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Nouns & Pronouns
Nouns and Pronouns 10 Looking more closely at nouns Nouns are words that name: Grammarians have come up with different groupings: Common Proper Collective Abstract Concrete Mass Compound You might also mention verbal nouns (gerunds). Let’s save these for verbs and verbals. I am not overly concerned about these classifications, and I don’t think you should be, but they do make sense. The subject of a sentence may have a noun in it (or a pronoun), but not all nouns are subjects. Nouns have many uses: subject complement of verb direct object indirect object object complement (when a noun) subject complement (predicate noun) object of preposition appositive (Jane, the troublemaker, walked into the room.) in direct address (Jane, please clean your room.) — a cross between subject, appos. & subj. comp?) Nouns and Pronouns 11 The grammarian winced. (subj.) The grammarian threw Tom the text. (i.o., d.o.) The grammarian is a scholar. (subj. compl.—predicate noun) The grammarian pronounced Tom his pupil. (d.o., obj. compl.) The grammarian threw the text to Tom. (obj. of prep.) (notice relationship between i.o. and this prep. phrase) The grammarian, poor soul, needed more time to study. (appos.) Do not forget, grammarians, the test is approaching. (direct addr.) Hearse Declension & Conjugation Old English (Anglo-Saxon, which developed in the 400s and 500s) was a heavily declined and conjugated language. Nouns, pronouns and adjectives had different endings depending on their use in a sentence – as subject, indirect or direct objects, and so forth – in other words they were declined by case. Verbs and adverbs changed their endings, they were conjugated, depending on tense, person, number, and voice. -
Sign Language Typology Series
SIGN LANGUAGE TYPOLOGY SERIES The Sign Language Typology Series is dedicated to the comparative study of sign languages around the world. Individual or collective works that systematically explore typological variation across sign languages are the focus of this series, with particular emphasis on undocumented, underdescribed and endangered sign languages. The scope of the series primarily includes cross-linguistic studies of grammatical domains across a larger or smaller sample of sign languages, but also encompasses the study of individual sign languages from a typological perspective and comparison between signed and spoken languages in terms of language modality, as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to sign language typology. Interrogative and Negative Constructions in Sign Languages Edited by Ulrike Zeshan Sign Language Typology Series No. 1 / Interrogative and negative constructions in sign languages / Ulrike Zeshan (ed.) / Nijmegen: Ishara Press 2006. ISBN-10: 90-8656-001-6 ISBN-13: 978-90-8656-001-1 © Ishara Press Stichting DEF Wundtlaan 1 6525XD Nijmegen The Netherlands Fax: +31-24-3521213 email: [email protected] http://ishara.def-intl.org Cover design: Sibaji Panda Printed in the Netherlands First published 2006 Catalogue copy of this book available at Depot van Nederlandse Publicaties, Koninklijke Bibliotheek, Den Haag (www.kb.nl/depot) To the deaf pioneers in developing countries who have inspired all my work Contents Preface........................................................................................................10 -
Conditional If-Clauses in Late Middle English Prose Texts
Kikusawa, Namiko (2011) Conditional if-clauses in Late Middle English prose texts. MPhil(R) thesis. http://theses.gla.ac.uk/2637/ Copyright and moral rights for this thesis are retained by the author A copy can be downloaded for personal non-commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the Author The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the Author When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given Glasgow Theses Service http://theses.gla.ac.uk/ [email protected] Conditional if-clauses in Late Middle English prose texts Namiko Kikusawa Submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Philosophy Department of English Language Faculty of Arts University of Glasgow 2011 Abstract In this thesis, I am going to conduct a corpus-based analysis of if-clauses in fifteenth-century texts. The fifteenth century has generally been considered a crucial period for the evolution of this construction: a turning-point where the subjunctive starts to lose ground, being replaced by substitutional expressions such as the indicative and modal auxiliaries. The aim of this thesis is to provide a detailed description of if-clauses in the fifteenth century from both form-based and semantic viewpoints. In the form-based approach, by classifying examples into three categories, subjunctive, indicative and modals, two points will be examined: variation across genres and sociolects. -
1 How Verbs and Clauses Work (Updated 9/1/2020) Felicia Jean Steele in Our Introduction, I Wrote About the Nine Parts of Speech
How Verbs and Clauses Work (updated 9/1/2020) Felicia Jean Steele In our introduction, I wrote about the nine parts of speech. Most of them are probably familiar to you from elementary school or from Grammar Rock or Mad Libs: nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions. Part of the humor of Mad Libs comes from the fact that not all nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions work entirely the same way in all the same environments. In this reading, we will talk explicitly about verbs and about what happens when we put a noun and a verb together—the clause. When we complete a Mad Libs, we happily fill in the blanks with present and past tense verbs without blinking an eye. When the game asks us to provide a past tense verb, we generally fill it in with a simple -ed form of a verb, such as loved, walked, acted. If we're feeling saucy, we'll use one of the “irregular” verbs: swam, wrote, ran. In both cases, we use past tense forms to signify actions or states we have performed or experienced in a time prior to our present moment. In the simplest possible terms, English only changes the form of verbs to indicate a change from present to past time. As a result, linguists say that English has two grammatical tenses: present and past. Tense, or the time of an action or state, isn't the only quality that verbs reflect. Verbs also reflect their mood, voice, and aspect. In some languages, these properties are represented by adding an affix (prefix or suffix) to the actual word. -
Czech and English Dictionaries of Collocations Master‟S Diploma Thesis
Masaryk University Faculty of Arts Department of English and American Studies English Language and Literature Lucie Koumalová Czech and English Dictionaries of Collocations Master‟s Diploma Thesis Supervisor: PhDr. Jarmila Fictumová 2011 I declare that I have worked on this thesis independently, using only the primary and secondary sources listed in the bibliography. …………………………………………….. Author‟s signature Acknowledgement I would like to thank to my supervisor PhDr. Jarmila Fictumová for the advice she gave me. “You shall know a word by the company it keeps” (Firth) Table of Contents INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 1 1 THE IMPORTANCE OF CREATING A DICTIONARY OF COLLOCATIONS ..................................................................................................... 3 2 HOW TO JUDGE INDIVIDUAL DICTIONARIES ................................................ 6 3 CHUNKS ....................................................................................................................... 8 3.1 Collocations ............................................................................................................. 9 3.1.1 Distinction of Collocations ............................................................................. 11 3.1.2 Function of Collocations ................................................................................ 15 3.1.3 Special Terms ................................................................................................ -
Definition of a Sentence a Sentence Is a Group of Words Containing A
Definition of a Sentence A sentence is a group of words containing a subject and predicate. Sometimes, the subject is "understood," as in a command: "[You] go next door and get a cup of sugar." That probably means that the shortest possible complete sentence is something like "Go!" Experienced writers use a variety of sentences to make their writing interesting and lively. Too many simple sentences, for example, will sound choppy and immature while too many long sentences will be difficult to read and hard to understand. This page contains definitions of simple, compound, and complex sentences with many simple examples. The purpose of these examples is to help the ESL/EFL learner to identify sentence basics including identification of sentences in the short quizzes that follow. After that, it will be possible to analyze more complex sentences varieties. SIMPLE SENTENCE A simple sentence, also called an independent clause, contains a subject and a verb, and it expresses a complete thought. In the following simple sentences, subjects are in yellow, and verbs are in green. A. Some students like to study in the mornings. B. Juan and Arturo play football every afternoon. C. Alicia goes to the library and studies every day. The three examples above are all simple sentences. Note that sentence B contains a compound subject, and sentence C contains a compound verb. Simple sentences, therefore, contain a subject and verb and express a complete thought, but they can also contain a compound subjects or verbs. COMPOUND SENTENCE A compound sentence contains two independent clauses joined by a coordinator. -
Bilingual Complex Verbs: So What’S New About Them? Author(S): Tridha Chatterjee Proceedings of the 38Th Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society (2014), Pp
Bilingual Complex Verbs: So what’s new about them? Author(s): Tridha Chatterjee Proceedings of the 38th Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society (2014), pp. 47-62 General Session and Thematic Session on Language Contact Editors: Kayla Carpenter, Oana David, Florian Lionnet, Christine Sheil, Tammy Stark, Vivian Wauters Please contact BLS regarding any further use of this work. BLS retains copyright for both print and screen forms of the publication. BLS may be contacted via http://linguistics.berkeley.edu/bls/ . The Annual Proceedings of the Berkeley Linguistics Society is published online via eLanguage , the Linguistic Society of America's digital publishing platform. Bilingual Complex Verbs: So what’s new about them?1 TRIDHA CHATTERJEE University of Michigan, Ann Arbor Introduction In this paper I describe bilingual complex verb constructions in Bengali-English bilingual speech. Bilingual complex verbs have been shown to consist of two parts, the first element being either a verbal or nominal element from the non- native language of the bilingual speaker and the second element being a helping verb or dummy verb from the native language of the bilingual speaker. The verbal or nominal element from the non-native language provides semantics to the construction and the helping verb of the native language bears inflections of tense, person, number, aspect (Romaine 1986, Muysken 2000, Backus 1996, Annamalai 1971, 1989). I describe a type of Bengali-English bilingual complex verb which is different from the bilingual complex verbs that have been shown to occur in other codeswitched Indian varieties. I show that besides having a two-word complex verb, as has been shown in the literature so far, bilingual complex verbs of Bengali-English also have a three-part construction where the third element is a verb that adds to the meaning of these constructions and affects their aktionsart (aspectual properties). -
Periphrastic Causative Constructions in Mehweb Daria Barylnikova National Research University Higher School of Economics
Chapter 6 Periphrastic causative constructions in Mehweb Daria Barylnikova National Research University Higher School of Economics In Mehweb, periphrastic causatives are formed by a combination of the infinitive of the lexical verb with another verb, originally a caused motion verb. Various tests that Mehweb periphrastic causatives do not qualify as fully grammaticalized. But the constructions are not compositional expressions, either. While a clause usually contains either a morphological or a periphrastic causative marker, there are instances where, in a periphrastic causative construction, the lexical verb itself may carry the causative affix, resulting in only one causative meaning. Keywords: causative, periphrastic causative, double causative, Mehweb, Dargwa, East Caucasian. 1 Introduction The causative construction denotes a complex situation consisting of twocom- ponent events: (1) the event that causes another event to happen; and (2) the result of this causation (Comrie 1989: 165–166; Nedjalkov & Silnitsky 1973; Ku- likov 2001). Here, the first event refers to the action of the causer and the second explicates the effect of the causation on the causee. Causativization is a valency-increasing derivation which is applied to the structure of the clause. In the resulting construction, the causer is the subject and the causee shifts to a non-subject position. The set of semantic roles does not remain the same. Minimally, a new agent is added. With a new argument added, we have to redistribute the grammatical relations taking into account how these participants semantically relate to each other. The general scheme of the causative derivation always implies a participant that is treated as a causer (someone or something that spreads their control over the situation and “pulls Daria Barylnikova. -
Chinese: Parts of Speech
Chinese: Parts of Speech Candice Chi-Hang Cheung 1. Introduction Whether Chinese has the same parts of speech (or categories) as the Indo-European languages has been the subject of much debate. In particular, while it is generally recognized that Chinese makes a distinction between nouns and verbs, scholars’ opinions differ on the rest of the categories (see Chao 1968, Li and Thompson 1981, Zhu 1982, Xing and Ma 1992, inter alia). These differences in opinion are due partly to the scholars’ different theoretical backgrounds and partly to the use of different terminological conventions. As a result, scholars use different criteria for classifying words and different terminological conventions for labeling the categories. To address the question of whether Chinese possesses the same categories as the Indo-European languages, I will make reference to the familiar categories of the Indo-European languages whenever possible. In this chapter, I offer a comprehensive survey of the major categories in Chinese, aiming to establish the set of categories that are found both in Chinese and in the Indo-European languages, and those that are found only in Chinese. In particular, I examine the characteristic features of the major categories in Chinese and discuss in what ways they are similar to and different from the major categories in the Indo-European languages. Furthermore, I review the factors that contribute to the long-standing debate over the categorial status of adjectives, prepositions and localizers in Chinese. 2. Categories found both in Chinese and in the Indo-European languages This section introduces the categories that are found both in Chinese and in the Indo-European languages: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions and conjunctions. -
02 Whole.Pdf (6.688Mb)
Copyright is owned by the Author of the thesis. Permission is given for a copy to be downloaded by an individual for the purpose of research and private study only. The thesis may not be reproduced elsewhere without the permission of the Author. A study of the apostrophe in New Zealand today: its use, attitudes towards its use and its place in a historical continuum. A thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Linguistics at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand. Hilary Louise Laracy 2018 i Copyright is owned by the author of the thesis. Permission is given for a copy to be downloaded by an individual for the purpose of research and private study only. The thesis may not be produced elsewhere without the permission of the author. Title image: Cootes, 1658, p. 27. Image courtesy of The Newbury Library, Chicago, Call number case I 6111.19. Image published with permission of ProQuest. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. ii Abstract This is the first study to tell the whole story of the apostrophe in one comprehensive work. In a two-part study, the investigation first traces the history of the apostrophe from its origins to the prescriptive rules that govern its use today, before exploring the factors that influence modern attitudes and practices, as well as implications for the future. Part I involves an examination of the relevant literature and original manuscripts and texts to trace the history of the apostrophe from a 2,000 year old Greek papyrus, through French and into English in the sixteenth century, showing that it did not come via Latin as dictionary etymologies suggest. -
The Syntax of Simple and Compound Tenses in Ndebele Joanna Pietraszko*
Proc Ling Soc Amer Volume 1, Article 18:1-15 doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.3765/plsa.v1i0.3716 The Syntax of simple and compound tenses in Ndebele Joanna Pietraszko* Abstract. It is a widely accepted generalization that verbal periphrasis is triggered by in- creased inflectional meaning and a paucity of verbal elements to support its realization. This work examines the limitations on synthetic verbal forms in Ndebele and argues that periphrasis in this language arises via a last-resort grammatical mechanism. The proposed trigger of auxiliary insertion is c-selection – a relation between inflectional categories and verbs. Keywords. verbal periphrasis; default auxiliary; c-selection; Ndebele; Bantu 1. Introduction. This paper focuses on the mechanics of default periphrasis – a phenomenon where a default verb (an auxiliary) appears in a complex inflectional context. I provide an anal- ysis of two types of compound tenses in Ndebele:1 Perfect and Prospective tenses, arguing that periphrastic expressions in those tenses are triggered by c-selectional features on T heads. The type of verbal periphrasis we find in Ndebele is known as the overflow pattern of auxiliary use (Bjorkman, 2011), and is illustrated in (1),2 where Present Perfect and Simple Future are synthetic (there is no auxiliary), but Future Perfect is periphrastic (1-c). (1) Default periphrasis in Ndebele: a. U- ∅- dl -ile Present Perfect/Recent Past (synthetic) 2sg- PST- eat -FS.PST ‘You have eaten/you ate recently’. b. U- za- dl -a Simple Future (synthetic) 2sg- FUT- eat -FS ‘You will eat’. c. U- za- be u- ∅- dl -ile Future Perfect (periphrastic) 2sg- FUT- aux 2sg- PST- eat -FS.PST ‘You will have eaten’. -
UC Berkeley Dissertations, Department of Linguistics
UC Berkeley Dissertations, Department of Linguistics Title Constructional Morphology: The Georgian Version Permalink https://escholarship.org/uc/item/1b93p0xs Author Gurevich, Olga Publication Date 2006 eScholarship.org Powered by the California Digital Library University of California Constructional Morphology: The Georgian Version by Olga I Gurevich B.A. (University of Virginia) 2000 M.A. (University of California, Berkeley) 2002 A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Linguistics in the GRADUATE DIVISION of the UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY Committee in charge: Professor Eve E. Sweetser, Co-Chair Professor James P. Blevins, Co-Chair Professor Sharon Inkelas Professor Johanna Nichols Spring 2006 The dissertation of Olga I Gurevich is approved: Co-Chair Date Co-Chair Date Date Date University of California, Berkeley Spring 2006 Constructional Morphology: The Georgian Version Copyright 2006 by Olga I Gurevich 1 Abstract Constructional Morphology: The Georgian Version by Olga I Gurevich Doctor of Philosophy in Linguistics University of California, Berkeley Professor Eve E. Sweetser, Co-Chair, Professor James P. Blevins, Co-Chair Linguistic theories can be distinguished based on how they represent the construc- tion of linguistic structures. In \bottom-up" models, meaning is carried by small linguistic units, from which the meaning of larger structures is derived. By contrast, in \top-down" models the smallest units of form need not be individually meaningful; larger structures may determine their overall meaning and the selection of their parts. Many recent developments in psycholinguistics provide empirical support for the latter view. This study combines intuitions from Construction Grammar and Word-and-Para- digm morphology to develop the framework of Constructional Morphology.