Appendix 3.1: Distribution and endemism of species recorded during the study

a Family: Logged Pinus Common name Species Endemism Primary Home Subfamily forest forest plantations Acraeidae Tawny Coaster Telchinia violae Not endemic 0 0 x 0 Hesperiidae Black Angle Tapena thwaitesi thwaitesi Not endemic 0 0 x x Hesperiidae Black Flat Celaenorrhinus spilothyrus Not endemic x x x x Hesperiidae Blank Swift Catloris kumara lanka Not endemic 0 x 0 0 Hesperiidae Brown Awl Badamia exclamationis Not endemic 0 x 0 0 Hesperiidae Bush Hopper Ampittia dioscorides singa Not endemic 0 0 x x Hesperiidae Ceylon Palm bob Suastus minuta minuta Not endemic 0 x x 0 Hesperiidae Ceylon Ace Halpe homolea ceylonica Not endemic 0 0 x 0 Hesperiidae Ceylon Awl Hasora badra lanka Not endemic x x x x Hesperiidae Ceylon Snow Flat Tagiades japetus obscurus Not endemic x 0 x x Hesperiidae Chestnut bob Lambrix salsala luteipalpus Not endemic 0 0 x x x x x x Hesperiidae Common banded demon Notocrypta paralysos alysia Not endemic

Hesperiidae Common dart Not endemic 0 0 x 0 Hesperiidae Common grass dart Taractrocera maevius Not endemic 0 0 x 0 Hesperiidae Dark Cerulean Oriens goloides Not endemic x x x x Hesperiidae Decorated Ace Thoressa decorata Endemic 0 x x 0 Hesperiidae Hedge Hopper Baracus vittatus vittatus Not endemic 0 x x 0 Hesperiidae Indian dart Not endemic 0 0 x 0 Hesperiidae Indian Palmbob Suastus gremius subgrisea Not endemic 0 0 x 0 Hesperiidae Indian Spialia galba Not endemic 0 0 x 3 Hesperiidae Pale Small-branded Swift Pelopidas thrax Not endemic 0 0 x 0 Hesperiidae Philippine Swift Catloris philippina seriata Not endemic 0 0 x 0 Hesperiidae Restricted demon Notocrypta curvifascia Not endemic x x 0 0 Hesperiidae Smallest Swift Panara bada bada Not endemic 0 0 x 0 Hesperiidae Tree Flitter Hyarotis adrastus adrastus Not endemic 0 x 0 0 Hesperiidae Tropic Dart Potanthus confucius satra Not endemic 0 0 x 0

Hesperiidae Water Snow Flat Tagiades litigiosa ceylonica Not endemic x x x x

Hesperiidae White banded Awl Hasora taminatus taminatus Not endemic x 0 0 0

Libytheidae Club Beak Libythea myrrha rama Not endemic 0 x x 0 Aberrant Bush blue Arhopala abseus mackwoodi Not endemic 0 x 0 0 Lycaenidae Angled pierrot decidia Not endemic 0 x x x Lycaenidae Banded blue pierrot ethion ethion Not endemic 0 x 0 0 Lycaenidae Ceylon Cerulean Jamides coruscans Endemic x x x x Lycaenidae Common Cerulean Jamides celeno tissama Not endemic x x x x Lycaenidae Common Lineblue Prosotas nora ardates Not endemic x x x x Lycaenidae Common pierrot Not endemic 0 x x x Lycaenidae Common Imperial Cheritra freja pseudojaffra Not endemic 0 0 x x Lycaenidae Dark Ceylon 6-lineblue Catopsilia crocale Not endemic x x 0 0 Lycaenidae Indian Cupid Everes lacturnus parrhasius Not endemic 0 x x 0 Lycaenidae Indian Sunbeam Curetis thetis Not endemic x 0 x 0

Lycaenidae Large 4-lineblue Nacaduba pactolus ceylonica Not endemic x 0 0 0

178 Lycaenidae Lime Blue Chilades lajus lajus Not endemic 0 x x 0 Lycaenidae Long banded silver-line Spindasis lohita lazularia Not endemic x 0 0 0 Lycaenidae Malayan Megisba malaya Not endemic 0 0 x x Lycaenidae Metallic Cerulean Jamides alecto meilichius Not endemic 0 x x x Lycaenidae Milky Cerulean Jamides lacteata Not endemic x 0 x 0 Lycaenidae Monkey-puzzle Rathinda amor Endemic 0 0 x 0 Lycaenidae Nigger Orsotriaena medus mandata Not endemic 0 0 x x Lycaenidae Nilgiri Tit nilgirica Not endemic 0 0 x 0 Lycaenidae One sport Grass Yellow Eurema ormistoni Endemic x x 0 x Lycaenidae Opaque 6-lineblue Nacaduba beroe minima Not endemic 0 x x 0 Lycaenidae Painted Saw-tooth Prioneris sita Not endemic x 0 0 0 Lycaenidae Pale Ceylon 6-lineblue Nacaduba sinhala Endemic x x 0 x Lycaenidae Peacock Royal Tajuria cippus longinu Not endemic 0 x x 0 Lycaenidae Plain Hedgeblue Celestrina lavendularis Not endemic 0 x 0 0 Lycaenidae Pointed Ciliated blue Anthene lycaenina lycaenina Not endemic 0 x x 0 Lycaenidae Read pierrot Talicada nyseus nyseus Not endemic 0 0 x 0 Lycaenidae Red Helen Papilio helenus mooreanus Not endemic x x x x Lycaenidae Rustic Cupha erymanthis placida Not endemic 0 x x x Lycaenidae Slate Flash Rapala manea schistacea Not endemic x 0 0 0 Lycaenidae Tailed jay Graphium agamemnon menides Not endemic x x x x Lycaenidae Three sport Grass Yellow Eurema blanda silhetana Not endemic x x x x Lycaenidae Tiny Grass blue Zizula hylax hylax Not endemic 0 0 x 0 Lycaenidae Yamfly Loxura atymnus arcuata Not endemic 0 0 x x Nymphalidae Baron Euthalia aconthea vasanta Not endemic 0 0 x x Nymphalidae Black Prince Rohana parisatis camiba Not endemic x 0 0 0 Nymphalidae Blue Admiral Blue Admiral Not endemic 0 x 0 0 Nymphalidae Blue Oak leaf Kallima philarchus philarchus Endemic 0 x 0 0 Nymphalidae Chestnut Streaked Sailor Neptis jumbah nalanda Not endemic x x x x Nymphalidae Chocolate Soldier Junonia iphita pluviatalis Not endemic 0 0 x 0 Nymphalidae Clipper Parthenos sylvia cyaneus Not endemic x x x x Nymphalidae Common Lascar Pantoporia hordonia sinuata Not endemic 0 0 x x Nymphalidae Common Nawab Polyura athamas Not endemic x 0 0 0 Pachliopta aristolochiae Nymphalidae Common Rose Not endemic 0 x x x ceylonica Nymphalidae Common Sailor Neptis hylas varmona Not endemic x x x x Nymphalidae Commander Moduza procris calidasa Not endemic x x x x Nymphalidae Crimson Rose Pachliopta hector Not endemic 0 0 0 x Nymphalidae Cruiser Vindula erota asela Not endemic 0 x x x Nymphalidae Gaudy Baron Euthalia lubentina psittacus Not endemic 0 0 x 0 Nymphalidae Great Egg fly Hypolimnas bolina Not endemic x x x 0 Nymphalidae Grey Pansy Junonia atlites Not endemic 0 x x 0 Nymphalidae Leopard Phalanta phalanta Not endemic 0 0 x 0 Nymphalidae Pea Blue Lampides boeticus Not endemic 0 0 x 0 Nymphalidae Red Spot Duke Dophla evelina evelina Not endemic x x x x Nymphalidae Tamil Yeoman Cirrochroa thais lanka Not endemic x x x 0

179 Nymphalidae Tawny Rajah Charaxes psaphon Not endemic 0 x x 0 Nymphalidae Ceylon Lace wing Cethosia nietneri Not endemic 0 0 x 0 Nymphalidae: Blue Glassy Tiger Ideopsis similis exprompta Not endemic 0 x x x Danaidae Nymphalidae: Blue tiger Tirumala limniace leopardus Not endemic 0 0 x 0 Danaidae Nymphalidae: Ceylon Tree nymph Idea iasonia Endemic x x x x Danaidae Nymphalidae: Common Crow Euploea core asela Not endemic x x x x Danaidae Nymphalidae: Glassy Tiger Parantica aglea Not endemic 0 x x x Danaidae Nymphalidae: Great Crow Euploea phaenareta corus Not endemic 0 x x 0 Danaidae Nymphalidae: Southern duffer Discophora lepida ceylonica Not endemic 0 0 0 x Morphinae Nymphalidae: Ceylon Forester Lethe dynsate Endemic x 0 0 0 Satyrinae Nymphalidae: Ceylon Palmfly Elymnias singala Endemic 0 0 x 0 Satyrinae Nymphalidae: Cingalese Bushbrown Mycalesis rama Endemic 0 0 0 x Satyrinae Nymphalidae: Common Evening Brown Melanitis lede ismene Not endemic 0 0 x 0 Satyrinae Nymphalidae: Common Palmfly Elymnias hypermnestra fraterna Not endemic 0 0 x x Satyrinae Nymphalidae: Comon Bushbrown Mycalesis perseus typhlus Not endemic 0 0 x 0 Satyrinae Nymphalidae: Dark Evening Brown Melanitis phedima tambra Not endemic x x 0 x Satyrinae Nymphalidae: Gladeye Bushbrown Nissanga patnia patnia Not endemic x x x x Satyrinae Nymphalidae: Mottled Immigrant Catopsilia pyranthe minna Not endemic 0 x x 0 Satyrinae Nymphalidae: White Four-ring Not endemic 0 x x x Satyrinae Papilionidae Banded Peacock Papilio crino Not endemic 0 0 x 0

Papilionidae Blue Mormon Papilio polymnestor parinda Not endemic x x x x

Papilionidae Bluebottle Graphium sarpedon teredon Not endemic x x x x Papilionidae Ceylon Birdwing Troides darsius Endemic 0 x x x Papilionidae Ceylon Rose Pachliopta jophon Endemic 0 x x x Papilionidae Common jay Graphium doson Not endemic x x x x Papilionidae Common mime Chilasa clytia lankeswara Not endemic 0 0 x 0 Papilionidae Common Mormon Papilio polytes romulus Not endemic 0 x x x Papilionidae Lime Butterfly Papilio demoleus demoleus Not endemic 0 0 x 0 Pieridae Common Albatross Appias albina darada Not endemic 0 0 x x Pieridae Common Grass Yellow Leptosia nina nina Not endemic 0 x x x Pieridae Jezebel Delias eucharis Not endemic x 0 x x Pieridae Lemon emigrant Catopsilia pomona Not endemic x x x 0 Pieridae Lesser Albatross Appias galene Not endemic x x x x Pieridae Psyche Leptosia nina nina Not endemic 0 0 x 0 Riodinidae Plum judy Abisara echerius prunosa Not endemic x x 0 x a x = presence; 0= absence of an individual species in a given habitat

180 Appendix 3.2: Species accumulation curves for

(a)

(b)

(c)

Appendix 3.2: Species accumulation curves (a); population abundance curves (b); and rarefaction curves (c); for butterflies in sampled habitat types.

181 Appendix 3.3 – Summary statistic of the multi-response permutation procedure

Habitat T A P

Butterflies Average within-group distance

PF 0.315 SLF 0.443 HG 0.350 PP 0.283 Multiple pair-wise comparisons PF vs. SLF -7.807 0.075 <0.001 PF vs. HG -31.186 0.357 <0.001 PF vs. PP -25.279 0.268 <0.001 SLF vs. HG -20.643 0.212 <0.001 SLF vs. PP -14.322 0.138 <0.001 HG vs. PP -16.208 0.166 <0.001 Amphibians Average within-group distance PF 0.184 SLF 0.212 HG 0.316 PP 7.38E-02 Multiple pair-wise comparisons PF vs. SLF -0.535 0.006 0.237 PF vs. HG -20.688 0.449 <0.001 PF vs. PP -26.056 0.522 <0.001 SLF vs. HG -20.062 0.440 <0.001 SLF vs. PP -26.228 0.527 <0.001 HG vs. PP -26.011 0.533 <0.001

Appendix 3.3 – Summary statistic showing the multi-response permutation procedure results with average within-group distances (ranked by Sorenson distance) of transects across all habitats, and multiple-pair-wise comparisons. The test statistics:(T) the separation between habitats (e.g., the more negative is T, the stronger the separation) ;(p) the probability of the expected delta (the weighted mean within-group distance) being ≤ than the observed delta; and (A) the chance-correction for within-group homogeneity as compared to random expectation, independent of sample size (e.g., A = 0, when heterogeneity within group equals expectation by chance (McCune and Grace, 2002).

182 Appendix 3.4 Distribution, endemism and conservation status of amphibian species recorded during the study.

Amphibian aPrimary Logged Home Pinus Family Endemic Development IUCN Category Habit species forest forest Gardens plantation Duttaphrynus Bufonidae 0 0 x 0 Not endemic oviparous least concern terrestrial melanostictus Bufonidae Bufo nollerti 0 0 x 0 Endemic oviparous endangered terrestrial Bufonidae Bufo kotagamai x x 0 0 Endemic oviparous endangered terrestrial Adenomus Bufonidae x x x 0 Endemic oviparous endangered terrestrial kelaarti Ichthyophis x Ichthyophiidae 0 0 0 Endemic oviparous least concern terrestrial glutinosus Fejervarya aquatic & Ranidae 0 0 x 0 oviparous least concern kirthisinghei Endemic terrestrial Fejervarya aquatic & Ranidae 0 0 x 0 Not endemic oviparous least concern limnocharis terrestrial Euhplyctis Ranidae 0 0 x 0 Not endemic oviparous least concern aquatic cynophlyctis Ranidae Rana temporalis x x x 0 Not endemic oviparous near threatened terrestrial Lankanectes Ranidae x x x 0 Endemic oviparous least concern aquatic corrugatus aquatic & Ranidae Rana aurantica x x x 0 Not endemic oviparous vulnerable terrestrial Euplyctis Ranidae 0 x x 0 Not endemic oviparous least concern aquatic hexadactylus Nannophrys Ranidae 0 x x 0 Endemic oviparous vulnerable aquatic ceylonensis Polypedates Rhacophoridae 0 0 x 0 Endemic oviparous least concern arboreal cruciger Pseudophilautus Rhacophoridae 0 0 x 0 Endemic direct least concern arboreal hoipolloi Pseudophilautus Rhacophoridae 0 0 x 0 Endemic direct least concern arboreal popularis Pseudophilautus Rhacophoridae x 0 0 Not evaluated direct unknown arboreal U.I.D 4 0 Pseudophilautus Rhacophoridae x x 0 0 Endemic direct endangered arboreal reticulatus Pseudophilautus Rhacophoridae x x 0 0 Endemic direct endangered arboreal cavirostris Polypedates Rhacophoridae x x 0 0 Endemic oviparous endangered arboreal longinasus Pseudophilautus Rhacophoridae x x 0 0 Not evaluated direct unknown arboreal U.I.D 5 Pseudophilautus Rhacophoridae x x 0 0 Endemic direct least concern arboreal abundus Pseudophilautus Rhacophoridae x x 0 0 Endemic direct endangered arboreal mittermeieri Pseudophilautus Rhacophoridae x x 0 0 Endemic direct endangered arboreal cuspis Pseudophilautus Rhacophoridae x x 0 0 Endemic direct endangered arboreal silvaticus Pseudophilautus Rhacophoridae 0 x 0 0 Endemic direct endangered arboreal auratus Pseudophilautus Rhacophoridae 0 x 0 0 Not Evaluated direct unknown arboreal U.I.D 3 Pseudophilautus Rhacophoridae 0 x 0 0 Not Evaluated direct unknown arboreal U.I.D 2 Pseudophilautus Rhacophoridae x x x 0 Endemic direct near threatened arboreal sordidus Pseudophilautus Rhacophoridae x x x 0 Endemic direct near threatened arboreal stictomerus Pseudophilautus Rhacophoridae x x x x Endemic direct endangered arboreal folicola Pseudophilautus Rhacophoridae 0 x x 0 Not Evaluated direct not evaluated arboreal U.I.D 1 a x = presence; 0= absence of an individual species in a given habitat in all transects. Pseudophilautus (Synonym Philautus) U.D.I. = Unidentified species. Source for status: (http://www.iucnredlist.org/apps/redlist/)

183

Appendix 3.5 Species accumulation curves for amphibians

(a)

(b)

(c)

Appendix 3.5 Species accumulation curves (a); population abundance curves (b); and rarefaction curves (c); for amphibians in sampled habitat types.

184 Appendix 3.6 –(a) Average values of environmental variables (±SD) that best describe the species richness and abundance of butterflies and amphibians in all sampled habitats (b) Correlation matix for the environmental variables. Climatic and structural environmental variables were measure within a 5 m radius plot from the central point of each transect. Percentage of canopy cover measured with a circular densitometer, percent of shrub cover (visually estimated), diameter at breast height (dbh) of the closest 10 trees with dbh > 5 cm, average litter depth (cm) calculated from five randomly selected points, litter cover (visual estimated), soil temperature & humidity(measured with a Kestrel 2000 weather meter). Values are given as means with Standard Error (SE).

Litter Water Relative Shrub cover Litter cover thickness availability Canopy cover Humidity Temperature (%) (%) (cm) (%) (%) (%) (˚C ) Primary forest 53.80 ± 4.00 69.92 ± 3.73 2.33 ± 0.12 9.00 ± 4.19 86.9 ± 1.2 87.33 ± 1.29 27.33 ± 0.36 Secondary forest 60.60 ±3.43 80.36 ±4.95 3.32 ±0.21 25.00 ±5.80 73.5 ±2.0 82.79 ±1.66 27.52 ±0.42 Home gardens 68.20 ±3.59 57.20 ±5.52 1.89 ±0.15 19.40 ±4.65 28.5 ±2.8 75.38 ±1.27 28.02 ±0.24 Pinus plantations 83.92 ±4.07 90.28 ±3.78 7.49 ±0.46 1.00 ±0.71 41.1 ±1.6 75.42 ±1.17 28.42 ±0.30

(a)

Temperature Humidity Canopy Cover cover Shrub # of trees with dbh>5cm Litter cover Litter thickness Soil temperature Water availability Temperature 1 Humidity -0.560 1.000

Canopy Cover -0.156 0.502 1.000

Shrub cover 0.287 -0.463 -0.287 1.000

# of trees with dbh>5 -0.218 0.421 0.772 -0.129 1.000

Litter cover 0.126 -0.226 0.286 0.426 0.310 1.000 Litter depth 0.101 -0.425 -0.145 0.578 -0.033 0.574 1.000 Mean dbh 0.106 -0.078 0.219 0.107 -0.048 0.210 0.373

Soil temperature 0.003 -0.347 -0.198 0.214 -0.162 0.134 0.350 1.000

Water availability 0.044 0.158 -0.039 -0.188 -0.043 -0.423 -0.341 -0.099 1.000

(b)

185

Appendix 4.1 Species checklist of the Scarabaeinae beetles recorded in

Tribe Species Function Description Distribution

Canthonini Ochicanthon2 cingalense l Arrow, 1931 Endemic Canthonini Ochicanthon2 tristis R Arrow. 1931 *Sri Lanka, Canthonini Ochicanthon2 unk 1 R Canthonini Ochicanthon unk100 R Canthonini Panelus1 puncticollis R Arrow, 1931 Endemic Canthonini Panelus setosus R Arrow, 1931 Endemic Canthonini Panelus1 imitator R Balthasar, 1972 Endemic Canthonini Panelus1 ceylonicus R Balthasar, 1972 Endemic Canthonini Panelus1 fallax R Balthasar, 1972 Endemic Canthonini Panelus1 pernitidus R Balthasar, 1972 Sri Lanka, Africa Coprini Catharsius capucinus T Fabricius, 1781 Sri Lanka, India, Bangladesh Coprini Catharsius granulatus T Sharp, 1875 Sri Lanka, India Coprini Catharsius molossus T Linnaeus, 1758 Asia Coprini Catharsius pethicius T Fabricius 1775 *Asia Coprini Copris repertus T Walker, 1858 Asia Coprini Copris sodalis T Walker, 1858 Endemic Coprini Copris1 fricator T Fabricius, 1787 Global Coprini Paracopris signatus T Walker, 1858 Coprini Heliocopris bucephalus T Fabricius, 1775 *Sri Lanka (Asia) Coprini Copris1 indicus T Harold, 1867 Asia Gymnopleuri Gymnopleurus cyaneus R Fabricius, 1798 Sri Lanka, India Gymnopleuri Gymnopleurus1 (Garreta ) smaragdifer R Walker, 1858 Endemic Gymnopleuri Gymnopleurus koenigi R Fabricius, 1775 South Asia Gymnopleuri Gymnopleurus miliaris R Fabricius, 1775 Sri Lanka, India. Afganistan Gymnopleuri Gymnopleurus 2 parvus R MacLeay, 1821 Sri Lanka, India, Bangladesh

186 Gymnopleuri Gymnopleurus2 gemmatus R Harold, 1871 Sri Lanka, India. Afganistan Gymnopleuri Paraymnopleurus melanarious R Harold, 1867 Asia Oniticellini Drepanocerus setosus R Wiedemann, 1823 Sri Lanka, India Oniticellini Euoniticellus pallipes D Fabricius, 1781 Sri Lanka**, Europe, Asia Oniticellini Liatongus (Paraliatongus) rhadamistus D Fabricius, 1775 Asia Onitini Ontis philemon D Fabricius, 1801 Asia Onitini Ontis1 singhalensis D Lansberge, 1875 Sri Lanka, India Onitini Ontis2 subopacus D Arrow, 1931 Asia Onthophagini Caccobius rufipennis D Motschulsky, 1858 Sri Lanka, India Onthophagini Caccobius1 (Caccophilus) indicus D Harold, 1867 Sri Lanka, India Onthophagini Caccobius2 (Caccophilus) aterrimus D Fabricius, 1798 Sri Lanka, India Onthophagini Caccobius1 (Caccophilus) diminutivus D Walker, 1858 Sri Lanka, India Onthophagini Caccobius(Caccophilus) meridionalis D Boucomont, 1914 Sri Lanka, India Onthophagini Caccobius(Caccophilus) unicornis D Fabricius, 1798 Asia Onthophagini Caccobius(Caccophilus) vulcanus D Fabricius, 1801 Sri Lanka, India Onthophagini Caccobius2 (Caccophilus) ultor D Sharp, 1875 *Sri Lanka, India Onthophagini Cleptocaccobius durantoni D Cambefort, 1985 Endemic Onthophagini Cleptocaccobius2 (Caccophilus) inermis D Arrow, 1931 Sri Lanka, India Onthophagini Caccobius unk1 D Onthophagini Haroldius krali ? D Utsunomiya & Masumoto, Endemic Onthophagini Haroldius 84 herrenorum? D Paulian, 1985 Endemic Onthophagini Onthophagus amphinasus N T Onthophagini Onthophagus amphinasus N 2 T Onthophagini Onthophagus centricornis T Fabricius, 1798 Sri Lanka, India, Afganistan Onthophagini Onthophagus cervus T Fabricius, 1798 Asia Onthophagini Onthophagus cryptogenus T Boucomont, 1914 Endemic Onthophagini Onthophagus difficilis T Walker, 1858 Sri Lanka, India Onthophagini Onthophagus2 ensifer T Boucomont, 1914 *Sri Lanka, India Onthophagini Onthophagus favrei T Boucomont, 1914 Sri Lanka, India Onthophagini Onthophagus fuscopunctatus T Fabricius, 1798 Sri Lanka, India Onthophagini Onthophagus gemma N T Onthophagini Onthophagus2 gravis T Walker, 1858 Endemic

187 Onthophagini Onthophagus2 hystrix T Boucomont, 1914 Sri Lanka, India Onthophagini Onthophagus igneus T Vigor, 1825 **Sri Lanka, India Onthophagini Onthophagus keiseri T Frey, 1956 Sri Lanka, India Onthophagini Onthophagus laevigatus T Fabricius, 1798 Sri Lanka, India Onthophagini Onthophagus ludio T Boucomont, 1914 Sri Lanka, India Onthophagini Onthophagus 2 lilliputanus T Lansberge, 1883 *Asia Onthophagini Onthophagus martialis T Boucomont, 1914 Endemic Onthophagini Onthophagus militaris T Boucomont, 1914 Endemic Onthophagini Onthophagus castetsi N T Onthophagini Onthophagus negligens T Walker, 1858 Sri Lanka, India Onthophagini Onthophagus2 parvulus T Fabricius, 1798 Asia Onthophagini Onthophagus politus T Fabricius, 1798 Sri Lanka, India Onthophagini Onthophagus1 pusillus T Fabricius, 1798 Sri Lanka, India Onthophagini Onthophagus pusillus N T Onthophagini Onthophagus pygmaeus T Schaller, 1783 Sri Lanka, India Onthophagini Onthophagus1 refulgens T Arrow, 1931?? Sri Lanka, India Onthophagini Onthophagus1 regalis T Arrow, 1907 Endemic Onthophagini Onthophagus1 rufipennis T D'Orbigny, 1908 Onthophagini Onthophagus spinifex T Fabricius, 1881 **Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, India, Onthophagini Onthophagus taprobanus T Arrow, 1931 Endemic Onthophagini Onthophagus tritinctus T Boucomont, 1914 Asia Onthophagini Onthophagus turbatus T Walker, 1858 Sri Lanka, India Onthophagini Onthophagus2 troglodyta T Wiedemann, 1823) *Sri Lanka, India, Pakistan, Onthophagini Onthophagus unifasciatus T Schaller, 1783 Sri Lanka, India Onthophagini Onthophagus1 gemma T Sharp, 1875 Sri Lanka, India Onthophagini Onthophagus refulgens N T Onthophagini Onthophagus solidus N T Onthophagini Onthophagus unk1 T Onthophagini Onthophagus unk 23 T Onthophagini Onthophagus unk24 T Onthophagini Onthophagus unk54 T Onthophagini Onthophagus unk112 T

188 Onthophagini Onthophagus unk95 T Onthophagini Onthophagus unk142 T Onthophagini Onthophagus1 heterorrhinus T Lansberge, 1885 Sri Lanka, Onthophagini Onthophagus1 sparsepunctatus T Frey, 1956 Endemic Onthophagini Onthophagus (C.) occipitalis T Lansberge, 1885 Sri Lanka, Myanmar Onthophagini Onthophagus2 (C.) quadridentatus T Fabricius, 1798 *South Asia Onthophagini Onthophagus (Digionthophagus) bonasus T Fabricius, 1775 Asia Onthophagini Onthophagus (Digionthophagus) gazella (catta) T Fabricius, 1787 Global Onthophagini Onthophagus (Micronthophagus) ochreatus T d'Orbigny, 1897 Global Onthophagini Onthophagus (Micronthophagus) oculatus T Arrow, 1931 Sri Lanka, India Onthophagini Onthophagus (Onthophagiellus) solmani T Stebnicka, 1975 Endemic Onthophagini 1Onthophagus (Proagoderus) pactolus T Fabricius, 1787 Sri Lanka, India Onthophagini Onthophagus(Colobonthophagus) dama T Fabricius, 1798 South Asia Onthophagini Onthophagus(Paraphanaeomorph bifaciatus T Fabricius 1781 Onthophagini Onthophagus1(Parascatonomus) quaestus T Sharp, 1875 **Sri Lanka, India, Myanmar Onthophagini Onthophagus2(Proagoderus) gemmatus T Peringuey, 1901 Afganistan, India, Sri Lanka Onthophagini Onthophagus(Serrophorus) rectecornutus T Lansberge, 1883 Asia Onthophagini Phaedotrogus 1 ceylonicus T Balthasar, 1972 Endemic Onthophagini Phalops divisus T Wiedemann, 1823 South Asia Scarabaeini Scarabaeus gangeticus R Castelnau, 1840 South Asia Scarabaeini Scarabaeus1 sanctus R Fabricius, 1798 Sri Lanka, India Scarabaeini Scarabaeus1 (Kheper) erichsoni R Harold, 1867 Sri Lanka, India Sisyphini Neosisyphus tarantula R Arrow, 1909 Endemic Sisyphini Sisyphus longipes R Olivier, 1789 South Asia Sisyphini Sisyphus indicus R Hope, 1831 South Asia Sisyphini Sisyphus (crispatus) hirtus R Wiedemann, 1823 Sri Lanka, India Sisyphini Sisyphus (crispatus) Hirtus R Functional groups: R= roller; T= tunneler; D= dweller; Distribution: *Sri Lanka = first record for Sri Lanka Genus: 1= previously recorded but not recorded during the survey; 2= recorded during the survey but not verified Species: unk= unknown; xxxx (near) = closest similar species Sampled habitats: relatively undisturbed forested habitats; disturbed forested habitats; plantation forests; - cultivated areas; home gardens; urban area

189 Appendix 4.2 Dung beetles of Sri Lanka: some selected species -Plate 1

1

Appendix 4.2-Plate 2

2

Appendix 4.2-Plate 3

178

Appendix 4.2-Plate 4

179

Appendix 4.2-Plate 5

180

Appendix 4.2-Plate 6

181

Appendix 4.2-Plate 7

182

Appendix 4.2-Plate 8

183

Appendix 4.2-Plate 9

184

Appendix 4.2-Plate 10

185

Appendix 4.2-Plate 11

186

Appendix 4.2-Plate 12

187

Appendix 4.2-Plate 13

188

Appendix 4.2-Plate 14

189

Appendix 4.3- A representative set of the distribution maps of Scarabaeinae beetles in Sri Lanka

190

Appendix 5.1: Species accumulation curves (a); population abundance curves (b); and rarefaction curves (c) for dung beetles in sampled habitat types.

191

Appendix 5.2: (a) Dung beetle abundance and seasonal variation (inset: average abundance) (b) average species richness across land use types

(a)

(b)

192

Appendix 5.3: Proportionate abundance of the functional groups of dung beetles across land use types.

Season 1 Season 1

Habitats1= primary forest; 2 =SL forest; 3= home gardens; 4= tea plantations. Tunnellers are the most abundant group across all land use types. Proportion of roller beetles decrease with increasing anthropogenic modification.

193

Appendix 5.4: Climatic and structural environmental variables that were used for the regression tree. Measures were taken within a 5 m radius plot from the central point of each transect. The variables were soil temperature (TS), soil pH (PHS), litter cover (CL), litter depth (DL), shrub cover (CS), canopy cover (CC) and mean diameter at breast height of trees (MDBH) and number of trees with DBH>5cm within the plot. Values are given as means with Standard Error (SE). PF= primary forest, SL= selectively logged forest; HG= home gardens, Tea = tea plantations

PHS CL DL CS CC DBH5 MDBH TS PF 6.08 ±0.02 83.14±1.20 2.58±0.13 31.53±1.86 76.02±1.22 18.61±0.65 23.83±1.01 20.97±0.15 SL 6.03±0.02 74.93±1.36 2.41±0.11 44.47±2.16 66.61±1.14 22.65±0.91 18.46±0.48 21.29±0.18 HG 6.22±0.05 31.80±1.92 1.27±0.09 35.35±2.22 29.72±1.78 3.99±0.28 15.66±0.87 23.98±0.15 Tea 6.05±0.06 45.63±2.44 1.23±0.07 74.30±2.20 6.85±0.92 1.09±0.13 11.12±1.70 23.73±0.17

194

Appendix 5.5 Species of Scarabaeinae and Aphodinae dung beetle species recorded from the study sites and their attributes; Guild;1= dweller; 2=tunneler; 3=roller; Size class; 1(small) =<8 mm ; 2 (medium) = 9-15 mm; 3(large) = > 15.1; Diel activity; 1= Nocturnal; 2= Diurnal; Body size = Width of elytra width x body length measured from the anterior margin of the pronotum to the pygidium; Forest = Primary forest & selectively logged forest; Non forest = home gardens & tea plantations; Affinity = proportionate abundance; abundance in a habitat/ total abundance . The measurements were taken from SYNCROSCOPY digital optical microscope Small Class2: 2 – 4mm: Small Class 1: 5 – 8mm ; Medium: 9 -15mm:: Large Class 1; 16 -25mm Large Class 2: >25:

e e y it y n

it rrence n u Forest Genus ild species species habitats Affi u ccurrence logged logged home tea Size class class Size Diel activity (l) Length mm Width(w: elytra) body size (w*l) mm2 G Affi O Occurrenc Occ Occurrenc Primary Primary modified modified habitats Aphodius Sp 1 1 1 1 5.80 2.90 16.82 0.41 0.59 1 1 1 1 Apohodius Sp 2 1 1 1 2.19 1.33 2.91 0.44 0.56 1 1 1 1 Aphodius Sp 3 1 1 1 1.69 1.00 1.69 0.56 0.44 1 1 1 1 Drepanocerus setosus 1 1 2 4.90 2.30 11.27 0.09 0.91 1 0 1 1 Catharsius molossus 2 3 1 27.20 17.50 476.0 0.25 0.75 1 1 1 1 0 Copris signatus 2 3 1 14.60 6.90 100.7 0.64 0.36 1 1 1 1 4 Copris sodalis 2 3 1 15.00 8.20 123.0 0.99 0.01 1 1 1 1 0 Onthophagus * amphinasus 2 2 2 8.14 3.17 25.80 0.91 0.09 1 1 1 1 3 Onthophagus bifaciatus 2 1 2 6.60 4.10 27.06 1.00 0.00 0 1 0 0 Onthophagus castetsi near 2 2 2 9.40 3.50 32.90 0.86 0.14 1 1 1 1 Onthophagus centricornis 2 1 2 2.96 1.22 3.61 0.45 0.55 1 1 1 1 Onthophagus cervus 2 1 2 5.80 2.50 14.50 0.12 0.88 1 0 1 1 Onthophagus cryptogenus 2 1 2 4.70 1.70 7.99 1.00 0.00 1 0 0 0 Onthophagus dama 2 2 2 10.00 3.70 37.00 0.94 0.06 1 1 1 1 Onthophagus favrei 2 1 2 7.61 3.35 25.49 0.24 0.76 1 1 1 1 Onthophagus martialis 2 1 2 7.71 3.57 27.52 0.96 0.04 1 1 1 1 Onthophagus miltaris 2 1 2 6.38 2.84 18.12 0.09 0.91 0 1 1 1 Onthophagus *solidus 2 1 2 3.80 1.57 5.97 1.00 0.00 1 0 0 0 Onthophagus negligens 2 1 2 5.90 2.07 12.21 0.59 0.41 1 1 1 1 Onthophagus oculatus 2 1 2 4.80 1.97 9.46 0.09 0.91 0 1 1 1 Onthophagus pygmaeus 2 1 2 4.30 2.70 11.61 0.00 1.00 0 0 0 1 Onthophagus refulgens 2 2 2 8.90 3.34 29.73 0.81 0.19 1 1 1 1 Onthophagus *refulgens r 2 1 2 5.40 2.30 12.42 0.95 0.05 1 1 1 1 Onthophagus spinifex 2 2 2 8.50 2.80 23.80 0.98 0.02 1 1 1 1 Onthophagus taprobanus 2 2 2 8.27 3.24 26.79 0.98 0.02 1 1 1 1 Onthophagus turbatus 2 1 2 6.70 2.80 18.76 0.61 0.39 1 1 1 1

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Onthophagus unifasciatus 2 1 2 7.32 2.71 19.84 0.05 0.95 1 1 1 1 Onthophagus 1 2 1 2 3.78 1.75 6.62 1.00 0.00 0 1 0 0 Onthophagus 24 2 1 2 7.19 2.97 21.35 1.00 0.00 0 1 0 0 Onthophagus 54 2 1 2 6.20 3.70 22.94 0.00 1.00 0 0 0 1 Onthophagus 112 2 2 2 9.30 4.00 37.20 1.00 0.00 0 1 0 0 Panelus setosus 3 1 1 3.25 1.64 5.33 1.00 0.00 0 1 0 0 Sisyphus hirtus 3 2 2 10.20 6.00 61.20 0.00 1.00 0 0 1 1 Gymnopleurus melanarius 3 3 1 16.20 10.70 173.3 0.98 0.02 1 1 1 1

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Appendix 6.1(a): Species accumulation curves for dung beetles in all sampled fragments

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Appendix 6.1(b): Population abundance curves for dung beetles in all sampled fragments

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Appendix 6.2 – (a–g)

(a)

(b)

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(c)

(d)

(e)

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(f)

(g)

Appendix 6.2 – (a–g) Influence of fragment characteristics on standardized dung beetle community parameters. (a) Stotal (total species richness) and Sintact (richness of the intact forest species assemblage) vs. fragment area (ha), (b) Stotal and Sintact vs. fragment area to edge ratio (c) Stotal and Sintact vs. fragment distance from nearest intact forest (m), (d) Ntotal (total abundance) and Nintact (abundance of the intact forest species assemblage)vs. fragment area (ha), (e) Ntotal (total abundance) and Nintact (abundance of the intact forest species assemblage)vs. area to edge ratio),(f) Ntotal and Nintact vs. fragment distance from nearest intact forest (m), (g) EH (Shannon evenness index)vs. fragment area (ha). Linear regressions are shown for visual purposes

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Appendix 6.3 Fragment characteristics that were used in data analysis and interpretation:

) m ( Fragment Area (ha) Area /edge Category (matrix) Intensity tea fragments #of within 1 km prominent vegetation corridors distance to the nearest fragment within 1 km distance to large forest (m) index Proximity Category * Category fragment) (

Usbimjanapadaya 5.21 57.25 1 1 2 1 100 4000 2 108.7 Budapanagama 8.27 60.81 3 2 2 1 300 10000 2 2.66 Anguruwela 9.89 79.76 2 2 2 2 300 8240 2 3.60 Muhudubenkanda 9.98 69.79 2 1 1 2 570 13000 2 6.21 Seethaladola 13.26 78.93 1 2 2 0 0 5550 1 0.00 Yakgala kanda 10.5 62.13 3 2 2 2 170 2700 2 3.52 Nidangala 23.85 128.9 3 1 2 1 800 5000 2 2.41 Kabaragala 24.91 109.2 2 1 2 1 200 600 2 0.70 Atamassa 54.17 148.0 1 1 2 2 500 1600 1 2.11 Nabadawa 54.95 115.4 2 2 1 0 0 2120 1 0.00 Godahenkanda 62.44 186.9 3 2 2 0 0 6290 1 0.00 Bandungala 72.37 141.9 2 1 1 0 0 5500 1 0.00 Horamadulla 86.65 140.4 1 1 2 1 300 3500 1 1.23 Nerugalkanda 109.7 255.1 1 2 1 1 1000 6000 2 10.87 Dolahena 120 283.6 1 2 1 0 0 3600 1 0.00 Kandewattagoda 127.8 227.9 2 2 2 4 250 1000 2 3.14 Polgahawila 170 278.6 3 2 2 2 300 12000 1 1.46 Wattahena 193.4 204.7 1 2 2 2 600 2500 2 2.26 Paththara 196 209.4 3 2 1 1 1000 2000 1 1.93 Darakulkanda 233.4 230.6 2 1 2 2 600 12000 1 0.40

(AREA) Fragment area (ha), (RAE) unweighted area /edge ratio, (CAT) Category of the vegetation cover in the matrix (1) Good 2) Average 3) Degraded), (MATRIX) Category (matrix) based on the dominant land use within 1km belt from the fragment (1= >60% homegardens; 2= >% agriculture), (TEA) Intensity tea (1 = large scale; 2= domestic); (F2) #of fragments within 1 km distance from the fragment boundary, (DNFrag) distance to the nearest fragment within 1 km (m), (DNF) distance to the nearest large primary forest (m), (ForCorr) presence of a prominent vegetation belt between the fragment and the nearest forest fragment, (PI) Proximity index, ∑ (A1/d1)*1000) + (A2/d2)*1000)+...... (Ai/di)*1000); i= number of fragments within 1 km from the fragment boundary. This is a measure of the sizes of the nearest forest fragments weighted by the distance.

*Overall category of the fragment: (Cat) 1) Good2) Average 3) Degraded: calculated from o Proportion of the hillock covered 1) fully covered 2) partially covered 3) fully exposed o Evenness of the canopy and quality of vegetation 1) Even throughout 2) good with gaps 3) average 4) sparse or poor with many openings o Consistency of the canopy (1)Thick canopy and large trees 2) many openings but good quality 3) many shrubs and thick undergrowth less/ small trees o Quality of soil (decided by the colour/organic matter, moisture and heaviness. 1) Moist dark soil with thick leaf litter 2) Dry brittle light coloured soil with thick leaf litter 3) Moist dark

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with minimum litter 4) Dry brittle light coloured soil, substrate more rocky than soil o Utilization by locals (1) Minimum utilization (2) relatively heavy (information provided by the local community)

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Appendix 6.4: Environmental variables measured during the study: soil pH; soil temperature, litter cover, average litter depth (cm); percent of shrub cover, canopy cover (measured with a circular densitometer), number of trees with diameter at breast height dbh > 5 cm and dbh of the 10 trees closest to the center within the 5m radius plot. Data is given with the standard error (SE).

Fragment Soil temp Soil pH Litter Litter Shrub Canopy # of trees Average ˚C cover (%) depth (cm) cover(%) cover(%) dbh > 5cm dbh (cm)

Anguruwela 21.5±0.2 5.2±0.2 44±2.1 2.3±0.2 15.5±2.4 37.5±5.9 4.1±0.7 17.7±3.9 Atamassa 20.5±0.5 6.1±0.1 32±6.2 1.9±0.3 43.5±7.2 61±7.7 15.5±3.8 16.6±4.4 Bandungala 20.4±0.2 6.32±0.1 53±4.5 2.7±0.3 21.5±3.1 61±4.8 9±0.9 18.5±2.9 Budapanagama 21.7±0.3 5.83±0.1 49±8.6 2.25±0.4 41±8.4 37.5±9.8 4.3±0.6 12.7±1.5 Drakulkanda 21.7±0.3 7.5±1.5 39.2±2.9 2.3±0.3 46.3±6.3 54.2±4.9 6.5±1.1 13.9±1.6 Dolahena 18.6±0.3 6.02±0.2 71±6.4 2.75±0.4 24.5±3.8 64.5±5.8 12.7±1.2 15.1±1.6 Godahenkanda 21.4±0.5 5.8±0.1 52±3.3 3.1±0.4 19±3.6 43±7 11±1.8 17.2±2.9 Haldola 21±0.3 4.42±0.5 60±4.5 4.2±0.4 16±2.9 60.8±8.9 5.4±0.5 20.12±2.7 Horamadulla 20.1±0.3 5.95±0 50.5±6.7 1.7±0.2 26.5±3.3 57.5±3.4 19.6±2.7 16.12±1.4 Kabaragala 21±0.4 6±0.1 55±3.7 2.05±0.6 49±6.8 35±9.3 4.5±1.1 8.6±0.9 Kandewattagoda 21±0.3 6.2±0.1 38.1±6.8 2.2±0.3 33.3±6.3 50.5±6.1 5.6±0.9 14.5±1.3 Muhuduben 21.9±0.6 5.89±0.2 52±6.6 2.25±0.5 12±2.1 57.3±7.9 4.7±0.4 21.4±2.6 Nabadawa 20.4±0.5 6.11±0.1 47±5 2.05±0.3 10±2.2 43.5±7.7 8.6±1.8 10.9±1.1 Nerugalkanda 20.1±0.1 5.6±0.2 63.7±3.7 2.5±0.3 12±1.7 66.7±4.2 12.9±1.4 20.5±2.1 Nidangala 20±0.2 5.7±0.1 49±7.4 2.5±0.4 30±7.2 41.5±7 4.9±0.8 20.1±3.6 Paththara 20.6±0.4 5.9±0.1 52.1±4.3 1.8±0.3 17.9±1.7 59.4±5.3 6.2±0.9 17.2±1.3 Polgahawila 22.3±0.5 5±0.1 53±10.2 2.1±0.4 11±2.4 57±7.3 4.9±0.6 17±2.7 Seethaladola 20.8±0.8 5.4±0.1 57.5±4.8 2.6±0.5 13.7±2.8 66.2±4.8 12.2±0.7 15.1±1.7 Usbim 20.2±0.3 5.3±0.2 66±6.4 2.4±0.4 19.5±4 74.5±4.7 8.4±0.7 20.7±2.5 Wattahena 19.5±0.3 5.8±0.1 53.9±4.1 2.9±0.3 11.8±1.4 63.6±4.6 8.1±1.4 16.4±1.6 Yakgala 22.4±0.6 5.7±0.1 45±9.6 2.4±0.5 17±5.5 44±5.8 6.3±1 15.3±1.8

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0 -10 -20 -30 -40 -50 -60 -70 -80 -90 -100 Amphibians Butterflies Dung beetles Test statistic (T) value in MRPP SLF -0.5 -7.8 -15.56 HG -20.68 -31.18 -93.22

Appendix 8.1: Comparison of the test statistics :(T) of multi-response permutation procedure results across for amphibians, butterflies and dung beetles. Selectively logged forest and home gardens are compared with the primary forest in a pair wise comparison. The difference between communities’ in each habitat from the primary forest is indicated by the T value (e.g., the more negative is T, the stronger the separation).

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