On Language Teaching by Antonia Ruppel

nyone can teach Latin, while The author’s own experience is different ways of expressing one and the ‘A teaching Greek is hard’. mainly with teaching three languages same concept (such as the roles nouns ‘Introductory language courses are easier (Latin, Greek and Sanskrit) to speakers of play in a sentence, or the notion of ‘past’ to teach than intermediate/text-based two modern languages (English and vs. ‘present’). Most languages have more courses’. These are views that the author German), and so most examples will be than one way of expressing what is of this article has heard voiced in Classics taken from these. Nevertheless, the basic factually the same thing, again sometimes departments on both sides of the thoughts outlined here can be applied just with different nuances. In many instances, Atlantic. They reflect underlying as easily to most other languages. We will for example, there is little difference assumptions about language teaching that start with the basics and look at what between saying ‘I’m going to do it’ and ‘I often have very practical effects on who is language is, and continue with some will do it’. Some languages have words for assigned what kinds of teaching, and how thoughts on what makes a particular specific concepts that other languages are those instructors approach their task. language difficult to learn. This will lead missing, leading to the ‘they have a word This article would like to look at and us to some general thoughts on what it for it’ type of list so popular on social challenge these assumptions. Given how means to teach a language, which are media. The speakers of those other long ancient languages have been taught followed by a focus on teaching ancient languages have to describe or paraphrase in the occident, it is unlikely to say languages. what they mean: to reuse a well-known anything profoundly new. Yet given how A language is a way to pass on example, Germans can simply talk about important good language teaching is to information. Any natural language is able Schadenfreude, while English speakers have any field whose evidence is mostly to pass on any idea that a speaker wants to to resort to more analytic expressions text-based, and given that many of those pass on; yet there are differences in how such as ‘malicious glee’ or ‘pleasure in tasked with teaching an ancient language different languages achieve this. Some other people’s discomfort’; and while any do not have that language as their main languages can express some ideas or traveller will likely have encountered the interest, but mostly consider it as a nuances more succinctly than other ideas oddness of unexpected things being other means to an end, it may be worth and other languages can: German, for than what one is used to while being re-examining what we do when we teach example, can and regularly does form abroad, not many have a simple word those languages. We hope that this article compound nouns ad hoc; English has such as French dépaysement to refer to this will provide guidance to those new to simple and continuous verb forms for oddness. Furthermore, words that on the language teaching, but perhaps also offer every tense. When a language can surface refer to one and the same thing some new impulses to those who have conveniently express certain details, it will can have completely different long been involved in language do so more frequently. Some languages connotations in different languages, instruction as ‘service teaching’, parallel obligatorily express nuances that are depending on how what they refer to is to the teaching that reflects their actual entirely optional in others: in any language used in different cultures. Take Dutch fiets areas of interest. We also hope this that has formal vs familiar forms of and English bike (in the non-motorised article will be challenged by those whose address (such as French vous and tu, sense): they describe the same man-made main interest and task is language German Sie and Du etc.), speakers are object; yet while a Dutch speaker likely teaching but who are taking approaches forced to choose one option any time they thinks of a fiets as something every-day, different from the rather analytical one talk to someone. Between languages, practical, basic and omnipresent, an outlined here. there is a variety of fundamentally American may associate a bike with

The Journal of Classics Teaching 19 (37) p.53–57 © The Classical Association 2018. This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives licence (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/), which permits Downloaded non-commercialfrom https://www.cambridge.org/core re-use, distribution,. IP andaddress: reproduction 170.106.40.139 in any, on medium, 28 Sep 2021 provided at 16:41:07 the original, subject workto the isCambridge unaltered Core and terms is properly of use, availablecited. The at written 53 https://www.cambridge.org/core/termspermission of Cambridge. https://doi.org/10.1017/S2058631018000077 University Press must be obtained for commercial re-use or in order to create a derivative work. fitness, leisure, perhaps with their to follow the mainstream way of express an already familiar concept is one childhood experiences or a friend’s pluralisation (fishes); yet others (so far) thing, learning a new concept is another. midlife crisis. have remained exceptional: the plural of Thus Polish speakers will have problems To learn a new language means to mouse seems to still always be just mice, keeping apart German long and short learn which of any variety of ways that never mouses. The less prescriptive the vowels (Polish does not have long language uses to express the various environment is that a speaker lives in, the vowels), German speakers will have concepts its speakers want to convey (be more likely they are to hear talk of cactuses trouble correctly using English simple and they lexical ones such as words for things and the like. Often, whether a word will progressive verb forms (German verbs and actions, or grammatical ones such as change depends on how frequently it is just have the simple form), and both noun case or verbal tense, or the idea of used and on how easy it is to even out its German and English speakers will have possibility rather than certainty), and also particular irregularity; but some words (or trouble remembering to mark verbs as which concepts it chooses to express grammatical structures) just hang on atelic or telic, that is to indicate whether explicitly and which not (such as the unexpectedly and unpredictably. an action is seen as open-ended (he’s contrast of simple versus ongoing Learning the grammar of a language reading) or finite (he’s reading this article), a systematically present in English, but not thus means learning its systems on the difference which Polish makes in most other Germanic languages, for one hand and its irregularities and systematically. example). exceptions on the other. Some languages So much for grammar. To learn a Languages are systematic, which are more difficult to learn because they language, one also needs to study its makes them easier to acquire. If I learn have more exceptions; others are vocabulary and its usage and idioms. The first (a) the word for an action, then (b) the challenging because their regular systems challenge here is that what needs to be notion that not just I, but also someone are complex in themselves. For example, memorised is mostly unsystematic. In else, can carry out that action, and finally all languages have the ability to mark many languages, words can be built from (c) the formal way of expressing that notion, nouns for the roles they play in a clause, one another (and thus we can get from the it is useful if I can apply the same notion that is, to express the grammatical verb establish to the noun establishment, for and the same way of expressing it to category of Case. English mostly does example, and, if we choose to, further to another word: I sing, he sings leads this with prepositions (this is for her, for you, the oft-quoted antidisestablishmentarianism); seamlessly to I run, he runs. Once I have for the cat; I see with my eyes, he cuts the cake and to this limited extent a language’s then also realised (consciously or not) that with a knife and so on), but uses different vocabulary may be seen as ‘systematic’. Yet the third-person marker appears as forms/endings in pronouns (he vs. him, she given that, as linguists put it, the relation voiceless [s] after voiceless sounds (sinks), vs. her) and marks the difference between between the signifier (the word, or rather: as voiced [z] after voiced sounds (sings), subject and object by means of word its sound) and the signified (the thing the and as [ez] after sibilants (hisses), I then am order: Bob sees Alice and Alice sees Bob thus word represents) is arbitrary (see, for able to express this notion for any full (i.e. do not mean the same thing. Yet in spite example de Saussure 1971, pp. 97ff.), most non-modal) verb in the English language. of this mix of methods (prepositions, of a language’s basic vocabulary is random Yet languages change over time, and case endings, word order), one might and needs to be approached through old systems hang on while new ones are argue English case usage on the whole is straightforward memorisation. What will developing: thus languages also are messy. fairly straightforward and easier to learn help a student, of course, is if they already Take the plural of nouns in modern than that of languages that systematically know a related language that offers English. The large majority form theirs by use case endings, but that assign endings significant vocabulary overlap. (In which adding -s, which again depending on the depending on formal factors such as what case it may help learning about the preceding sound will appear as an sound a noun stem ends in. The more systematic correspondences between unvoiced [s] or a voiced [z] (think of cats such declensions a language has, the more related sounds across languages, leading vs. dogs). Again, when an English word difficult it is to learn: not only are we to inks such as Latin pater and English ends in a sibilant (represented in writing required to memorise more than one way father etc.) by any of the letters -s, -sh, -ch, -x or -z), of expressing one and the same thing; but Idiom, finally, takes an already the plural ending appears as -[ez]. the endings used also are in themselves unsystematic situation (a language’s Sometimes, but not always, the final meaningless: the preposition ‘out of ’ has vocabulary) and makes it even less sound of the word changes in front of an intrinsic semantic value or meaning; systematic by using combinations of this plural -es, which is also reflected in the the Latin second-declension ablative words with meanings that cannot be spelling: and so wolf gives us wolves, but singular ending -ō does not. Thus, in this predicted solely on the basis of the belief forms a plural beliefs. Yet in addition respect, Greek is more difficult to learn meanings of the single words involved. to this most regular method of forming than Latin as it has considerably more What, then, does all of this mean for plurals, there are a number of other ways - formal variety within its nominal language teaching? think children, oxen, fish, mice, or loanword declensions and Estonian is more difficult Once we understand how, in plurals such as cacti and oases. Some of to learn than many other languages as it principle, languages work, we need to these forms are dropping out altogether has 14 distinct noun cases. consciously realise (1) what it is that is (resulting in young humans and young How difficult a language is to learn unusual or in any way potentially difficult goats both being referred to as kids, and also depends on what a student’s native about the language we are trying to teach, (castrated) oxen being conflated with language does (or, if they are lucky, their and especially (2) how this language (uncastrated) bulls); others are regularised native languages do): learning how to differs from the language (or languages)

Downloaded54 from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 170.106.40.139, on 28 SepOn 2021 Language at 16:41:07 Teaching, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S2058631018000077 that our students have grown up speaking. we argue, why that tweet was so popular is that they just need to learn a new way of This means we need to look systematically that English speakers were amazed that doing a known thing (such as marking not just at the language we want to teach, there not only was such a rule, but that case roles on nouns – with e.g. English but also at the one(s) we and our students their brains had also had subconscious using word order and prepositions, but presumably are native speakers of. but perfect mastery over it all along. Latin and Greek using case endings). Speakers without formal linguistic So, if we want someone to learn a We learn foreign languages by training know all the rules that govern language in a non-native environment (i.e. memorising their forms and rules. their native language, no matter how not as a baby or toddler, hearing the Language courses aim for us to reach a complex they may be, and apply them language every day for many years from point where we do not need to perfectly. Yet all of this happens the people around them), and especially if consciously apply those rules anymore in subconsciously. Native speakers of we want them to get beyond the level of a order to say something. They want us to German do not need to reflect in order to few conversational phrases, we need to be able to read a text rather than translate it. use the correct grammatical gender of a explain the rules of that language to them. To employ an old image, we use the rules noun; but for most students of German And in order to do that, we need to we learn like ladders; and when we have as a foreign language, this is the perhaps consciously know these rules ourselves. climbed the ladders, we throw them away. biggest obstacle in learning German (This may seem blatantly obvious to Anyone who wants to teach a grammar. Germans do not need to know some, but as even first-rate research language well either needs to keep those rules such as ‘the words for all alcoholic universities continue to hire speakers of ladders in place right away or, more drinks except beer are grammatically less commonly-taught languages without likely, retrieve them, that is: remind masculine (and beer is neuter)’, and so any linguistic training to teach their native themselves of the language’s rules in they do not know them. (Anyone interested tongue, it apparently does need to be their entirety, before they first start in a most readable take on this is pointed stated explicitly.) teaching. The ‘staying one step ahead of to Mark Twain’s essay The Awful German Furthermore, even when we teach your students’ approach that may be the Language.) English speakers another language using our native language, it most practical (let’s face it – universities subconsciously know what order is greatly advantageous to consciously rarely reward good teaching; they want adjectives are put in, namely opinion-size- know the rules our own language is you to do research (and admin!), and it age-shape-colour-origin-material- governed by. Not only can we then more often is advisable not to spend too much purpose. Yet, as they do not know this easily identify instances in which we can time on teaching preparation) and often consciously, they will likely not be able to show our students that something quite sufficient in lecture courses that explain to a non-native why a ‘great green supposedly new is just like what they do in cover a series of relatively self-contained dragon’ is correct English, but a ‘green their own language (e.g. subject-verb topics – this approach should not be great dragon’ is not. This point is made agreement, which is more or less the same used in language teaching, where rather well by Figure 1, which shows a across Indo-European languages, knowledge of a whole system, namely tweet of an excerpt from Mark Forsyth’s including English); but even when that the language’s grammar, is required in 2013 The Elements of Eloquence: How to isn’t the case, we can at least show them most lessons. Without that knowledge, Turn the Perfect English Phrase. The reason, that something is not categorically new, but we can present new facts to our students, but we cannot explain or properly contextualise them. In order to not keep these thoughts entirely theoretical, and to finally focus specifically on ancient languages, let us look at two examples concerning the language combination probably most relevant to the readers of this article: Latin being taught to native speakers of English. The largest grammatical unit in language is a sentence. Sentences can consist of just a main clause, several (parallel) main clauses, or of a main clause with clauses subordinated to it. Either ask your students what kinds of sentences they can think of, or write (English) examples of a statement, a question and a direct command on the board and have them identify what each of them does. Go on to asking what kind of further, subordinate, information a sentence might need, aiming to get at cause/reason Figure 1. | Did you know you knew? through which, condition under which, condition

Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 170.106.40.139, on 28On Sep Language 2021 at 16:41:07 Teaching, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at 55 https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S2058631018000077 in spite of which, aim and result. This, of (ii) as ‘complement of a small set of introducing, one by one, the individual course, gives you causal, conditional, prepositions (if, unless, lest, etc.) that can subordinate clauses that employ concessive, final/purpose and result take subjunctive complements’ (‘Nothing subjunctives: ut-clauses (consecutive and clauses. Talk about the ways in which you in English has been ridiculed as much as purpose), subjunctive cum clauses, can give more information about any the ambiguous use of words, unless it be subjunctive relative clauses, conditional particular word in the main clause (‘I see the ambiguous use of sentences.’), (iii) the clauses, indirect questions and indirect the house.’ What house? ‘I see the house ‘exhaustive conditional interrogative’ commands. (that) my friend lives in.’), which gets you (‘Our thanks are due to all our staff, Unless you are teaching a review class to the concept of relative clauses. whether they be in the offices, the for advanced students, this obviously is (Depending on what age group you teach, warehouses, or the branches, for their not something you would discuss in one you may also consider introducing the help during this difficult time.’) As session. But to make sure that students (a) idea of indirect speech here; but this may Huddleston and Pullum (ibid) then aren’t overwhelmed by a seemingly also be left for later.) Make an overview outline, there are non-subjunctive endless succession of new subjunctive chart of this, using an English example to alternatives for these expressions, as well uses, and (b) manage to keep the ones elucidate each category. Give a number or as various sources for subjunctive- they already know well apart, an overview some other label to each category and indicative ambiguity, all of which handout is the best way forward. come back to the chart whenever you are contribute to the weakening of the Depending on how (and whom) you introducing how to phrase/construct one English subjunctive. teach, print one out or have your students of these in Latin. This gives students I dare say that most of our students make one on a full A4/letter-size page. regular reminders of what they already are unlikely to use any of these on a Begin by introducing the basic function know (which is good for motivation) and regular basis (perhaps with the exception of the subjunctive relative to indicative a place to find orientation when they are of ‘Bless you!’). Nevertheless, it is useful and imperative; put the concept of ‘not stuck translating a sentence. for any instructor to know what the matter-of fact’ or ‘distance from The above is an example of the English subjunctive looks like and how it statement’ (or however you prefer to systematic introduction of a topic that is used: there is usually at least one student phrase such a nutshell) in the middle, have makes reference to what students already who will ask about it; and more two categories for Main and Subordinate know from English. Yet even where importantly, we need to know that it isn’t Clauses, respectively, and in those list the parallels to English are missing, the helpful for our students in order for us to common labels for the various individual systematic approach helps. then identify a better way to introduce the usages. Leave space for notes on each The Latin subjunctive is a source of Latin subjunctive to them. usage. Whenever the textbook you use despair for many students, and a fair If so far you have been teaching your introduces a new subjunctive usage, come number of teachers. There are several students Latin with reference to what they back to this handout and fill in another reasons for this, relating not just to the already know from English, tell them that field with a brief definition and an subjunctive within Latin, but also to the this time, seeking comparison with example. Some usages will need relationship (or lack thereof) between English is not helpful, and they should secondary handouts of their own with subjunctive usage in English and Latin. prepare to see something new. Then first plenty of space for more details (e.g. The Latin subjunctive basically serves introduce the subjunctive purely within conditional clauses, sequence of tenses); for the speaker to distance themselves the context of the other Latin moods: In yet whatever else you provide, one overall from a statement. It thus functions to a nutshell, the indicative is there to state road-map to the subjunctive will make the mark (a) an utterance as not a fact but a facts. The imperative is there to give subjunctive much less daunting while it is possibility and (b) a clause as not the main commands. The subjunctive covers the area being introduced, and much less confusing statement, but as subordinate. These two in between – it is there to express any kind once all its facets have been introduced. functions overlap. They furthermore of potential or possibility. This leads you Using a similar approach for appear in many related but different straight to the four main clause uses of whatever other topics – participle or shapes in actual Latin usage – different the subjunctive – potential, optative, infinitive usage, functions of the ablative, enough that we need to be able to hortatory/jussive and deliberative. Again prepositions – will provide students with identify them and keep them apart to in a nutshell, English uses modal verbs to context and will help them understand translate them correctly, related enough to express these. what and with what goal they are learning. make this a challenging and fiddly The uses of the subjunctive in It will give them not just a better idea of enterprise. subordinate clauses are much more their progress, but also a perspective on The English subjunctive survives in varied, of course, but they continue in the the finiteness of what they yet need to rudiments only. There are formulaic same semantic vein as their main-clause learn. A collection of such overview expressions such as ‘(God) bless you!’, cousins: they mark clauses as not being sheets can serve as a student-made ‘Perish the thought!’, ‘be that as it may’ statements of fact. In subordinate clauses, reference grammar. etc.; in addition to these, there are three that may mean the same thing as in main Such a fairly analytical approach can (relatively) productive subjunctive uses, as clauses – expressing potential or be used to teach the grammar of any listed by should be Huddleston and possibility – or it may mean simply that a language; yet when it comes to teaching Pullum (2002:993-1002): (i) the clause is marked as subordinate rather modern languages, many teachers will subjunctive mandative construction than main. Having introduced these two prefer a learning-by-doing (or in this case: (‘We insist that she be kept informed.’), notions, we can then flesh them out by learning-by-speaking) approach as much

Downloaded56 from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 170.106.40.139, on 28 SepOn 2021 Language at 16:41:07 Teaching, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S2058631018000077 as possible. This makes sense as one of through them is an excellent addition to granted in language teaching. And maybe the main goals of learning a modern the more passive knowledge that is the at some point new instructors will no language likely is to speak it, and native result of traditional Latin or Greek more be faced with the ‘well-isn’t-it- speakers, whose level of language mastery classes. But that is what they should be: obvious’ attitude that ‘anyone can teach all other language learners aspire to, have an addition, just as the kind of oratorical Latin!’ also learnt their language by listening and training authors like Cicero or Ovid speaking rather than by studying a received was an addition to the language Dr Antonia Ruppel, antonia. grammar book. skills they acquired in the ‘natural’ way as [email protected] Yet ancient-language learning has a children. different goal. No matter your approach The aim of the above has been to to using the ‘natural’ method of teaching give those about to embark on ancient- spoken or ‘living’ Latin or Greek, the language teaching some background on Bibliography main reason for learning those languages both language and the teaching of it, first is to read the texts written in them, and by introducing some theory behind what Forsyth, M. (2013). The Elements of Eloquence: for the main part, those texts are highly we do as language teachers, and then by How to Turn the Perfect English Phrase. London: literary, polished and artful. To be able to offering some practical applications of Icon Books. not just make sense of, but to actually these theoretical thoughts. While every appreciate them, one needs to have teacher has their own individual Huddleston, R., and Pullum, G. (2002). The sound knowledge of the grammar that preferences, we hope that many will find Cambridge Grammar of the English Language. their authors had mastered and were some elements here that they will make Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. then playing with – arguably the kind of part of their teaching style; perhaps this de Saussure, F. (1916, repr. 1971). Cours de knowledge that spoken language classes will also apply to some more seasoned linguistique générale. Paris: Payot. or meetups cannot provide. Those latter teachers. Many Classicists will disagree are indeed enormously enjoyable, and with many of the things said here; the Twain, M. (1880). A Tramp Abroad. Appendix the active knowledge of the language article’s second aim is to cause more D: The Awful German Language. Hartford: basics that many students acquire explicit discussion of things we take for American Publishing Company.