The Effect of Political Portrayals on Political Cynicism
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From fiction to frame of mind: The effect of political portrayals on political cynicism Name: Helena Uhl ID: 12323764 Master’s Thesis Graduate School of Communication Master’s programme: Communication Science Supervisor: Rinaldo Kühne Date of completion: 31 January 2020 Abstract Given the dark themes in political thrillers and the potential threat that political cynicism poses to the functioning of a democracy, how and why they may influence each other is of great scholarly concern. Using an experimental design, this study examined the indirect influence of negative portrayals of politics in fiction on the political cynicism levels of viewers. In particular, this study aimed to link the content characteristics of political thrillers, such as storylines about conspiracies and villainous politicians, to political attitudes. Although these portrayals fostered negative impressions of the fictional politicians portrayed, the latter did not affect political cynicism. However ad-hoc analyses revealed that they did increase perceived immorality of politicians, a facet of political cynicism. No evidence was found for individual differences in how people responded to negative portrayals. This research provides further support for the benefits of taking a genre-specific approach when examining the potential effects elicited by fictional media content, especially by linking specific narratives with relevant political effects. 1 Introduction “For those of us climbing to the top of the food chain, there can be no mercy. There is but one rule: hunt or be hunted,” Frank Underwood famously said in House of Cards (Willimon & Franklin, 2014). The idea that politics is a ruthless game with people solely looking out for themselves is not unique to this show, but rather a feature of the political thriller genre (Castrillo & Echart, 2015). These portrayals have the potential to influence political attitudes, such as political cynicism. Studies have shown that fictional portrayals can influence not only strictly political attitudes (Jones & Paris, 2018; Kearns & Young, 2017) but also socio-political attitudes (Gillig, Rosenthal, Murphy & Folb, 2017; Swigger, 2017) and political engagement (Hoewe & Sherrill, 2019). In particular, negative portrayals of politics in entertainment TV were linked to an increase in cynicism and decline of political trust. Guggenheim, Kwak and Campbell (2011) argue that cable opinion news often introduces elements of opinion and personal attacks on politicians to entertain viewers and is thus associated with more distrust of politicians. Similarly, satirical news shows produce humorous content by criticizing political actors and therefore are associated with systemic cynicism (Baumgartner & Morris, 2006; Tsfati, Tukachinsky & Peri, 2009). A negative portrayal of politics in fictional television shows was also shown to elicit this effect (Manoliu, 2019). If entertainment media can play a role in the cultivation of political cynicism, this has serious implications for democracy. Dalton (2004) argued that in order for a democracy to function and for citizens to take part in it, they need to have faith and trust in politicians and political institutions. This was also confirmed empirically by Pinkleton and Austin (2004), who found that people with higher levels of cynicism were less likely to vote. 2 Therefore any media, which breeds political cynicism, indirectly poses a potential threat to the democratic process. Despite the importance of the topic, there are still some gaps in research examining the political effects of fictional TV shows. A limitation of previous research is that they often manipulated negativity using two different types of content, such as two different films or two episodes from different television shows. This increases the potential for confounding variables, therefore making it unclear which aspect of the stimuli affected the outcome. This study aims to fill this gap and improve internal validity by conducting research using two episodes from the same show. Additionally, previous research often examined the effect of one specific book, film or TV show on relevant political attitudes. This makes it difficult to generalize results to other fictional media content inviting the possibility that these results were content specific and cannot be replicated when other stimuli are used. By examining the influence of specific content characteristics that define political thrillers, this study aims to produce results that are at least generalizable to the whole genre. Individual differences are also under-explored when looking at the political effects of entertainment media. Related to the genre-based approach is the idea that fans of the genre may have different responses to the same content than ‘non-fans’. Young and Carpenter (2018) included previous exposure to the genre as a moderator and found that avid viewers of science fiction are more sensitive to priming effects. Therefore, previous exposure to the political thriller genre was included as a moderator. People who are particularly sensitive to or involved with negative media content may also experience more effects. Neuroticism is a personality trait, 3 which causes a tendency to experience negative affect (Bakker & de Vreese, 2016) and a focus on negative stimuli (Gotlib & McCabe, 1992). Therefore neuroticism may play a key role in a study exploring the influence of negativity in entertainment media on viewers and was included as a moderator. This research aims to investigate whether negative portrayals of politics, like those commonly featured in political thrillers, influence perceptions of fictional politicians and ultimately their level of political cynicism in real-life. Furthermore, it will examine whether these effects are different for people with varying degrees of previous exposure to the political thriller genre and different levels of neuroticism. Theoretical Framework Fictional Political Shows and the Political Thriller Genre Fictional political shows, particularly political thrillers, often feature very negative portrayals of politics, therefore this study examines their influence on political cynicism. Designated Survivor, House of Cards and 24 all share common themes, storylines and characters that play a role in the development of cynical attitudes. In political fiction, the overall focus is usually on recreating the backdrop and inner-workings of the highest levels of real-life politics. In America, that usually means it is set in the White House and the president is the main character (Rollins & O’Connor, 2003). Its realistic nature was argued to be one of the reasons why its consumption may have significant effects on viewers (Manoliu, 2019). A key characteristic of political thrillers is the inherent negativity in the themes they portray. This type of media content often features government conspiracies, political 4 assassinations and selfish political villains (Giglio, 2005; Van Zoonen & Wring, 2012). These themes are not only fundamentally negative but are carefully chosen to induce uncertainty and anxiety, according to Castrillo and Echart (2015). Therefore they are likely to stimulate negative attitudes in viewers. Additionally, several storylines commonly featured in political thrillers, are also likely to foster political cynicism. One key narrative is the presence of a large conspiracy in the highest levels of government where a cabal of political actors are trying to undermine democracy (Van Zoonen, 2005). Both 24 and Designated Survivor feature conspiracies that involve either the president or the vice president directly. These political figures are usually portrayed as being extremely ruthless and going to severe lengths to protect their own interests (Castrillo & Echart, 2015). Often a related storyline will feature the conflict between this villain and a threatened individual who is trying to unmask this conspiracy (Palmer, 1979). This focus on a conspiracy and a threatened protagonist is likely to induce a certain uneasiness towards politics and politicians. The character-driven storylines featured in political fiction may also play a role in this research. These storylines focus on an individual or several individuals who take part in politics, rather than examining a larger political issue (Gianos, 1998; Van Zoonen & Wring, 2012). This type of focus on the perpetrators of conspiracies over more generalized information on the political problem can lead to misplaced attributions of blame (Iyengar, 1996). After consuming this type of media content, viewers are more likely to blame a character’s personal attributes 5 rather than situational factors for any political problems. This, in turn, can foster negative attitudes towards these characters and play a role in increasing political cynicism. Television Portrayals and Political Cynicism According to framing theory, media content presents politics from a particular perspective, which has the capacity to affect how viewers perceive it (Goffman, 1986). Due to their themes, storylines and focus on political villain’s behaviors, political thrillers create a negative portrayal of politics that highlights political turmoil, the difficulty of fighting back against conspirators and blatant corruption. Thereby, laying the groundwork for the development of cynicism and apathy towards politics (Christensen & Haas, 2005), as these portrayals make related experiences that previously induced cynicism towards politics more accessible to viewers (Cappella & Jamieson, 1997). Although