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Second Wave Feminism 1 Index: Second wave feminism: Index: Second wave feminism: 1 Heading page: 2 Topic: Key question: 3 Long research essay: 4 Reflection: 17 Transcribed interview: Sasha Rodenacker and Debbie Budlender: 20 Bibliography: 37 Planning: 39 2 Heading page: The impact of Second wave feminism: 3 Topic: Key question: The Impact of second wave feminism on society: - How did second wave feminism manifest in the anti-apartheid struggle in South Africa as well as the Black Power Movement in America? - Interviewing: Debbie Budlender 4 Long research essay: How did second wave feminism manifest itself in the fight for black liberation, in the anti-apartheid campaign in South Africa as well as the BPM in america: The 1960s were a time of rising consciousness in the humanity of all people and saw a drive towards equality. This prompted the growth of various movements, including second-wave feminism, which expanded through to the early 1980s. The rise of Second-wave feminism coincided with the growth of the Black Power Movement (BPM) in America and subsequently permeated the movement. Activist Afeni Shakur embodies the manifestation of second-wave feminism within the BPM.1 Additionally, as the anti-apartheid movement began to gather momentum in the 1970s, the influence of second-wave feminism thereupon became increasingly prominent. This was motivated by activists such as Debbie Budlender, who is a prime example of the aforementioned.2 By the 1960s society provided a need for a second-wave of feminism. This was driven by deep cultural changes. The Black Power Movement rose to prominence in America, the apartheid struggle shifted to more violent measures and the release of Betty Friedan's book The Feminine Mystique galvanised white middle to upper-class women.3 Women began to ​ reimagine their domestic submissive roles in society and push the boundaries of social convention. They were fed up with unequal treatment and high levels of domestic violence. Thus, they proposed greater control over their lives and bodies.4 They campaigned for abortion rights, “The contraceptive Pill”, and began entering the workforce. Subsequently, they felt a dissatisfaction at unequal pay for the same job (40% less than men), sexual harassment (in the workplace) and the limitations placed on women.5 This was specifically prevalent in managerial roles, with the 1950s proving 95% of all managers to be men.6 Therefore, the 1960s, proposed a need for and saw the rise of second wave feminism. Moreover, as the movement grew- its mandate expanded. However, black women's suffering was often ignored by the maintsream feminist movement. 1 Book ​ Jasmine Guy, Evolution Of A Revolutionary (1st edn, Afeni Shakur 2004), ​ ​ 2 Sasha Rodenacker, Interview with Debbie Budlender (2020). ​ 3 Website ​ 'The Waves Of Feminism, And Why People Keep Fighting Over Them, Explained' (Vox, 2020) ​ ​ <https://www.vox.com/2018/3/20/16955588/feminism-waves-explained-first-second-third-fourth> accessed 10 April 2020. ​ 4 journal ​ 'Feminism And Violence: The Hegemonic Second Wave’S Encounter With Rape And Domestic Abuse In USA (1970-1985) - Pilar Rodriguez Martinez, 2011' (SAGE Journals, 2020) <https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0921374011430566> ​ ​ ​ accessed 5 April 2020. 5 Website ​ Kenneth Walsh (U.S.News, 2010) ​ ​ <https://www.usnews.com/news/articles/2010/03/12/the-1960s-a-decade-of-change-for-women> accessed 5 April 2020. ​ 6 Book ​ Bottaro, J., Visser, P. and Worden, N., 2020. In Search Of History Grade 12 Learners Book. Oxford University Press Southern ​ ​ Africa 5 Black women suffered from the combined prejudice of being a woman, coupled with severe racism.7 Due to their unique circumstances, they felt disenfranchised and excluded from the mainstream feminist agenda. Consequently, black women placed greater significance on achieving racial equality rather than gender equality. Nonetheless, many black women were heavily influenced by second-wave feminist ideology. Evidence being in their involvement within black liberation groups. Such as in the Black Panther Party (BPP) in America.8 Thus, Black Nationalism and feminism became intertwined. The Feminine Mystique (1963), coupled with ongoing oppression of women, invigorated white, middle to upper class women and spurred them into a second wave of feminism. The book has been largely criticised for being myopical, focusing solely on white women's issues whilst ignoring the plight of black women. Albeit, the introduction of second wave feminism created positive societal change propelling society forward into a new realm of consciousness. 9 10 The BPP was an integral movement fighting both against structural racism, while simultaneously promoting Black Power. Preceding the BPP was the Civil Rights Movement who, in 1964, succeeded in abolishing segregation in the Southern states.11 However, discrimination remained a prominent force throughout America. Black people clustered into inner-city ghettos, with poor housing, schools and inferior infrastructure. This coupled with 7 Website ​ 'Between Two Worlds: Black Women And The Fight For Voting Rights (U.S. National Park Service)' (Nps.gov, 2020) ​ ​ <https://www.nps.gov/articles/black-women-and-the-fight-for-voting-rights.htm> accessed 5 April 2020. ​ 8 Website ​ 'Women In The Black Panther Party | International Socialist Review' (Isreview.org, 2020) ​ <https://isreview.org/issue/111/women-black-panther-party> accessed 6 April 2020 ​ 9 Website ​ Fetters A, '4 Big Problems With 'The Feminine Mystique' (The Atlantic, 2020) ​ ​ <https://www.theatlantic.com/sexes/archive/2013/02/4-big-problems-with-the-feminine-mystique/273069/> accessed 6 April ​ 2020 10 Website ​ '10 Essential Feminist Texts That Everyone Should Read | Feminist Books, Books, Feminine Mystique' (Pinterest, 2020) ​ ​ <https://za.pinterest.com/pin/199565827213447460/> accessed 6 April 2020. ​ 11 website ​ (History.com, 2020) <https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/segregation-united-states> accessed 27 April 2020 ​ ​ ​ ​ 6 police brutality towards black people, sparked the rise of the Black Power Movement. The BPM emphasised pride in being black, in celebrating black culture, tradition, language and history. This created a climate for the establishment of the Black Panther Party in 1966.12 The BPP was a militant organisation founded to promote Black Nationalism and improve the plight of black people in America. They engaged in regular patrols protecting black communities from police brutality and participated in various community empowerment programmes.13 This was especially integral to the movement as the party operated under Marxist principles.14 They perpetuated the notion that the plight of black people stemmed from the exploitation of the black working class by capitalists.15 Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, women played an influential role in the BPP.16 Hence, through their activism they embodied the characteristics of second-wave feminism, showing its manifestation in the Black Nationalist struggle. In South Africa, the growth of trade unions and the Black Consciousness Movement (BCM) reflected much of the same sentiment as the Black Power Movement. Afeni Shakur (on the left, in checkered pants) and Jamal Joseph (right, wearing sunglasses). The BPP regularly held political rallies to promote their agenda and grow their community relations. This image shows Shakur, speaking at a rally. The fact that she got involved, spoke at these rallies and asserted herself shows her feminist influences. (Photo by David Fenton/Getty Images)17 The 1970s saw a resurgence in South African trade unions. Unions mimicked the BPP in many aspects, including the influence of second-wave feminism on their activities. 12 'Malcolm X Assassinated' (HISTORY, 2020) <https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/malcolm-x-assassinated> accessed ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ 1 April 2020. 13 Book ​ Bottaro, J., Visser, P. and Worden, N., 2020. In Search Of History Grade 12 Learners Book. Oxford University Press Southern ​ ​ Africa, 14 Book ​ Jasmine Guy, Evolution Of A Revolutionary (1st edn, Afeni Shakur 2004). ​ ​ 15 Website ​ 'Black Panther Party - Legacy' (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2020) <https://www.britannica.com/topic/Black-Panther-Party/Legacy> ​ ​ ​ accessed 5 April 2020. 16Website 'Black Panther Party - Legacy' (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2020) ​ ​ ​ <https://www.britannica.com/topic/Black-Panther-Party/Legacy> accessed 5 April 2020. ​ 17Website Gettyimages.com. 2020. Afeni Shakur Pictures And Photos - Getty Images. [online] Available at: ​ ​ <https://www.gettyimages.com/photos/afeni-shakur?family=editorial&page=4&phrase=afeni%20shakur&sort=mostpopular> [Accessed 3 April 2020]. 7 Furthermore, similarly to the BPP’s campaigns for the rights of black workers in America, trade unions in South Africa, also fought for the plight of black workers under apartheid.18 While unions existed for many years in South Africa, they had limited power or only represented white workers.19 However, the 1973 world oil crisis caused a global downturn in economic activity.20 This sparked the rise of Trade Unions in South Africa. It began with a series of protests, with around 60 000 demonstrators in Durban and the East Rand.21 One of their main demands was the legalisation of independent black trade unions.22 As pressure mounted the Wiehahn Commission recommended the Minister of Manpower permit the establishment of the first independent black trade union, in 1979.23 Trade Unions played an active role in the fighting for the cause of the black working class, and opposed the apartheid
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