Aberration Chromatic, 274, 291 Spherical, 278, 281 Adaptive Optics

Home , Dollond (crater)

Cambridge University Press 978-1-316-61526-3 — A Question and Answer Guide to Astronomy Carol Christian , Jean-René Roy Index More Information

Index

aberration astronomical numbers, how to visualize, chromatic, 274, 291 222–223 spherical, 278, 281 astronomical sites, 303 adaptive optics, 289, 302 astronomical unit, AU, 91, 137 Airy, George, 285 astronomy, ancient, 6–12 Airy disk, 285, 288 astronomical phenomena in the Bible, 7 Airy pattern, 286 marking time of the day, 16 Akhenaton, 6 predictions of eclipses, 18 al-Battani, 11 astronomy, major questions in 221 ALMA, observatory, 192, 318 astrophysics, as a discipline, 30 Almagest, 4, 9, 19 astro-tourism, 269 Alpher, Ralph, 187 atmospheric turbulence, 29, 286, 290, al-Tusi, 11, 298 299–300, 303 Alvarez, Luis, 116 aurorae, 52, 87, 93 Alvarez, Walter, 115 on Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus, 54 amateur astronomers, 262–263 Averroes, or Ibn-Rushid, 11 amateur astronomy axions, 206 finding amateur astronomy clubs, 269 Barbara A. Mikulski Archive for Space participation in research, 263 Telescopes, MAST, 300 angular momentum, 216, 311 baryons, 206 anthropic principle, 218–220 Bayer, Johann, 5 antimatter, 209–211 Becquerel, Henri, 38 Apollo missions, 56, 70, 72 Bell, Jocelyn, 154, 314 Apollonius’s theorem, 279 Big Bang, 130, 189–190, 199, 218 archaea, 235 cosmic background radiation, 187 Archean period, 80, 97 origin of name, 184 arcminute, definition, 16 source of antimatter, 210 arcsecond, definition, 16, 137 what was before?, 193 Aristarchus of Samos, 8, 87 Big Bang theory, 179 Aristotle, 87, 199 binoculars, 253 Arrhenius, Svante, 231 biomarkers, 245 Aryabhata, 9 black holes, 77, 148, 151, 191, 196, 221 associations, stellar, 160 evaporation, 204, 221 asteroids, 79, 106 origin of concept, 202 Itokawa, 107 Schwarzschild radius, 201 preventing collisions with Earth, 116 blue stragglers, 155–156 probability of impact, 114 Bode, Johann Elert, 98 Trojans, 111 Bode’s law, 98 astrology, 31 Bok globule, 170 in China, 10 Boltzmann, Ludwig, 249

333

© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-316-61526-3 — A Question and Answer Guide to Astronomy Carol Christian , Jean-René Roy Index More Information

334 Index

Brahe, Tycho, 88, 298 McNaught, 120 Brahmagupta, 9 molecular oxygen in, 45 brown dwarfs, 94, 221, 243 origin of, 118 Bruce Medal, 225 Shoemaker–Levy 9, 112–113, 264 Buffon, Count of, 37 structure and composition of, 119 Burney, Venetia, 97 tails of, 92–93, 119 water on, 240 calendars, 14 compass, 50 Julian, 21 Compton Gamma Ray Observatory, 308, 320 Cambrian period, 230 conics, 278 Cannon, Annie Jump, 144 constellations, 1–4 carbon atom (and chemistry of life), 229, 233 appearance changing over time, 13 carbon dioxide, 47, 54 Big Dipper, 3, 13 Carter, Brandon, 218 Centaurus, 5, 157 Cassini, interplanetary space probe, 109, 242 Orion, 2 Cavendish, Henry, 36 Sagittarius, 314 celestial poles, 15 Southern Cross, 12 Central Bureau of Astronomical Telegrams, continental drift, 47 267 Cook, James, 89 Cepheids, 136, 153 Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), 21 as standard candles, 154 Copernicus, Nicolaus, 88 discovery of, 154 COsmic Background Explorer, COBE, 188, 308 Ceres, 79, 106 cosmic “dark age”, 181, 191 discovery of, 99 cosmic horizon, 199 Chandra, X-ray space observatory, 203, 308 cosmic latte, 218 Charge coupled device (CCD), 258, 296, 299 cosmic microwave background, 179, 187–191, Charon, 101 199, 224, 314 chemical reactivity, 229 anisotropy of, 189 Chicxulub crater, 114–115 temperature of, 188 Chinese astronomy, 10 cosmic rays, 49, 172, 210, 215 chlorophyll, 74 cosmological constant, 205 chemical reaction, 46 cosmology, 194 citizen science, 265–267 as a discipline, 31 clusters of galaxies, 171, 173, 182 cosmos, 223 Bullet Cluster, 207 craters, lunar, 58 MACS J01416, 212 crepuscular rays, 23 MACS J0416.1–2403, 212 Cretaceous period, 114 Virgo cluster, 137, 159 Curie point, 49 comets, 236, 260, 262 Curie, Pierre and Marie, 38 as source of meteors, 22 cyanobacteria, 46 Churyumov–Gerasimenko/67P, 45, 120 citizen science project, 267 dark energy, 204–207 Comet 252P/Linear, 254 dark matter, 206–208 Halley, 10 in Milky Way halo, 176 Hyakutake, 119 Darwin, Charles, 231, 238

Index 335

Dawn, interplanetary space probe, 106 Earthshine, 73 Deccan Traps, 114 eclipses, 18, 67 Dee, John, 290 determination of longitudes from, 9 Delambre, Jean, 34 frequency, 67 Della Porta, Giovanni Battista, 290 geometry for, 67 differentiation of internal structure of map of total solar eclipses between planets, 56 2001 and 2025, 68 diffraction of light, 140, 284 Saros cycle, 18 diffusion of light, 284 Egyptian astronomy, 16 Digges, Thomas, 290 Einstein, Albert, 178, 183–185, 211, 213, Dirac, Paul, 208, 210 244, 292 dispersion of light, 284 theory of relativity, 194 DNA, 228, 231, 235 electromagnetic force, 200 Dollond, John, 291 Enceladus, 44, 104 domes, of observatories, 282 entropy, 250 Doppler–Fizeau effect, 195, 243 epicycles, 88 double stars, see stars, binaries equinoxes, 13 Drake, Frank, 239 Eratosthenes of Alexandria, 8, 33 Drake equation, 239 escape velocity, 63, 95, 310 dwarf planets eukaryota, 235 Pluto, Eris, Haumea, Makemake, 78 Europa, 241 Dyson, Freeman, 219 Evans, Robert, 264 exoplanets, 95, 223, 235, 239, 242–246 E = mc2, 129, 162, 211 around brown dwarfs, 95 Earth colonization of, 246 age of, 36–39, 80 OGLE-2005-BLG-169, 245 atmosphere (composition), 54 Planet Hunters program, 265 axis of rotation of, 13, 15 expansion of the universe, 154, 178, 182, climate of, 46, 86 195, 204, 211, 218, 225 composition of, 40 acceleration of, 184, 204 early atmosphere, 45 balloon analogy, 195 early life on, 46 rate of, 184 earthquakes, 39 extinctions of species, 114 future of, 81 disappearance of dinosaurs, 115 geocentric system, 87 extremophiles, 234 interior of, 39 eyepiece, 291 magnetic ﬁeld of, 48, 50 mass of, 34 Federal Communications Commission, 317 orbit of, 48 Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope, 320 primitive atmosphere of, 229 ﬁreball, 22 rotation of, 17, 314 Flamsteed, John, 5 sea level (variation of), 56 fossils, oldest known, 228 shape of, 34 Foucault, Léon, 292–293 size of, 8, 33–34 four-dimensional space, 213–214 slowing of rotation of, 64 frames of reference, 213

336 Index

Fraunhofer, Joseph von, 293 gnomon, 11, 17 Friedmann, Alexander, 184 Go, Christopher, 264 frost line, 42, 96 Goodricke, John, 154 fundamental forces, 180, 194, 199–200 Google Sky, 267 graphite, 42 Gaia, astrometric space telescope, 309 grating, 286 galaxies (other than the Milky Way) gravitational constant, 35 Andromeda Galaxy, 154, 173, gravitational lenses, citizen science project, 220, 257 267 BDF3299, 193 gravitational lensing, 212, 244 classification of, 173 gravitational redshift, 211 CR7, 192 gravitational waves, 200–201, 204, 224 formation of first galaxies, 192 detection of, 321 GN-z11, 198 first detection of, 201 Messier 31, 266 gravitons, 200, 223 Messier 33, 203, 207 gravity, 35, 89, 129, 200–204 Messier 51, 172 center of, 138 Messier 60, 217 nature of, 199 Messier 74, 173 green flash, 26 Messier 81, 159 greenhouse effect, 54 Messier 82, 159 in primitive atmosphere, 45 Messier 83, 265 molecules responsible for, 55 Messier 87, 173, 317 Guinand, Pierre-Louis, 293 morphology of, 174 Guth, Alan, 189 NGC 1300, 173 NGC 1316, 174 habitable zones, 236 NGC 1427, 173 Hadean period, 80 NGC 3311, 222 hadrons, 206 NGC 4647, 173 Hale, George, 299 NGC 7424, 175 Halley, Edmund, 13 number of, 177 Hawking, Stephen, 204 protogalaxies, 197 Hawking radiation, 204 radiogalaxies, 263 Hayabusa, space probe, 107 Galaxy Zoo, 264–265 heliocentric model, 8, 88–89 Galilean telescope, 291 heliosphere, 79 Galilei, Galileo, 84, 89, 165, 199, 290 helium, 41, 45, 77, 130, 180 gamma-ray bursts, 300, 320 discovery of, 31 gamma-ray telescope, 320 helium-3, 73 gamma rays, 82, 169, 210 Helmholtz, Hermann von, 231 Gamow, George, 187 Herschel, Caroline, 166, 262 Ganymede, 44, 104 Herschel, infrared space observatory, 42, gegenschein, 107 309–310 general relativity, 200 Herschel, William, 99, 166, 262, 291 geocentric model, 9, 11, 87 Hertz, Heinrich, 313 geoid, 34 Hertzsprung, Ejnar, 144 Giotto, space probe, 309 Hertzsprung–Russell diagram, 144, 161

Index 337

Hewish, Antony, 154, 314 European VLB1 Network (EVN), 315 Hey, James Stanley, 313 Fabry–Perot, 286 Hipparchus of Nicaea, 8, 13, 15, 135 Very Large Array (VLA), 313 Hipparcos, astrometric space telescope, 136, Very Large Baseline Array (VLBA), 315 309 Very Large Telescope Interferometer HL Tauri, protoplanetary disk, 76 (VLTI), 313 Hohmann, Walter, 124 very long base line interferometry, 204 Hohmann transfer orbit, 124 International Astronomical Union, 100, 267 Holmes, Arthur, 39 membership, 268 Hoyle, Fred, 185, 219 International Gamma-Ray Astrophysics on panspermia, 231 Laboratory, 320 Hubble constant, 183 International Space Station, 210 Hubble deep fields, 177 International Thermonuclear Experimental Hubble law, 183 Reactor (ITER), 163 Hubble Space Telescope, 307 interstellar clouds angular resolution of, 288 temperature of, 187 Deep Fields program, 193 interstellar communications, 247 Frontier Fields program, 193, 212 interstellar dust, 169, 171, 175 observations of Pluto, 100 interstellar grains, 42 observations of solar system planets, 121 interstellar medium, 171 servicing of, 305 molecules in, 234 Hubble, Edwin, 154, 178, 183, 196, 299 inversion layer, 304 classification of galaxies, 173 iridium, 115 Humason, Milton, 154, 183–184, 196 Islamic astronomy, 11, 298 Huygens, Christiaan, 285 isotopic ratios, 47 hydrocarbon lakes, 242 hydrogen, 41, 45, 77, 129–130, 180, 220, James Webb Space Telescope, 112, 193, 198, 228 305, 309–310 fusion of, 129 Jansky, Karl, 262, 313–314 in the interstellar medium, 171 Janssen, Pierre, 30 hydroxyl molecule, OH, 248 Janssen, Zachery, 290 jets of radio emission, 174 ice ages, 46, 237 Jones, Albert, 264 on Mars, 48 Julian Day, 21 IceCube Neutrino Observatory, 323 Jupiter, 289 Indian astronomy, 9 “Red Spot Jr.”, 264 inflation, cosmic, 179, 189–191, 197 aurorae on, 53 inflaton, 190 Great Red Spot, 108 infrared radiation, 54, 93, 133 magnetic field of, 49 Infrared Space Observatory, 309 initial mass function, 161 Kant, Immanuel, 75, 166 interference of light, 284 Kepler, Johannes, 88, 199 interferometers, astronomical, 312–313, laws of planetary motion, 35, 88, 138, 315 153, 243 Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Kepler, space mission, 239, 244, 265, 312 Array, 313 Kuduru of Meli-shipak II, 7

338 Index

Kuiper belt, 118–119 living matter Kuiper, Gerard, 118 composition of, 228 Kuiper belt objects, 76, 99, 101, 107 Lockyer, Joseph, 30

2014 MU69,78 Lord Kelvin, see Thomson, William water on, 240 Lowell, Percival, 99 L7 neutrino experiment, 208 LaCourse, Darryll, 265 luminosity vs. brightness (of stars), 136 Lagrange points, 111, 305, 309–310 lunacy, 74 Lambert, Jean-Henri, 166 lunar rocks, 72 Laplace, Pierre Simon de, 75, 202 Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Magellan, Ferdinand, 166 Observatory (LIGO), 201, 321 Magellanic Clouds, 166, 173, 220 Laser Interferometer Space Antenna (LISA), Large Magellanic Cloud, 150 322 Small Magellanic Cloud, 128 Le Verrier, Urbain, 99 magnetic declination, 50 Leavitt, Henrietta Swan, 154 magnetic fields, 155, 174, 237 Lemaître, Georges, 182–183, 185 lines of force of, 52 lens, oldest known, 290 movement of Earth’s magnetic poles, 51 Levy, David, 264 of Earth, 48 life of Moon and planets, 49 coming from outer space, 231 magnetic shielding, 50 conditions for life, 235 magnetosphere, 52 definition of, 227 magnitude scale, definition, 134 existence in the solar system, 240 main asteroid belt, 43 in the universe, 219 water in, 44 intelligent forms of, 238 main sequence of stars, 139, 144, 148 non-carbon based, 233 Marconi, Guglielmo, 313 origin of, 228–230 Mars, 44 planetary conditions for, 237 atmosphere of, 123 search for intelligent life, 239 citizen science project, 267 light color of the sky, 26 absorption of sunlight, 28 exploration with robotic rovers, 121 atmospheric phenomena, 23 Gale crater, 235 diffraction of, 284 human exploration of, 123 diffusion of, 284 ice age on, 48 dispersion of, 255 life on, 240 infrared, 133, 175 orbital trajectories to, 124 pressure of, 91 water on, 44, 237, 240 reflection of, 284 weather on, 123 refraction of, 284 mass, derivation of, 133, 138 scattering of, 82 Maunder minimum (of sunspots), 86 scattering of sunlight, 25 McKellar, Andrew, 187 ultraviolet, 191 Méchain, Pierre, 34, 260 light curve, 153 Mercury, 43, 104 light-year, definition, 137 phases of, 105 Lippershey, Hans, 290 water ice on, 43, 105

Index 339

meridian, 19 lack of atmosphere, 63 arc of, 33 magnetic field of, 49 MESSENGER, interplanetary probe, 105 maria, 59 Messier, Charles, 260 permanent lunar base, 72 Messier objects, 254, 260 phases of, 69 metals, 161, 191 regolith, 61 meteorites, 22, 39, 226 rotation of, 63 composition of, 78 tides, 64 finding of, 267 waning and waxing of, 69 meteoroids, 22, 231 multiverse concept, 219 meteors, 22 of Chelyabinsk, 22 natural selection, 228 Perseids, 22 near-Earth objects, 116 showers, 22 nebulae, 169–171 meter, definition, 34 30 Doradus, 141 methane, 55, 233, 245 Barnard 68, 170 Milankovitch, Milutin, 48 Crab Nebula, 152 Milky Way, 1, 165 Helix Nebula, 170 as a barred spiral galaxy, 175 Messier 16, 77 central black hole, 176, 203 NGC 1299, 170 evolution of conceptions, 165 NGC 6559, 170 future of, 220 Orion Nebula, 303 nucleus, 176 planetary, 150 position of the Sun in, 166 Tarantula, 141 radio map of, 262 Veil Nebula, 157 viewed at different wavelengths, 169 Neptune, 78, 99 Miller, Stanley, 229 discovery of, 99 Miller–Urey experiment, 229 neutral hydrogen, 207 Mitchell, John, 202 neutralinos, 206 molecules, formation in intersellar medium, neutrinos, 206, 224, 323 233 neutron stars, 77, 148, 152, 154, 211 momentum, definition of, 92 New Horizons interplanetary space probe, 78, Moon 101, 121 albedo of, 61 Newton, Isaac, 89, 178, 199, 291 angular size illusion, 29 law of gravitation, 34, 91, 133 base for astronomical observations, 72, telescope design, 255 310 Nobel Prize in physics, astronomers, boulder trails on, 59 224 composition of, 61 noctilucent clouds, 24 earthshine, 73 North, John, 314 exploration of, 70 northern lights, see aurorae far side of, 60 novae, 149 formation of, 42, 56 nuclear binding energy, 162 gravity on, 63 nuclear fission, 162 humans returning to, 72 nuclear fusion, 162 interior of, 62 in stars, 95, 129, 146, 150

340 Index

nucleosynthesis, 78, 151, 156 periodic table, 78 numeral systems, origin of, 16 Perlmutter, Saul, 205 Permian period, 114 obliquity, or tilt of Earth’s axis, 48, 238 Perry, John, 37 observatories Perseids, 23 ALMA, 318 photosynthesis, 46 earliest, 298 physical constants of nature, 208 ESO Paranal Observatory, 300, 313 Picard, Jean, 33 evolution of, 299 Planck, space observatory, 188, 310 Greenwich, 299 Planck temperature, 193 IceCube Neutrino Observatory, 323 Planck time, 189, 193, 223 in Antarctica, 318 Planet X, 99 Istanbul, 298 planetary differentiation (of interiors), 97 Jaipur Observatory, 9 planetary nebulae, 81 Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Cat’s Eye Nebula, 147 Observatory (LIGO), 321 Helix Nebula, 147 Maragha, 298 planetesimals, 76, 118 Mauna Kea, 304, 318 planets Paris, 299 alignments of, 113 Samarkand, 298 atmospheres of, 95 Sudbury Neutrino Observatory, 323 Bode’s law, 98 Uraniborg, 88, 298 composition of, 95 US Naval, 299 definition of, 100 Yerkes, 274 differences from stars, 93 occultation, 139 Greek and Roman gods associated with, 7 Olbers, Heinrich Wilhelm, 217 in the night sky, 5 Olbers’s paradox, 217–218 interiors of, 96 Oort, Jan, 79, 118 moons of, 102 opacity, 82 names of, 97 Öpik, Ernst, 79, 118 orbits and axis of rotation, 110 Öpik–Oort cloud, 79, 118 ring systems of, 109 oxygen, evolution of Earth’s atmosphere, rocky or gaseous, 95 45 structure of, 95 ozone, 245 Sumarian names, 7 tidal effects between, 113 panspermia, 231 plasmas, 129, 169 parallax, 9, 137 plate tectonics, 97, 237 definition of, 135 Plato, 87 parhelia, see sundogs Pluto, 78, 118 parsec, 137 discovery of, 99, 264 definition of, 135 moons of, 102 Parsons, William (3rd Earl of Rosse), 292 Pluto controversy, 100 Pascal, Blaise, 223 Pogson, Norman Robert, 134 Pasteur, Louis, 231 Pogson’s ratio, 134 Patterson, Clair, 39 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), Penzias, Arno, 187, 314 226

Index 341

Ponzo illusion, 30 reflection of light, 284 pre-biotic material, 234 refraction of light, 26, 29, 284, 300 Precambrian period, 230 regolith, see Moon precession of the equinoxes, 15, 48 relativity, theory of, 211–213 discovery of, 9 resolution (optical), of a telescope, 278 prism, 23, 286 Riess, Adam, 205 prokaryotes, 46, 235 Roberts, Isaac, 262 proper motion, 13 Roche, Edouard, 112 protons, decay of, 221 Roche limit, 112 protoplanetary disk, 39 Rosetta mission, 45, 119 Ptolemy, Claudius, 4, 9, 16, 19, 87 Philae, 119 pulsars, 154, 314 rotation of cosmic bodies, 216 citizen science project, 267 Rubin, Vera, 206 Pyrex, 280 runaway stars, 159 Russell, Henry Norris, 144 quasars, 172, 197, 209, 212, 317 Rutherford, Ernest, 39 3C279, 215 Sagan, Carl, 156, 235 radiation pressure, 91 Saros cycle, 18 solar sail, 124 Saturn, rings of, 109, 112 radio astronomy, 176, 313–318 Schmidt, Bernhard, 281 birth of, 262 Schmidt, Brian, 205 jansky (unit of flux), 135 Schwarzschild, Karl, 202 sites for, 317 Schwarzschild radius, definition, 202 radio isotopic generator, 123 seasons, 13–15 radio telescopes length of, 15 Allen Telescope Array, 248 seismic waves, 40 Arecibo, 315 SETI program, 240, 247, 264–265 Effelsberg, 315 Shapley, Harlow, 166 Five-hundred meter Aperture Spherical shooting stars, 21 Telescope (FAST), 315 Siberian Traps, 115 Green Bank, 315 silane, 233 Jodrell Bank, 315 silicates, 42, 76 mirrors of, 315 sky Nançay, 315 color of, 26 submillimeter, 318 colors of sunrise, sunset, 26 working of, 314 sites with dark sky, 261 radioactivity, as source of heat, 38 viewed at different wavelengths, radiometric dating, 39, 78, 80 168 Rayleigh criterion, 288 why is it dark at night?, 217 Rayleigh, 3rd Baron, 288 Slipher, Vesto, 154, 183–184, 196 reaction wheels, 311 Sloan Digital Sky Survey, 264–265 Reber, Grote, 262, 314–315 Sloan’s Great Wall, 182 redshift, 195, 197 sodium layer, 303 cosmological, 196 SOHO, space solar observatory, 112 definition of z, 197–199 solar activity, 84–86 gravitational, 196 solar halos, 24

342 Index

solar nebula, 42, 75 collisions of, 155 solar pillars, 24 colors of, 143 solar sails, 92, 124 composition of, 130 solar system death of, 146 boundaries of, 78 distance to, 135 formation of, 42, 75–78 Eta Carinae, 152 future of planets, 82 evolution as a function of mass, 144 location in the Milky Way, 133 evolution of, 146 water in, 43 formation of, 129 solar wind, 45, 52, 79, 92, 105, 210 formation of ﬁrst stars, 191 solstices, 13 HE 1523-0901, 142 space observatories, 305–308 HR 8799, 243 advantages for astronomical observing, 305 in intergalactic space, 158 great observatories, 307 Kappa Cassiopeiae, 160 orbits of, 309 lifetimes of, 148 pointing of telescopes in space, 311 luminosity of, 140 Space Shuttle, 308 main sequence, 144 spectroscopy, 131, 143, 286–287 motion of, 13 detection of life signatures, 245 names of, 4 Fourier transform technique, 287 nearest star, Proxima Centauri, 157 spectrum of the Sun, 131 number of (in the Milky Way), 132 speed of light (as a limit), 214 number of (visible), 1 spiral arms, 176 oldest stars, 178 Spitzer, infrared space observatory, 42, 197, Pistol star, 142 308 Polaris, 12, 134 standard candles, 136, 152, 154 Population III, 191 standard model, 194 protostars, 146 star clusters, 78, 160 red giants, 81 globular clusters, 161, 166, 176, 222 R136a1, 141 Messier 13, 248 RS Ophiuchi, 149 Messier 80, 155 runaway, 159 NGC 2070, 141 70 Ophiuchi, 138 Omega Centauri, 161, 179 shape of, 132 open clusters, 161 Sigma Octantis, 12 Pleiades, 78 size of, 139 stars spectral classes, 143 age of, 142 T Pyxidis, 149 Alpha Centauri, 5, 137, 157 transport of energy in, 130 artiﬁcial, 303 UY Scuti, 140 Barnard’s Star, 13 variable, 153 biggest stars, 140 steady-state theory, 185 binaries, 138, 149, 153, 238 Stefan’s law, 139 visual, spectroscopic, eclipsing, 153 Steinhardt, Paul J., 182 brightness of, 134 Stonehenge, 6 catalogs of, 5 stringtheory,182,194,206,209,214,219,222

Index 343

strong interaction, 200 for X-rays, 318 stylus, 17 how they are made, 280 Sudbury Neutrino Observatory, 323 polishing of, 280 Sun shapes of, 278 age of, 80 telescopes changing of, 91 8-m Gemini North, 295 chromosphere, 83 10-m Keck, 295 color of, 25 altitude-azimuth mount, 275 corona, 83, 92 design of, 274 coronal holes, 92 E-ELT, 295 cycle of activity, 85–86 equatorial mount, 275 differential rotation, 85 ESO VLT, 274 distance to, 89 GMT, 298 distance to, 91 invention of, 290 future of, 81 list of largest, 295–297 interior of, 82 optical configurations, 276 luminosity of, 80 Cassegrain combination, 319 magnetic fields, 83 foci, 276 mass of, 91 optical magnification, 289 mean density of, 91 performance criteria, 277 photosphere, 83 refracting, reflecting, 273 position in the Milky Way, 175 resolution of, 288, 290, 312 prominences, 85 robotic telescopes, 300 radio waves from, 313 Schmidt telescope, 281 rotation of, 85, 132 the Leviathan, 292 temperature of, 82 TMT, 295 young Sun paradox, 80 Yerkes, 292 sundials, 16–17, 19 telescopes, amateur, 254–259 sundogs, 24 Dobsonian, 258 sunspots, 10, 84 Maksutov–Cassegrain, 259 Maunder minimum, 86 mounts of, 256 suntan and ultraviolet sunlight, 27 refractor vs. reflector, 254 supernova, 77, 142, 148 Schmidt–Cassegrain, 259 as source of elements, 41 what can be viewed with, 1, 254–259 as standard candles, 152 Theia, 42, 57 of 1054 in Crab Nebula, 10, 151 thermodynamics, laws of, 249 remnants of, 171 Thomson, William, 37, 231 SN 1987A, 150, 264 tidal effect, 63, 113 types of, 152 tidal interaction, 109, 112 synchrotron radiation, 155, 174 tides, 17, 64–66, 238 time tachyons, 215 civil, 18 telescope mirrors, 278–281, 293 Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), 21 coating of, 293 Greenwich Mean Time (GMT), 20 for radio telescopes, 316 hour, origin of name, 16

344 Index

time (cont.) phases of, 105 length of day, 16–17 rotation of, 110 local, 18 volcanic activity on, 105 sidereal, 19 water ice on, 44 time zone system, 20 Verbiest, Ferdinand, 11 Titan, 104, 121, 242 Vesta, 106 discovery of, 291 Voyagers, interplanetary probes, 79, 99, 109, lakes on, 242 126 Titius, Johann Daniel, 98 Tombaugh, Clyde, 99, 264 water, 236 transit, 244 as a biomarker, 245 transit of Venus, 89, 244 as a solvent, 230 trans-neptunians, 78, 99, 102 for life, 231 names of, 98 formation of water, 42 triangulation method, 8, 34, 90, 135 in comets, 120 Turok, Neil, 182 isotopic composition, 47 twinkling of stars, 28 on Ganymede and Enceladus, 121, 241 origin of, 41–43 ultraviolet rays from the Sun, 27 physical properties of, 232 Ulysses spacecraft, 119 polarity of molecule, 231 universe presence on giant planets, 43 age of, 177 presence on Mercury, Venus, and Mars, 43 radiometric dating, 178 waterhole, 248 color of, 218 weak interaction, 200 cosmological content, 205 Weber, Joseph, 200 expansion of, 182 Wheeler, John Archibald, 200, 202 future of, 220–221 white dwarfs, 81, 147, 149, 196, geometry of, 185 211, 220 laws of physics changing over time, 208 Wilson, Robert, 187, 314 mass of, 205 WIMPs (weakly interacting particles), 208 notion of, 223 WMAP, space misson, 188 origin of, 179 Woltjer, Hans, 319 size of, 190, 197–199, 218 Worldwide Telescope, 267 Uranus Wright, Thomas, 166 discovery of, 99, 262 rotation of, 110 X-ray astronomy, 169, 224, 287, 318 Urey, Harold, 229 X-ray telescopes, 318

vacuum energy, 205 zircons, 39 valence shell, 229 zodiacal light, 107 Venus, 44 Zooniverse project, 265 greenhouse effect, 55 Zwicky, Fritz, 206, 212