, including the eastern shoreline results should be viewed with some skepti- of the Little Sea (along Ol’khon Island’s west cism due to the recovery, quantification, and coast; Kozhov and Misharin 1958). How- identification techniques employed, they do ever, omul’ are herring-like in shape, having suggest that Holocene fisheries on the An- fusiform bodies and relatively small mouths; gara and its tributaries included an array of theyrequirefine-gaugenetsortrapstobeeffi- species—no one taxon dominates. Clearly ciently harvested. In other words, to capture much more zooarchaeological research is omul’, in most cases foragers living in Cis- needed on the Angara River and its trib- Baikal would have had to search deep open utaries, a truly massive area of Cis-Baikal, waters using high-time and -material invest- before more definitive statements about ment technologies such as fine-gauge nets Holocene subsistence practices here can be and boats (fishing through the ice in win- made. ter would not require boats, however). It is

JOURNAL OF ISLAND & COASTAL ARCHAEOLOGY 137 Robert J. Losey et al.

not argued here that Holocene foragers in omul’ were not required. The present zooar- Cis-Baikal lacked these technologies or the chaeological record from the Little Sea sup- capacity to use them. Rather, the time and ports these interpretations. Fishing appears material expense of exploiting omul’ made to have begun on the Little Sea over 10,000 other fishes here far more likely to have years ago and littoral species and whitefish been regularly targeted. Their importance appeartohavebeentheprimarypreyatall was likely much greater where and when analyzed sites throughout the Holocene. The they were more readily accessible and pre- species focused upon varied slightly depend- dictably located, such as during spawning in ing upon site location and local ecological rivers along the lake’s northern and eastern conditions, and some mass harvesting with shores (outside of Cis-Baikal). large-gauge nets or traps was likely occur- Along the west coast of the lake itself, ring; hooks and spears also were utilized. littoral fishes and species such as whitefish We postulate that from the perspective probably played far greater roles in human of labor organization and control, the Little subsistence practices than did omul’. Much Sea fishery during the Holocene nonethe- of this coast, however, is characterized by less presented relatively limited opportuni- steep bathymetry and cold waters, both be- ties for controlling and accumulating large ing unfavorable conditions for these fishes. stores of fish. The areas where littoral In general, there are few broad expanses of fishes could be easily obtained were rela- shallow warm water, and the deep and cold tively widespread and not highly seasonally areas appear to support fish in low densities, restricted—many small bays in the region particularly in the upper portion of the water could be fished simultaneously almost year- column. A notable exception to this pattern round by small groups of foragers. Compared is the southern end of the Little Sea, the most to marine coastal areas of the North Pacific productive littoral fishery on the lake’s west (home to well-documented transegalitarian coast. Unlike most of the west coast of Baikal, foraging groups previously compared to for- the Little Sea area has a true coastal plain, agers in Middle Holocene Cis-Baikal; e.g., and in its southernmost reaches, numerous Link 1999), we envision the Little Sea area shallow bays and some lagoons. These sup- as more akin to a large, productive estu- port large and comparatively dense popula- ary where an array of fishing could occur; tions of perch, roach, dace, and pike, and the degree of spatial and temporal clump- in some areas and seasons, whitefish (e.g., ing of fish seen in rivers utilized by spawn- Mukhor Bay, see above). Today this region ing anadromous species along the Pacific supports a nearly year-round (freeze-up and coast (which in part created opportunities break-up periods are much less intensively for the development of large, organized la- fished) recreational and small-scale commer- bor pools and processing and storage facili- Downloaded by [Robert Losey] at 18:52 03 April 2012 cial fishery for these species. In addition, ties;seeSchalk1977;Suttles1968)appearsto while no area of Lake Baikal is free from us an unlikely scenario for the Little Sea. Per- treacherous winds that make boating dan- haps rather than obtaining and maintaining gerous, the Little Sea’s undulating coastline use-rights or ownership of specific fishing makes it more suitable to small boat travel stations, the issue here for prehistoric for- than any other area along the west coast. For agers was to maintain some level of broader ancient foragers, littoral fish in the Little Sea access to this region of productive fishing. would have been more predictably located Furthermore, most littoral fishes, while reg- and easier to access than the offshore, deep- ularly consumed in areas such as the Little water preferring omul’. In addition, species Sea, may not have been highly ranked among such as pike, perch, and burbot are easily Cis-Baikal’sforaginggroups,whichlikemany taken with baited hooks, while others such otherhunter-gatherersmayhaverankedprey as whitefish, roach, and dace can most ef- by factors such as fat content and body size fectively be taken with gill nets—expensive (Hawkesetal.1982;Kelly1995;Simms1987; small-gaugenets(whichrequiremorewoven Speth 1983; Speth and Speilmann 1983; Win- line per length of net) like those required for terhalder 1981). Most of the littoral fishes

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are rather lean; 100 grams of pike and perch smoke houses) were likely required for the flesh, for example, contain less than 1 gram littoral species, and if fish were only trick- of fat and constitute less than 381 kJ of en- ling in, large labor pools for processing also ergy each (USDA 2008). While comparative likely were not needed. Winter catches des- data for species present in Cis-Baikal are lim- tined for storage were undoubtedly frozen ited, even other fishes here (let alone the and cached, perhaps also with minimal labor region’s ungulates and seal) appear to have or material investment. higher fat and energy contents: whitefishes Outside of the Little Sea along the lake’s (Coregonus spp.) have 4 g of fat and 506 kJ more open coastline, subsistence practices of energy per 100 g of flesh, grayling (Thy- probably focused primarily on seal, particu- mallus arcticus) 1.9 g of fat and 406 kJ of larly during the late winter and early spring, energy, and sturgeon (Acipenser sp.) 2.04 g and the hunting of ungulates (Nomokonova of fat and 439 kJ of energy (USDA 2008). Fur- 2011). Low-intensity fishing likely occurred ther modeling of prey choice, dietary prac- in these areas, perhaps as a low-return but re- tices, and mobility and subsistence strategies liable way of supplementing mammal hunt- should take such factors into account. ing and trapping. Fish most likely taken in Large and expensive watercraft likely these locations were those preferring the were not required for accessing the Little lake’s cold waters such as grayling and white- Sea’s littoral fishes; some fishing could oc- fish; the faunal dataset from Sagan-Zaba sup- cur on foot during winter through the ice, ports this interpretation as the overall assem- and during open water periods, from shore blage is dominated by salmonids. An impor- or via small and relatively simple watercraft. tant exception to this low intensity fishing Processing these fish for storage also may may have occurred during spawning runs not have been that costly in terms of la- of black grayling in the small rivers along bor, time, and materials. Given their year- the coastline. These fish today are highly round availability, perhaps littoral fish were regarded for their taste and support popu- mostly obtained in small batches on a day- lar recreational fisheries on the Anga River to-day basis rather than in short-lived peri- just south of the Little Sea, as well as on ods of intensive harvest; small pools of la- the Bugul’deika River further down the open bor with little organization may have been coast. A description of fishing during the late sufficient to ensure timely processing. Other 1800s gives an indication of the productiv- subsistenceactivities(hunting,trapping,and ity and intensity of the black grayling fishing gathering) likely could have been carried in such settings. Levin (1897) reports that out simultaneously by other group members the run of fish in the Bugul’deika River lasted when this type of fishing was undertaken. only 7–10 days but that a single person with In terms of processing fish for storage, dur- a harpoon could spear from 3 to 5 ‘puds’ Downloaded by [Robert Losey] at 18:52 03 April 2012 ing warm weather periods it seems the most (∼49 to 82 kg) of grayling per day. Lenok likely preservation process would be wind- and pike also can be found in these rivers drying; the Little Sea is the most arid subre- and streams, but are present in smaller num- gion of the lake’s west coast and is extremely bers and available year-round (Tolmacheva windy, both conditions being conducive to 2009). Such intensive but productive and wind-drying fish. In our experience, the lean- accessible fisheries likely were attractive to ness of the littoral fishes also makes them the region’s foragers, and it seems that the conducive to wind-drying; it is common to layingupstoresorfeastingfromcatchesfrom see perch, roach, and dace being wind dried these streams would have been possible. Sta- in the Little Sea, but the more fat-rich omul’ ble isotope signatures of populations utiliz- and grayling rot too quickly for this and are ing these small streams may also be distinct almost always preserved through the use of when compared to those from elsewhere in salt or refrigeration. In some cases, local peo- Cis-Baikal. ple dig pits in the ground near the lakeshore The Upper Lena River is the least well- for storing fishes for later use. No large tech- known region of our study area in terms nological investments (such as specialized of subsistence practices. Stable isotope

JOURNAL OF ISLAND & COASTAL ARCHAEOLOGY 139 Robert J. Losey et al.

analyses of Middle Holocene human remains least favorable conditions for fishing (and for from this area show some of the lowest ni- travel). trogen levels in our study area (Katzenberg Seasonal movements of some species et al. 2010) suggesting to us that fishing was likely created opportunities for masses of lessimportantherethanontheLittleSea fish to be taken in relatively limited time or Angara River. The fishes pursued on the spans. For example, the section of the An- Upper Lena likely were species such as arc- gara closest to Baikal (from the Irkut River tic grayling, taimen, lenok, as well as some to the Angara’s exit from Baikal) was uti- perch and pike, particularly as one moves lized by black grayling for spawning; this further down the river. Fish might have been region likely was a particularly rich prehis- taken anywhere, but deep sections where toric fishery. Exploiting these spawning runs fish could overwinter, river confluences, and may have required more labor (for harvest- sections just below waterfalls all were likely ing and processing) and organization to ex- to have been highly valued and seasonally ploit than many of the region’s other river- productive.SamplingofHolocenehabitation ine or littoral fishes—hundreds of fish could sites along the Upper Lena using fine-meshed be taken at once and would require immedi- sieves is needed to evaluate these proposed ate processing or consumption. At the same subsistence patterns. time, the run of black grayling likely would The Angara River in Cis-Baikal, and its have attracted people from further down major tributaries such as the Kitoi, Irkut, the Angara, the lake shore, and the adjacent and Belaia, may have supported some the mountain valleys to this region, resulting in region’s richest Holocene fisheries. Overall, larger than normal population densities in these fisheries probably were taxonomically the spring. These runs would have attracted richandthespeciesoffocusatanygivenloca- a range of other predators such as lenok, tion would have been largely dependent on taimen, pike, and seals (the ‘prey as bait season of harvest and local ecological con- effect,’ following Monks 1987), which too ditions. A brief glimpse at Weber’s et al.’s could have been harvested by the region’s (2002) summary table of fishes in the Baikal foragers. Such ecological and social condi- area shows that nearly all of the region’s ma- tions seem some of the most conducive in jor species are present in the Angara itself, Cis-Baikal to the development of (but obvi- with the exception of the white grayling ously not the sole cause of) social and po- and omul’. Particularly important species in litical complexity—resources were spatially theseriverslikelywerearcticgrayling,lenok, and temporally clumped potentially caus- taimen,Siberiansturgeon,sterlet,humpback ing conflicts over access and control, larger whitefish (Coregonus pidschan), and even than average numbers of people could have some of the same littoral fishes as seen in been involved, and food production in ex- Downloaded by [Robert Losey] at 18:52 03 April 2012 the Little Sea such as pike, perch, roach, cess of immediate needs was a good possi- and burbot. The presence and abundance bility. Harvesting of black grayling through of these fishes varies by distance from the the use of nets or traps may have been lake (see Weber et al. 2002 and references particularly productive, and the best places therein), but most species were present in along the river for using these technologies some numbers throughout much of the An- would have been valued and perhaps con- gara and its major tributaries. This range of tested. Such locations would include river species with widely varying diets, seasonal mouths, canyons, or waterfalls that forced migration patterns, and body sizes almost fish to densely congregate, and even small certainly required that a diverse set of fishing side channels that would have rendered fish technologies were used in the past. Clearly, visible and easy to capture with simple tech- fish were available in these rivers year-round, nologies. River mouths and other deep and and in many settlements likely were trick- well-oxygenated sections of the rivers also ling in and being eaten during all seasons. likely were productive areas for taking other The annual periods of initial freeze-up and fishes; these areas also would provide good break-up of river ice likely presented the over-wintering locations for fish.

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Variability in the distribution of fishes on relationships there might be between the the Angara and its tributaries undoubtedly formation of these fisheries and the devel- affected human dietary patterns during the opment of the region’s various archaeolog- Middle Holocene. In fact, we propose that ical cultures and mortuary traditions. Were in many cases this distributional variability these fisheries productive and stable early in had as much effect on human dietary vari- the Holocene, or was the timing of their de- ability as revealed by stable isotope analy- velopment more closely correlated with the ses as did Middle Holocene cultural and envi- development of large cemeteries on the An- ronmental changes, especially when isotope gara and south Baikal (roughly 8,000 years data is examined on a cemetery-by-cemetery ago)? basis (as opposed to viewing the data on an Another critical issue that we have yet person-by-person basis). For example, those to incorporate into our interpretations re- people living roughly between Irkutsk and lates to Holocene climate and environment the lake would have good direct access to change. For example, how did the docu- black grayling, but would have little to no mented temperature variability and drying access to Siberian sturgeon and sterlet, and of the broader region in the centuries around perhaps very little humpback whitefish (We- 7,000 years ago (An et al. 2000; Bezrukova, ber et al. 2002); this section of the Angara Abzeva, et al. 2005; Bezrukova, Krivonogov, is most affected by the ecology of the lake. et al. 2005; Bezrukova et al. 2010; Bush 2005; People living further down the Angara would Demske et al. 2005; Feng et al. 2006; Fowell have no direct access to black grayling but et al. 2003; He et al. 2004; Prokopenko et would have sturgeon, sterlet, and whitefish al. 2007; Tarasov et al. 2007, 2009; White readily at hand; the river here takes on more and Bush 2010) affect these fisheries, and of a ‘typical’ Siberian taiga ichthyofauna. In how might any such affects relate to the large short,itseemsquitepossiblethatisotopepat- temporal gap in the region’s mortuary record terns here will be rather heavily influenced (Weber et al. 2002)? Some authors (More et by distance from the lake. Even stable iso- al. 2009) have suggested that modern warm- tope patterns at the predominantly Early Ne- ing of the region might be beneficial for olithic Shamanka II cemetery at the far south littoral fishes in Baikal (but perhaps quite end of Baikal may be influenced by the distri- damaging to other lake fauna populations), bution of riverine fishes. While the cemetery while others (White and Bush 2010) have itself is on the lakeshore about 80 km from postulated that increased climatic and en- the Angara’s exit from Baikal, it is only a sin- vironmental variability spanning the early– gle day’s walk (just over 20 km) over rolling middle Holocene transition may have trig- hills from the Irkut River that drains the mas- gered disequilibriums in local river fisheries. sive Tunka Valley to the west-southwest. To- This latter notion implies that increased arid- Downloaded by [Robert Losey] at 18:52 03 April 2012 day this river, including its sections nearest ity may have resulted in a number of inter- Shamanka, is recreationally fished for arctic related permutations to many local aquatic grayling, taimen, lenok as well as some pike (and terrestrial) ecosystems, including de- and roach (Tolmacheva 2009). creases in both surface runoff and nutrient input into river systems, lower water levels, shifts in habitat and community struc- FUTURE DIRECTIONS ture, and variations in seasonal water tem- peratures, resulting in aquatic subsistence The sketch provided here of Cis-Baikal fish- resources that were increasingly erratic, eries is somewhat ahistorical, but this is in less abundant, and/or too temporally and part intentional, as chronological trends in spatially dispersed during critical periods of subsistence patterns remain somewhat elu- the year, perhaps leading to disruptions in sive due to the very recent development of the seasonal subsistence base of local hunter- modern zooarchaeology in this region. For gathererpopulations(WhiteandBush2010). example, it is imperative to address when These and other scenarios await further the productive fisheries of the Little Sea and modeling on a variety of fronts, a larger body Angara River became established, and what of systematically collected faunal data, closer

JOURNAL OF ISLAND & COASTAL ARCHAEOLOGY 141 Robert J. Losey et al.

scrutiny of human stable isotope signatures, Holocene (from results of complex studies of and more resolved climatic and environmen- peat bogs). Russian Geology and Geophysics tal records for the region. We hope that the 46(1):21–33. speculation and new data offered here pro- Bezrukova, E. V., P. E. Tarasov, N. Solovieva, S. K. vide fodder for such ongoing and future re- Krivonogov, and F. Riedel. 2010. Last glacial– search. interglacial vegetation and environmental dynamics in southern Siberia: Chronology, forc- ing and feedbacks. Palaeogeography, Palaeo- climatology, Palaeoecology 296:185–198. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Bush, A. B. G. 2005. C02/H20 and orbitally driven climate variability over central Asia Special thanks are offered to O. I. Gori- through the Holocene. Quaternary Interna- tional 136(1):15–23. unova and Irkutsk State University for Dashibalov, B. B. 1995. Arkheologicheskie Pami- proving access to the archeofaunal assem- atniki Kurykan i Khori [Archaeological Sites blages from Ityrkhei, Berloga, and Ulan- ofKurykanandKhori].Ulan-Ude:BNTSSORAN Khada. We also would like to thank the di- [in Russian]. rectors of the Russian-Canadian expedition Demske, D., G. Heumann, W. Granoszewski, M. at Sagan-Zaba II, namely A. Weber and O. Nita, K. Mamakowa, P. E. Tarasov, and H. Ober- I. Goriunova, and all the excavation partic- hansli. 2005. Late Glacial and Holocene vegeta- ipants of 2006–2008. The funding for this tion and regional climate variability evidenced research was provided by a Social Science in high-resolution pollen records from Lake and Humanities Major Collaborative Re- Baikal. Global and Planetary Change 46(1– 4):255–279. search grant to the Baikal Archaeological Everstov, S. I. 1988. Rybolovstvo v Sibiri [Fishing Project team (A. Weber and others) and by in Siberia]. Nauka: Sibirskoe Otdelenie, Novosi- Canadian Circumpolar Institute grants to birsk [in Russian]. T. Nomokonova (2006–2008). Feng, Z. D., C. B. An, and H. B. Wang. 2006. Holocene climatic and environmental changes in the arid and semi-arid areas of China: A review. Holocene 16:119–130. REFERENCES Fowell,S.J.,B.C.S.Hansen,J.A.Peck,P. Khosbayar, and E. Ganbo. 2003. Mid to late Abramova, Z. A. 1962. Krasnyi Yar—Novaia pale- HoloceneclimateevolutionoftheLakeTelmen oliticheskaia stoianka na Angare [Krasnyi Yar— Basin, North Central Mongolia, based on paly- A new Paleolithic settlement on Angara]. Sovet- nological data. Quaternary Research 59:353– skaia Arkheologiia 3:147–156 [in Russian]. 363. Abramova, Z. A. 1962. Krasnyi Yar - novaia pa- Georgievskaia, G. M. 1989. Kitoiskaia Kul’tura leoliticheskaia stoianka na Angare. Sovetskaia Pribaikal’ia [Kitoi Culture of Cis-Baikal].

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