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Development and Management of Riparian Wildlife Habitat by the Tennessee Valley Authority 1

2 Ronald J. Field and Roosevelt T. Allen

The Tennessee Valley Authority is responsible for management of 11,200 miles of riverine or lacustrine shore­ line in portions of seven States. The agency has undertaken numerous projects including wetlands enhancement, manipula­ tion of dewatering units, agricultural license restrictions, and drawdown zone seeding, to improve these areas for wild­ life populations.

The Tennessee River system transects 11,280 miles of lacustrine and riverine shore­ portions of the seven southeastern States of line (TVA 1984). Much of this land conforms to Virginia, North Carolina, Kentucky, Tennessee, the definition of riparian zone used by Thomas Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi. Its major et al. (1979). For uniformity, areas adjacent tributaries, the Holston and French Broad, begin to both impounded and freeflowing water will be in mountainous southwestern Virginia and North considered riparian for this paper. Carolina and fall from 2600 feet to 1000 feet msl from the headwaters to their confluence at The Office of Natural Resources and Economic Knoxville where they form the Tennessee. From Development is responsible for providing environ­ there the river flows 650 miles to its junction mental safeguards and enhancement of environ­ with the Ohio River in Paducah, Kentucky, at a mental quality within the riparian zones of the final elevation of 300 feet msl. Historically 346,000-acre area owned by TVA above normal the Tennessee was an undeveloped resource which full pool level, as well as the 176,000 acres defied navigation because of abrupt fluctuations of shoreline subject to annual flooding and draw­ in gradient, and several hazardous shoal areas down (Fowler & Maddox 1974). These activities as shallow as 18 inches. The river seasonally are conducted through a series of Federal laws, ravaged the Valley with floodwaters, scouring executive orders, and agency promulgated policies erosive top soils from poorly managed farms to and practices designed for environmental protec­ deposit them in bottomlands further downstream tion, and through programmatic projects designed (McCarthy & Voightlander 1983). to develop or enhance natural resources in the Tennessee Valley. These activities have been In 1933 legislation known as the Tennessee previously discussed during this conference Valley Authority Act was introduced by Senator (Allen and Field, 1985). George Norris of Nebraska and signed into law by President Franklin D. Roosevelt. The Act directed the Tennessee Valley Authority to pro­ ENHANCEMENT OF RIPARIAN ZONES FOR WILDLIFE vide flood control, navigation, electrical power production, fertilizer development, reforesta­ Because of the agency's role in conservation tion, agricultural and industrial development, and development of natural resources, TVA has, and to "aid further the proper use, conservation, for many years, been involved in the management of and development of the natural resources of the riparian zones for numerous purposes. Development Tennessee River drainage basin" (TVA Act of 1933). of wildlife habitat in these areas is an integral part of this role. TVA operates across an 80,000 square mile, 201-county region. The nine mainstream reser­ Dewatering Areas Management voir and 23 tributary dam projects inundate 654,000 acres at full summer pool, creating Early in the history of TVA, biologists in the Biological Readjustment Unit attempted to evaluate how the conversion of the Tennessee River 1Paper presented at the Riparian Ecosystems into a chain of lakes affected water-related wild­ and their Management: Reconciling Conflicting life (Cahn 1938) and how forestry and agriculture Uses Conference. [University of Arizona, Tucson, would affect upland species (TVA 1946). One of April 16-18, 1985]. the first major efforts to manage riparian zones 2 R. J. Field is Program Manager of Wildlife occurred in conjunction with establishment of Resources Development, TVA, Norris, Tenn.; R. T. Kentucky Reservoir by constructing several miles Allen, Divisional Environmental Coordinator, TVA, of low dikes and levees along the river. On Knoxville, Tenn. Wheeler Reservoir, similar structures were built

265 after impoundment (Weihe & Hess 1944). They were with backhoes, and some heavy equipment using equipped with water control gates and massive draglines were used to remove obstructing materials pumps with up to 52,000 gallon per minute water from clogged ditches and repair eroded dikes. movement capacity. The pumps were designed to Helicopters were used to reseed spoil banks. remove the shallow, impounded water from areas Some timber salvage has been conducted to utilize behind these dikes during the spring and summer standing timber before further deterioration occurs. seasons. Through this dewatering process breeding Experiments are presently underway for reestablish­ habitat for the malaria vectoring Anopheles ing important bottomland hardwood stands in many quadrimaculatus mosquito was eliminated. Eight arPas where water damage has resulted in the loss of the dewatering units began operation during or removal of these species. 1945, and two in 1949. The seasonal dewatering of slightly more than 13,000 acres of fertile bottomlands not only eliminated mosquito breeding Drawdown Zone Management areas, it enabled extensive production of agricul­ tural crops and native moist soil plants such as The dewatering units located on Kentucky and smartweeds and millets (Weihe et al., 1950). Wheeler Reservoirs are readily accessible to water­ Several thousand acres of lands in the units were fowl migrating along the Mississippi Flyway. The licensed or transferred to the States or what is majority of the Tennessee River and its major tri­ now the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, for the butaries, the Holston, French Broad, Clinch, and management of waterfowl and other wildlife. These Little Tennessee, however, lie between the units subsequently became a principal factor, in Mississippi and the Atlantic flyways. Their geo­ combination with the deteriorating wetlands graphic location in the mountainous terrain of habitat along the Gulf Coast, in establishing Virginia and North Carolina, combined with their the Tennessee River Valley as a major wintering major functions in flood storage and power produc­ area for more than 1/2 million waterfowl annually, tion, long ago were identified as major impediments on an area that had formally held fewer than to effective management of wildlife on these upper 10,000 birds. By 1962, 68 percent of the winter­ reservoirs (Weihe 1946). The drawdown zone for ing waterfowl in the States of Tennessee and flood water storage on tributary reservoirs may Alabama were located within the Tennessee Valley exceed 100 feet in some cases, making natural (TVA 1962). growth and maintenance of either emergent or submergent aquatic plants nearly impossible during A combination of factors, including design the fall migrating and wintering periods for of a detailed forest inventory procedure on TVA waterfowl. Consequently little food is present lands (Field et al, 1985) and record high spring and few waterfowl use the region, even though water levels in 1983 and 1984, resulted in close Bellrose (1976) estimates that up to 3/4 million scrutiny of the more than 3,000 acres of bottom­ waterfowl overfly these areas during annual land hardwoods in the dewatering areas. Several migrations. stands of timber were found to exhibit uneven symptoms of water induced stress. Efforts were Several techniques have been successfully quickly initiated to evaluate the extent of the employed to address this situation for the benefit problem and attempt to identify the source. A of waterfowl and upland species. Fowler and Whelan combination of techniques, including the use of (1980) clearly showed the value of drawdown zone high altitude color infrared photography, eleva­ seeding for deer on TVA reservoirs. Earlier work tion surveys, and onsite vegetation analysis and by Fowler and Maddox (1974) and Fowler and Hammer inventory described elsewhere (Fowler et al., (1976) identified effective techniques for apply­ 1985), was used. ing seed and fertilizer to both mudflats and steep shorelines along reservoirs, using a barge mounted This investigation resulted in the diagnosis hydroseeder or aquaseeder, an air cushion vehicle, of a major problem within three of the ten dewater­ and a helicopter. Each exhibited some advantages ing units. Increasing populations of beavers under specific conditions. within the units had combined with siltation in several drainage ditches or canals, to effectively In 1982 TVA initiated a program on Douglas prevent removal of water from the seasonally Reservoir to establish suitable habitat and food flooded timber duripg the spring. This inundation for migrating waterfowl. Initially the project during the growing season had caused tree mortality involved the hand clearing of woody vegetation in several areas, and as the dead trees fell across and use of a rice terrace plow to temporarily drainage ditches, the problem was exacerbated. The retain standing water after the summer reservoir magnitude of the situation required an extensive drawdown. Areas adjacent to the temporary sub­ program of debris and silt removal to restore water impoundment were seeded with a mixture of Japanese management capability, which resulted in approxi­ millet and buckwheat in order to provide adequate mately 62 miles of ditch and levee renovation, at food for incoming birds. Portable pumps were used a cost of approximately $1.4 million. Fortunately, to pump water up from the reservoir to flood the the initiation of this project coincided with sites. passage of the 1983 Federal Jobs Bill (Public Law 98-8), and a large number of previously unemployed Initial efforts in the 740-acre area were workers were hired to execute the renovation with moderately successful and encouraging. Although minimum environmental disturbance. Following guide­ unusually dry weather and porous soil inhibited lines published by the International Association water retention, informal surveys suggested of Fish and Wildlife Agencies (McConnell et al., increased use of the area by both migrant waterfowl 1983), hand clearing operations, small tractors and deer. Efforts were consequently expanded and

266 sand bags were used to build low dikes in runoff row crop licensing, be reviewed by a wildlife areas, thus creating 12 shallow ponds or sloughs biologist. In tracts of sufficient size, configu­ ranging in size from 1/10 to 4 acres. These areas ration, or placement to be important, special contained large quantities of natural moist site requirements such as buffer strips of unmowed vegetation, which was supplemented with seeded natural vegetation adjacent to the reservoir, cereal crops. Surveys during September 1984 maintenance of ditches or gullies in native vege­ indicated several thousand shore and wading birds, tation, or leaving a percentage of grain crops including great egrets, white ibises, and herons; for wildlife use, are incorporated within the 900-1000 wood ducks, and large numbers of teal, license agreement. Agency lands licensed for mallards, and Canada geese, made extensive use livestock pasturage are also being reviewed to of the area. A major increase in white-tailed determine whether rest-rotation grazing schemes deer use of the project area also occurred, which (Kauffman and Krueger 1984) may be practical on was attributed to availability of natural and these areas. domestic food plants. A total of 22 deer were legally harvested from the 740-acre area in 1984, the first year of open hunting on the site. Other Projects Numerous other less conspicuous but very Nolichucky Project important projects have been established on TVA's riparian lands for the benefit of wildlife. These A major project on one of the second order include Valley-wide wood duck habitat evaluation tributaries of the Tennessee is TVA's Nolichucky and cooperative wetlands mapping with the U.S. Waterfowl Sanctuary and Environmental Study Area Fish and Wildlife Service in the National Wetlands in eastTennessee. The Nolichucky Dam, built in Inventory program. 1913 as a small hydroelectric project, initially impounded some 21,750 acre feet of water covering Another important action has been the esta­ approximately 635 surface acres (TVA, 1972). Mica blishment of two eagle sanctuaries covering and feldspar mining operations in the North approximately 1000 acres of land and water sur­ Carolina watershed, however, caused extensive face on TVA's Land Between The Lakes (LBL). These siltation in the reservoir, gradually reducing sanctuaries were established in 1974 and 1981 to storage capacity. By 1970 less than 25 percent secure an area frequented by relatively large of this storage remained, and by 1980, 90 percent numbers of wintering bald and golden eagles. An had been eliminated. In 1972, TVA retired the average of 50 eagles, at times ranging as high as facility and designated the 1,000-acre project 85, winter on the 170,000 LBL area and a communal as a waterfowl sanctuary and environmental study roost has been documented within one of the area. Water levels were manipulated using a 2~foot sanctuary areas. scheduled drawdown to seasonally expose 70 acres of mudflats. These areas were seeded to millet, Establishment of these sanctuaries has been buckwheat, sorghum, and other cereals, and an integral aspect of TVA's raptor restoration and reflooded during the fall and winter for migrat­ management projects. These include a cooperative ing waterfowl. The mudflats also supported numer­ bald eagle restoration effort involving State, ous native species including smartweeds and sedges. other Federal agencies, and private conservation Concomitantly, upland areas adjacent to the reser­ organizations which have resulted in the release voir were planted to hedgerows of autumn olive, through hacking of 12 young and 2 rehabilitated sawtooth oak, and bicolor lespedeza, and nest adult bald eagles at LBL since 1980, and an addi­ boxes were built and placed for bluebirds, wood tional 8 bald, 24 golden eagles, 131 ospreys, and ducks, and other species. The result has bee~ 8 peregrine falcons at other sites. This project an influx of breeding wood ducks, with 1983 night­ resulted during 1984 in the first successful nest­ time float counts as high as 3.5 broods and 38 ing of a captive reared bald eagle in the wild birds per mile of impounded water, and winter~ng (Hammer et al., 1984). waterfowl counts ranging between 2,000 and 3,000 birds. CONCLUSION

Agricultural Practices TVA has been active in the management of riparian lands under its ownership since its Nearly 20,000 acres of TVA's reservoir lands inception in 1933. Many of the techniques that are licensed to local farmers for hay/pasture or have been used have involved innovative approaches row crop production. In many areas soils are to management of vegetation, and consequently highly erosive and most are subject to irregular wildlife, in conjunction with water level manipu­ inundation during periods of unusually high water. lations. Other efforts have concentrated on pro­ Poor farming practices, historically a problem in tection of riparian habitat. Additional techniques the Tennessee Valley, have sometimes been employed including comprehensive land use planning and on these licensed lands, resulting in soil erosion compartmental forest management have been discussed and decreased water quality in adjacent reservoirs. elsewhere (Field et al., 1985) and blend well with Consequently in 1982, TVA implemented a program the overall conservation and development responsi­ designed to curtail riparian zone erosion and bility of the Tennessee Valley Authority. These simultaneously enhance lands under agricultural techniques, and others yet to be developed, contri­ license for wildlife. A policy was established bute to the maintenance of environmental quality in which required that each tract of land subject to the Tennessee River Valley.

267 LITERATURE CITED McCarthy, D. M. and C. W. Voightlander, Editors, 1983. The first fifty years: changed land, Allen, R. T., and R. J. Field. 1985. Riparian changed lives. State-of-the-environment in Zone Protection by TVA: An Overview of the Tennessee Valley--1983. Tennessee Valley Policies and Programs. Proc. of 1985 Riparian Authority, Knoxville, TN. 212 pp. Ecosystem Management Conference (In Press). Bellrose, Frank C., 1976. Ducks, Geese and Swans McConnell, C., A. Burns, E. Claire, D. Huff, of North America. A Wildlife Management J. Karr, G. Montgomery, D. Parsons, J. Sedell, Institute Book sponsored jointly with the and M. Seehorn, 1983. Stream obstruction Illinois Natural History Survey. Stackpole removal guidelines. International Assoc. of Books. Harrisburg, PA. 544 pp. Fish & Wildlife Agencies, The Wildlife Society, Cahn, A. R., 1938. The work of the TVA in relation and The Am. Fisheries Soc., Bethesda, MD. to the wildlife resources of the Tennessee 10 pp. Valley. Jl. of the Tenn, Acad. of Sci. Tennessee Valley Authority Act (PL 48-58, 18 May 13(3):174-179. 1933). Field, R. J., D. C. Forbes, and L. M. Doyle, 1985. Multiple-use management on Tennessee Valley Tennessee Valley Authority 1946. Biological Authority lands. Trans. 50th North Am. Readjustment Division. Annual report, fiscal Wildlife and Nat. Res. Conf. (In Press). year 1946. Rept. 190-46. Norris, TN. Fowler, D. K. and J. B. Maddox, 1974. Habitat Tennessee Valley Authority 1962. Annual report improvement along reservoir inundation zones FY 1962. Division of Forestry Development. by barge hydroseeding. Jl. Soil & Water Cons. Norris, TN. 29(6):263-265. Tennessee Valley Authority, 1972. Environmental Fowler, D. K. and D. A. Hammer, 1976. Techniques Statement: Rehabilitation of Nolichucky for establishing vegetation on reservoir Project. TVA-OHES-EIS-72-2. Chattanooga, TN. inundation zones. Jl. Soil & Water Cons. 17 pp & appendix. 31(3):116-118. Tennessee Valley Authority. 1984. TVA Handbook. Fowler, D. K. and J. B. Whelan, 1980. Importance Knoxville, Tennessee. 261 pp. of inundation zone vegetation to white-tailed Thomas, J. W., C. Maser, and J. E. Rodiek. 1979. deer. Jl. of Soil & Water Cons. 35(1):30-33. Wildlife Habitats in Managed Rangelands--The Fowler, D. K., W. K. James, and D. Becker, 1985. Great Basin of Southeastern Oregon. Riparian Use of infra-red photography to identify Zones. USDA Forest Service General Technical bottomland hardwood stands damaged by standing Report PNW-80. 18 pp. water. Presentation at 1985 Soil Cons. Soc. Weihe, A. H. 1946. Improving Conditions for of Amer. annual meeting (In preparation). Migratory Waterfowl on TVA Impoundments. Hammer, D. A., J. L. Mechler, M. E. Cope, and R. L. Jl. Wildlife Mgt. 10(1):4-8. Lowe, 1984. Successful wild nesting of a Weihe, A. H. and A. D. Hess, 1944. Mutual three-year old captive reared bald eagle interests of wildlife conservation and (Abstract). Raptor Research Foundation malaria control on impounded waters. annual meeting, Blacksburg, VA. Jl. Wildlife Mgmt. 8(4):275-283. Kauffman, J. B. and W. C. Kreuger, 1984. Live­ Weihe, A. H., E. R. Cady and P. Bryan, 1950. stock impacts on riparian ecosystems and Waterfowl on the Tennessee River impoundments. streamside management implications ••• a Trans. 15th North Am. Wildlife Conf. review. Jl. Range Management 37(5):430-437. 15:111-117.

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