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33 World Heritage papers

Human origin sites and the World Heritage Convention in World Heritage and the sites origin 33 World Heritage papers

HEADWORLD HERITAGES 2

Human origin sites and the World Heritage Convention in Africa

For more information contact: UNESCO World Heritage Centre papers 7, place Fontenoy 75352 Paris 07 SP Tel: 33 (0)1 45 68 18 76 Fax: 33 (0)1 45 68 55 70 E-mail: [email protected] http://whc.unesco.org World HeritageWorld Human origin sites and the World Heritage Convention in Africa

Nuria Sanz, Editor Coordinator of the World Heritage/HEADS Programme Table of Contents

Published in 2012 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization Foreword Page 6 7, place de Fontenoy, 75352 Paris 07 SP, France Kishore Rao, Director, UNESCO World Heritage Centre

© UNESCO 2012 Foreword Page 7 All rights reserved H.E. Amin Abdulkadir, Minister, Ministry of Culture and Federal Democratic Republic of ISBN 978-92-3-001081-2 Introduction Page 8 Original title: Human origin sites and the World Heritage Convention in Africa Published in 2012 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization Coordination of the HEADS Programme, UNESCO World Heritage Centre The designations employed and the presentation of material throughout this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNESCO concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. Outstanding Universal Value of human in Africa Page 13 Yves Coppens The ideas and opinions expressed in this publication are those of the authors; they are not necessarily those of UNESCO and do not commit the Organization.

Cover photo: Scientific Perspectives: Africa and HEADS Page 17 top: The Herto site. garhi and stone discovered in the area. 2 © David L. Brill, humanoriginsphotos.com from left to right: Excavation in the Great Sand Sea, . © Heinrich-Barth-Institut e.V ; occupation sites of Klasies River, Border , and comparable sites World Heritage and the Middle : Page 18 relating to the emergence of modern , . © Nuria Sanz ; Herto . examples from and South Africa © David L. Brill ; Archaeological investigation at Herto. © David L. Brill Nicholas Conard Supervision, editing and coordination: Ethnographic parallels for sites on the World Heritage List Page 30 Nuria Sanz, UNESCO World Heritage Centre Penelope Keenan, UNESCO World Heritage Centre Nuria Ametller, UNESCO World Heritage Centre Page 35 Chantal Connaughton, UNESCO World Heritage Centre ‘Africa as the Cradle’ vs ‘Out of Africa’ Emmanuelle Lachaud, UNESCO World Heritage Centre Margherita Mussi Caroline Lawrence African human evolution-related sites: Page 37 Coordination of the World Heritage Papers Series: towards a sustainable conservation plan Vesna Vujicic-Lugassy, UNESCO World Heritage Centre Francois Sémah

Graphic design: Recto Verso – realization by UNESCO/MSS/CLD Cover design: Recto Verso – realization by UNESCO/MSS/CLD Regional overview 3 Page 43 Printed by: Composed and printed in the workshops of UNESCO. The printer is certified Imprim’Vert®, the French printing ’s environmental initiative. The history of research in human evolution in Africa Page 44 Printed in France and what lessons have been learned Ronald Clarke

This publication was made possible thanks to the ongoing support to the The World Heritage List in Africa Page 69 World Heritage Thematic Programme HEADS by the Government of . 4

ICOMOS vision of how to fill the gaps on the Page 70 African World Heritage List related to human evolution Robin Dennell Eastern Africa 5 Page 85

Ethiopia’s paleoanthropological World Heritage sites: Page 86 research and conservation Yonas Beyene The earliest Stone Age of Ethiopia in the East African context Page 101 Anne Delagnes

Tanzania and the Outstanding Universal Value of its : Page 115 approaches at and lessons learned Charles Musiba, et al.

Northern Africa 6 Page 127

Lower Palaeolithic settlements in the Maghreb: current state of knowledge Page 128 and perspectives in the framework of the World Heritage Convention Mohamed Sahnouni environment: background and consequences for Page 151 conservation of early archaeological sites in Rudolph Kuper

Southern Africa 7 Page 165

Conservation and management of human evolution-related Page 166 sites in South Africa: present and future perspectives Nonofho Mathibidi Ndobochani

Approaches to the archaeological record 8 Page 179

Samburu Hills, East African Rift System, northern . Les marqueurs biologiques, rôle et standardization minimale pour Page 180 Sediments of the are being re-exposed as they erode to the flat valley below. © David L. Brill, le prélèvement de terrain à des fins d’études en laboratoire www.humanoriginsphotos.com Raymonde Bonnefille

Geology, stone and early populations of humans in Africa Page 192 Christian A. Tryon

How can ethnoarchaeology and human behavioural Page 207 ecology inform conservation efforts? Karen Lupo

Conclusion and way forward 9 Page 227

Africa: the origins of humankind. Towards a better representation of Page 228 human evolution in the framework of the World Heritage Convention Nuria Sanz Forewords

Africa is synonymous with the origins of humankind. As a continent, it contains a record of our ancestors over the past ‘African human origin sites and the World Heritage Convention’, held at the Conservatory Laboratory of the National s|OKNNKQP[GCTUCPFKUVJGJQOGQHUQOGQHVJGOQUVOCTMGFFKUEQXGTKGUQHJWOCPKV[YJKEJJCUGZRCPFGFsCPFEQPVKPWGU Museum of Ethiopia in Addis Ababa on 8 to 11 February 2011, was the first meeting to be held with UNESCO on human to expand – our knowledge of our first relatives and their environments. In this way, it has a special significance in our evolution sites in Africa. It was significant not only as it brought together a vast spectrum of delegates including site cultural development, as the very origins of culture and of the early humans that developed that culture can be traced back managers, experts, institutions, and policy-makers, but also as it had a focus on Africa, and provided the prospect for greater to Africa. Its place in human evolution is determined by its related geography and environmental variations – an environment regional cooperation in this field. This breadth of cooperation involved the important participation of the Agencia Española that sustains our first steps of cultural diversity. de Cooperación Internacional para el Desarrollo (AECID), the African World Heritage Fund, the Authority for Research and Conservation of Cultural Heritage (ARCCH) and coordination by the World Heritage Centre of UNESCO, all of whom This publication not only represents an interdisciplinary approach to the identification, study, management and evaluation of contributed to ensuring its success. human-origin related sites, but also the involvement of communities: communities in terms of the local communities living in and around sites, as as the international community that should enhance cooperation to preserve this invaluable heritage. The meeting proposed forward-thinking strategies for ensuring the sustainability of these vulnerable sites, and the application of an interdisciplinary approach to research and continued scientific reflexion. It discussed and proposed new Heritage is a shared responsibility, bridging our past to the future. This emphasis on a common past and destiny implicates a strategies for ensuring the sustainability of these sites, to better assess authenticity and their integrity, and to inform joint responsibility. The challenges that we are faced with today involve finding ways to ensure its sustainability and make ongoing and future conservation efforts. it accessible to all humankind. Ethiopia has demonstrated an active involvement in recognizing the intrinsic value of human evolution related sites to Since its inception in 2008, the World Heritage Thematic Programme ‘Human Evolution: Adaptations, Dispersals and Social humankind, and its utmost importance in developing our understanding of the evolutionary process. We are also proud to Developments (HEADS)’ has successfully demonstrated its capacity to bring together scientific knowledge, national capacities have nurtured some of the most well-known researchers in human evolution who have produced – and are still producing for protection and the commitment of the World Heritage community. – groundbreaking research that has challenged and broadened the knowledge of our origins. And particularly during the past 50 there has been a greater international focus on Ethiopia. Today, a great number of interdisciplinary research Building and strengthening the World Heritage community has remained a focus of the HEADS Programme. This is essential projects are carried out in the field, combining the expertise of Ethiopian and international experts. This is a tradition I hope in terms of conservation, management, research and awareness-raising efforts, incorporating the knowledge of local Ethiopia will continue to foster, and we remain committed to continuing an active involvement in the support of conserving communities as well as national and international expertise in challenging and refining our understanding of our origins, and these vulnerable sites for future generations. the communities that continue to live in these areas in the framework of the World Heritage Convention. This cooperation is vital in ensuring the continued significance of the Convention and creating and maintaining links with the people and the Since Ethiopia ratified the World Heritage Convention in 1977, nine sites in Ethiopia have been inscribed on the World land. The involvement of communities is even more resonant in 2012 as the Convention celebrates its 40th Anniversary with Heritage List, two of which are related to human evolution. Ethiopia began its four- mandate to the World Heritage the theme ‘World Heritage and Sustainable Development: The Role of Local Communities’. Committee in 2009, which further presents an excellent opportunity for Ethiopia to bring to the forefront the vast riches of potential human evolution-related sites in Ethiopia. This publication reviews the interdisciplinary and forward-looking approaches which have dominated research and conservation methodologies in Africa in recent decades, as well as their associated challenges, and makes recommendations for ideas and strategies for their continued success. It draws on discussions that took place at the international meeting, ‘African human origin sites and the UNESCO World Heritage Convention’, held at the National Museum of Ethiopia, Addis H. E. Mr Amin Abdulkadir Ababa, Ethiopia, and organized by the UNESCO World Heritage Centre, the Spanish Funds-in-Trust for World Heritage, the Minister, Ministry of Culture and Tourism African World Heritage Fund (through the contribution of AECID), the Government of Ethiopia and the UNESCO Office in Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Addis Ababa. I wish to thank the Government of Ethiopia for generously hosting the meeting, which offered the platform from which we can begin to establish a road map in support of future conservation, research, and recognition of human origin sites in the region. More broadly, I extend my appreciation to all the participating site managers, experts, institutions and government representatives for their commitment and dedication to the protection of these areas for future generations.

Kishore Rao Director of the UNESCO World Heritage Centre

6 7 Introduction

Since the launch of the HEADS programme in 2008, the academic community, national experts, Advisory Bodies and the of these aspects called for us to think of Africa as the obligatory basis for the next discussion, and consequently to initiate World Heritage Centre have met on six occasions to work towards developing the part of the Action Plan relating to Human a series of continental meetings with the objective to analyse and obtain a full picture of all the forms of colonization of Evolution. The analysis dates back to the period between 8 and 6 Ma ago and studies the way in which the our first ancestors ecological niches in Eurasia, Asia, America and the Pacific. began to appear in the record, up until when, at least 2.6 Ma ago, it showed that they were capable of producing tools, as archaeological records today prove. This is an extraordinary and valuable universal knowledge resource, since it From 8 to 11 February 2011, 46 participants of 13 different nationalities and representatives of 24 international institutions represents the inherited accumulation of our knowledge about the diversity of human life, the first cultural experiences met in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia for the international meeting, ‘African human origin sites and the UNESCO World Heritage and their associated social behaviour. It links together the signs that can explain how natural and cultural developments are Convention’. This took place at the National Museum of Ethiopia, and was organized by the Authority for Research connected as part of the record of life in the Earth’s history. Processes related to human evolution that are studied include and Conservation of Cultural Heritage of Ethiopia (ARCCH) and the UNESCO World Heritage Centre, thanks to the biological and cultural changes which bear witness to the evident success with which our predecessors were consistently generous contribution of the Spanish Funds-in-Trust. The participants also had the opportunity to examine Ethiopian able to adapt to the circumstances of their surroundings. Their geographical dispersal over the whole planet also testifies to paleoanthropological collections, and visited Melka Kunture, whose description and importance has been clearly endorsed their migratory and adaptive abilities. Since mankind’s earliest existence our ancestors were able to reach the most extreme in past and present research and by some of the contributions included in this volume. corners of the globe, evidence of which is still being discovered in equatorial and regions, on islands and continents, at sea level and at high altitudes, in and in swamp areas. These pages provide a clear testimony of the current state We cannot end this introduction without expressing our deepest thanks to the institutions and experts of Ethiopia for their of research and the importance of gaining knowledge to be able to implement the World Heritage Convention. They include hospitality, and for the privilege of working with both junior and senior generations of eminent Ethiopian researchers a good sample of evidence about the origins and diversity of the (genetic, biological and anatomical), as well as who have played a leading role in how the sciences have progressed, and whose work is internationally recognized by the some of most important cognitive milestones and technological innovations disclosed throughout this investigation to date. scientific community. Likewise we wish to express our appreciation to the HEADS Scientific Committee for the effective and constant effort they have put in to our ongoing discussions and for helping us, in such a generous way, to build bridges Thanks to the conclusions of the International Experts Meeting, held at UNESCO, in November 2008, and to the progress between research and our day-to-day work in World Heritage. We are also grateful to all participating experts for having made during the meeting organized in Burgos and Atapuerca, Spain, in March 2009, the basis for constructing a work demonstrated such an ample adaptive capacity for thinking within the parameters of the Convention’s criteria. And to the programme on human evolution within the framework of the HEADS Action Plan was established. This was approved by Advisory Bodies for building a framework of enquiry which has permitted all of us to progress in the challenging task of the during its 33rd Session in Seville, Spain, in July 2009. The scientific standards necessary for identifying in the Operational Guidelines the most appropriate channels for defining and preserving the OUVs pertaining to providing a definition of Outstanding Universal Value (OUV) were discussed; the need to develop research applied to the sites related to human evolution. The testimonies of the representatives of national institutions are particularly deserving of preservation of these extremely vulnerable sites was highlighted; courses of action were identified which would enhance our gratitude, as they are responsible for the day-to-day implementation of the World Heritage Convention in their respective international cooperation in the procedures for submitting candidatures for the World Heritage List; the most exceptional countries, guiding the thought process in a specific and realistic context, and presenting a thorough and illuminating analysis thematic narratives for improving the representation of these sites within the framework of the World Heritage Global of the challenges of the preservation and development of paleoanthropological sites in Africa. Strategy were established; and recommendations were made to the States Parties to the Convention, to ensure the setting up of multidisciplinary teams and tasks in order to establish an adequate justification of criteria and conditions of authenticity and integrity of paleoecological /archaeological/ environments. After careful analysis of already inscribed sites as well as those on the Tentative List relating to human evolution, the experts defined the following priorities: to move forward in our reflection about humankind’s oldest ancestors; and our adaptive ability to harsh environmental and climate changes, Coordination of the HEADS Programme especially between 2.6, 1.8 and 0.13 Ma ago and the evidence regarding adaptation to the (LGM). Both UNESCO World Heritage Centre

8 9 Both pages: ‘African human origin sites and the World Heritage Convention’, National Museum of Ethiopia, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 8 to 11 February 2011. © UNESCO WHC Outstanding Universal Value of human evolution in Africa

13 © UNESCO WHC Outstanding Universal Value of Human Evolution in Africa Outstanding Universal Value of Human Evolution in Africa

Outstanding Universal Value of human evolution in Africa Second step

Yves Coppens – Collège de France After a new climatic change, a new opening of the landscape, happening around 4 million years ago, a sort of new generation Keynote speech on the occasion of the international meeting, ‘African human origin sites and the UNESCO World Heritage of flourished in central, eastern and . It is the time of with its flat face, and the Convention’ – National Museum of Ethiopia, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia – 8 February 2011 time of Australopithecus, more aggressive, a better biped but still climbing (or not). We can mention Kenyanthropus platyops, Australopithecus bahrelghazali, Abel Australopithecus anamensis, Australopithecus afarensis, , Selam, and Australopithecus africanus. I guess that the type of sites, by this I mean the sites which have been discovered and the new taxa named, should be listed for special care. I know that the Turkana National Park, the Lower Awash Valley and the , Kromdraai, Monsieur le Ministre, area are already on the World Heritage List but Koro Toro in is not either. Monsieur le Directeur de l’ARCCH, Madame la représentante de l’Ambassade d’Espagne, Mesdames les représentantes de l’UNESCO, Dear colleagues, dear friends, Third step

Probably because I am almost a fossil – but a hominid fossil – Nuria Sanz and the UNESCO World Heritage Centre asked me to A third climatic change, almost a drought, the one that I called the The (H)Omo Event, happened around 2.7-2.8 million years give what they call a keynote speech, which received the beautiful suggested title of ‘Outstanding Universal Value of human ago. evolution in Africa’. I called it The (H)Omo Event because it was in the Lower Omo Valley in Ethiopia that this climatic change was first described, I would like to thank Nuria Sanz and UNESCO for their invitation, and the Ethiopian Authority for Research and Conservation and because one of the adaptations occurring at that time, for this reason, has been called Homo, man. We are the product of Cultural Heritage (ARCCH) and the National Museum of Ethiopia for their help and hospitality. of an adaptation of a pre-human to a climatic change in Africa, in eastern Africa.

I am personally very happy to be in Ethiopia again (I was here a year ago) and happy as well to be in this Museum that I have But other adaptations among the hominids also appeared at that time, giving the demonstration of the existence of known for 45 years. My first visit would have been in 1967, when the Director was Ato Mammo Tesemma. And in the sixties paleoecological niches, as well as the demonstration of a beautiful hominid biodiversity. Let us mention Australopithecus and seventies I brought to this institution from Gemu Goffa and from Wollo something like eighty tons of fossil bones! garhi, a robust adaptation specific to the Afar area, Zinjanthropus aethiopicus and Zinjanthropus boisei, robust east African hominids (different for me from South African ones), Australopithecus Prometheus (), and robustus I don’t want to be nostalgic. I am not. (on one side) and (on the other), robust and slender South African adaptations to the climatic event we are talking about. It was just to confirm to you that I am a fossil. For this third sequence, the Turkana National Park, the Lower Awash Valley, the Sterkfontein, Swartkrans, Kromdraai area, We are here not (only) to think about surveys and research but to think about the protection and the conservation of the already mentioned, as well as the Lower Omo Valley, the Lake Malawi National Park, and the Serengeti National Park are existing paleontological and archaeological sites, their promotion, and the promotion of the knowledge they provide. answering, in a way, a part of our request but not the totality.

Africa is, of course, as everyone knows, particularly important for and , as Africa is the ‘Cradle of This geological time, 2 to 3 million years ago, is also the beginning of culture. Very important archaeological sites have been Mankind’, possibly the cradle of modern man as well as the place where man’s expansion began, and the birthplace of the identified and excavated in East Africa. very first stone tools, the first symmetric stone tools, and the nest of so many discoveries, inventions, creations and cultures. The Gona area in the Afar in Ethiopia, the Lower Omo Valley, West (Shungura) and East (Fejej), in Ethiopia again, and the East Let us start by the beginning. and West Turkana in Kenya, are among the earliest archaeological sites followed by the occupation and living sites succession of Melka Kunture in Ethiopia, Olduvai in , and so on. Ten million years ago or so - maybe less maybe more - the population of , common ancestors of Paninae, pre-chimps and chimps and Homininae, pre-humans and humans (us), split for environmental reasons into two branches, and this split happened in tropical Africa. As it would be difficult to consider the entirety of tropical Africa, from western to southern Africa through the centre and the east, as one site for the World Heritage List, let us go a bit further to talk about conservation. Fourth step

And then the genus Homo moved, enlarged his territory and reached North Africa, the Mediterranean shore and, for the first time, beyond Africa, to the Middle East, as soon as 2 million years ago, at least, probably more (2.5 million years ago). We will First step have to then consider many very important sites of that period in North Africa, but also almost everywhere in the continent we are in. The very first Homininae – characterized by their adoption of erect posture and – are, up to now, known from %JCF'VJKQRKCCPF-GP[C5QVJGUKVGUQH| tchadensis, kadabba, Ardipithecus ramidus and tugenensis should be, of course, kept in mind for an urgent shortlist of localities, or regions, to be protected. Fifth step At this point, we can also think about listing some important paleontological sites, preceding the split - or chronologically close to it - and which have already provided , for example the Ethiopian site of , or the Kenyan site The time of the peopling of Eurasia has come, from the far west to the far east. And as the territory is very large and the of or and many others more ancient. demography of the hominids very small, the diversity of our family will florish again. Remember Man, Denisova Man, Man, Flores Man, Modern Man and many others, I am sure, that we have not found yet. And during that period Africa, of course, is still very active.

14 15 Outstanding Universal Value of Human Evolution in Africa

Sixth and last step

Modern man finished the peopling of the earth and during that time Africa has been biologically and culturally very active and creative. Behind this statement I mean that many sites are hidden.

It is obvious that Africa is essential in the history of mankind, as the first 8 million years of this history (from 10 to 2 million years) are only African. It is then prestigious for Africa to be the unique origin of the hundred billion human beings who have existed since the very first one, and it is prestigious as well for every country where discoveries have been made - currently Scientific Perspectives: Chad, Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, Malawi and South Africa - to be considered as a part of the cradle. 2 Africa and HEADS The idea of UNESCO to establish an official list of the most significant sites, natural and cultural, of the Earth, is a terrific idea. And its initiative to substantiate the African human evolution sites of the World Heritage List is a good opportunity for us to propose the places we are working on, to protect and promote them, their collections and our research.

After having listed outstanding monuments and sceneries, it is amazing to offer to UNESCO only landscapes, without anything on them, but sometimes with something below. It is a sort of classification of undergrounds, as an intrusion into the world of geology, the mineral world.

The sites are both symbolic, because they are places where important fossil or artefacts have been found, and sometimes symbolic and sustainable because they are still keeping a certain amount of sediments for more excavations, research on fossil and environments, collections, application of new techniques of reading the memory of the objects. is always sceptic, critical, ready to discuss, to debate, to control, to check and crosscheck and confirm or not what has been claimed before. Knowledge and thoughts are evolving according to the evolution of science, and science is evolving according to the evolution of research, techniques, mentalities and trends. So it is important to keep some matter for more investigations. But such places which are, of course, not spectacular, are much more difficult to protect than a temple or a castle.

So, as we said before, when the prestige of a site does exist and when this site is nominated for inscription on the famous World Heritage List, this prestige is considerably increased. And often, as for good wines, and I know what I am talking about, the year of inscription is mentioned after the label, ‘UNESCO World Heritage Site’, ‘Site du patrimoine mondial de l’UNESCO’.

Nomination of a site implies a lot of aspects to take into consideration: the site itself and its sediments, but also its collections, the place or places where they are stored, their conservation, availability - or availability of their pictures, casts and scans - for more studies or comparisons for the research itself, but also for popularisation for the public everywhere and anywhere, and for the ever-increasing number of visitors to these areas. And it implies as well, if necessary, the training of the scientists, curators and managers of the sites.

It is a big responsibility at the origin, including research on the legitimacy of the choice and on the credibility for the public, and for that scientific opinion is a necessity.

I wish you (us) a beautiful session, full of information, interest and passion. I am sure that more sites will reach, after this week, The List with a capital T and a capital L.

I would like to add one important point. Humanity is in good health, counting some thousands of hominids 2.5 million years ago, 10 million 10 thousand years ago, one billion 2 centuries ago, and 7 billion today.

It is clear that the surface of the earth, already very transformed by man, will become more and more transformed, more and more anthropised. A way, perhaps the only way, to keep some places as they are because they are important or just because we like them, is to protect them, establish more parks and nominate more sites for inscription on the World Heritage List… before the next climatic change.

Thank you again to Nuria and UNESCO, thank you Ethiopia, thank you to you all, for loving knowledge, science, paleontology, , our heritage and the heritage of our children.

16 17 2 Scientific Perspectives: Africa and HEADS Scientific Perspectives: Africa and HEADS 2

World Heritage and the : This all changed over the course of the 1980s during which researchers including Bräuer and Stringer compiled enough evidence to demonstrate that modern humans evolved in Africa in contrast to previous models that argued that evolution examples from East Africa and South Africa occurred in parallel in many regions in what was often called the candelabra or multi-regional model (Bräuer, 1984, 1992; Stringer and Andrews, 1988). As more and more fossil evidence was mobilized for what became known as the ‘Out of Africa’ Nicholas J. Conard model, genetic studies of living people increasingly pointed to Africa as the homeland of all living people (Cann et al., 1987; Department of Early Prehistory and Quaternary Ecology – Eberhard Karls Universität Tübingen (University of Tübingen) – Singer and Andrews, 1988).

Suddenly the MSA was no longer ‘the muddle in the middle’ but rather the key period in which anatomically modern humans evolved. The question quickly arose as to whether or not cultural and biological modernity evolved simultaneously What is the Middle Stone Age? and in parallel to one another. If so, Africa would not simply be the continent where our biological form first evolved, but also the continent in which people first began to live in a social-economic universe characterized by the manipulation of language The Middle Stone Age (MSA) was initially defined in the 1920s by A.J.H. Goodwyn and Clarence van Riet Lowe (1929) and symbols, as is the case among all living people. based on their research in South Africa. The authors wanted to create a new taxonomic system for African prehistory that was not based on observations and terms of European origin. Together, Goodwyn, who was based at the University of To test and refine these models, the last two decades have seen a remarkable revitalization of studies of the MSA. This research Cape Town and the South African Museum in Cape Town, and van Riet Lowe, who was by training a civil engineer and has taken place in northern, eastern, western, and especially southern Africa in the hope of gaining a better understanding collaborated with several of the leading museums of South Africa, commanded the available knowledge about the Stone of where biologically and culturally modern humans evolved. Age of southern Africa. At a time when the European tripartite system of the Lower, Middle and Upper had not yet gained currency, Goodwyn and van Riet Lowe divided the Stone Age of southern Africa into three main units, which they named the Earlier, the Middle and the Later Stone Age, which are often abbreviated ESA, MSA and LSA. Examples of key regions and sites In the 1920s the temporal depth of the African Stone Age was unknown and largely a matter of speculation. Goodwyn and van Riet Lowe divided the Stone Age into an ESA characterized by assemblages containing handaxes and large, thick flake In this short paper, I will only comment on the work in regions I know best and on topics close to my research. This approach tools. They defined the LSA as having close affinities with the material culture of ethnographically documented hunters me to focus on East and South Africa in highlighting potential World Heritage sites. The working groups that participated and gatherers or ‘bushmen’. The LSA assemblages often contained smaller lithic artefacts with abundant tools made in the UNESCO meeting in Addis Ababa in February 2011 presented a number of potential sites and groups of sites that would on blades and bladelets, a wide range of organic artefacts and shell and eggshell beads. The MSA represented be appropriate for nominations on the basis of their Outstanding Universal Value (OUV), a prerequisite for achieving the status a collection of artefacts made by cultural groups that were thought to fall chronologically in between the ESA and LSA, of World Heritage. As has been discussed in the papers of the World Heritage Papers series ‘Human Evolution: Adaptations, and included the , Still Bay and other assemblages, most of which are characterized by triangular flakes Dispersals and Social Developments (HEADS)’ (UNESCO, 2011), prehistoric sites and sites related to human evolution are greatly and facetted butts. Goodwyn noted the affinities these assemblages had to the European and industries underrepresented on the World Heritage List. Without policies and programmes to help remedy this situation, one could gain and even suggested that cultural contacts took place between Africa and Eurasia (Klein, 1970). The transitions between the impression that the great built monuments of are somehow more central and representative of the history of our the ESA and MSA and the MSA and the LSA, then as now, were difficult to pinpoint and characterize. than the important sites that document how humankind evolved and dispersed across the planet. Here I highlight some of the arguments for nominating the site of and the sites around in northern Tanzania and for Based on the results of several generations of research, the chronostratigraphy of the MSA has begun to come into the coastal and near-coastal MSA sites of southern Africa as World Heritage sites. clearer focus. While researchers do not see a sharp break that identifies the start of the MSA, many colleagues today date the start of the MSA to roughly 300 Ka ago (Deacon and Deacon, 1999; McBrearty and Brooks, 2000; Klein, 2009). This age correlates roughly with the decline in the abundance of assemblages containing handaxes and a rise in the Mumba and Lake Eyasi abundance of lithic assemblages using ‘parallel’ reduction techniques similar to the Levallois methods that characterize many of the assemblages of western Eurasia (Conard et al., 2004). Research in and around Lake Eyasi in the Republic of Tanzania has a long and flamboyant history with a unique position in study of human biological and cultural evolution in East Africa. Work in this region is rightly associated with Ludwig and Margit The MSA ends roughly 30 Ka ago with the presence of lithic assemblages based on the frequent use of platform cores Kohl-Larsen who led a multi-year, multidisciplinary research programme, the Deutsch Ostafrika Expedition (DOE), between and elongated and often diminutive artefacts in the absence of parallel/Levallois (Deacon 1933 and 1939 (Kohl-Larsen, 1943; Kohl-Larsen et al., 1985; Rafalski et al., 1978). This ambitious and well-funded expedition and Deacon, 1999). The original suggestion that the MSA lacks diverse organic tools and ornaments has been refuted simultaneously addressed research questions in human biological evolution, and cultural in recent years in connection with the abundance of new evidence for organic artefacts and symbolic artefacts such as within the framework of what, even by today’s standards, could be considered a modern research agenda. Today this region personal ornaments that originate from MSA contexts (Conard, 2011, d’Errico and Stringer, 2011). is characterized by its inaccessibility, bad roads and a poor infrastructure, making it all the more impressive to consider the achievements of this early team. In addition to the many results in Stone Age archaeology and human evolution, the expedition Although many of the specific observations from East Africa differ from those made in southern Africa (Clark, 1982, 1988), compiled important records and collections related to the Hadza hunters and gatherers of the region around Lake Eyasi (Porr the basic aspects of the development from the ESA through the MSA to the LSA show analogous trends across Africa and Müller-Beck, 1997). (McBrearty and Brooks, 2000; Klein, 2009). Until recently these terms tended to be used exclusively in sub-Saharan Africa. In recent years, however, the terms ESA, MSA and LSA are increasingly being used in all of Africa, and are beginning The prospection and test excavations of the DOE led to the discovery of multiple open-air sites on the plains near the shore of to displace the Eurasian terminology that has historically been used in North Africa. One impetus for having a uniform Lake Eyasi (Figure 1) (Kohl-Larsen, 1943; Kohl-Larsen et al., 1985; Rafalski et al., 1978). Many of these localities documented terminology for the major divisions of the African Stone Age is the emphasis that has increasingly been placed on lithic and faunal material in stratified contexts. Perhaps the best-known specimen yielded from the open-air sites near Lake viewing African Stone Age archaeology and human biological evolution as distinctive from that documented in Eurasia. Eyasi is a heavily fossilized and well-preserved cranium of a late archaic human, usually referred to as Eyasi Hominin 1 or the Eyasi cranium (Kohl-Larsen, 1943; Bräuer, 1984, 1992). Estimates of the age of the skull fall in the vicinity of 250 Ka ago, and the fossil is a key specimen for documenting the evolution of modern humans in Africa. Subsequent work in the Pleistocene sediments of Lake Eyasi has led to the discovery of additional lithic artefacts, hominin fossils and paleontological remains that Why is the MSA important? belong to the same general contexts of the finds documented by the DOE in the 1930s (Mehlman, 1987; Domínguez-Rodrigo et al., 2008). Although it is not of primary importance in this context, the members of the Kohl-Larsen expedition are also For many years the MSA was viewed as an intermediate period and as the least interesting phase of the Stone Age. The ESA credited with finding the one of the first examples of Australopithecus afarensis in the form of the maxillary fragment from provided us with insights into the origin of our species, and the LSA was important for its diverse and rich archaeological Garusi in 1939. record and abundant rock . The MSA, however, was largely ignored and often just viewed as a vast period in which little happened, and what did happen was viewed as being scarcely noteworthy. 18 19 2 Scientific Perspectives: Africa and HEADS Scientific Perspectives: Africa and HEADS 2

Perhaps still more remarkable were a series of excavations conducted mainly by Margit Kohl-Larsen in a number of rock shelters the team mobilized was nothing short of remarkable. Excavations at Mumba Shelter also yielded a series of LSA skeletal finds and shallow near the base of a major inselberg, referred to as the Laghang-Ishimijega Hills on the plain east of Lake Eyasi that have contributed to our understanding of human biological evolution in East Africa (Bräuer, 1983). at an elevation of about 1050 m asl. The most notable of these excavations was at Mumba Shelter (Figure 2). Research at Mumba began with a test excavation in 1934. This sizeable test excavation had dimensions of 9m x 4m with a depth of 5.5m. The team of the DOE also conducted excavations in other important rock shelters of the region and defined the cultural The results convinced the Kohl-Larsens to have a full-scale field season dedicated to excavating the site (Kohl-Larsen, 1943). of the region (Kohl-Larsen, 1943). Subsequently, researchers including Mehlman, Domingez-Rodrigez, and Margit Kohl-Larsen succeeded with this goal in 1938 and conducted excavations from 20 January to 28 August. Together with Pendergast among others have returned to Mumba , to other rock shelters from the same inselberg to conduct her crew she excavated a surface of 12.5 m x 9.0 m to a depth of 10.5 m, corresponding to a volume nearly 1000 m3 when excavations (Mehlman, 1979, 1991; Pendergast et al., 2007). This work, combined with studies on the rich and many facetted one considers that the excavation became somewhat narrower at its base. The expedition carried and shipped the vast amount collections from the Kohl-Larsen expedition (Bretzke et al., 2006; Marks and Conard, 2008; Díez-Martín et al., 2009), makes of all classes of artefacts and ecofacts from Mumba along with the ethnographic materials, fossils and finds from other sites Mumba Shelter and the other sites in this area northeast of Lake Eyasi one of the key groups of sites in East Africa for to Germany for study, where they are still housed in a number of museums and research institutes. The logistical effort that documenting both human biological evolution and the evolution of cultural innovations over the course of the MSA. Work is currently underway on a broad range of lithic and organic finds from Mumba and the other neighboring rock shelters, and a wide range of grinding equipment, modified and artefacts made form shell and ostrich eggshell are present in existing collections (Figures 3–5) (Weiss, 2000). As research continues, the central importance of these sites for our understanding of the Stone Age prehistory of East Africa is coming more strongly into focus.

 .QECVKQPQH.CMG'[CUKCPF/WODCKPPQTVJGTP6CP\CPKC5QWTEG-$TGV\MG 7PKXGTUKV[QH6ØDKPIGP

3. Mumba Rock Shelter, Tanzania. tools from the Middle Stone Age from archaeological horizons V and VI, EC|-Cs-C 7PKXGTUKV[QH6ØDKPIGP;*KNDGTV

4. Mumba Rock Shelter, Tanzania. Worked pieces of and red ochre HTQOCTEJCGQNQIKECNJQTK\QPU8CPF8+EC-Cs-C 7PKXGTUKV[QH6ØDKPIGP;*KNDGTV  /WODC4QEM5JGNVGT6CP\CPKC Ostrich eggshell beads dated to between 30 Ka and 40 Ka.  /WODC4QEM5JGNVGT6CP\CPKC8KGYKPVQVJGUJGNVGTKP 7PKXGTUKV[QH6ØDKPIGP0,%QPCTF 7PKXGTUKV[QH6ØDKPIGP//CNKPC 20 21 2 Scientific Perspectives: Africa and HEADS Scientific Perspectives: Africa and HEADS 2

Based on the historical and current importance of the sites around Lake Eyasi and Mumba and the surrounding rock shelters, the MSA (Wurz, 2002; Soriano et al., 2007; Porraz et al., 2008; Villa et al., 2010). In this context the stratigraphic and these sites represent strong candidates for the status of World Heritage. Despite new research in recent years, vast amounts of chronological relationships between Still Bay and Howiesons Poort assemblages have often been the focus of research, and material from the collections made by the Kohl-Larsens and Mehlman remain to be studied. The region also offers considerable the importance of bifacial points and segments as strict cultural markers is often accepted uncritically. Today work is addressing potential for new fieldwork. whether these cultural groups form relatively homogeneous and narrowly defined chronological units. Researchers are also debating whether or not these periods can be viewed as the zenith of symbolic complexity that waned in latter periods due to a range of environmental or demographic changes (Jacobs et al., 2008; Lombard and Parsons, 2011). My feeling is that Coastal and near-coastal MSA sites in southern Africa senarios that postulate a radical decline in cultural development after the Howiesons Poort are problematic on theoretical grounds and not adequately documented in the archaeological record (Conard, 2012; Conard et al., In press). Lyn Wadley Although one can trace the history of Stone Age research in coastal regions of South Africa back a century, the last two and my excavations at Sibudu (Figure 6) document highly-developed lithic traditions preceding and following the Still Bay decades have seen a flurry of ambitious research in the region. Perhaps, in part, fostered by the fall of apartheid in South Africa and Howiesons Poort, and I am skeptical of the near mythical status as periods of great innovation that both the Still Bay and in the middle of the 1990s and as a result of the increased awareness of the importance of the MSA for our understanding Howiesons Poort enjoy in some quarters. of human evolution, researchers from around the world have joined South African colleagues to create an unusually rich and productive research environment. These developments have led to numerous high-profile international publications on the Certainly the lithic assemblages of the younger phases of the MSA at Sibudu are characterized by distinctive Tongati and MSA and has made the southern African subcontinent the most dynamic research environment for questions related to the Ndwedwe tools and other artefacts that document advanced lithic technology at the site, and question the notions that advent of what can loosely be referred to cultural modernity (McBrearty and Brooks, 2000; Wadley, 2001; Conard, 2007; Still Bay and Howiesons Poort assemblage types are uniquely developed (Conard, 2012) (Figures 9–11). Researchers from Klein, 2009; d’Errico and Stringer, 2011). the University of Tübingen, Paris West University Nanterre La Défense, and many other institutions are currently studying assemblages from across the subcontinent to better characterize the patterns of technological change over the course of the When one considers the key sites, MSA. In the coming years we should gain a greatly improved understanding of the variability during the MSA that will allow Klasies River Mouth, Blombos, us to contextualize and critically assess the patterns of lithic innovation and the coming and going of new assemblage types Sibudu, Diepkloof immediately (Porraz et al., 2008; Soriano et al., 2007; Villa et al., 2010; Lombard and Parsons, 2011). come to mind, as do , Hoedjiespunt, Die Kelders and the sites at (Figure 6). All of these sites contribute to our understanding of MSA and the spatial temporal innovations of that led to the development of what could loosely be referred to as modern patterns of human behavior, as indicated by advanced technological innovations and a wide range of symbolic artefacts.

The discoveries at Blombos over the past decade have done much to focus attention on the evolution 7. Bone point from Sibudu Rock 8. Sibudu Rock Shelter, of modern behavior (Henshillwood 5JGNVGT5QWVJ#HTKEC |.|9CFNG[ South Africa. Personal et al., 2001, 2002, 2004). Here ornaments made from marine shells. © L. Wadley examples of shell ornaments, engraved ochre and bone artefacts attracted attention and have led to the identification of similar artefacts 9. Sibudu Rock Shelter, South Africa. Tongati tools from the 5KDWFCPNC[GTUQHVJGUKVG&TCYKPIU ($TQFDGMs2JQVQU from earlier excavations at Klasies |7PKXGTUKV[QH6ØDKPIGP7PKXGTUKV[QH2CTKU9GUVs0CPVGTTGs River (Singer and Wymer, 1982) and .C|&ÅHGPUG)2QTTC\ Klein Kliphuis (McKay and Welz, 2008). Results from excavations at Sibudu and Diepkloof have documented that personal ornaments, engraved artefacts and bone artefacts may not be as rare as researchers originally assumed (Figures 7–8) (Blackwell et al., 2008; d’Errico et al., 2008, Parkington et al., 2005; Texier et al., 2010).

10. Sibudu Rock Shelter, South Other work has addressed patterns Africa. Ndwedwe tools from the of innovation and technological Sibudan layers of the site. Drawings: 11. Sibudu Rock Shelter, South Africa. (a) Still Bay points and (b) Howiesons Poort 6. Sibudu Rock Shelter, South Africa. Overview of the excavations March 2012. © F. Brodbek, Photos: © University of segments. © L. Wadley 7PKXGTUKV[QH6ØDKPIGP0,%QPCTF change in lithic assemblages from 6ØDKPIGP7PKXGTUKV[QH2CTKU9GUVs 0CPVGTTGs|.C|&ÅHGPUG)2QTTC\ 22 23 2 Scientific Perspectives: Africa and HEADS Scientific Perspectives: Africa and HEADS 2

Other lines of research on the southern African MSA have also produced remarkable results in recent years. When we consider officers, archaeologists and paleoanthropologists are working to prepare such a nomination and to determine which sites our understanding of the evolution of new patterns of subsistence during the Middle and , few regions should be included. Policies are also being developed to determine how to best preserve the sites for future research while have contributed as much to ongoing debate as southern Africa. For years Klein has argued that key shifts in subsistence making them available to a broader public. strategies has been linked to the evolution of modern behaviour. Klein argues that the evolution of symbolic culture arose in the context of a genetic mutation for language (Klein, 2009; Klein and Edgar, 2002). In this context he sees that a major shift in population densities and subsistence practices associated with the later phases of the MSA around 50 Ka. He argues his position on the basis of details studies of shellfish, tortoises and mammalian fauna (Klein, 2009; Klein and Cruz-Uribe, 2000). Conclusion This work has generated much debate and has not always been supported by independent studies (Faith, 2008). Many other teams are studying faunal and floral assemblages to examine changing patterns of subsistence and to consider whether or In this paper I have briefly summarized some of the arguments that could be made to recommend two groups of sites for not environmental change triggered cultural responses during the MSA (Figure 12) (Marean et al., 2000; Marean, 2005; Clark further research towards potential World Heritage status. These are two of several potential Middle Stone Age sites or groups and Plug, 2008; Clark, 2009) . of sites that deserve consideration in this context, as indicated in the recommendations of the working groups at the UNESCO meeting in Addis Ababa in February 2011 (UNESCO, 2011). As I see the situation, the challenges in both cases relate not Many other scholars envision a much earlier rise in modern patterns of behaviour characterized by symbolic communication to the scientific importance of the potential nominations, but to preserving and managing the sites, while at the same time and advanced technology. Parkington (2001) has argued that a shift toward the use of marine resources in the diet of the fostering an environment for productive research. MSA inhabitants of southern Africa may have helped to trigger cultural development. This view is based on the important nutritional qualities of marine foods such as shellfish, and most notably omega 3 fatty acids, that according to Parkington In the case of Mumba Rock Shelter and the sites around Lake Eyasi, it is the inaccessibility of the sites and the low level of may have fostered encephalization. This controversial hypothesis is currently under study using results from the excavations at economic development in this region that helps to protect the sites. At present the sites are only rarely visited by researchers, Pinnacle Point, Hoedjiespunt and other sites (Marean et al., 2007). While the importance of marine resources is debatable, by and relatively few people even know where the sites are located. Based on the scientific merit of the sites, one could make the late Middle Pleistocene shellfish contributed to the diet of the coastal residents of southern Africa. a strong case for their candidature. The relatively undisturbed natural setting around Lake Eyasi, although not of primary importance, also adds to the appeal of a potential nomination. As far as I am aware, no steps have been taken at present to Other research in southern Africa has led to claims that bow and technology was in wide use in the region. Arguments start the nomination process. Research on the collections from different sites and different phases of excavation continues, have been made using both lithic artefacts and the scars of usewear and traces of the bear (Lombard, 2005; Lombard and the value of the sites will become better recognized in connection with the ongoing research. Finally, the region of Lake and Phillipson, 2010), as well as based on the presence of occasional indications of bone (Blackwell et al., 2008). Eyasi is also the area where the remnant populations of Hadza hunters and gatherers live, and while they are, of course, Wadley (2010) has also suggested that the faunal remains recovered from Sibudu may well reflect trapping small . not the remains of a kind of fossilized society, the Hadza have often been the focus of study into the social and economic These and other observations are examples of how faunal studies in southern Africa are leading to the development of new behavior of hunters and gatherers. In this regard they have often contributed to our understanding of the past (O’Connell, hypotheses that are helping to improve our understanding of the MSA of the subcontinent. 2006; O’Connell et al., 1988a, 1988b).

Research on the use of ground ochre has received much attention in recent years. Some researchers such as Watts (2002) These coastal and near-coastal MSA sites in South Africa are all in areas that are in the midst of economic growth, building have stressed the importance of ochre in the contexts of ritual and symbolic communication, while Wadley (Wadley, 2005; development and population increase, often at the expense of the natural environment. Again the challenges related to Wadley et al., 2009) has mustered considerable evidence suggesting the ochre served practical purposes and was often nominating these sites in a serial nomination do not relate to the quality of the scientific arguments, but rather to issues of used in making mastic, which allowed the MSA inhabitants of southern Africa to make a wide range of hafted tools. Many preserving the sites, site management and maintaining an environment in which research can prosper and contribute to the researchers see the presence of ochre at so many MSA sites across southern Africa as reflecting a combination of practical and local communities. In the case of some of these sites, there exists a perception that preserving heritage will retard economic symbolic functions, and it strikes me as unlikely that archaeologists can rigourously separate these two spheres. One essential development, such as in the case of the planned developments near Sibudu, and analogous issues in less extreme form apply characteristic of modern cultural behaviour is that many areas of life and experience are permeated by a seamless fabric of to several of the other sites in question. Another issue for these MSA sites is how heritage officers could implement a coherent symbolic and practical realms. management plan for sites spread hundreds of kilometres apart and in multiple provinces. These questions, however, do not pose fundamental problems, and heritage officers and scientists in South Africa have started to work toward the goal Advances in the study of floral remains and in geoarchaeology are also making important contributions to research on the of nominating these important sites in a serial nomination for World Heritage status. At the same time research continues MSA. Recently Wadley, Goldberg and colleagues have used preserved floral remains and micromorphological studies of at most of the key sites, and ensures that the importance of the sites – and the likelihood of a successful nomination – will sediments at Sibudu to document what they interpret as examples of bedding (Goldberg et al., 2009; Wadley et al., 2011). increase in the coming years. They view the construction, use and eventual burning of this bedding as an innovation of the MSA that reflects an important behavioural advance. Additional geoarchaeological analyses and the study of burnt plant remains and bones have been used to document the evolution of the use of fire at sites including Sibudu and Diepkloof (Schiegl and Conard, 2006; Sievers Acknowledgements and Wadley, 2008) . I am grateful to Dr. Nuria Sanz for the invitation to contribute to this volume. I thank Penelope Keenan for editorial assistance, These and many other examples of innovation research and I acknowledge my many colleagues working in South Africa, especially , Lyn Wadley, Guillaume Porraz illustrate the importance of the coastal and near coastal and Chris Miller. Sabine Boos assisted in preparing illustrations for this paper. MSA sites of southern Africa. This dynamic research environment shows no sign of slowing down and at numerous international meetings the southern African MSA is at the centre of the debate on the location and Bibliography timing of the cultural innovations that are often equated with the key steps toward culturally modern behaviour. Blackwell, L., d’Errico, F. and Wadley, L. 2008. Middle Stone Age bone tools from the Howiesons Poort layers, , The innumerable contributions that sites including Klasies South Africa. Journal of Archaeological Science, Vol. 35, pp. 1566–1580. River Mouth, Blombos, Sibudu, Diepkloof, Elands Bay Cave, Hoedjiespunt, Die Kelders, the sites at Pinnacle Bräuer, G. 1983. Die menschlichen Skelettfunde des “Later Stone Age” aus der Mumba-Höhle und anderen Lokalitäten nahe Point and others have made to Stone Age research justify des Eyasi-Sees (Tanzania) und ihre Bedeutung für die Populationsdifferenzierung in Ostafrika. Die Archäologischen Ergebnisse their potential that could be further researched as a serial der Kohl-Larsen Expedition in Nord-Tanzania 1933–1939, Band 4. Tübingen, Verlag Archaeologica Venatoria. 12. Sibudu Rock Shelter, South Africa. Preserved botanical and faunal remains from the MSA. © L. Wadley nomination for World Heritage status. At present heritage 24 25 2 Scientific Perspectives: Africa and HEADS Scientific Perspectives: Africa and HEADS 2

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____. 1991. Context for the emergence of modern man in eastern Africa: some new Tanzanian evidence. In: J. D. Clark (ed.) Wadley, L. 2001. What is cultural modernity? A general view and a South African perspective from Rose Cottage Cave. Cultural beginnings. Approaches to understanding early hominid lifeways in the African Savanna. Monographien des Römisch- Cambridge Archaeological Journal, Vol. 11, pp. 201–221. Germanischen Zentralmuseums Mainz 19. Bonn, Habelt, pp. 177–196. Wadley, L. 2005. Putting Ochre to the test: replication studies of adhesives that may have been used for hafting tools in the O’Connell, J.F. 2006. How did modern humans displace Neanderthals? Insights from hunter-gatherer enthnography and Middle Stone Age. Journal of Human Evolution, Vol. 49, pp. 587–601. archaeology. In: N.J. Conard (ed.) When Neanderthals and Modern Humans Met. Tübingen, Kerns Verlag, pp. 43–64. Wadley, L. 2010.Were snares used in the Middle Stone age and does it matter? A review and case study from Sibudu, South O’Connell, J.F., Hawkes, K. and Blurton Jones, N.G. 1988a. Hadza scavenging: implications for Plio-Pleistocene hominid Africa. Journal of Human Evolution, Vol. 58, pp. 179–192. subsistence. Current Anthropology, Vol. 29, pp. 356–363. Wadley, L., Hodgskiss, T. and Grant, M., 2009. Implications for complex cognition from the hafting of tools with compound ____. 1988b. Hadza hunting, butchering and bone transport and their archaeological implications. Journal of Anthropological adhesives in the Middle Stone Age, South Africa. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., Vol. 106 (24), pp. 9590–9594. Research, Vol. 44, pp. 113–162. Wadley, L., Sievers, C., Bamford, M., Goldberg, P., Berna, F. and Miller, C. 2011. Middle Stone Age Bedding Construction and Prendergast, M.E., Luque, L., Domínguez-Rodrigo, M., Díez Martín, F., Mabulla, A. and Barba, R. 2007. New Excavations at Settlement Patterns at Sibudu, South Africa. Science, Vol. 334, DOI: 10.1126/science.1213317. Mumba Rockshelter (Tanzania). Journal of African Archaeology, Vol. 5(2), pp. 163–189. Watts, I. 2002. Ochre in the Middle Stone Age of southern Africa: ritualised display or hide preservative? South African Porr, M. 1997. Hadzapi, Hadza, Hatza, Hadzabe, Wahadzabe, Wakindiga, WaTindiga, Tindiga, Kindiga, Hadzapi ? Eine Archaeological Bulletin, Vol. 57(175), pp. 1–14. Wildbeuter-Kultur in Ostafrika. Tübingen, Mo Vince Verlag. Weiß, C. 2000. Die Artefakte aus Straußenei der Mumbahöhle, Tansania (Schicht III). Unpublished MA thesis, University of Parkington, J. 2001. Milestones: the impact of systematic exploitation of marine foods on human evolution. In: P.V. Tobias, Tübingen. M.A. Raath, J. Moggi-Cechi and G.A. Doyle (eds.) Humanity from African Naissance to Coming Millenia. Florence, University Press and Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, pp. 327–336. Wurz, S. 2002. Variability in the Middle Stone Age lithic sequence, 115,000–60,000 years ago at Klasies River, South Africa. Journal of Archaeological Science, Vol. 29, pp. 1001–1015. Parkington, J., Poggenpoel, C., Rigaud, J.-P. and Texier, P.-J. 2005. From Tool to Symbol: the behavioural context of intentionally marked ostrich eggshells from Diepkloof, western Cape. In: F. d’Errico and L. Blackwell (eds.) From Tools to Symbols: From Early Hominids to Modern Humans. Johannesburg, Witwatersrand University Press, pp. 475–492.

Porraz, G, et al. (2008) In: M. Lombard, C. Sievers and V. Ward (eds.) Current Themes in Middle Stone Age Research, Goodwin Series 10. Cape Town, South African Archaeological Society, pp 105–121.

Rafalski, S., Schröter, P. and Wagner, E. 1978. Die archäologischen und anthropologischen Ergebnisse der Kohl-Larsen- Expeditionen in Nord-Tanzania 1933–1939. Band 2: Die Funde am Eyasi-Nordostufer. Tübingen, Verlag Archaeologica Venatoria.

Schiegl, S. and Conard, N.J. 2006. The Middle Stone Age sediments at Sibudu: Results from FTIR spectroscopy and microscopic analyses. Special volume on Sibudu Cave, edited by L. Wadley. Southern Africa Humanities, Vol. 18 (1), pp. 149–172.

Sievers, C. and Wadley, L. 2008. Answering a burning question: experimental carbonization of fruiting structures in and under archaeologically recovered hearths. Journal of Archaeological Science, Vol. 35, pp. 2909–2917.

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28 29 2 Scientific Perspectives: Africa and HEADS Scientific Perspectives: Africa and HEADS 2

Ethnographic parallels for human evolution sites on the Early Homo spp.

World Heritage List The concept of the ‘ base’ was an important milestone in the analysis of Earlier Stone Age sites such as Olduvai in Tanzania and in Kenya. Based initially on the observation that only humans, not , accumulate artefacts and Janette Deacon food debris at places that they return to repeatedly, mainly for food sharing (Isaac, 1978), the hypothesis changed over the Department of Anthropology and Archaeology – University of South Africa – South Africa years to ‘central place’ and ‘cache’ models (Isaac, 1984; Potts, 1994) that were drawn from biological as well as generalized ethnographic observations. From the evidence of tool marks on bone, it seems that the earliest tool-makers in the were gatherers and rather than active hunters of large game animals. sites, with more direct evidence for hunting from cut marks on bones and a wider variety of prey (Klein, 2009), are therefore more likely to demonstrate Introduction behavioural similarities with recent hunter-gatherers.

One of the assessment criteria for World Heritage nominations requires evaluation of the authenticity of the information Despite claims for a circle at Olduvai (Leakey, 1971) excavations such as that at Melka Kunture (Chavaillon and Piperno, supplied to the World Heritage Committee in the nomination dossier. Because there is no oral history from the people who 2004) demonstrate the difficulty of isolating anthropogenic activity from natural erosion patterns, and detailed behavioural originally lived at sites significant for human evolution, interpretation depends on the scientific analysis of evidence for parallels between the Acheuleans and recent hunter-gatherers are rare. Unlike recent hunter-gatherers, the Acheulean human evolution, adaptation, dispersal and social developments (HEADS). This is sometimes drawn from ethnological and handaxe-makers commonly lived close to water, often on river banks, in stream channels and alongside lakes and springs, but anthropological research on hunter-gatherers of the past few centuries. It is therefore useful to examine how analogues very seldom in caves (Deacon, H.J. 1998; Klein, 2009). There is repeated use of the same raw material sources and very little and parallels have been used and how they might affect both authenticity and credibility. change in artefact design over 1 million years and throughout the geographic distribution range.

In this brief review, ethnographic examples are drawn from the San (Bushmen) of , and South Africa The biological concept of species distribution suggests the Earlier Stone Age (Lower Palaeolithic) Acheuleans occupied a narrow from the mid-1800s to the present, to demonstrate ways in which they have been applied in the analysis of archaeological ‘stenotopic’ niche as terrain specialists using resources from productive riverine habitats (Figures 1a and b). This suggests that material from human evolution sites in sub-Saharan Africa. Ethnological studies of other hunter-gatherers and sites on Acheuleans lacked the social mechanisms and imagination that is ethnographically evident amongst African populations to other continents have also been appropriate but, for the sake of brevity, only a small sample is selected here. Ethnological occupy all niches in the landscape and to step out of their routine. In comparison with hunter-gatherers in the recent past, the and taphonomic parallels (for example, Brain, 1981), while important for interpretation of sites, are Acheuleans were ‘primitive’ people (non-modern) who were very set in their ways (Deacon, H.J., 1998). not included. Pieces of red ochre – used as pigment for body decoration during ritual ceremonies, for and as a preservative for tanning hides in hunter-gatherer societies – have been found associated with Acheulean artefacts at several sites in southern Africa, including Kathu , Wonderwerk and Duinefontein, and at Kapthurin in Kenya (Klein, 2009). It is uncertain why it Ethnographic parallels in the African Stone Age was collected during the Acheulean, but it might have been used in similar ways to those documented ethnographically. This could imply that ritual behaviour and/or leather-working for was already practised. Parallels between human behaviour in the past few hundred years and the behaviour of people hundreds of thousands of years ago is usually based on inference using the ‘if … then’ line of reasoning. If a pattern of behaviour identified in the While ethnographic models are often not appropriate for this early stage in human evolution, the distribution of Acheulean archaeological record appears to be analogous to an ethnographic example, then the range of credible explanations will sites beyond the shores of Africa, and the later migrations of modern humans, clearly indicate that people were more than be tested against that ethnography. Assessment criteria will include the time difference between the two examples, their capable of moving from one place to another. Anthropological theory might be appropriately applied to behaviour in terms of biological and economic similarities and their geographic and environmental setting. The main categories of behaviour used availability of resources, group dynamics and issues of identity, but the challenge is to find ways of testing these hypotheses in such analogues have been: in the archaeological record. After all, many other moved out of Africa too, although not in the same timeframe. And none made it to and the Americas. Q Landscape adaptations; Q Economy and diet; Q Artefact manufacture and use; Archaic and near-modern Homo sapiens Q Social structure; Q Beliefs and cosmology. Evidence from sites in East and South Africa shows that the disjunction between the handaxe-makers and the Middle Stone Age was complete by about 200 Ka ago. Efficient hunting and gathering is assumed from faunal remains in this time Table 1 summarizes the degree of credibility that might be considered in these categories and examples of parallels that have range. In the Middle and Later Stone Age, the distribution of home bases indicates that a wider range of habitats was used. been applied are summarized below under general headings that refer to the approximate stage of evolution of the tool-makers.

Table 1. Ethnographic parallels relevant to HEADS A general guideline to the degree of applicability of ethnographic parallels for the main behavioural categories relevant to human evolution, adaptations, dispersals and social developments (HEADS). It makes the assumption (not necessarily true) that successive species of Homo might have had different behavioural characteristics. High credibility is indicated by XXX, and lower credibility by ::|CPF:2QUUKDNGCRRNKECVKQPKUKPFKECVGFD[!CPFVJGURCEGKUDNCPMYJGTGETGFKDKNKV[KUWPNKMGN[QTCDUGPV

Biological Adaptations Economy and Artefact Social Structure Beliefs and Evolution and Dispersals Diet Manufacture Cosmology and Use

Holocene XXX XXX XXX XXX XXX

Homo sapiens XX XX XXX XX XX

Early Homo spp. X X ? ? 1a and b. Diagrammatic comparison between the typical distribution of Acheulean (left) and post-Acheulean (Middle and Later Stone Age) (right) ‘home bases’ in southern Africa to demonstrate the change from behaviour typical of terrain specialists (not represented in Pre-Homo ? GVJPQITCRJKEUKVWCVKQPU VQVGTTCKPIGPGTCNKUVU CHVGT*,&GCEQP  30 31 2 Scientific Perspectives: Africa and HEADS Scientific Perspectives: Africa and HEADS 2

Post-Acheulean artefacts are found in all landscape situations indicating eurytopic behaviour of terrain generalists (Figures 1a prominently in the cosmology of the San, and there is good reason to conclude that ethnographic parallels can provide insight and b) willing to try anything (Deacon, H.J., 1998). This suggests the development of social mechanisms to adapt, disperse into the beliefs of Later Stone Age people throughout the region (Lewis-Williams and Challis, 2011). and aggregate. Their lifestyle and economy became more like that of known hunter-gatherers and ethnological parallels are thus more appropriate. Was the change primarily the result of human physical, cognitive or technological evolution, or a Oral histories from the /Xam interviewed in the 1870s (Bleek and Lloyd, 1911; Hollmann, 2004) and from the combination of all three? Ju/’hoan in Namibia (Biesele, 1993), and the !Kung (Yellen, 1977; Lee, 1979; Katz, 1982; Wiessner, 1982), G/wi (Silberbauer, 1981) and Nharo (Guenther, 1986) in Botswana have been particularly influential. They have contributed to research in fields The Klasies River fossils represent one of the African populations of modern people, isolated at the southern end of the as diverse as the identification of gender-specific activities and gift exchange in Later Stone Age rock shelter deposits (Wadley, Continent. The human bones are fragmentary and there is morphological variability between individuals. Some are gracile and 1989, 1996), explanation of regional differences in stone artefact frequencies (Deacon and Deacon, 1980), reconstruction one mandible fragment is as small as that of a San female. The remains are mostly skull parts, some with cut and tear marks, of social relations (Mazel, 1989), interpretation of rock and engravings (Lewis-Williams, 2000; Lewis-Williams and percussion impacts and burning. They occur in a particular horizon c. 115 Ka old. Is this the result of some form of ritualized Challis, 2011), comparisons between 20th century hunting patterns and those reflected in faunal remains at Later Stone secondary practice, evidence for interpersonal violence, or dietary ? There are ethnographic parallels for Age sites (Deacon, J., 1984) and understanding the gathering part of the Later Stone Age economy (Deacon, H.J., 1993). By all three of these practices and other examples of possible cannibalism in archaeological deposits in Europe, for example at building up a database of successes with the recognition of credible ethnographic analogues, it should be possible to test for Atapuerca CD in Spain dating to c. 800 Ka (Klein, 2009). similar parallels further back in time and in different geographic and environmental situations.

Structured hearths, the focal point of family life in the ethnographic present, are recognizable in long sequence deposits and are unequivocal evidence for regular home bases. There is an impressive number of hearths with carbonized surrounds to be seen in exposures at Klasies River. They are small domestic fire places and are often associated with burnt shell and bone. Lessons learnt and advice for HEADS The preparation of food, including plant foods, around small hearths suggests that family units used them as they do in the ethnographic present. Rules of cleanliness are evident in the discard of the bulk of the food waste in which are While ethnographic studies tend to be time-specific, group-specific and area-specific, there are high-level similarities amongst separate refuse areas. The use of marine foods shows expansion of the territorial range as well as a more varied diet. hunter-gatherer societies that can be used with caution to recognize and interpret past behavioural patterns at archaeological sites. Modest success has been achieved in southern Africa, particularly at sites dating to within the past 12 Ka, but further The Middle Stone Age industries at Klasies River and related sites are based on flake and blade technology with good evidence back in time as well. More insights are possible both in this region and beyond, especially where ethnographic sources are for hafting, as in ethnographic examples. There are marked changes in design over time indicating several periods available. This would apply both to archival records that have not been opened or read closely for decades or even centuries, of innovation. Stone segments from the Howieson’s Poort industry of the Middle Stone Age, c. 60–70 Ka ago, are similar and to people and communities who retain important memories but have not been consulted. in shape to smaller ethnographic specimens. Ethnoarchaeological studies of hafting and use-wear experiments based on ethnographic parallels, as well as micro-residue analysis conducted on 53 segments from Sibudu Cave in South Africa, argue The HEADS programme can play an influential role in encouraging States Parties who are preparing to add sites to the Tentative for the design and use of segments as at least 40 Ka earlier than previously thought (Lombard, 2007, 2008; List or who are gathering information for nomination dossiers to make a concerted effort to identify ethnographic materials Lombard and Phillipson, 2010). that could have relevance for interpretation of human evolution sites. Indigenous communities with links to the site should be consulted both for any information or memories they might have, and to obtain permission to share knowledge about Decorative items known ethnographically for both daily use and for rituals have been found in deposits of similar age (c. sensitive issues. 60–75 Ka ago) in both North Africa and South Africa. They presage items found frequently in deposits and amongst present-day San communities. At Grotte des Pigeons in and Blombos Cave in South Africa, perforated shells were strung together, presumably as necklaces. Diepkloof Cave and Klein Kliphuis shelter, also in South Africa, have numerous ostrich eggshell fragments with incised lines similar to those on decorated ostrich eggshells used as water containers by the San Bibiography in recent times (Klein, 2009). Ostrich eggshell beads have been found in small numbers in several Middle Stone Age deposits. Ochre from Blombos Cave with engraved designs comes from deposits below a wind-blown sand horizon dated to 70 Ka ago Brain, C.K. 1981. The Hunters or the Hunted? An introduction to African cave taphonomy. Chicago, University of Chicago (Henshilwood et al., 2009). There are no exact ethnographic parallels for the decorated ochre, but similar designs are found Press. on bone, ostrich eggshell and arrow shafts made by 19th and 20th century San. Painted slabs from Apollo 11 in Namibia are associated with terminal Middle Stone Age artefacts about 27,500 BP (Wendt, 1976). The images are similar to rock paintings Chavaillon, J. and Piperno, M. 2004. Studies on the Early Paleolithic site of Melka Kunture, Ethiopia. Florence, Instituto Italiano on the walls of caves and rock shelters in the region that date within the past 10 Ka and have strong connections with the di Preistoria e Protostoria. belief system of the San in southern Africa. Deacon, H.J. 1993. Planting an idea: an archaeology of Stone Age gatherers in South Africa. South African Archaeological The gradual increase in the number of decorative items through time is indicative of a growing awareness of symbolism and Bulletin, Vol. 48, pp. 86–93. the value of non-utilitarian artefacts. Deacon, H.J. 1998. Elandsfontein and Klasies River revisited. In: Ashton, N.M., Healy, F. and Pettitt, P.B. (eds.) A master of his craft: papers in Stone Age Archaeology presented to John Wymer. Oxford, OxBow, pp. 23–28. Holocene Deacon, H.J. and Deacon, J. 1999. Human Beginnings in South Africa. Cape Town, David Philip. From about 12 Ka ago in southern Africa, artefact assemblages have clear parallels with toolkits documented ethnographically amongst the San and Khoe people who were living there at the time of European contact from 1,500 AD onwards (Deacon Deacon, J. 1984. Later Stone Age people and their descendants in southern Africa. In: R.G. Klein (ed.) Southern African and Deacon, 1999). For the first time, ancestors of the San began burying their dead in formal graves, often decorating the palaeoenvironments and prehistory. Rotterdam, Balkema, pp. 221–328. body with beads and covering the grave shaft with powdered ochre (Deacon and Deacon, 1999). Deacon, J. 1992. as agents of belief amongst the /Xam Bushmen. Cape Town, South African Museum Margaret Shaw It is tempting to assume that beliefs and customs about artefacts that were recorded in the last few hundred years apply also Lecture 3. to similar artefacts made within the past 12 Ka. Poisoned arrows, for example, made and used by the 19th and 20th century San, were part of an intricate system of beliefs and rituals. They were regarded as having special potency and played a role in Guenther, M. 1986. The Nharo Bushmen of Botswana. Hamburg, Helmut Buske Verlag. healing ceremonies as well as hunting (Deacon, J., 1992). Rock paintings of arrows seem to confirm the oral history statements about their potency. Similarly, animals such as the eland that are widely represented in rock paintings and engravings, Henshilwood, C.S., d’Errico, F. and Watts, I. 2009. Engraved from the Middle Stone Age levels at Blombos Cave, South Africa. Journal of Human Evolution, Vol. 57, pp. 27–47. 32 33 2 Scientific Perspectives: Africa and HEADS Scientific Perspectives: Africa and HEADS 2

Isaac, G.L. 1978. Food-sharing behaviour of proto-human hominids. Scientific American, Vol. 238, pp. 90–108. ‘Africa as the Cradle’ vs ‘Out of Africa’

Isaac, G.L. 1984. The archaeology of human origins: studies of the Lower Pleistocene in East Africa 1971–1981. In: F. Wendorf Margherita Mussi and A. Close (eds.) Advances in World Archaeology, Vol. 3, pp. 1–87. New York, Academic Press. Department of Archaeological and Anthropological Historical Sciences of Antiquity – Università degli Studi di Roma ‘La Sapienza‘(University of Rome ‘La Sapienza’) – Klein, R.G. 2009. The Human Career. Third Edition. Chicago, University of Chicago Press.

Leakey, M.D. 1971. . Vol. Excavations in Beds I and II, 1960–1963. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.

Lee, R.B. 1979. The !Kung San: Men, Women and Work in a Foraging Society. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. The astonishing palaeontological, archaeological and paleoecological richness of Africa is reflected in the common understanding that it was the . It is the continent where, among others: Lewis-Williams, J.D. 2000. Discovering Southern African rock art. Cape Town, David Philip. i. The highest number of hominin remains has been discovered (by far); Lewis-Williams, D. and Challis, S. 2011. Deciphering Ancient Minds. The mystery of San Bushman rock art. London, Thames ii. There is evidence of the earliest bipedal walking; and Hudson. iii. An unprecedented number of 2 million-year-old sites have been found; iv. One million-year-old sites, being numerous and rich, do not cause the excitement they ignite in other continents; Lombard, M. 2007. The gripping nature of ochre: the association of ochre with Howiesons Poort adhesives and Later Stone v. Anatomically-modern humans appeared 200,000 years ago; Age mastics from South Africa. Journal of Human Evolution, Vol. 53, pp. 406–19. vi. There is early evidence of graphic activity and symbolic behaviour; vii. Past and present biodiversity is better evidenced and preserved than anywhere else; Lombard, M. 2008. Finding resolution for the Howiesons Poort through the microscope: micro-residue analysis of segments viii. There are huge numbers of rock art sites, dating up to recent times. from Sibudu Cave, South Africa. Journal of Archaeological Science, Vol. 35, pp. 26–41. ix. It is probably also the continent most frequently quoted in the major international journals, which has established the reputation of scientists working in Quaternary Sciences. This is reflected in the World Heritage List, which Lombard, M. and Phillipson, L. 2010. Indications of bone and stone-tipped arrow use 64 Ka ago in Kwa-Zulu Natal, South includes major sites related to human evolution in Africa, such as the Lower Valley of the Omo, and the Lower Africa. Antiquity, Vol. 84, pp. 1–14. Valley of the Awash (Ethiopia), Ngorongoro Conservation Area (United Republic of Tanzania), and Fossil Hominid Sites of Sterkfontein, Swartkrans, Kromdraai, and Environs (South Africa). Mazel, A.D. 1989. Changing social relations in the Thukela Basin, Natal 7000–2000 BP. South African Archaeological Society Goodwin Series, Vol. 6, pp. 33–41. More are to be found on the Tentative List, such as The African Great Rift Valley – Olorgesailie Prehistoric Site (Kenya), Kalambo falls archaeological site (prehistoric settlement site) (), Pleistocene occupation sites of Klasies River, Potts, R. 1994. Variables versus models of Early Pleistocene hominid land use. Journal of Human Evolution, Vol. 27, pp. 7–24. , Wonderwerk Cave (South Africa) and comparable sites relating to the emergence of modern humans – even if more often than not they have remained there for years. Rock art is also represented all over the continent, both on Silberbauer, G.B. 1981. Hunter and habitat in the Central Kalahari Desert. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. the World Heritage List and the Tentative List.

Wadley, L. 1989. Legacies from the Later Stone Age. South African Archaeological Society Goodwin Series, Vol. 6, pp. 42–53. This ‘African superpower’ in human evolution is more than a scientific issue, however, and will be briefly evaluated below in two different perspectives: Wadley, L. 1996. The Robberg industry of Rose Cottage Cave, eastern Free State: the technology, spatial patterns and environment. South African Archaeological Bulletin, Vol. 51, pp. 64–74. x. Narrative/narratives which stem out of discoveries, as perceived both in Africa and outside Africa; xi. Capacity-building and management of sites. Wendt, W.E. 1976. ‘Art mobilier’ from the , South : Africa’s oldest dated works of art. South African Archaeological Bulletin, Vol. 31, pp. 5–11.

Wiessner, P. 1982. Risk, reciprocity and social influence on !Kung economics. In: E. Leacock and R.B. Lee (eds.) Politics and Narratives History in Band Societies, Vol. 61–84. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. Both the ‘Africa as the Cradle’ and ‘Out of Africa’ narratives are found everywhere in the media and in popular books – the Yellen, J. 1977. Archaeological approaches to the present: models for reconstructing the past. New York, Academic Press. second narrative being the most preeminent. The scientific community recognizes a minimum of three Out of Africa events, related possibly to , and positively to and Homo sapiens, while several more are suggested by recent research (Lepre et al., 2011). This is barely perceived outside the scientific circles: the common understanding is that there was an early hominin dispersal, and then a later one, of humans ‘like ourselves’, often related to the ‘African Eve’. The later one actually sometimes gets superposed and mixed with the much earlier ‘Lucy’ icon. Whatever the accuracy – or not – of this narrative, it is severely biased towards the ‘Out’: Africa is indeed the Cradle, but does not interest much as such; its importance is rather seen as the provider of actors for mighty events which happened outside the continent. Developments in paleo-, coupled with a biased perception of the past – which admittedly is rather a paradox – will possibly help in addressing the issue.

The outcome of accurate mapping of the (Green et al., 2010; Yotova et al., 2011) points to a major difference between contemporary African and non-African populations: in the genoma of the former ones there is no evidence of admixture with Neanderthals, while the opposite is true with present-day humans from everywhere else in Eurasia, Oceania and the Americas. In the popular understanding, Neanderthals are the archetype of primitive and rough humanity. Accordingly, a Neanderthal signature within genes can easily – even if wrongly – be perceived as questioning the status of most, but not

34 35 2 Scientific Perspectives: Africa and HEADS Scientific Perspectives: Africa and HEADS 2

all modern humans. This, in turn, might to reconsidering the role of Africa as more than just a kind of container and African human evolution-related sites: provider, with real things happening elsewhere. towards a sustainable conservation plan As mentioned, the implications of the tropical and African origin of all past and present humans are neither properly understood, nor elaborated into any detail. Human expansion and adaptation within Africa itself, ending in the colonization François Sémah of extremely diverse environments, is not addressed in detail, as if not really interesting. Department of Prehistory – Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle – MNHN (National Museum of Natural History) – France

There is a fresh start of a more detailed narrative, however, in African countries, such as in Ethiopia: museum panels in Addis Ababa, just as leaflets for tourists, underline that this is the place ‘where it all began’, leaving it open for further elaboration. More importantly, not just foreign tourists, but also African schoolchildren visit museums and sites where this message is A multi-faceted challenge conveyed. The African continent widely documents the various steps of the human lineage from its earliest roots. It was therefore natural that the UNESCO World Heritage Centre, having launched the HEADS Thematic Programme ‘Human Evolution: Adaptations, Dispersals and Social Developments (HEADS)’ by means of several international meetings, decided to carry Capacity-building and site management out the first regional meeting in Africa.

If the ‘Africa as the Cradle’ narrative has to be better recognized and substantiated, in order to attract attention and balance Promoting such inscriptions is an important concern, cognizant of the quite limited number of African prehistoric sites the ‘Out of Africa’ narrative, capacity-building and site management are a central issue. presently inscribed on the World Heritage List, that include only a minority of hominid fossil-bearing ones. Preparing a ‘Roadmap to promote the inscription of African human origins sites’ therefore represents an actual, multi-faceted On the other , a country will invest in capacity-building, conservation and site management in the archaeological and challenge from various points of view addressing both scientific research and conservation/dissemination, a challenge palaeontological field only if research on the prehistoric past is perceived as important. The two sides of the problem are that needs to consider the significance of human evolution-related sites as a whole (inscribed and non-inscribed sites interlocked. as well).

This is well understood by site managers all over the continent, as was evidenced at the meeting, ‘Preparation of a Road On the scientific side, that challenge is to build an adaptable international instrument that remains on the cutting edge of Map to promote the inscription of African human origin sites on the UNESCO World Heritage List’, in the framework of the a fast evolving situation in terms of palaeontology and evolutionary studies, of discovery, perception an conceptualization UNESCO World Heritage Thematic Programme ‘Human Evolution: Adaptations, Dispersals and Social Developments (HEADS)’, of behavioural/cultural remains, and of hypothesis/global interpretation of hominid dispersals patterns. held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, in February 2011. At a working group which met on topics related to site management and conservation, managers expressed very clearly, and even dramatically, their need and request for further training, and for This adaptability is critical in terms of interpretive facilities. Beyond the simple illustration of a fantastic geographical sharing best practices adapted to the challenges often faced in the continent. Paleo-tourism is perceived as a resource in and chronological diversity of fossils, the network of African sites must reflect, on scientifically-validated grounds, the itself, and also as a way to promote interest for the past, which in turn can lead national and local authorities to invest more documented milestones of our lineage by means of an ever-updated comprehensive story. One of the expected results in education, site preservation and valorization. This positive perception is further enhanced when the Outstanding Universal is to help to clearly identify the main questions faced by the scientific community in order to understand our history, Value (OUV) of paleoecological/paleoanthropological sites in Africa is underlined by a nomination to the World Heritage List, while being able to highlight them in a quite meaningful historical perspective. which in turn also promotes a specific kind of highly motivated paleo-tourism. ‘Africa as the Cradle’ will develop together with research, and preserved and well-managed paleoanthropological sites. Such a story cannot rely only on fossil-bearing properties, but has to consider – for conservation purposes – archaeological and palaeoenvironmental records as well. A variety of site types are brought together within that category, ranging from landscapes and significant geological outcrops to caves yielding ancient living floors, and open-air occupation sites.

Bibliography From a long-term perspective, promoting the inscription of African human origin sites requires the HEADS Programme to be backed by a significant, interdisciplinary and inter-sectoral, multi-level training policy. Obviously, the latter is Green, R.E., Krause, J., Briggs, A.W., Maricic, T., Stenzel, U., Kircher, M., Patterson, N., Li, H., Zhai, W., Fritz, M.H., Hansen, intended to address various aspects of the development of the concerned properties, to maintain and improve their N.F., Durand, E.Y., Malaspinas, A.S., Jensen, J.D., Marques-Bonet, T., Alkan, C., Prüfer, K., Meyer, M., Burbano, H.A., Good, Outstanding Universal Value (OUV), and to establish and share good practices as well. From the scientific point of view, J.M., Schultz, R., Aximu-Petri, A., Butthof, A., Höber, B., Höffner, B., Siegemund, M., Weihmann, A., Nusbaum, C., Lander, this training effort has a threefold objective: E.S., Russ, C., Novod, N., Affourtit, J., Egholm, M., Verna, C., Rudan, P., Brajkovic, D., Kucan, Z., Gusic, I., Doronichev, V.B., Golovanova, L.V., Lalueza-Fox, C., de la Rasilla, M., Fortea, J., Rosas, A., Schmitz, R.W., Johnson, P.L., Eichler, E.E., Falush, D., Q Take part in the development of the sites authenticity (scientific validation) and integrity (conservation skills) Birney, E., Mullikin, J.C., Slatkin, M., Nielsen, R., Kelso, J., Lachmann, M., Reich, D., Pääbo, S. 2010. A draft sequence of the by means of academic and practical networking, teaching and sharing of knowledge, as most of the properties Neandertal genome. Science, Vol. 328, pp. 710–722. are still far from having yielded their complete heritage content;

Lepre, C.J., Roche, H., , D.V., Harmand, S., Quinn, R. L., Brugal, J.-P., Texier, P.-J., Lenoble, A., Feibel, C.S. 2011. An earlier Q Support the identification of a professional learning community able to define and share good conservation origin for the Acheulian. Nature, Vol. 477, pp. 82–85. practices, and pay balanced attention to both the sites and the discovered material heritage (a specificity of prehistoric sites in general); Yotova, V., Lefebvre, J.-F., Moreau, C., Gbeha, E., Hovhannesyan, K., Bourgeois, S., Be´darida, S., Azevedo, L., Amorim, A., Sarkisian, T., Hodonou Avogbe, P., Chabi, N., Hama Dicko, M., Sabiba Kou ’Santa Amouzou, E., Sanni, A., Roberts-Thomson, Q Contribute to the UNESCO goal of knowledge sharing by promoting the dissemination of natural evolution J., Boettcher, B., Scott, R.J., Labuda, D. 2011. An X-Linked Haplotype of Neandertal Origin Is Present Among All Non-African patterns that, at the human evolution scale –and Africa is certainly the best area in this respect– are linked to Populations. Molecular Biology and Evolution. Vol. 28, pp. 1957–1962. a major humanistic value.

In light of the outcomes of the HEADS meeting in Addis Ababa, restricting ourselves here to the most ancient part of the history of humankind as related by the African continent (i.e. until the late Lower Pleistocene / early Middle Pleistocene, between some 900 Ka – 600 Ka ago) we shall briefly consider below several issues that are directly related to that attempt to build sustainable and internationally relevant conservation plans. 36 37 2 Scientific Perspectives: Africa and HEADS Scientific Perspectives: Africa and HEADS 2

Evolution Natural and anthropic records

As a shortcut to dealing with evolution, we might say that the efforts have to bear on the well-known old cliché of the Since the discovery of East African Australopithecus and early Homo representatives, research has paid specific attention to progressively standing -like creature, which is still present on many of our shirts – if not still in our minds. Though, we are not only build an as-accurate-as-possible chronological framework of the discoveries – that highly depends on the nature of definitely aware that a derived character, which is by essence chronologically more modern, is not necessarily a ‘better’ one. the surrounding volcanic and sedimentary deposits – but also to reconstruct their palaeoenvironmental context.

As, for instance, humans still possess five fingers – a character inherited from vertebrates living during times, Such an endeavour is quite important in order to set up the climatic and environmental constraints and their possible influence hundreds of million years ago, hence making our ‘multi-purpose’ use a quite ancestral anatomy. On the contrary, we on hominid evolution in Africa (e.g. the current debates about the possible development of bipedalism in a woodland know that the Equidae developed the ’s specialized unique finger much later, during the Neogene times. environment, and not necessarily owing to a severe opening of the landscape). It is also obviously meaningful in order to reconstruct the hominid group’s way of life. A similar comparison can be made regarding the use of anatomical features for subsistence and technical purposes. It is amazing to notice that evolution of higher primates led humans to progressively lose half of five clear anatomical tools, Hence, beyond geological outcrops and related meaningful stratigraphical sections, conservation should address whole interfaces or sockets. Apes make use of their four hands and feet; owing to the number and size of their teeth, to the landscapes that reflect, to various degrees depending on the places (that have to be carefully recorded), the extension of shape and of their mandible and maxilla, their manducatory apparatus represents a very useful instrument when hominid occupation of the area during ancient times. Here, a large variety of properties and records are concerned, both attempting to cope with uneasy situations. Humans lost their opposable toes on the feet. They lost as well – partly – the open-air sites and caves, and the related varied conservation practices. robustness and dental characteristics of the manducatory apparatus; though, they still use it as we may observe on severe wear of fossil and even extant individuals, often linked to technical activities.

From Australopithecus to Homo

Roots The quite diversified and specialized groups that are presently gathered in the Australopithecus genus, the co-existence of some Australopithecus with the early representatives of the Homo genus (e.g. H. habilis) do not only document a rather normal One of the critical questions reflected by current research in Africa is to understand the history of the Hominoidea phylum ‘bushy’ evolution of the hominids. They also help us to realize an important fact, i.e. before – and partly during – the Upper since early Neogene times. In summary, it is to know to which extent the earliest hominids are descended from a quite long Pleistocene dispersals of Homo sapiens throughout the Old then the New World, several forms of humankind have coexisted African ape evolution or have (cf. the ‘rolling cradle’) an Eurasiatic ape ancestor which dispersed back to Africa. Under this and to a certain extent interbreeded; a fact that is documented more and more through recent discoveries, e.g. the numerous perspective, the African finds have to be situated in the framework of a palaeo-primatology that considers Far as well as studies regarding the of Neandertal, the evidences recently documented of Flores (Morwood et al., 2004; et Middle Eastern fields of research (see for instance Jaeger et al., 2005), and which have became particularly productive during al., 2004) and of Denisova (Krause et al., 2010). the past decades (e.g. in , and ). Beyond several anatomical characters (even including the supposed neurological ability for articulated language, see Tobias, The concern doesn’t have to cover the whole of the primate’s history, which might even predate the beginning of the Cenozoic 1987; Grimaud-Hervé, 1998), early Homo genus characterization was – at least – partly grounded on the concomitant Era. But it will help to consider current and forthcoming discoveries regarding great apes phylum – such as that of the recently discovery of organized toolkit-making procedures. Though supported by field evidence, such a ‘cultural’ argument might described skull of Ugandapithecus major in (Senut et al., 2000) – in an ancient world-wide perspective. seem somewhat subjective, and is presently debated, e.g. the discovery at Dikika (Ethiopia,) of traces of butchery on animal bones suggesting that Australopithecus afarensis might have used stone tools (McPherron et al., 2010 vs. Domínguez-Rodrigo et al., 2010).

Origins of the phylum

Such an approach will also help to maintain the overall conservation and interpretive process, enabling the conservation plan Early dispersals to consider any future hypothesis or theory (supported with relevant arguments) regarding the most ancient history of the hominids. As, for instance, it appears normal nowadays to include in ‘African human origins sites’ late Miocene and early Early representatives of the Homo genus might have quickly dispersed throughout Africa (though debated, the Aïn Anech properties that yielded the remains of Sahelanthropus tchadensis (Chad, Brunet et al., 2002), Orrorin tugenensis site in might date back to the early Lower Pleistocene, Sahnouni, 2006). Archaeological records (and especially lithic (Kenya, Pickford et al., 2001) or even Ardipithecus kadabba (Ethiopia, Haile-Selassie et al., 2004), and the subsequent industry assemblages) are quite useful and promising under that point of view: Acheulean assemblages (mostly handaxes and Ardipithecus ramidus (Ethiopia, et al., 2009). Today, these are subject to current debates regarding their actual status cleavers) developed c. 1.7 Ma ago in East Africa (e.g. Konso, Ethiopia, Asfaw et al., 1992; and Kokiselei, Kenya, Leptre et al., as candidates to pinpoint the differentiation of our lineage, and are much older than the (> 3 million years old) Australopithecus 2011) and rapidly reached the Levantine area (, , Horowitz et al., 1973; Repenning & Fejfar, 1982). afarensis that was widely publicized in the media some 35 years ago (see for instance Coppens, 1983; Johanson & Edey, 1981). Much has still to be done to reconstruct the patterns of these early dispersals in Africa and neighbouring areas, that will deeply These debates deal with numerous anatomical aspects (e.g. skull, , femur, foot etc.) that determine the overall aspect affect our knowledge of the earliest colonization of Eurasia, where the discoveries of sites predating 1 Ma ago have become and abilities of the body, including the most often highlighted bipedalism (e.g. Senut, 2006; White et al., op.cit.; Cerling et more numerous: in (Dmanissi, c. 1.8 Ma ago, Gabounia et al., 2002; Lumley M.-A. & Lordkipanidze, 2006), in the al., 2010). As mentioned above, they must be regarded as an ever updated analysis of a corpus mixing inherited and acquired Far East (e.g. Java, c. 1.5 Ma ago, see for instance Sémah et al., 2000) but also Orce (southern Spain, see for instance Toro characters, and not the simple witnessing of a linear phylogeny and chronology, as was the case some decades ago, a way Moyano et al., 2011) or Pirro Nord (Italy, Arzarello et al., 2007). of thinking that was much facilitated by the scarcity of discoveries at the time, compared to the present development of their spatio-temporal distribution.

38 39 2 Scientific Perspectives: Africa and HEADS Scientific Perspectives: Africa and HEADS 2

A promising future Horowitz, A., Siedner, G. and Bar Yosef, O. 1973. Radiometric Dating of the Ubeidiya Formation, Valley, Israel. Nature, Vol. 242, pp. 186–187. Beyond that brief review of most ancient issues, the African continent still has numerous mysteries to disclose, especially regarding the period between 1 Ma ago (the extinction of the last Australopithecus) and c. 600 Ka ago. Hominid fossils are Jaeger, J.-J. and Marivaux, L. 2005. Shaking the Earliest Branches of Anthropoid Primate Evolution. Science, Vol. 310 (5746), quite rare (e.g. Olorgesaillie in Kenya, c. 900 Ka ago, Potts et al., 2004). Anatomical characters documented on several fossils, pp. 244–245. such as the discovered at Bodo (Ethiopia), dated c. 600 Ka ago, or at Elandsfontein in South Africa (which might be somewhat older), show a trend towards an increase of the cranial capacity but an overall archaic morphology, and are often Johanson, D.C. and Edey, M.A. 1981. Lucy: the beginnings of humankind. New York, Simon and Schuster. compared to the Asian Homo erectus. Krause, J., Fu, Q., Good, J.M., Viola, B., Shunkov, M.V., Derevianko, A.P. and Paabo, S. 2010. The complete mitochondrial This later period also witnessed the coexistence of the last pebble tools (c. 1 Ma ago) with the Acheulean assemblages. The DNA genome of an unknown hominin from southern . Nature, Vol. 464, pp. 894–897. continent has therefore much to tell about the diversities it is likely to reflect at the time, regarding exploitation of territories, subsistence and technical behaviours, and about the emergence of the very first anatomical characters that announce the Lepre, C.J., Roche, H., Kent, D.V., Harmand, S., Quinn, R.L., Brugal, J.-P., Texier, P.-J., Lenoble, A. and Feibel, C.S. 2011. An origin of Homo sapiens, likely to appear on the Buya fossil (Erytrea, <1 Ma ago, see for instance Macchiarelli et al., 2004). earlier origin for the Acheulian. Nature, Vol. 477, pp. 82–85.

One of the specific interests of the HEADS meeting organized in Addis Ababa was to bring together a number of professionals Lumley, M.-A. de and Lordkipanidze, D. 2006. L’Homme de Dmanissi (Homo georgicus), il y a 1810 000 ans. Comptes Rendus dealing with surveying, geographic record, excavation and site management, hence matching the critical need for deep and Palevol, Vol. 5 (1), pp. 273–281. fruitful exchanges, notably regarding conservation and research practices, and to also mitigate practices and lessons learnt during a sometimes long experience acquired within and outside the limited number of properties inscribed on the World Macchiarelli, R., Bondioli, L., Chech, M., Coppa, A., I. Fiore, R. Russom, F. Vecchi, Y. Libsekal & L. Rook 2004. The late Early Heritage List, e.g. the in situ conservation of remains at Laetoli (Ngorongoro Conservation Area, United Republic of Tanzania) Pleistocene human remains from Buia, Danakil Depression, . Rivista Italiana di Paleontologia e Stratigrafia, 110, pp. and Olorgesailie (The African Great Rift Valley – Olorgesailie Prehistoric Site, Kenya) or Melka Kunture in Ethiopia. No doubt 133–144. that an action carried out on such an enlarged scope, thanks to the UNESCO World Heritage initiative, will help the community concerned through the conservation of our origins to be ready to face and assimilate the progress of research. McPherron, S.P., Z. Alemseged, C.W. Marean, J.G. Wynn, D. Reed, D. Geraads, R. Bobe & H.A. Béarat 2010. Evidence for stone-tool-assisted consumption of animal tissues before 3.39 million years ago at Dikika, Ethiopia. Nature, 466, pp.857–860.

Morwood, M.J., R.P. Soejono, R.G. Roberts, T. Sutikna, C.S Turney, K.E Westaway, W.J Rink, J.-X., Zhao, G.D. van den Bergh, Bibliography Rokus Awe Due, D.R. Hobbs, M.W. Moore, M. I. Bird & L.K. Fifield 2004. Archaeology and age of a new hominin from Flores in eastern . Nature, 431, pp.1087–1091. Arzarello, M., Marcolini, F., Pavia, G., Pavia, M., Petronio, C., Petrucci, M., Rook, L. and Sardella, R. 2007. Evidence of earliest human occurrence in Europe: the site of Pirro Nord (Southern Italy). Naturwissenschaften, Vol. 94, pp.107–112. Pickford, M. & B. Senut 2001. ‘Millennium ancestor’, a 6-million-year-old bipedal hominid from Kenya. South African Journal of Science, Vol. 97, Issue 1–2, pp. 22. #UHCY$$G[GPG;5WYC)9CNVGT4%9JKVG6&9QNFG)CDTKGN)||CPF;GOCPG66JGGCTNKGUV#EJGWNGCP from Konso-Gardula. Nature, Vol. 360, pp.732–735. Potts, R., A.K. Behrensmeyer, A. Deino, P. Ditchfield & J. Clark 2004. Small Mid-Pleistocene hominin associated with East African Acheulean technology. Science, 305, pp.75–78. Brown, P., Sutikna, T., Morwood, M.J., Soejono, R.P., Jatmiko, Wahyu Saptomo, E. and Rokus Awe Due. 2004. A new small- bodied hominin from the Late Pleistocene of Flores, Indonesia. Nature, Vol. 431, pp. 1055–1061. 4GRGPPKPI%#|1|(GLHCT'XKFGPEGHQTGCTNKGTFCVGQHn7DGKFK[C+UTCGNJQOKPKFUKVGNature, 299, pp. 344–347.

Brunet, M., Franck, G., Pilbeam, D., Mackaye, H.T., Likius, A., Ahounta, D., Beauvilain, A., Blondel, C., Bocherens, H., Boisserie, 5CJPQWPK/.GURNWUXKGKNNGUVTCEGUFoQEEWRCVKQPJWOCKPGGP|#HTKSWGFW|0QTF|2GTURGEVKXGFG|No#KP*CPGEJ#NIÅTKG J.-R., De Bonis, L., Coppens, Y., Dejax, J., Denys, C., Duringer, P., Eisenmann, V., Fanone, G., Fronty, P., Geraads, D., Lehmann, Comptes-Rendus Palevol, 5, 1–2, pp. 243–254. T., Lihoreau, F., Louchart, A., Mahamat, A., Merceron, G., Mouchelin, G., Otero, O., Campomanes, P.P., De Leon, P.P., Rage, J.-C., Sapenet, M., Schuster, M., Sudre, J., Tassy, P., Valentin, X., Vignaud, P., Viriot, L., Zazzo, A. and Zollikofer, C. 2002. A Sémah, F., H. Saleki., C. Falguères, G. Féraud & T. Djubiantono 2000. Did Early Man reach Java during the Late Pliocene? new hominid from the Upper Miocene of Chad, Central Africa. Nature, Vol. 418, pp.145–151. Journal of Archaeological Science, 27, pp. 763–769.

Cerling, T.E., Levin, N.E., Quade, J., Wynn, J.G., Fox, D.L., Kingston, J.D., Klein, R.G. and Brown, F.H. 2010. Comment on the Senut, B., M. Pickford, D. Gommery & Y. Kunimatsu 2000. Un nouveau genre d’hominoïde du Miocène inférieur d’Afrique Paleoenvironment of Ardipithecus ramidus. Science, Vol. 328 (5982), pp. 1105. orientale : Ugandapithecus major (Le Gros Clark et Leakey, 1950). Comptes Rendus de l’Académie des Sciences, Paris, 331, pp. 227–233 Coppens, Y., 1983. Le Singe, l’Afrique et l’Homme, Paris, Fayard. Senut, B. 2006. Bipédie et climat. Comptes-Rendus Palevol, 5, 1–2, pp. 89–98. Domínguez-Rodrigo, M., Pickering, T.R. and Bunn, H.T. 2010. Configurational approach to identifying the earliest hominin butchers. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, Vol. 107, pp. 20929–20934. Tobias, P.V. 1987. The brain of Homo habilis: A new level of organization in cerebral evolution. Journal of Human Evolution, 16, 7–8, pp. 741–761. Gabounia, L., de Lumley, M.-A., Vekua, A., Lordkipanidze, D. and de Lumley, H. 2002. Découverte d’un nouvel hominidé à Dmanissi (Transcaucasie, Géorgie). Comptes-Rendus Palevol, Vol. 4, pp. 243–353. Toro Moyano, I., D. Barsky, D. Cauche, V. Celiberti, S. Grégoire, F. Lebegue, M.-H. Moncel & H. de Lumley 2011. The archaic stone tool industry from Barranco León and Fuente Nueva 3, (Orce, Spain): Evidence of the earliest hominin presence in Grimaud-Hervé, D. 1998. L’évolution de l’encéphale chez Homo erectus et Homo sapiens. Exemples de l’Asie et de l’Europe. southern Europe. Quaternary International, 243, 1, pp. 80–91. Paris, Cahiers de Paléoanthropologie, CNRS. White, T.D., B. Asfaw, Y. Beyene, Y. Haile-Selassie, C.O. Lovejoy, G. Suwa & G. WoldeGabriel 2009. Ardipithecus ramidus and Haile-Selassie, Y., Suwa, G. and White, T.D. 2004. Late Miocene teeth from , Ethiopia, and early hominid dental the Paleobiology of Early Hominids. Science, 326 (5949),pp.75–86. evolution. Science, Vol. 303, pp. 1503–1505.

40 41 3 Regional overview

Homo sapiens idaltu. Upper Herto Member, Bouri peninsula, Middle Awash, Ethiopia. Dated 160 Ka. Housed in National Museum of Ethiopia, Addis Ababa. © David L. Brill

43 3 Regional overview Regional overview 3

The history of research in human evolution in Africa and After beginning his archaeological research in East Africa in 1926, developed an enthusiasm and determination to find both the earliest ape-like progenitor of mankind and also the earliest Homo. A glance at the family that he produced what lessons have been learned for his 1934 book, ‘Adam’s ancestors’, shows that he considered the split between the ancestors of the modern apes and humans to be in the Oligocene period and he stated this in the text (Leakey, 1934). Thus it came as no surprise to him to find Ronald Clarke in 1961, in the Miocene deposits of Fort Ternan in Kenya, the partial maxilla of what he considered to be a 14 million year- Institute for Human Evolution – University of the Witwatersrand – South Africa old hominid or human-like form. He named it wickeri (Leakey, 1962) and later was to publish specimens from earlier Miocene sites that he considered also to be hominids naming them Kenyapithecus africanus (Leakey, 1967). The K. wickeri fossils had strong similarities to Siwalik fossils of Ramapithecus punjabicus which Elwyn Simons and David Pilbeam were championing in the 1960s as Miocene hominids. Simons (1972) stated that ‘Ramapithecus may lie in or near the ancestry of Introduction Australopithecus and subsequent hominids.’ Although the current tendency is to consider Ramapithecus and Kenyapithecus as varieties of Miocene Ape the fact remains that somewhere in early to middle Miocene deposits there could well be an ape Although is widely quoted as having predicted that mankind‘s evolutionary forbears would be found that represents the beginning of human evolution by showing human-like trends and thus these Miocene deposits are of in Africa, it was actually James Burnett, Lord Monboddo of Scotland, who predicted it nearly a century before Darwin’s great value for providing environmental information on the kind of world in which our earliest ancestors and the great ape work. In his 1774 publication, ‘Origin and Progress of Language’, Monboddo wrote: ‘From the South Sea, I will come ancestors originated. back again to Africa, a country of very great extent; in which, if it were well searched, I am persuaded that all the several types of human progression might be traced, and perhaps all the varieties of the species discovered.’ It was another As Miocene apes lived in Europe and Asia as well as Africa, there is no reason to assume that the Miocene ape that gave rise Scotsman, Dr , who in 1925, whilst writing about the newly-discovered child (Australopithecus to humans lived in Africa rather than in Asia or Europe. The one Miocene ape that does show remarkable dental similarity to africanus, a link between ape and man), gave credit to Monboddo for his predictions. In that publication, Broom (1925) the early hominid Australopithecus is or macedoniensis from and , dating to made a further prediction: ‘It seems to me not at all improbable that an adult Australopithecus will yet be obtained about 11 to 9 Ma ago (de Bonis and Koufos, 1994). and possibly a perfect skeleton. Should such a discovery be made, it would be difficult to over-estimate its importance.’

It was indeed to be Broom himself who would discover that first adult Australopithecus (Broom, 1936) and thereafter to uncover other fossil clues to ‘human progression’ in Africa (in the form of early Homo—Broom and Robinson, 1949) The earliest hominids as well as one of ‘the varieties of the species’ in the form of a human side branch, the flat faced, large toothed ape man which he named Paranthopus robustus (Broom, 1938; Broom and Robinson, 1952). The hoped for (though still not During the 1960s the concept of what was a hominid (higher primate with human trends) as opposed to a pongid (large ape) perfect) skeleton of Australopithecus was to be discovered by the present writer, 72 years after Broom’s statement and, was clear-cut. Hominids had to show trends in the direction of humanity whereas pongids, ancient and modern, retained their in the years between, a great number of fossils tracing the stages of human progression as well as others representing full complement of ape characteristics. Recently there has developed a general tendency, which some of us do not support, to varieties of the species were discovered in many parts of Africa by several different researchers. Thus Monboddo’s refer to ‘hominins’ instead of ‘hominids’. Those who do so have adopted a classification in which orangs, and chimps statement provides a fitting framework in which to place the topics that will be dealt with in this summary, i.e. a) ‘The are classed with humans in the family . The African apes (gorillas and chimps) are placed with humans and their several types of human progression’; and b) ‘The varieties of the species’ all set in the context of ‘Africa, a country of very ancestors in the Subfamily Homininae and a newly introduced tribe, the (or hominins) is used to signify humans and great extent’ and of the people who have searched and those still endeavouring to ensure that Africa is ‘well searched.’ their human-like ancestors (see Klein, 2009).

For the early researchers, who accepted that humans had evolved from a fossil form of ape, the expected stages of This is based on the debatable claim that chimps have the closest relationship to humans. Although this has been argued from human progression would be from ape to ape-man – to early Homo – to early Homo sapiens then to modern Homo genetic studies, the fossil record does not support this (Clarke, 1999; Schwartz, 1987). sapiens. All of these stages have now been discovered in Africa but the timing of such stages of progression as well as the correct identification of fossil representatives for each of these groupings is still a subject of debate and research. Furthermore, classifications based on supposed genetic distance are not consistent. For example, Stringer and Andrews (2005), like many others, separate the Hylobatidae (gibbons and siamangs) and Hominidae at family level, whilst Goodman et al. (2001) The following pages provide an outline of these stages of progression and varieties in Africa with brief examples of include gibbons not only in the family Hominidae but also in the subfamily Homininae. Goodman et al. classify the orang, some of the fossils that represent them. , chimp and Homo together in the tribe Hominini, thereby including the great apes with humans and their ancestral kin as ‘hominins.’ Watson et al. (2001) took this even further by classifying gorilla and chimp with humans in the genus Homo.

Irrespective of any perceived close relationship to any living ape, humans and their Plio-Pleistocene ancestors are clearly The Miocene ape ancestors of mankind and the great apes distinct. They have developed large brains, perfected bipedal locomotion, reduced the size of their canine teeth, developed a characteristic non-ape dentition and retained, from a Miocene ancestor, a primitive hand with elongated thumb relative to a It was in 1856 that the first fossil of a great ape was discovered in the form of a mandible and a at St Gaudens in short palm and fingers. By contrast, the great apes, gorilla, and orang-utan have not perfected bipedal locomotion France and was named fontani (Lartet, 1856). Since then a great many fossils of a large variety of apes identified but have developed long arms and long hook-like fingers to facilitate below branch suspension and locomotion. They use these as more than 100 species have been found in Miocene sites in Europe, Asia and Africa. Surprisingly not one of these has yet long arms as props during terrestrial locomotion. They have retained very large canines and a characteristic ape dentition. Thus been convincingly shown to be a direct ancestor of mankind or of the African great apes. However, in Asia, the of I consider it necessary to retain the family distinction between hominids (humans and their ancestral human-like kin) and apes Asia clearly has close cranial affinity with the Miocene ape (Stringer and Andrews, 2005). (which could if appropriate, be distinguished as pongids, panids, gorillids, dryopithecids, etc.).

For those who considered that mankind originated in Africa it was the Miocene apes of East Africa that held most promise of With this in mind, the earliest claimed hominids that can be distinguished from the apes are Sahelanthropus, Orrorin and providing clues to human ancestry. The 18–20 million year-old Miocene deposits of the Lake Victoria region in Kenya yielded Ardipithecus. many ape fossils beginning in the 1920s at the site of Koru. A maxilla was named Proconsul by Hopwood (1933) and it was thought that a Proconsul skull found on Rusinga Island by Mary Leakey in 1948 could be close to the ancestry of . Now, however, with the discovery of many more ape fossils from that region including a partial skeleton, it is apparent that the Proconsul fossils – which include small, medium and large species – do not demonstrate any particular links to the modern African apes but have a mixture of monkey and ape features (Stringer and Andrews, 2005).

44 45 3 Regional overview Regional overview 3

Sahelanthropus and eventually prevailed in obtaining the necessary research permit. Together with another student, John Yellen, and a In July 2001, a team led by Michel Brunet discovered a crushed cranium which they identified as a 7 million year-old hominid small team of assistants, he set off to the remote Turkana in the very remote Djourab Desert of Chad, more than 2500 km west of the Rift Valley sites in East Africa. The site is located country. He found what he was looking for—a magnificent three days drive from the capital Ndjamena, and the abundance and variety of well-preserved fossil animals in the desert are site with bone . When Robert testimony to the former extent of what was the mega-Lake Chad. The impact of this find is not only its great age but also the Soper, Laurel Lofgren (now Phillipson) and I drove up to visit realization of the logistic challenges that Brunet and his colleagues have had in looking for such ancient fossils. The find is a him there, he showed me a fossil site he had observed near small cranium with small teeth but has a massive . Human-like features are the lack of anterior facial projection, the by. I realized that the fossils were either Pliocene or Miocene small canine (worn at the tip), the thick enamel on the teeth, and indications from the anterior position of foramen magnum and when I returned to Nairobi I told Bryan Patterson of and short basicranium that the head was being supported on an upright-walking individual (Brunet et al., 2002; 2005). Harvard University, who had been working at Kanapoi, that he might find the Lothagam site of interest. He did indeed The cranium does not resemble a chimpanzee and for the small size of the cranium, the brow ridge is relatively more massive investigate and recovered a wonderful collection of Miocene than that of a male gorilla, but unlike the gorilla, there is no supratoral sulcus. Of course, those who consider that chimps fauna, including the very ancient Lothagam hominid. are the closest relative to humans were expecting the earliest hominid to resemble a chimpanzee (see Klein, 2009). The fact remains that it is the fossils and not genetic hypotheses that show us the relationships or lack thereof and, so far, there are no early hominid fossils that show any particular relationship of humans to chimps. This point was made by Clarke (2002) Australopithecus with reference to an Australopithecus skeleton from Sterkfontein which will be discussed later and which shows that the australopithecine arm and hand did not evolve from a chimp-like or gorilla-like knuckle-walking anatomy. In 1924 at Taung in South Africa, the fossilized skull of a child was blasted out of a cliff during quarrying. There are also four partial mandibles and some isolated teeth which all add support to the contention that Sahelanthropus 1. Skull of the , the first discovery of It fortunately came into the hands of Professor of Anatomy, is an early hominid. Australopithecus africanus. © Ronald Clarke , of the University of the Witwatersrand in South Africa and, after cleaning it out of the encasing rock, he identified it as a link between ape and man (Figure 1) Orrorin Tugenensis and named it Australopithecus africanus (Dart, 1925). Also as a result of quarrying, in 1936, the first adult cranium In 2000, Martin Pickford and Brigitte Senut found a hominid in the Lukeino Formation of the Baringo district of Kenya of an Australopithecus (Figure 2a and b) was recovered represented by some partial limb bones, partial jaws and some teeth dating to about 6 Ma ago (Senut et al., 2001). The upper by palaeontologist, Dr Robert Broom, at the Sterkfontein section of a femur together with head and neck has several human-like features that indicate bipedalism and the five molars caves (Broom, 1936). Subsequent research at the caves have thick enamel and resemblances to hominids rather than to apes (Senut et al., 2001). has uncovered hundreds of fossils of this ape-man genus (Broom and Schepers, 1946; Broom et al., 1950; Figure 3) which from 1947 onward was also found to be present Ardipithecus ramidus at the Limeworks Cave (Dart 1948a,b; Dart and Boné, 1955). The large, though human-like, cheek In 11 articles within a special section of the journal Science, Tim White and his colleagues (White et al., 2009) provided detailed teeth, relatively small canines and proof of upright posture analysis of the anatomy and environment of a 4.4 million year-old hominid named Ardipithecus ramidus. A fragmented and in the form of the pelvis confirmed Australopithecus as a fragile partial skeleton had been excavated at Aramis in the Middle Awash area of Ethiopia and represents the most complete member of the family of man, a hominid. By the 1960s it fossil out of at least 36 individuals recovered there since 1992 (White et al., 1994). The skeleton, of a c. 120 cm tall female, was generally considered that all of these South African includes a considerable amount of the skull with teeth, a partial pelvis, the right lower arm with much of the wrist and hand, ape-men belonged to the one species Australopithecus the right lower leg and ankle with much of the foot, and also much of the left hand and foot. Whilst the skull and dentition C 6/#WUVTCNQRKVJGEWUCHTKECPWU 4QPCNF%NCTMG africanus, and that differences within the samples were display some human-like features (short cranial base, short face with small canines, and broad mandibular corpus), the brain is small (300–350 cc), and the foot has a very divergent big toe. This mix of characters is what might be expected for an early ancestral hominid, and the human-like features of the cranium are found also in Sahelanthropus.

A yet earlier form of A. ramidus was published by Yohannes Hailie-Selassie (2001). Some teeth, a partial mandible, partial ulna and humerus, and a foot phalanx and a hand phalanx were found in deposits dating to 5.2 to 5.8 Ma ago in the Middle Awash of Ethiopia. They were named Ardipithecus ramidus kadabba.

The Lothagam mandible

In 1967, a portion of the right side of a hominid mandible containing one heavily worn first was found by Bryan Patterson’s Harvard team at Lothagam, west of , Kenya (Patterson et al., 1970). It was dated to 5.5 Ma ago. It had unclear affinities, but Pilbeam (1972) noted its similarity to A. africanus and illustrated it together with an A. africanus mandible from Makapansgat. It was also later discussed in more detail by Kramer (1986) and Hill et al. (1992). Now, with the discoveries of older Australopithecus in the form of A. anamensis and of the earlier hominid Ardipithecus, it seems possible that the Lothagam mandible belongs to one of those taxa. It is worth noting the events leading up to its discovery (personal observation). A University of California at Berkeley student, Larry Robbins, had decided to explore the western shore of Lake D 6/CUHQWPFD[&T$NQQO 4QPCNF%NCTMG  5VU#WUVTCNQRKVJGEWUCHTKECPWUHTQO5VGTMHQPVGKP Turkana for a Late Stone Age site to use for his PhD research. Despite bureaucratic obstacles and frustrating delays, he persevered |4QPCNF%NCTMG 46 47 3 Regional overview Regional overview 3

male-female variation. It has now been demonstrated by this author (Clarke, 1989) that some of the variation was because more ape-like than those of A. africanus. The Laetoli hominids appear to be even more primitive and resemble the earlier A. a second larger-toothed and flat-faced Australopithecus species was represented and this will be discussed later. It is possible anamensis mentioned later in this section. to differentiate males and females of each of these species. A major discovery at Laetoli occurred in 1978 when biochemist Paul Abell spotted what he considered to be the heel impression It was also generally concluded that Australopithecus africanus was probably ancestral to Homo and Robinson (1972) took the of a hominid footprint in a volcanic tuff outcrop that geologist Dick Hay was sampling. Subsequent excavation in 1978 by step of classifying it as Homo africanus, a move that was not adopted by other researchers. Indeed, although Australopithecus Tim White and in 1979 by Mary Leakey, Mwongela Muoka and the present author uncovered a 41 m long trail of footprints represents the expected stage of evolutionary development between ape and human, it now seems unlikely that the species made by one large and one small individual (M.D. Leakey and Harris, 1987; Figure 5). The hominids were walking side by side A. africanus was ancestral to Homo as the dating of both Homo and A. africanus from both South and East Africa shows that and the prints, though obviously of a biped, have some ape-like and some unusual features. These are: a slightly divergent they overlapped in time during the period between 2.3 and 1.6 Ma ago. In South Africa, A. africanus was present from just big toe, a strongly developed abductor muscle for the big toe, a straight and deeply impressed lateral edge to the prints, and over 3 Ma ago until about 2.2 Ma ago and in East Africa three cranial fossils generally (but controversially) classed as H. habilis an absence of individual small toe impressions (Deloison, 1991). are actually very close morphologically to A. africanus. These are OH 13 and OH 24 from Olduvai, and KNM ER 1813 from Lake Turkana. All three lived at the same time and in the same area as early Homo at less than 2 Ma ago (Clarke, 2012, in press). An older (4.2 Ma) and even more ape-like hominid was recovered from Kanapoi, Kenya and named Australopithecus anamensis (M.G.Leakey et al., 1995). The first fossil was a distal humerus discovered by Bryan Patterson’s Harvard expedition in 1965 (Patterson and Howells, 1967), but intensive survey by Maeve Leakey’s team three decades later resulted in the recovery of Earlier forms of Australopithecus some mandibles, upper jaws and portions.

It was actually in 1935, one year before Broom’s discovery of the adult Australopithecus that a geologically older fossil of adult The front part of a mandible published by Michel Brunet et al. (1995) from Chad and named Australopithecus bahrelghazali Australopithecus was recovered from Laetoli in Tanzania. It was a , ape-like enough for Louis Leakey to assume it (Brunet, 1996) dates to c. 3.5 Ma and is possibly a representative of A. afarensis. was a monkey. Only with hindsight, after many more such discoveries from Laetoli, did Tim White recognize its true identity in the collections of the (White, 1981). In 1939 at Laetoli – then called Garusi – Kohl-Larsen (1943) found a maxilla fragment that was variously classified as Meganthropus africanus (Weinert, 1950) and Praeanthropus africanus (Senyürek, 1955). Both the canine and the maxilla are now recognized as being the first specimens of early Australopithecus The earliest artefacts found at Laetoli. The collection was later significantly increased through the work of Mary Leakey’s team at Laetoli in the 1970s (M..D. Leakey et al., 1976; M.D. Leakey and Harris, 1987). These were eventually classified as Australopithecus afarensis, with In the 19th century the stages of cultural progression that were seen in the archaeological record led to the logical conclusion Laetoli Hominid 4 (a mandible) being the type specimen dating to 3.6 Ma ago (Figure 4). There has been some debate around that the earliest cultural manifestation should consist of simple stone tools. Consequently prehistorians identified in several this procedure because, whilst the type specimen comes from Tanzania, the specific name derives from the very distant Afar Miocene and Pliocene localities in Europe what they considered to be simple chipped . These became known as eoliths region in Ethiopia where, from 1973 onwards, a large and informative assemblage of Australopithecus fossils was recovered (dawn stones) and a 17-page chapter entitled ‘The Eolithic Period’ was devoted to them by George Grant McCurdy (1924). All and eventually grouped with the Laetoli sample in A. afarensis (Johanson et al., 1978). It is possible, however, that, in view of these stones, as well as similar chipped stones found in Uganda by Wayland (1923; 1927; 1934) which he named Kafuan of the geographic and temporal separation of these two collections of fossils, two species may be represented. Kimbel et al. (O’Brien, 1939) were later demonstrated to be naturally produced (e.g. Bishop, 1959). (2004) have commented on the temporal and morphological intermediacy of the Laetoli sample falling between the younger Hadar (Ethiopia) A. afarensis and the older By 1934 Louis Leakey was able to write in his book, ‘Adam’s Ancestors’, about some genuine simple artefacts (flakes and rough Kenyan A. anamensis. cores) found by him at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania and at Kanam in Kenya. This culture, he said, had been given the name ‘Oldowan’ and subsequent work at Olduvai Gorge has recovered large quantities of these artefacts in situ from many sites within The most famous of the Ethiopian fossils is the gorge (M.D. Leakey, the partial skeleton known as ‘Lucy’. There 1971). Such simple artefacts is also a fragmentary but reconstructed of the Oldowan industry male skull, AL 444–2. Another very are now known from a informative fossil is that of an infant number of sites in East skeleton with skull (Alemseged et al., Africa from 2.6 to 1.7 Ma 2006). The significance of A. afarensis ago: in Ethiopia, at Gona is that whilst it is clearly bipedal and the (2.6 Ma ago), Hadar (2.33 dentition is clearly hominid, it has features Ma ago) and Omo (2.4 Ma such as the lower third which are ago); in Kenya at Kanjera (c. 2 Ma ago) and (from 1.9 Ma ago); and in Tanzania at Olduvai (from 1.9 to 1.7 Ma ago) (for syntheses see Plummer, 2004; Klein, 2009). Also in South Africa, two Oldowan- bearing deposits are dated c. 2 Ma at Sterkfontein (Figure 6) and >1.7 Ma at Swartkrans (Kuman and Field, 2009; Kuman, 2010; Sutton, in prep.).

4. Laetoli Hominid 4, type mandible of  6JG.CGVQNKHQQVRTKPVUHTQO6CP\CPKCOKNNKQP[GCTUQNF 4QPCNF%NCTMG 6. Oldowan tools from Sterkfontein. © Ronald Clarke Australopitheus afarensis. © Ronald Clarke 48 49 3 Regional overview Regional overview 3

1991), although their morphology suggests they are actually a form of Australopithecus similar to Australopithecus africanus. Although these earliest tools date to periods when some Australopithecus and Paranthropus were in existence, it is not Meanwhile a real Homo habilis cranium in the form of the large-brained KNM ER 1470 (Figure 8) that has parietals matching considered by most researchers that they were makers of those artefacts. Both genera had the manual ability to make tools but in shape and size to those of the type OH 7 was found by Bernard Ngeneo, a member of Richard Leakey’s team at East Lake not a single artefact has been found at Australopithecus sites dating to the period between 4.2 Ma ago, when A. anamensis Turkana in 1972 (R.E.F. Leakey, 1973). It dates to about 1.9 Ma ago. Louis Leakey saw the 1470 cranium not long before he existed, to 2.9 Ma ago, when the youngest A. afarensis could be found. Also no stone tools occur with Australopithecus died and one of last things he wrote was, ‘Richard’s finds include clear confirmation of the existence of men similar to those in South Africa between, c. 3 and 2 Ma, in the Member 2 and 4 deposits of Sterkfontein, the Member 3 and 4 deposits of represented by the Kanam jaw in the earliest Pleistocene’ (L.S.B. Leakey, 1974). He also re-affirmed that ‘I have never had the Makapansgat, or the Australopithecus deposits of Taung. slightest doubt as to the validity of my Kanam jaw.’

Raymond Dart devoted many publications to his contention that Australopithecus had a culture (see particularly The choice of the specific name ‘habilis’ was because the large brain, the Dart, 1957), but Dart’s osteodontokeratic (bone, tooth and horn) ‘culture’ has been shown to be not a hominid culture but associated Oldowan artefacts and several hand bones indicating manual the result of damaged inflicted on bones by hyaena and porcupine (Hughes, 1954, 1961; Brain, 1981). Also the supposed dexterity all pointed to Homo habilis being the early tool maker that Louis stone tools from the Makapansgat Australopithecus site (Brain et al., 1955; Maguire, 1968, 1980) have been demonstrated Leakey had long sought. Although it is undoubtedly correct that Homo to be naturally-fractured stones (Mason, 1965). habilis was the maker of Oldowan tools it should be noted that hand bones of Australopithecus also demonstrate an opposable thumb in a hand It is perhaps no coincidence that the earliest Homo fossil known so far is a maxilla (AL 666) from Hadar, Ethiopia dating to capable of tool-making. It does however seem that it was the larger brained 2.35 Ma ago and directly associated with Oldowan artefacts (Kimbel et al., 1996; Hovers, 2009). Homo rather than small–brained Australopithecus that regularly made UVQPGVQQNU#|YGNEQOGCFFKVKQPVQVJGECVCNQIWGQHHomo habilis fossils Thus, based on currently available data, it seems that Homo rather than Australopithecus or Paranthopus was responsible for was made at Olduvai in 1995 by Rob Blumenschine’s team (Blumenschine the production of the earliest stone tools. et al., 2003). In an excavation of an Oldowan site at Naisiusu (Figure 9) VJG[WPGCTVJGFCOCIPKHKEGPVOCZKNNCQHCPCFWNVYKVJHWNNFGPVKVKQP 1*| Figure 10). Homo habilis The maxilla has strong similarity to that of the 1470 cranium and the cheek As Louis Leakey, like most anthropologists in the early 1930s, believed the Piltdown skull to be a genuine, large- brained teeth roots are large and flaring relative to the smaller crowns. Thus OH fossil hominid of the lower Pleistocene, it was not surprising that he would hope to find Homo sapiens-like fossils in lower 65 and 1470 and OH 7 together provide a good impression of the overall Pleistocene deposits of East Africa. When in 1932 he did find such a fossil at Kanam in western Kenya (Leakey, 1934, 1935), appearance of a Homo habilis skull. Although many researchers have seen subsequent geological investigation by Boswell (1935) indicated that the mandible fragment had been displaced from a much that there is a big difference between 1470 and the smaller brained OH13, younger deposit and did not therefore belong to the lower Pleistocene (see also Tobias, 1962). Unconvinced, Louis Leakey KNM ER 1813 and OH 24, they accepted the latter three as Homo habilis continued his searches, concentrating on Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania where primitive stone tools that he named Oldowan were and the placing of 1470 into a new species (Wood, being found in Lower Pleistocene strata. In 1959 when Mary Leakey found a massive-toothed skull (OH 5) eroding out of an 1999). They thereby ignored the fact that it is 1470 that compares with early deposit, Bed 1 (L.S.B. Leakey, 1959), Louis was convinced that this was the maker of the stone tools and stated that it the type specimen of Homo habilis (OH 7) and the other three do not. was ‘almost certainly on the direct line of our ancestry’ Thus it is the small-brained fossils that should be removed from Homo (Leakey, 1960). As if to emphasise this point, the artist habilis (Clarke, 2012). Neave Parker produced a drawing of this hominid as it 8. Homo habilis KNM ER 1470 (above) and with might have appeared in life and gave it features (nose VJG1*OCZKNNC DGNQY  4QPCNF%NCTMG and ) like those of Louis Leakey! The skull was named Zinjanthropus boisei.

All this was to change when on 2 November 1960 during the Olduvai excavation of a stone tool layer older than that of Zinjanthropus (OH 5); Jonathan Leakey uncovered two parietals and a mandible of a hominid child (OH 7). As the brain would clearly have been much larger than that of Zinjanthropus and the teeth and jaw were much smaller, Louis realized that this was the human-like form that he’d been seeking and that Zinjanthropus was actually a larger-toothed variant of the ape-man, Paranthropus, already known from South Africa.

In 1964, Leakey, Tobias and Napier made this Olduvai child fossil (OH 7) the type specimen of a new species, Homo habilis (L.S.B. Leakey et al., 1964; Figure 7). Leakey, however, considered that the other non-Paranthropus fossils from Olduvai Gorge also belonged to Homo habilis despite their having brains much smaller than OH 7. This was to lead to much confusion later when those small-brained hominids (OH 13, OH 24, and later, KNM ER 1813 from Lake  6JGUKVGQHVJG1*HKPFCV1NFWXCKUGGP  6JG1**QOQJCDKNKUOCZKNNC 4QPCNF%NCTMG on the distant slope. © Ronald Clarke Turkana) were taken to represent Homo habilis (Tobias, 7. The OH7 Homo habilis mandible (type specimen). © Ronald Clarke 50 51 3 Regional overview Regional overview 3

Eleven years before the discovery of the Olduvai Homo habilis child another fossil child skull of early Homo (SK27) was are more akin to an Oldowan industry. Wherever Acheulean handaxes have been found in association with a hominid, uncovered by Broom and Robinson at Swartkrans cave, South Africa (Broom, 1949; Broom and Robinson, 1952), but they that hominid has been either with the Early Acheulean at ±1.5 Ma ago (e.g. StW 80 from Sterkfontein— considered it to be a large-brained Paranthropus with an aberrant large canine (Figure 11). The author, Clarke (1977a) see Kuman and Clarke, 2000), or archaic Homo sapiens associated with the later Acheulean after about 600 Ka ago (e.g. recognized its true identity as an early Homo child with canine and normal for that genus. Although similarities were Ndutu, Elandsfontein and Bodo—see Klein, 2009). In addition, two hominids associated with an intermediate industry of the found between OH7 and KNM ER 1470, a species was not attributed. However after now comparing it with the OH 65 Homo Acheulean about 1 Ma ago are the Daka cranium from Ethiopia (Asfaw et al., 2002), and the Buia cranium from Eritrea (Abbaté habilis dentition, the author is convinced that SK27 is a child of Homo habilis, contemporary with the Oldowan artefacts from et al., 1998). Daka was originally published as Homo erectus (which others would call Homo ergaster. Buia was published as Swartkrans. The irony is that whereas Louis Leakey in 1960 thought a Paranthropus cranium (OH5) was on the direct line to having a mix of Homo ergaster and Homo sapiens traits. modern humans, Broom and Robinson in 1949 went to the other extreme and classed a real Homo cranium as a Paranthropus. In truth Broom and Robinson were the first people to discover Homo habilis but they did not know it. The earliest probable Homo ergaster was the name given by Groves and Mazak (1977) to a well-preserved mandible KNM ER 992 from East Lake representative of Homo habilis is a maxilla A.L 666 from Hadar, Ethiopia dated to older than 2.35 Ma (Kimbel et al., 1996, Turkana. The mandible, which is slender-bodied and small-toothed, dates to 1.49 Ma ago and is believed to belong to the same 1997). It has strong similarities to the Olduvai OH 65 maxilla. species as mandible KNM ER 730 (1.65 Ma ago) and well preserved cranium KNM ER 3733 (1.78 Ma ago) which has a cranial capacity of 848 cc. Although this cranium has superficial resemblance to Homo erectus pekinensis leading many researchers A 3.5 million year-old deformed cranium from , West Turkana, Kenya has a face resembling that of the 1470 cranium to class it as African Homo erectus, it does have more features akin to Homo sapiens. Such features were detailed by Clarke but a much smaller cranial capacity and it has been placed in a new genus as Kenyanthropus platyops (M.G.Leakey et al., (1977b; Clarke et al., 1970; Clarke and Howell, 1972) for the very similar partial cranium SK 847 from Swartkrans, South Africa 2001). It is possible that this cranium is of the kind of hominid that was ancestral to Homo habilis. (Figure 13). That cranium was found in 1949 in the same deposit as a very Homo sapiens-like mandible portion SK 45 (Broom and Robinson 1950). From a slightly younger deposit at Swartrkrans, Broom and Robinson (1949) identified a mandible SK15 A 2.4 million year-old mandible from Uraha in Malawi bears strong resemblance to the OH 7 type mandible and thus apparently as being “true man” contemporary with the ape-man Paranthropus (Robinson 1953). They named it Telanthropus capensis, represents Homo habilis (Bromage et al., 1995). but this is also now generally considered as belonging to Homo ergaster. The significance of this particular mandible is that it strongly resembles a partial, distorted mandible (StW 80) from Sterkfontein Member 5 (Figure 14), found in direct association with an Early Acheulean (Kuman and Clarke 2000). This is the only direct link between Homo ergaster and Early Homo ergaster Acheulean, but together with other associations by inference, it is strongly suggestive of Homo ergaster being the maker of the Early Acheulean. That Homo ergaster seems to be evolving toward Homo sapiens also accords with the associations found Among the earliest historically recognized indications of the existence of ancient humans were handaxes found in river between early Homo sapiens fossils and Acheulean artefacts. gravels, in England in 1797, and in France in 1838. These were eventually named as Acheulean after St Acheul in France where many of them were recovered. The earliest known handaxes in northern Europe date to c. 500 Ka ago (Roberts et al., 1995; Roberts and Parfitt, 1999), and in southern Europe in Spain to c. 900 Ka ago (Scott and Gibert, 2009). Yet older Acheulean implements of similar form were recovered from sites in Africa. The origins of the Acheulean date to about 1.76 Ma ago at Kokiselei in Kenya (Lepre et al., 2011). Such simple handaxes and cleavers known as Early Acheulean are well known from sites such as EF HR at Olduvai and Peninj in Tanzania, at Konso in Ethiopia, and the Vaal River gravels, Sterkfontein and Swartkrans caves in South Africa (Figure 12) (for East Africa see, for example, M.D. Leakey, 1971; Isaac and Curtis, 1974; Asfaw et al., 1992; de la Torre, 2009; for South Africa see, for example, Kuman, 2007; Gibbon et al., 2009).

The authorship of the Acheulean handaxes and cleavers has been a matter of conjecture. When a pharmacist, Mr Conyers, found the first handaxe with a fossil tooth at Greys Inn Road, London in 1690, an antiquary, John Bagford, thought it was a point of an ancient Briton who had used it as a to kill an elephant of the invading Roman Emperor Claudius (Oakley, 1972). Although, with hindsight, we may find such a fanciful scenario amusing, it is surely no more fanciful than the widely published but unfounded statements that say handaxes were made 13. Casts of Homo by Homo erectus. In fact, ergaster, KNM ER 3733 nowhere has Homo erectus CVNGHV CPF5-| CV TKIJV  |4QPCNF%NCTMG in the strict taxonomic sense been shown to be associated with Acheulean  *QOQGTICUVGT OCPFKDNGU5V9HTQO tools (Leakey, 1973; Clarke, 5VGTMHQPVGKP CVVQRNGHV 2000). Instead such fossils and isolated molar at right), directly associated are associated with cores, with a cleaver (far right); choppers and flakes that SK 15 mandible from 5YCTVMTCPU EGPVTG  4QPCNF%NCTMG 11. SK 27, a child cranium of Homo 12. Early Acheulean cleavers (above) and JCDKNKUHTQO5YCTVMTCPU JCPFCZGU DGNQY HTQO5VGTMHQPVGKPCVNGHVCPF 4QPCNF%NCTMG 1NFWXCKCVTKIJV 4QPCNF%NCTMG 52 53 3 Regional overview Regional overview 3

The cranium discovered by Lorenzo Rook in 1995 at Buia, Eritrea From the shores of Lake Ndutu, Tanzania in 1973, Amini Mturi (1976) uncovered a hominid cranium whilst he was excavating (Abbate et al., 1998; Rook et al., 1999) seems to represent either a late an Acheulean site (Figure 16). After its cleaning and reconstruction, it was clear that this cranium (Figure 17), although having Homo ergaster or a very archaic Homo sapiens (Figure 15). It derived superficial resemblances in the frontal region to Homo erectus pekinensis has more sapient-like high vertical sides to the from a stratum dated by palaeomagnetism to about 1 Ma ago. It has braincase (Clarke, 1976, 1990). It can be considered as an archaic Homo sapiens, estimated to be between 500–300Ka old. prominent brow ridges combined with a high vertical-sided braincase Its small size suggests that it could be a female of the form represented by Broken Hill and Bodo. and a brain size of about 775 cc. From nearby contemporary sediments there are concentrations of Acheulean artefacts (Clarke, personal A similar high, vertical sided braincase was found in 1971 at Salé, Morocco (Jaeger, 1975) and is thought to be about 400 Ka observation; Abbaté et al., 2004). old, but it has no artefact association. Also in North Africa is the site of Ternifine in Algeria, where in 1954 three mandibles and a parietal estimated to be about 780 Ka old were found in lacustrine sands (Arambourg, 1963). The fossils were associated A partial braincase with prominent brow ridge and similar small size with Acheulean artefacts and classified as a new genus and species Atlanthropus mauritanicus. However, there seems no (727 cc compared to Buia’s 775 cc) was collected at Olduvai site VEK reason to exclude them from archaic Homo sapiens. in Bed IV in 1962 (Leakey and Leakey, 1964; Rightmire, 1990; Anton, 15. Views of the Buia (Eritrea) early Homo calvaria, 2004). It is contemporary with Acheulean artefacts found in Bed IV. Another fossil that can be classed as archaic Homo sapiens was recovered at Elandsfontein near Hopefield, Saldanha, on the associated with Acheulean handaxes ca 1 million southwest coast of South Africa in 1953 (Singer, 1954). It consists of a calvaria with massive projecting brow ridges, but it has [GCTUQNF 4QPCNF%NCTMG From Bouri in the Middle Awash of Ethiopia, there is a similar cranium the high vertical sided braincase characteristic of other archaic Homo sapiens (Figure 18). It is associated with later Acheulean dated to about 1 Ma ago (Asfaw et al., 2002). It also has prominent handaxes and may be possibly as much as 600 Ka old (Singer and Wymer, 1968). A similar but very fragmentary calotte was brow ridges and high vertical sides to the braincase, with a cranial capacity of 995 cc. Acheulean handaxes and cleavers occur found by Kohl Larsen on the shore of lake Eyasi, Tanzania in 1935. Its age could be between 400–200 Ka old, based on abundantly in the same sediments. Although Asfaw et al. refer to this specimen as Homo erectus, it is distinct from the true associated fauna and artefacts (Reck and Kohl-Larsen, 1936). Homo erectus in Asia, and it is what many of us would call Homo ergaster. Although all of these fossils seem to represent archaic direct ancestors to Homo sapiens, they are clearly very different to A small frontal bone with prominent brow ridge was recovered at the prolific Acheulean site of Olorgesailie, Kenya in 2003 and modern humans and thus require some nomenclatural differentiation. That they are members of the genus Homo is not in is dated to between 970–900 Ka (Potts et al., 2004). Its estimated cranial capacity is 800 cc. This fossil is either a late Homo question, and thus the original generic names of Cyphanthropus for the ergaster or perhaps a very early representative of archaic Homo sapiens, the species to next be discussed. / Broken Hill cranium or Palaeoanthropus for Eyasi are not an option. Even the various species names applied to these fossils, such as rhodesiensis (Kabwe), A nearly complete skeleton with skull of an 8–12 year old Homo ergaster male was discovered in 1984 at Nariokotome, West mauritanicus (Ternifine), saldanensis (Elandsfontein), and njarasensis (Eyasi) are Lake Turkana, Kenya, by Richard Leakey’s team (Walker and Leakey, 1993). It is dated to 1.5 Ma ago. The individual is about debatable. However, to distinguish these archaic African Homo sapiens fossils 1.6 metres tall and could have reached 1.85 metres in adulthood. The height and proportions of the skeleton with its very from more modern looking later Homo sapiens, it would be preferable to long legs are similar to those of modern humans who live in that hot, arid region today. group them under at least one sub-specific name. The priority would go to rhodesiensis (the first one to be named in 1921).

Archaic Homo sapiens

Following on morphologically and temporally from Homo ergaster, there are several finds from a variety of countries in Africa Nearly modern humans that fill places in the time frame between 1.0 and 0.3 Ma ago. The crania and braincases can be assigned to archaic Homo sapiens based on their relatively large brain size and high braincases with vertical sides. One of the earliest discoveries of a More modern looking forms of Homo sapiens developed during the last fossil hominid in Africa was the Broken Hill or Rhodesian Man cranium blasted out of a cave being mined for zinc at Kabwe, quarter of a million years. Among the oldest of these is the Florisbad partial Broken Hill, in what was then Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia) on 17 June 1921 (Woodward, 1921). Although the cranium is cranium (Figure 19), recovered from a spring deposit near Bloemfontein, South large brained (1325 cc) and sapient in form, it has massive brow ridges which led to it initially being classed as a new species, Africa by T.E. Dreyer in 1932. It consists of the front portion of a braincase , and later being placed into a new genus, Cyphanthropus rhodesiensis (Pycraft, 1928). It is now generally with a partial face (Dreyer, 1935; Clarke, 1985). It has been dated to about acknowledged to be an archaic Homo sapiens and considered to date between 600–400 Ka. Unfortunately, because it was 260 Ka ago (Grun et al., 1996). The associated faunal rich spring deposits also revealed through , its age and stratigraphic context are not clear. Luckily, a partial cranium with similar face and massive contain artefacts of early Middle Stone Age type (Kuman and Clarke, 1986; brow ridge was found at Bodo in the Middle Awash of Ethiopia in 1976 (Conroy et al., 1978), associated with many Acheulean Kuman et al., 1999). handaxes. It has been dated by Argon-Argon to 640–550 Ka.  6JGCTEJCKE*QOQUCRKGPUHTQO Elandsfontein, South Africa. 4QPCNF%NCTMG A calvaria with similar morphology to that of Florisbad, i.e. with a large cranial capacity but a sloping frontal bone and lacking prominent brow ridges, was found in 1968 at Kibish, Omo, Ethiopia (R.E.F. Leakey et al., 1969). This Omo 2 cranium has high vertical sides to the braincase, a strongly-angled occipital with occipital torus, and is dated to 195 Ka (McDougall et al., 2005). A second cranium, Omo 1, found at Kibish about 3 km away from Omo 2 and associated with a partial skeleton, is rather different. It has a more vertical and more rounded occiput. The significance of this great variation is not clear, but there is a possibility that they are from different aged deposits (see Klein,  0FWVWCTEJCKE*QOQUCRKGPUETCPKWODGHQTGCPF 2009). CHVGTTGEQPUVTWEVKQP 4QPCNF%NCTMG

Also from Ethiopia from the site of Herto, there is a robustly structured cranium  .CMG0FWVWUKVGKP6CP\CPKC with Acheulean artefacts directly that is clearly Homo sapiens but which has a thick brow ridges and a sharply associated with an early Homo angled occiput like that of Omo 2. It was found in 2003 and is dated to about UCRKGPUETCPKWO 4QPCNF%NCTMG 19. Florisbad, a near modern human HTQO5QWVJ#HTKEC4QPCNF%NCTMG 160 Ka ago (White et al., 2003). It is associated with an industry said to have both Acheulean and Middle Stone Age characteristics. 54 55 3 Regional overview Regional overview 3

Two other crania with similar morphology to that of Florisbad are Laetoli Hominid 18 from Ngaloba, Laetoli, Tanzania (Magori A yet more archaic species of Paranthropus, very massive but with an unflexed cranial base, alveolar prognathism and smaller and Day, 1993), dating to about 120 Ka ago, and KNM ER 3884 from Guomde, Lake Turkana, Kenya, dated to 270 Ka (Brauer, cranial capacity (c. 410cc), occurs at Omo and West Lake Turkana at c. 2.5 Ma ago. It is named Paranthropus aethiopicus and 2001). was formally named Paraustralopithecus aethiopicus (Arambourg and Coppens, 1967; Walker et al., 1986).

Other similar early Homo sapiens from this time period are the Eliye Springs cranium from Lake Turkana (Brauer and Leakey, 1986) between 200–300 Ka old, and the crania from Morocco dating to perhaps 190 Ka old (Grun and Stringer, 1991). Australopithecus prometheus

There are a great number of other sites yielding near modern Homo sapiens from 100 Ka ago onwards. Two of the best known Raymond Dart (1948a,b) considered that the first are Border Cave and Klasies River Mouth in South Africa. All of these crania cannot be covered here but a detailed overview fossil hominid from Makapansgat in South Africa, of these near modern H. sapiens discoveries can be found in Klein (2009). a parieto-occipital portion was morphologically distinct from the Australopithecus of Taung and Sterkfontein and so named it as a new species. The second specimen from Makapansgat was a child Varieties of the species mandible with large bulbous-cusped molars similar to those of Paranthropus (Figure 22), but some other In addition to the generally agreed basic stages of human progression between Miocene ape and modern Homo sapiens, there fossils from that site were clearly like A. africanus. were other varieties of early hominid in Africa that were apparently not on that main evolutionary route to Homo sapiens. From Sterkfontein also, there is now abundant proof These are notably the megadont forms of the genus Paranthropus and similar megadont forms Australopithecus prometheus of a second species (Figure 23) in addition to A. and . africanus (Clarke 1989, 2008) and this should also be classed as A. prometheus. A nearly complete skeleton with skull (StW 573) from the Silberberg Paranthropus of Sterkfontein belongs to this second species (Clarke 1998, 2008). I am currently cleaning this It was in 1938 at Kromdraai, near Sterkfontein Caves that a schoolboy, Gert Terblanche discovered the first fossils of what Dr fossil from the encasing and can reveal that Robert Broom named (Broom, 1938). The name signified its evolutionary position, i.e. parallel to man it has anteriorly-positioned cheek bones with flat, and robustly structured. It had a flat face and very large cheek teeth. broad nasal skeleton, an elongated face, a gutter forming the lower nasal margin, a low forehead, and 10 years later Broom and John Robinson discovered more complete examples of Paranthropus at nearby Swartkrans (Broom  /.&COCPFKDNGQH#WUVTCNQRKVJGEWURTQOGVJGWUHTQO a sagittal crest. In all of these features it resembles /CMCRCPUICV 4QPCNF%NCTMG and Robinson, 1952) and were able to see the full cranial anatomy of this bizarre hominid. It had massive molars and Paranthropus but differs from that genus in its large with low bulbous cusps that, in older individuals, were worn down to a flat occlusal surface with side to side scratches and canines and (Figure 24). pitting. By contrast, the canines and incisors were relatively small. The mandible was massively structured (Figure 20) and, in order to accommodate the large temporal muscles needed to operate the crushing, grinding dentition, the zygomatic arch curved outward and the cheek bone moved forward creating a central facial depression. In the males a sagittal crest formed Australopithecus garhi on top of the brain case. In both males and females, the postorbital constriction of the temporal muscles combined with the low concave frontal squame formed a characteristic triangular area or frontal trigone (Figure 21). A good female skull of A partial cranium recovered at Bouri, Middle this species as well as several other examples were found by André Keyser at , South Africa. A massive species of Awash, Ethiopia and dating to 2.5 Ma ago has Paranthropus was found at sites in East Africa beginning with Mary Leakey’s discovery of ‘Zinjanthropus’ at Olduvai Gorge in enormous cheek teeth but also large prognathic 1959 (Tobias, 1967). This is now classified as Paranthropus boisei and the species has been found at Peninj (Tanzania), East anterior dentition (Asfaw et al., 1999). It is clearly Lake Turkana (Kenya), Chesowanja (Kenya) and Omo and Konso (Ethiopia). Both of these species with their brain capacities not a Paranthropus and although it has some of 500 to 530cc lived in the same areas as early Homo between 2 and 1 Ma ago. resemblances to other Australopithecus species there are also enough significant difference to place it into a distinct species. There are also cutmarked bones in the same horizon at a nearby site, which suggests that a tool-making hominid, but not necessarily A. garhi, was present at that time.

Australopithecus sediba

Two well preserved partial skeletons discovered at Malapa in South Africa’s Cradle of Humankind world heritage site have been placed by Berger et al. (2010) into a new species which they consider to have some Homo-like characters. It has strong similarities to East African specimens OH 13 and

 #WUVTCNQRKVJGEWURTQOGVJGWU5V9HTQO5VGTMHQPVGKP  /CPFKDNGUQH2CTCPVJTQRWUHTQO  2CTCPVJTQRWUDQKUGK1*HTQO1NFWXCKCVNGHVYKVJ 4QPCNF%NCTMG 5YCTVMTCPU 4QPCNF%NCTMG OQFGNNGFOCPFKDNGCPF2CTCPVJTQRWUTQDWUVWU5-HTQO 5YCTVMTCPUCVTKIJV 4QPCNF%NCTMG

56 57 3 Regional overview Regional overview 3

KNM ER 1813 which have been classed by some authors as Homo habilis. However as noted in the earlier section on Homo 3) The searchers who have made big discoveries have not always been palaeoanthropologists. Some have been searching habilis, not all researchers agree with that classification as these specimens closely resemble A. africanus and differ greatly for minerals, diamonds, sand or gravel, , archaeological remains, or geological samples, and in so doing, have from the type specimen of Homo habilis, OH. 7. opened up treasure chests of information about our evolutionary heritage. For example, the first discovery of an archaic Homo sapiens was by zinc miner Zwigelaar at Broken Hill in Zambia. The first Australopithecus was blasted out by lime miner De Bruyn at Taung, South Africa. The first adult Australopithecus was revealed by lime miner Barlow at Sterkfontein. Homo erectus Unknown diamond diggers uncovered ancient Acheulean tools and fossil animals in the Vaal River gravels. A schoolboy, Gert Terblanche, led Dr Broom to the first known Paranthropus, which he had found at Kromdraai, and a PhD student This name has been widely misused in the palaeoanthropological literature through being indiscriminately applied to numerous in archaeology, Larry Robbins, found what was, at the time, the oldest hominid site at Lothagam, Kenya. Geologist Dick fossils from a variety of time periods and countries, mainly because they have prominent brow ridges. It has also been applied Hay’s quest for samples to understand the Laetoli geology led to biochemist Paul Abell noticing the first heel impression to isolated mandibles believed to come from the time period when ‘Homo erectus’ filled the perceived evolutionary gap of the 3.6 million year-old Laetoli AustralopithecusHQQVRTKPVVTCKN/CT[|.GCMG[oUTGPGYGFYQTMCV.CGVQNKKPVJGU between Homo habilis and Homo sapiens. leading to the discovery of several ancient Australopithecus fossils, as well as the footprints, was prompted by Ndutu wildlife lodge owner, George Dove, looking for building sand and telling Mary that he found fossils. Homo erectus or Pithecanthropus erectus, as it was originally called, was first found in Java, Indonesia and characterised not just by prominent brow ridges but mainly by the shape of the braincase, which is low and wider across the base than across Thus people from all walks of life have been instrumental in the discovery of our ancestry and need to be considered in its the parietals. Hominid fossils from , China known as Sinanthropus pekinensis were later grouped with Homo appreciation and explanation in the form of heritage sites and museums. Palaeoanthropology, i.e. the study of human ancestry, erectus, as were several other fossils from China. However, this lumping is debatable, and it is probable that several fossils should be thought of as a study of the people, by the people, for the people (with acknowledgment to Abraham Lincoln’s in China have been wrongly classed as Homo erectus when they really represent archaic Homo sapiens or Homo habilis. In Gettysburg Address). In order to do this, the story of human evolution needs to be presented to the public in a manner that Africa, many fossils that have been labelled by some researchers as Homo erectus from earlier deposits are classified by other is accurate, comprehensible, and stimulating. Too many museum displays around the world are deficient in all three of these researchers as Homo ergaster. requirements.

One rare African fossil of Homo erectus (OH 9) that does conform to the Asian Homo erectus morphology was found on 2 December 1960 by Louis Leakey on the surface of site LLK, Bed II, Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania (L.S.B. Leakey, 1961). It is estimated to date to 1.2 Ma ago and is not associated with any artefacts (Figure 25). It seems most probable that some Homo erectus Heritage sites spread from Asia into Africa, rather than the other way around (Clarke, 2000). Although different nations and peoples around the world have their own regional heritage, the very origins of culture and of the early humans that developed that culture can be traced back to Africa. Indeed all humans around the globe owe their existence to those first humans and their ancestors. Hence it is important not only to conserve such early heritage but to find Lessons learned ways of making it accessible to all mankind. Conservation concerns not only the tangible aspects of early heritage i.e. fossils and artefacts but also the sites from whence they derive and the history of the discovery process. 1) It is now abundantly clear that Lord Monboddo’s prediction of 1774 has come true. Africa has indeed yielded all the several types of human progression, as well as several varieties of the species. Unfortunately, making the heritage accessible to the population at large can conflict with efforts at conservation. Thus for reasons of preservation and research original fossils, especially of hominids, usually cannot be displayed. Opening sites to 2) Despite all the discoveries, there are still many questions to be answered and gaps to be filled. The discoveries made in the public can present problems of erosion and damage from vehicle and foot traffic. Then there is always the problem of a the past 90 years or so have been increasingly more prolific, more widespread, and more revealing about the antiquity minority who can cause damage by carelessness or through random collecting of souvenirs in the form of stones or bones. and evolution of humankind. Africa is still, however, only partly searched, and there are still vast areas to explore and In East Africa, the Leakeys managed to strike a balance between conservation and public access by the construction of many more surprises to be uncovered. site museums at Olduvai, Olorgesailie and Kariandusi and the provision of guides. Through the construction of wooden catwalks and minimal wooden barriers alongside the sites and with the building of thatched roofs over selected sites, important concentrations of fossils and artefacts were both protected and made accessible to the public. The design and materials used in the structures ensured that they did not detract from the natural ambience of the areas concerned. A similar site museum inspired by the Olorgesailie site has been constructed by Marcello Piperno at Melka Kunture.

The provision of trained guides who also worked on the excavations allowed the public to have accurate information about the sites and ensured that they did not stray from the designated roads and paths and did not touch or pick up any stones or bones. Regrettably at Olduvai since the end of Mary Leakey’s involvement there, the site museums have fallen  1**QOQGTGEVWUHTQO1NFWXCK 4QPCNF%NCTMG into disrepair and many artefacts and fossils have either been washed away or removed (Figure 26).

Many important sites do not however lend themselves to construction of site museums or even to public access either through remoteness (such as the Djourab Desert of Sahelanthropus) or through being on private land or in concrete-like cave deposits such as Sterkfontein, Swartkrans and  .KVVNG(QQV5V9VJGUMWNNCPFJWOGTWUQHCPGCTEQORNGVG UMGNGVQPQH#WUVTCNQRKVJGEWURTQOGVJGWUHTQO5VGTMHQPVGKP  26. Deterioration of an Olduvai site museum. 4QPCNF%NCTMG 4QPCNF%NCTMG 58 59 3 Regional overview Regional overview 3

Makapansgat. In the latter sites it is not possible to expose fossils and leave them visible to the viewing public. Instead, at Asfaw, B., Gilbert, W.H., Beyene, Y., Hart, W.K., Renne, P.R., WoldeGabriel, G., Vrba, E.S. and White, T.D. 2002. Remains of Sterkfontein, the public are taken by guides through the underground cave system and then the surface excavation site is Homo erectus from Bouri, Middle Awash, Ethiopia. Nature (London, New York, Tokyo), Vol. 416, pp. 317–319. pointed out to them through a wire-mesh fence. Asfaw, B., White, T., Lovejoy, O., Latimer, B., Simpson, S. and Suwa. G. 1999. Australopithecus garhi: a new species of early If, due to conservation or other factors, a site is not readily accessible to the public then its significance can be made available hominid from Ethiopia. Science (Washington D.C.), Vol. 284, pp. 629–635. through carefully planned site museums that present lucid displays of the discoveries that make it a World Heritage site. In the case of the Cradle of Humankind World Heritage Site displays should cover not only the cave formation, infills and Berger, L.R., de Ruiter, D.J., Churchill, S.E., Schmid, P., Carlson, K.J., Dirks, P.G.M. and Kibii, J.M. 2010. Australopithecus sediba: ancient environment but also the major discoveries. These are: the first adult ape-man, the first Paranthropus, the richest A new species of Homo-like Australopith from South Africa. Science (Washington D.C.), Vol. 328, pp. 195–204. Paranthropus site, the first discovery of early Homo, the first discovery of Homo ergaster, the first discovery of an almost complete ape-man skeleton, the oldest stone tools in southern Africa and the association between Homo ergaster and Early Bishop, W.W. 1959. Stratigraphy and Kafuan artefacts. South African Journal of Science, Vol. 55, pp. 117–121. Acheulean artefacts (Clarke and Partridge, 2010). Currently these important discoveries are either not mentioned at all or do not feature prominently in the Sterkfontein museum. Blumenschine, R.J., Peters, C.R., Masao, F.T., Clarke, R.J., Deino, A.L., Hay, R.L., Swisher, C.C., Stanistreet, I.G., Ashley, G.M., McHenry, L.J., Sikes, N.E., van der Merwe, N.J., Tactikos, J.C., Cushing, A.E., Deocampo, D.M., Njau, J.K. and Ebert, J.I. 2003. Some sites such as Olduvai or Olorgesailie, being situated in national parks, have additional attractions for the public such as Late Pliocene Homo and hominid land use from western Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania. Science (Washington D.C.), Vol. 299, pp. environment and wildlife (Figure 27). Other sites are not so endowed but people like to visit them because of their specific 1217–1221. association with a particular person, event or discovery. In other words they are iconic sites. People go to feel the ambience associated with those historic events. The site of Laetoli in Tanzania is just such an iconic site where the magnificent trail Boswell, P.G.H. 1935. Human remains from Kanam and Kanjera, Kenya Colony. Nature (London, New York, Tokyo), Vol. 135, of Australopithecus footprints was uncovered. In order to protect these prints, they had to be buried again, and because pp. 371. of their easily erodible nature, it is doubtful that, if any of them were uncovered, they could survive for any length of time. In such a case, it Brain, C.K. 1981. The Hunters or the Hunted? An Introduction to African Cave Taphonomy. Chicago, Chicago University Press. would be best to create an accurate cast reproduction of the footprint trail to be set into the landscape near the discovery point. Such a cast Brain, C.K., van Riet Lowe, C. and Dart, R.A. 1955. Kafuan stone artefacts in the Post-Australopithecine breccia at Makapansgat. would not only be durable but also replaceable and would provide Nature (London, New York, Tokyo), Vol. 175, pp. 16–18. visitors with the information in the original setting. For added interest, some blocks with original footprints of animals that were contemporary Brauer, G. 2001. The KNM-ER 3884 hominid and the emergence of modern anatomy in Africa. In P.V. Tobias, M.A. Raath, with the hominid could be put on display, together with casts and J. Moggi-Cecchi and G.A. Doyle. Humanity from African Naissance to Coming Millenia. Florence & Johannesburg, Firenze illustrated reconstructions of relevant hominids and animals from the University Press & Wits University Press, pp 191–197. sites. It should also be a requirement for world heritage sites that any museums associated with them should have a primary focus on their Brauer, G. and Leakey, R.E.F. 1986. The ES–11693 cranium from Eliye Springs, West Turkana. Journal of Human Evolution, specific subject matter and that local experts familiar with the site should Vol. 15, pp. 289–312.  6JG#EJGWNGCPUKVGQH1NQTIGUCKNKG-GP[C |4QPCNF%NCTMG be engaged to advise on such subject matter. Bromage, T.G., Schrenk, F. and Zonneveld, F.W. 1995. Paleoanthropology of the Malawi Rift: An early hominid mandible from the Chiwondo Beds, northern Malawi. Journal of Human Evolution, Vol. 28, pp. 71–108.

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66 67 The World Heritage List 4 in Africa

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69 4 The World Heritage List in Africa The World Heritage List in Africa 4

ICOMOS vision of how to fill the gaps on the African World Criterion (ii)VJG[YKNNPQVGZJKDKVnFGXGNQROGPVUKPCTEJKVGEVWTG|e|OQPWOGPVCNCTVUVQYPRNCPPKPIQTNCPFUECRG design’. However, they might exhibit developments in technology, which is mentioned in this criterion: one example Heritage List related to human evolution would be the wooden , 350,000–400,000 years old that were discovered at Schöningen (Germany).

Robin Dennell Criterion (iii): they will not bear testimony to a ‘civilization’, unless the term is extended (as some French Palaeolithic Department of Archaeology – University of Sheffield – prehistorians have done) to incorporate any learned set of traditions.

Criterion (iv)VJG[YKNNPQVRTQXKFG CUYKVJETKVGTKQP=KK? CPQWVUVCPFKPIGZCORNGQHDWKNFKPIQTCTEJKVGEVWTG|e|YJKEJ illustrates (a) significant stage(s) in ’, although they might provide an outstanding example of a technological Introduction GPUGODNG#PGZCORNGOKIJVDGVJGGCTNKGUVMPQYPUVQPGVQQNCUUGODNCIGU|/CQNFHTQO-CFCT)QPC 'VJKQRKC 

This document suggests how a set of criteria might be employed in the case of Oustanding Universal Value (OUV) of sites Criterion (v): they will not be likely to be an ‘outstanding example of a traditional human settlement, land-use, or sea-use’. related to human evolution. Attention is paid to how human evolution sites might be rigorously evaluated, and their significance assessed within a simple but effective chronological framework and a narrative structure that is consistent Criterion (vi): by definition, they will not ‘be directly or tangibly associated with events or living traditions, with ideas, with UNESCO. A draft set of criteria that are suitable for human evolution sites is presented, and its potential for Africa or with beliefs, with artistic and literary works of outstanding universal significance’. briefly outlined.1

Paragraph 78 of the Operational Guidelines

ICOMOS and the World Heritage Convention criteria #UEKVGFCDQXGVJKURCTCITCRJUVCVGUn6QDGFGGOGFQH1WVUVCPFKPI7PKXGTUCN8CNWGCRTQRGTV[|e|OWUVJCXGCPCFGSWCVG protection and management system to ensure its safeguarding’. ICOMOS’s primary role is advisory. It is responsible for the evaluation of all nominations of cultural properties made to the World Heritage List by States Parties to the World Heritage Convention (i.e. those countries that have ratified the Convention) against There are three reasons why this is particularly problematic when dealing with human evolution sites. the criteria laid down by the World Heritage Committee. In addition to the basic criterion of “Outstanding Universal Value”, as specified in the Convention, these relate to aspects of authenticity, management, and conservation’ (ICOMOS, 2007). (a) The first is that most sites relating to human evolution are highly ephemeral. This is particularly true of the oldest UKVGUKGVJQUGQXGT|/CQNF#FKUEQXGT[OKIJVDGTCVGFCUUKIPKHKECPVCPFGXGPURGEVCEWNCTDWVVJGGXKFGPEGKUWPNKMGN[ As acknowledged in the Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention,2 ICOMOS ‘is to comprise more than an assemblage of fossil bones and teeth, and/or fragments of flaked stone in a cave, or in a deposit closely associated with all aspects of the intellectual development of the Convention’(UNESCO, 2011): the Convention is not that was once part of an ancient floodplain or stream system. Once excavated (or collected, if found on the surface), there is static, but dynamic, and responds to both internal and external developments. Advice offered by ICOMOS will similarly be often nothing left to protect that demonstrates the nature and significance of the find. A few examples illustrate this point: developmental and dynamic. WT15000, West Turkana (Kenya): this discovery is one of the most spectacular ever made in palaeoanthropology, As an Advisory Body, the guidance offered by ICOMOS has to be compatible with the terms and criteria of the Convention, in and comprises an almost complete skeleton of a young male Homo erectusYJQFKGFKPCUVTGCODGF|/CCIQCPF particular, regarding the criteria for inscription as a World Heritage site (Paragraphs 77 and 78 of the Operational Guidelines), was rapidly buried by stream sediment. It is the most complete hominin3 skeleton of its age in Africa and Asia, and has and the criteria of authenticity (79–86) and integrity (87–95). shown much previously unclear about human development, pathology and anatomy at that time. The first fossils were EQNNGEVGFQPVJGUWTHCEGCPFVJGTGUVD[GZECXCVKQPCPFD[UKGXKPIE||VQPUQHUGFKOGPV6JGnUKVGoKUVJWUCFWORQH sieved sediment and a slight depression where material was excavated.

ICOMOS, human evolution sites and the World Heritage Convention Lucy (a.k.a. Australopithecus afarensis), (Ethiopia).WE[KUCRCTVKCNUMGNGVQPVJCVKURTQDCDN[|/C old, and although not as complete as WT15000, is a major source of information on the physiology and anatomy of our For largely historical reasons, human evolution sites present several challenges in relation to both ICOMOS and the criteria lineage before the genus Homo. Her remains were found on the surface, and the remainder excavated from near the of the Convention. The origins of ICOMOS lie in the fields of architectural conservation and protection, and the centrality of surface. No archaeological record remains at the site. these concerns underpinned the Venice Charter (1964), from which ICOMOS emerged. As stated in its mission statement, it is dedicated to the conservation of the architectural and archaeological heritage (ICOMOS, 1964). When the Convention was Kadar Gona (Ethiopia)VJKUNQECNKV[JCUVJGQNFGUVCTVGHCEVUKPVJGYQTNFE||/CQNF6JGKT1WVUVCPFKPI7PKXGTUCN drawn up in 1972, its principal concerns were also with sites from the past 5–6 Ka, i.e. historic or late prehistoric periods. Value is that they show what could be seen as the ‘birth of technology’ that leads directly to the present. The evidence 0GKVJGTDQF[YCUGUVCDNKUJGFVQEQPUKFGTVJGV[RGQHJKIJN[GRJGOGTCNUKVGUVJCVFQEWOGPV|RGTEGPVQHJWOCPKV[oUGZKUVGPEG comprises flaked lumps of rock, most of which are now in museums and research institutes. A few small and eroding trenches are all that is left to show the site where they were collected and excavated.

Paragraph 77 of the Operational Guidelines

The criteria of Paragraph 77 in relation to human evolution sites are problematic with respect to the following: 3 Hominids, hominins and hominoids. It was recognized by the mid-nineteenth century by scientists such as Thomas Huxley that human skeletons were more like those of apes (gorillas, chimpanzees and ) than any other group of animals. At the same time, humans were clearly different from apes in that we habitually walk upright and have larger brains relative to body mass. In formal, zoological terms, apes were classified Criterion (i): with the exception of some Upper Palaeolithic sites in Europe (particularly painted ones) and a few as pongids, and humans (and later their ancestors) as hominids. This easily understood and outwardly sensible classification was undermined in the contemporaneous ones in Africa and Australia from the past 20,000–30,000 years, human evolution sites are not likely 1980s by studies of genetic similarities and differences between humans and apes. These show that humans, gorillas and chimpanzees (and also to ‘represent a masterpiece of human creative genius’. ) are far more like each other than orangutans. This implies that the orangutan lineage diverged long before that of gorillas, chimps and humans, and there is some fossil skeletal evidence in support of that hypothesis. The basic distinction is thus between one family of African apes – which now includes humans – and the family of Asian apes like the orangutan. Family names of animals end in ‘–id’ – e.g. felid, suid, bovid, equid. On this classification, hominids have to include the other African apes, and we (and our ancestors) are therefore different at the sub-family level. 1 This document follows up the Final Report of the Human Evolution and the World Heritage Convention meeting organized by the UNESCO World Sub-family names end in ’–in’, hence the term hominin (and pongin). If our African ape family is combined with the Asian ape family (i.e. humans, Heritage Centre, in Burgos (Spain) in March 2009, and the discussion document Preparation of a Road Map prepared for the Addis Ababa (Ethiopia) chimps, gorillas, bonobos and -utans), the grouping is called hominoid, which denotes a zoological super-family. In fossil terms, this usually applies to meeting in March 2011, as well as discussions and presentations at that meeting. ape-like creatures prior to 8 Ma. Unfortunately, some researchers still use ‘hominid’ when others mean ‘hominin’, so it is still necessary to establish 2 The Operational Guidelines are regularly reviewed and updated. The current (2011) version can be found at: http://whc.unesco.org/en/guidelines. what they mean when they mention ‘hominids’.

70 71 4 The World Heritage List in Africa The World Heritage List in Africa 4

There are of course some exceptions to the general statement that most human evolution sites are too ephemeral to protect. (c) The third reason why ‘an adequate protection and management system’ is often challenging to arrange is Cave sites are one major exception, especially if they are sufficiently large that some deposits are still left in situ. These can be that the host nation could lack the personnel and resources to implement such schemes. Human evolution sites are often in protected and managed. Examples are caves in Sierra de Atapuerca (Spain), those at and around Zhoukoudian (China), and remote areas; local literacy and participatory rates in higher education are low, GDP and per capita income are also low, and those in Sterkfontein Valley (South Africa). Other well-known ones of major significance are the Mount Carmel caves (Skuhl, the infra-structure is poor. Although there are small numbers of dedicated and enthusiastic individuals with a genuine interest Tabun), Israel; the (Libya) (Figure 1); Niah Cave (Borneo); and those in south-west France, south Germany, and along in managing and protecting their country’s heritage, they often have neither the infrastructural and government support. the coast of South Africa. The second are open-air sites where sufficiently large amounts of material were found in a small area VJCVVJGUKVGECPDGRTQXKFGFYKVJUQOGRTQVGEVKQP9GNNMPQYPGZCORNGUCTGUQOGQHVJG|/CQNFnNKXKPIHNQQTUoCV1NFWXCK )QTIG 6CP\CPKC VJGE||/CQNF#EJGWNGCPUKVGQH1NQTIGUCKNNKG -GP[C CPFVJQUGCV/GNMC-WPVWTG 'VJKQRKC  (KIWTG  ICOMOS and the concept of ‘authenticity’ of the Operational Guidelines

(b) The second reason why it would be difficult to arrange ‘an adequate protection and management system’ is Paragraph 80 of the guidelines states: ‘The ability to understand the value attributed to the heritage depends on the degree to that a large number – indeed, probably the greater majority – of open-air sites relating to human evolution are discovered which information sources about this value may be understood as credible or truthful.’ In Paragraph 84, ‘information sources’ in landscapes with high rates of erosion. In open-air situations, fossil bones are best preserved in fine-grained, water-lain are defined as all physical, written, oral, and figurative sources, which make it possible to know the nature, specificities, sediments in which skeletal parts are rapidly buried shortly after an animal’s/human’s death but without being transported and meaning, and history of the cultural heritage. damaged by strong stream currents. These sediments are usually soft, and easily eroded. The main erosive agent is usually rain. In semi-arid and arid environments, this can be very heavy, even if the annual total is low. Trampling by animals (especially herd At the very least, ICOMOS can and should be able to advise the World Heritage Committee regarding the credibility of the animals) can also be a significant cause of erosion and damage to fossils. In these types of environment, sites have very short information sources relating to a human evolution site. However, given the problems raised by the existing criteria in Paragraph lifespans – once eroded, they and their contents are likely to be destroyed within a few years. Sites with fossilized hominin 77 for human evolution sites (see above), ICOMOS can also play an active role in advising on the types of information that are footprints – as examples, Laetoli (Tanzania), and (Kenya) – are especially ephemeral, and almost impossible to protect needed to evaluate the reliability and significance of information on particular human evolution sites. An attempt to do so is for public viewing without enormous investment. Here, it is better to make a 3-D cast that can be displayed locally and/or in provided in Section IV (Criteria for evaluating African human evolution sites) the national museum. High rates of erosion can be excellent for scientific expeditions, because new sites are continually being exposed; it is however a nightmare for conservationists, or those who might wish to protect them. ICOMOS and the concept of ‘integrity’ of the Operational Guidelines

Paragraphs 80–89: ICOMOS is comfortable with the notion of integrity as expressed by the guidelines (Paragraph 88: ‘Integrity is a measure of the wholeness and intactness of the natural and/ or cultural heritage and its attributes’), although palaeolithic archaeologists tend to define the term somewhat differently, by respect to the time-resolution and degree of post-depositional disturbance of a site. The two definitions of integrity are not incompatible, however. A site with high integrity, in the sense of being derived from a short, well-defined period of time and with minimal post- depositional disturbance, is more likely to contain identifiable elements of Outstanding Universal Value (‘wholeness and intactness’) than one that covers a long period of time, and has a complex history of deposition, reworking and re-deposition. A human evolution site of Outstanding Universal Value should include all elements needed to express it (or at least, an important part of it).

Criterion (b) of Paragraph 88 – that the site is ‘of adequate size to ensure the complete representation of the features and processes which convey the property’s significance’ – is somewhat problematic in respect to human evolution sites. n.WE[o UGG|CDQXG KUHQTGZCORNGQHnCFGSWCVG size’ to show the earliest indications of bipedalism, even though the remains would fit into a box. The earliest evidence for symbolism (some lumps of

 5QOG#HTKECPQRGPCKTGCTN[RCNCGQNKVJKEUKVGUECPDGRTQXKFGF YKVJTGCUQPCDNGKPGZRGPUKXGRTQVGEVKQPD[WUKPINQECNOCVGTKCNU  %CXGUCTGQPGV[RGQHJWOCPGXQNWVKQPUKVGVJCVECPDGCHHQTFGFUQOGFGITGGQHRTQVGEVKQP1PGGZCORNGKUVJGECXGQH*CWC CPFNCDQWT6JKUGZCORNGUJQYUQPGQHVJGOKNNKQP[GCTQNF (VGCJ.KD[CYJKEJEQPVCKPUCNQPIUGSWGPEGQHCTEJCGQNQIKECNFGRQUKVUHTQOVJGRCUV-C )TCGOG$CTMGT #EJGWNGCPUKVGUCV/GNMC-WPVWTG'VJKQRKC |4QDKP&GPPGNN

72 73 4 The World Heritage List in Africa The World Heritage List in Africa 4

ochre and some perforated shell beads) would fit into an even smaller Time-frames of human evolution container. To take an extreme example, the sites of Trinil (Java) and Taung (South Africa) are iconic sites in the history of palaeoanthropology: Trinil, At the Addis Ababa meeting, considerable attention was paid to how best to define and divide the fossil and palaeolithic because it is the type site of Homo erectus, and when discovered in evidence for human evolution. The first concern was to define the scope of human evolutionary studies and its time-depth. 1891 by Eugene Dubois, showed the earliest evidence of bipedalism The second, covered in the next section, was to consider how this time-depth might be subdivided or periodized. (hence the name ‘erectus’, or upright), and what was then seen as the missing link between ape and human. The Taung limestone quarry is (a) Time-depth of human evolution studies. At the Burgos 2009 meeting, the study of human evolution was split into iconic because it is where the famous Taung skull was found in 1925 CnRTGCTEJCGQNQIKECNoEQORQPGPV KGQXGT|/C CPFCPCTEJCGQNQIKECNQPG*QYGXGTVJGRQKPVCVYJKEJVJGnRTG that Raymond Dart named Australopithecus africanus, which was for archaeological’ component began was not defined. This was clarified at the Addis Ababa meeting, along with an agreed several decades the earliest example of a hominin that preceded our definition of ‘human evolution’. own genus Homo; for many in Africa, it is also the point at which Darwin’s 1870 prediction that the ancestors of humankind would be At issue here is the definition of the term ‘human’. For a purist (and several social anthropologists), the term should be applied  6JKUOGOQTKCNRNCSWGTGEQTFUYJGTGVJG found in Africa was confirmed. In both cases, the sites are little more only to our species, Homo sapiens, in which case, ‘human evolution’ refers only to the past 200,000 years. A more relaxed 6CWPIUMWNNYCUHQWPFKP#NVJQWIJNKVVNG PQYTGOCKPUQHVJGFGRQUKVUKPYJKEJVJGUMWNN than holes in the ground with a memorial plaque indicating where the definition is that the term ‘human’ should refer to the genus Homo, in which case, extinct types of Homo (H. habilis, H. was found, the site still has a global, iconic fossil was found (Figure 3) – yet their significance in the study of human heidelbergensis, H. erectus, H. neanderthalensis, etc.) should be included. This would extend the study of ‘human evolution’ UVCVWUCUUKIPKH[KPICOCLQTNCPFOCTMKPUVWFKGU QHQWTQTKIKPU |4QPCNF%NCTMG evolution is profound. (The same point could be made in respect of DCEMVQ|/C6JGFGHKPKVKQPQHnJWOCPGXQNWVKQPoVJCVOQUVRJ[UKECNCPVJTQRQNQIKUVUYQWNFWUGKUVJCVKVUDCUGNKPGKUVJG the Feldhofer cave in the Neanderthal valley near Düsseldorf, Germany: point at which our ancestors diverged from the ancestors of our nearest cousins, the gorilla, chimpanzee and , i.e. the there is little to see at the site, yet the recognition of the Neanderthal as extant African apes, and this definition was accepted by the meeting at Addis Ababa. At present, the earliest fossil evidence an extinct species of humanity in 1857 was of fundamental significance HQTQWTNKPGCIG HTQO%JCF'VJKQRKCCPF-GP[C GZVGPFUDCEMVQE|s|/CYJKEJKUKPDTQCFCITGGOGPVQHYJGPOQFGTP in the history of palaeoanthropology). genetic differences between us and African apes first diverged. This definition would incorporate the earliest archaeological GXKFGPEGYJKEJPQYFCVGUDCEMVQCVNGCUV|/C KGDGHQTGVJGHKTUVCRRGCTCPEGQHQWTIGPWU CPFRGTJCRUVQE|/C

There is no logical end-point to ‘human evolution’ as evolution is a dynamic, ongoing process, but the end-point of human Moving beyond current World Heritage criteria with respect to human evolution sites GXQNWVKQPUVWFKGUKUWUWCNN[UGVUQOGYJCVCTDKVTCTKN[CVVJGGPFQHVJGOQUVTGEGPV+EG#IGE||-CYJKEJCNUQOCTMUVJGGPF of the Palaeolithic in Europe, North Africa and much of Asia. Societies using stone but not or metals persisted up to As shown above, the criteria Operational Guidelines for inscription of a World Heritage site should be adapted to human recent times in parts of sub-Saharan Africa, the Americas and Australasia, but are not relevant here. evolution sites because (i) these sites are ephemeral, (ii) they lack monuments or evidence of architecture, and (iii) they are difficult to protect given that most found in open-air contexts were exposed by natural processes of erosion. Additionally, (iv) the protection and management systems in countries such as Ethiopia and Kenya, where many key discoveries have been Periodization of the evidence for human evolution made, are unlikely to be as robust as in more developed countries. A framework for studying and presenting human evolution has to be simple enough to be easily understood by a lay audience, Paragraphs 77 and 78 therefore need to be adaptive to take account of the special nature of human evolution sites. At the yet sufficiently robust to be acceptable to experts. At the Addis Ababa meeting, it was proposed that a simple threefold same time, any attempts to extend World Heritage status to human evolution sites need to take account of the ethos and periodization would fulfil both requirements:4 underlying principles of the Convention, particularly in respect of the need to demonstrate the Outstanding Universal Value of a site or discovery. (a) Pre-Homo: evidence preceding the emergence of our genus. At present, the earliest evidence for our genus dates back VQE|s|/C CPFKUVJWU[QWPIGTVJCPVJGGCTNKGUVGXKFGPEGHQTUVQPGVQQNOCMKPI 'XKFGPEGHQTJQOKPKPUVJCVCTGFKUVKPEV As part of an ongoing process, the recent meetings at Burgos (2009) and Addis Ababa (2011), organized by the UNESCO from the ancestors of chimpanzees and gorillas and earlier than our own genus is currently exclusively African, and mainly World Heritage Centre, have made useful contributions to the intellectual development of the guidelines with regard to human from Chad, Ethiopia, Kenya and South Africa. It includes the oldest-documented, 6–7 Ma, genera Sahelanthropus (Chad) and evolution sites. The following points summarize some of the key outcomes of this process. Orrorin tugenensis (Kenya), and younger ones of Kenyanthropus platyops (Kenya), Prometheus robustus and Paranthropus (South Africa), and numerous species within the best-known genus, Australopithecus. These species are (in no particular order) Australopithecus ramidus, A. kaddaba, A. afarensis, A. anamensis, A. dikkika, A. aethiopicus, A. garhi, A. barelghazali Narratives of human evolution (all East African), and A. africanus, and A. robustus (in South Africa). (The fact that specialists disagree about the validity of some of these taxa is irrelevant in this context; the main point is that they are the main groupings in the scientific literature). The presentation of human evolution sites needs to convey a narrative that is consistent with the underlying principles of UNESCO and suitable for the mass, global audience of the twenty-first century. At the Burgos meeting, the ICOMOS #UPQVGFCDQXGVJGGCTNKGUVCTEJCGQNQIKECNGXKFGPEGE||/CHTQO'VJKQRKCRTGFCVGUVJGGCTNKGUVEWTTGPVGXKFGPEGHQTQWT representative proposed three major narrative themes: the unity, diversity and adaptability of humankind. That is to say, genus, and was likely made by a late type of australopithecine. This need not be surprising as tool-making is not a uniquely evidence that is earlier than that of our own species is evidence of the ancestors of all of us, irrespective of race, colour, creed, human trait: chimpanzees have a complex material culture including several simple tool-types (largely organic, of twigs and etc; that the evidence from the past 160,000 years (in Africa), the past 100,000 years in Asia, the past 50,000–60,000 years leaves), and simple stone tools were probably used by several types of early hominins. Little is known about subsistence, but in Australia, the past 40,000 years in Europe and past 15,000–10,000 years in the Americas is testimony to the immense and UQOGEWVOCTMGFDQPGUHTQO'VJKQRKCE||/C CPFUQOGVJCVOC[DGGXGPQNFGT KPFKECVGVJCVJQOKPKPUYGTGWUKPIUVQPG EQPVKPWKPIFKXGTUKV[QHJWOCPEWNVWTGCPFVJGRCNCGQNKVJKETGEQTFQHVJGRCUV|/CKUCWPKSWGNQPIVGTOTGEQTFQHJWOCP tools to deflesh large mammals by this time. These were possibly killed by large carnivores, and then scavenged by hominins. adaptability to different types of environments, climates and social contexts. All three themes are wholly compatible with the ethos of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. 4 In Africa, these three periods are sequential. In Europe and Asia, there are substantial overlaps between ‘early Homo and its contemporaries’ and H. sapiens: Neanderthals, for example, co-existed with H. sapiens until the former became extinct c. 30–35 Ka, and on Flores (Indonesia), (a.k.a. ‘the hobbit’) survived until c. 12 Ka. This point does not invalidate the proposed three periods, but does indicate that outside Africa its application is less straightforward.

74 75 4 The World Heritage List in Africa The World Heritage List in Africa 4

(b) Early Homo and contemporaries.#UPQVGFCDQXGVJGGCTNKGUVGXKFGPEGHQTQWTIGPWUFCVGUDCEMVQE|s/C applicability to the archaeological records outside Africa, a number of features can be identified. Two are the first appearance 6JGUMGNGVCNGXKFGPEGKUXGT[HTCIOGPVCT[DWVVJGHQUUKNJQOKPKPTGEQTFDGVYGGP|/CCPF|/CKUXGT[URCTUG+VKU of symbolism (geometric patterns of incisions on bones), and personal ornamentation (red ochre for body decoration, beads also ambiguous in that the teeth of early Homo are very similar to those of gracile (i.e. lightly-built) australopithecines. and pendants). Many link this to the development of a human-type of a language, i.e. with syntax and grammar. Rock art also %QPUGSWGPVN[GCTNKGTCPFDGVVGTGXKFGPEGHQTQWTIGPWUOC[DGHQWPFVJCVKUQNFGTVJCP|/C(QTVJKUTGCUQPVJGOGGVKPI appears by at least 26,000 years, in South Africa, although earlier in Western Europe. A wider variety of raw materials were felt that it was unwise to ascribe a date for when our genus first arose. used, especially bone, ivory and shell. Marine resources (shellfish, inshore fish, sea mammals) were used, perhaps for the first time on a systematic basis. There is greater evidence for and using fire; stone was obtained and used over greater The earliest African representatives of our genus co-existed with other types of hominin for a considerable period of least distances; the range of food resources widened to include smaller mammals; hunting techniques probably also improved. After CPFRQUUKDN[|/C6JGGCTNKGUVV[RGUQHHomo are known only from Africa (mainly Kenya, Tanzania and South |-CCIQDNCFGUCPFOKETQDNCFGUDGECOGEQOOQPGPFRTQFWEVUQHHNCMKPICPFOCP[YGTGRTQDCDN[WUGFKPEQORQUKVG Africa), and by a variety of species names: H. habilis, H. rudolfensis, and H. ergaster (a.k.a. H. erectus sensu lato, i.e. in a VQQNU+PQVJGTYQTFUD[VJGGPFQHVJG2NGKUVQEGPG|[GCTUCIQCTGEQIPK\CDN[nOQFGTPoNKHGUV[NGQHJWPVKPIICVJGTKPI general sense). These co-existed with Paranthropus (a.k.a. Australopithecus robustus) in South Africa, and Paranthropus and/ and fishing was in place. or Zinjanthropus n0WVETCEMGT/CPo KP'CUV#HTKECWPVKNRGTJCRUCUNCVGCU|/C6JGRTGEKUGVKOGTCPIGUQHGCEJQHVJGUG species are uncertain, partly because of problems of dating, partly because the evidence for each is often meagre, and partly because it is always difficult to establish time-ranges for rare taxa. A checklist of criteria for evaluating African human evolution sites #HVGT|/CH. ergasterKUVJGOCKPV[RGQH#HTKECPJQOKPKPWPVKNCVNGCUV|/C6JGTGCHVGTVJG#HTKECPHQUUKNJQOKPKPTGEQTF KURQQTWPVKNE|[GCTUCIQ'ZRGTVUFKUCITGGQXGTYJGVJGTVJGOCKPHQUUKNJQOKPKPURGEKOGPUDGVYGGP|/CCPF The significance – or Outstanding Universal Value – of particular human evolution sites in Africa (or Africa or Europe) could |/CHTQO&CMC$WKC$QWTK 'VJQRKC -CDYG

Archaeologically, the earliest forms of Homo used initially a simple stone technology known as Oldowan, from the German When evaluating human evolution sites, it is essential that the same methodological rigour is brought to bear as on recent PCOGQH1NFWXCK)QTIG 6CP\CPKC CPFCHVGT|/CNCTIGEWVVKPIVQQNUCPFDKHCEKCNJCPFCZGUCPFENGCXGTUMPQYPCU historic monuments, even if the criteria for evaluating them will inevitably differ from those of the past six millennia. Site #EJGWNGCPPCOGFCHVGT5V|#EJGWN (TCPEG YJGTGVJGUGYGTGHKTUVTGEQIPK\GFKPVJGPKPGVGGPVJEGPVWT[#HVGTs evaluations of human evolution sites should be consistent with the overall global themes of human unity, diversity and 400,000 years ago, stone tool technology in Africa (but also in Europe and Western Asia) became more complex and began adaptability, and based on clear, explicit criteria that can be substantiated. As Paragraph 80 of the Operational Guidelines to involve greater attention to core preparation before flaking. The manifestations of these developments was the African states in its discussion of authenticity ‘The ability to understand the value attributed to the heritage depends on the degree Middle Stone Age, which becomes increasingly diversified into several regionally distinct variants, often recognized by different to which information sources about this value may be understood as credible or truthful. Knowledge and understanding of types of stone points that were probably used as the tips of projectiles. these sources of information, in relation to original and subsequent characteristics of the cultural heritage, and their meaning, are the requisite bases for assessing all aspects of authenticity’. Paragraph 84 further states that ‘”Information sources” are In terms of behaviour, early, pre-modern Homo, developed slowly but considerably over the immense time-span of the African FGHKPGFCUCNNRJ[UKECNYTKVVGP|e|UQWTEGUYJKEJOCMGKVRQUUKDNGVQMPQYVJGPCVWTGURGEKHKEKVKGUOGCPKPICPFJKUVQT[QH early palaeolithic. A major trend in our evolution as a primate was a shift towards a carnivorous lifestyle, whereby a greater the cultural heritage’. A site evaluation should also demonstrate how and why a particular site has an Outstanding Universal intake of meat protein helped to sustain our brains. Human brains are energetically very expensive, as they are disproportionately Value within its particular time-frame, i.e. in demonstrating its wider significance as an outstanding set of evidence regarding large for our body mass. The main evidence for subsistence and diet comes from analyses of bones of animals found associated human evolution before the appearance of our own genus, or early, pre-modern Homo, or the early history of our own species. with stone tools at various sites in East Africa, notably Olduvai Gorge, and others in the Koobi Fora area. Although experts disagree over the interpretation of this evidence, a likely developmental sequence is from passive scavenging (i.e. scavenging 6CDNG|UJQYUCURGEKOGPEJGEMNKUVVJCVEQWNFDGCRRNKGFVQJWOCPGXQNWVKQPUKVGUHTQO#HTKECQTGNUGYJGTGKPQTFGTVQGXCNWCVG whatever was left over from carcasses after lions//, etc. had eaten) to confrontational scavenging (i.e. chasing the type, quality and significance of evidence. Most of the fields cover the type of basic information that document the site/ away lions and other carnivores from fresh kills and thereby acquiring the best parts of the carcass) to hunting. At some point, discovery, and are self-explanatory. It is essential to stress that the suggested checklist is not a grading, points-driven, system; HKTGDGECOGRCTVQHVJGJQOKPKPTGRGTVQKTG+VUGCTNKGUVWUGOC[FCVGDCEM|/C 5QWVJ#HTKECCPF%JGUQYCPLC-GP[C DWV an evaluation of the significance of the site or its evidence is an overall judgement based on the assessors’ view of the quality indicate only the ability to utilize natural fires (e.g. from lightening strikes); the earliest evidence for what appears to indicate of evidence on offer. Some of the most important aspects that arose at the Addis Ababa meeting are highlighted below, as VJGCDKNKV[VQOCMGHKTGTGRGCVGFN[EQOGUHTQO)GUJGT$GPQV;CoCSQX +UTCGN CPFKUE||-CQNF a result of a collective perspective.

(c) Homo sapiens. Most, but not all experts, would agree that Africa has the earliest evidence of our own species, H. sapiens. Quite how and when the species first appeared is still unclear. Some experts use the term ‘archaic Homo sapiens’ to classify Type of site: cave or open-air XCTKQWUHQUUKNUDGVYGGP|-CCPF|-CYJGTGCUQVJGTUFKUNKMGVJGWUGQHXCNWGNCFGPVGTOUUWEJCUnCTEJCKEoQTnRTKOKVKXGo and prefer instead to classify them as H. helmei, which was the term used to describe a cranium from Florisbad (South Africa), This is a basic distinction in palaeoanthropology, as each has its own set of potentials and problems, and its own investigative YJKEJKUE||-CQNF6JGUGFKUCITGGOGPVURCTVN[TGHNGEVVJGRTQDNGOUQHFGCNKPIYKVJCUOCNNHTCIOGPVGFCPFQHVGPRQQTN[ procedures. Cave deposits usually cover a longer time-range than open-air sites because of the depth of deposits, and often dated fossil record, and partly arise from more fundamental issues of which traits are sufficiently unique and discernible to yield a wider range of palaeoenvironmental evidence; open-air sites often contain much more extensive evidence of subsistence demarcate one species in an evolving lineage from another. and social activities over short periods. In short, each carries its own set of expectations as to what should be present, and what is likely to be absent. There is substantially less disagreement over African hominin fossils that are less than 190,000 years old. Crania from Herto 'VJKQRKC VJCVCTGE|[GCTUQNFJCXGDGGPENCUUKHKGFCUH. sapiens idaltu, and may be the first unambiguous evidence QHQWTURGEKGU;QWPIGTHKPFUUWEJCUCOCPFKDNGHTQO-NCUKGU4KXGT/QWVJ 5QWVJ#HTKEC CPFE||-CQNFCPFUQOGHTQO Age estimate(s): dating methods ,GDGN+TJQWF /QTQEEQ s|-CRTQDCDN[KPFKECVGVJCVQWTURGEKGUYCUEQUOQRQNKVCPCETQUUVJG#HTKECPNCPFUECRGD[ VJGNCUVKPVGTINCEKCN|-CCIQ Dating is absolutely fundamental to investigations of human evolution sites as well as to assessments of their significance. Ideally, the date of a site should be both precise and accurate. However, some dates are precise but not accurate, and others Archaeologically, the appearance of our species in Africa is accompanied by many innovations and changes from previous CTGCEEWTCVGDWVPQVRTGEKUG(QTGZCORNGCUKVGOKIJVDGFCVGFVQ|/CYJKEJKUCRTGEKUGFCVGDWVVJGFCVGEQWNF behavioural patterns. These have been studied under blanket headings such as ‘the rise of modernity’ or ‘modern human be wholly wrong (e.g. the site could be only 500,000 years old), in which case it is not accurate. Alternatively, a site could behaviour’. Without being drawn into a complex and ongoing debate over the meaning and scope of these terms, or their DGFCVGFVQCRGTKQFDGVYGGP|/CCPF|/CYJKEJKUEGTVCKPN[PQVRTGEKUGDWVOKIJVDGEQTTGEVKPYJKEJECUGKVKU

76 77 4 The World Heritage List in Africa The World Heritage List in Africa 4

accurate. There is a regrettable tendency by both the public and some specialists who should know better to attach undue so favourable. However, in order for a site to be an outstanding example of a particular aspect of human evolution, it requires importance to absolute dates, simply because they appear precise. When they are single determinations, they can usually be a superlative type of primary evidence: it is hard to see how a human evolution site could be regarded as outstanding if its an estimate of age, but no more than that. primary evidence was poor, but the secondary evidence was superb.

6JGTGJCXGDGGPGPQTOQWUCFXCPEGUKPVJGRCUV[GCTUKPQWTCDKNKV[VQFCVGQDLGEVUCPFUVTCVCHTQOVJGRCUV|/C6JGUG include a wide range of isotopic techniques based on radioactive decay systems (e.g. C14HQTVJGRCUV|-CCPFHQTQNFGT How crucial are human remains to the definition of an ‘outstanding’ human evolution site? material, uranium-thorium (U234-Th230), potassium-argon (Ka-Ar), argon-argon (Ar39-Ar40), and more recently, cosmogenic aluminium-beryllium (Al26-Be10) dating. Other important absolute techniques (i.e. those that provide an age estimate and an At the Addis Ababa meeting, there was extensive discussion of whether fossil hominin evidence was an essential pre-requite indication of likely error) are thermoluminescence (TL) and optically stimulated thermoluminescence (OSL). One technique of for a human evolution site to be worthy of World Heritage status. fundamental importance in palaeoanthropology is palaeomagnetism, which exploits the way that the Earth’s magnetic field switches periodically. As these reversals are recorded in volcanic rocks (which can be dated isotopically) as well as marine and The justification of this view is that it is the fossil skeletal material that provides the evidence for our origins, and it is also fine-grained terrestrial sediments (e.g. water-lain deposits and loess), this technique has worldwide applications. Age estimates the class of evidence that commands world-wide attention from the media and interest by the public. To quote the ICOMOS CTGCEEWTCVGDWVPQVRTGEKUG UGGCDQXG #V[RKECNQPGOKIJVDGHQTGZCORNGs||/CKGKPCRGTKQFDGVYGGPVYQ document ‘Potential fossil hominid sites for inscription on the World Heritage List (1997)’ by Professors Stringer and Gamble, periods of normal polarity, known as the Gauss Chron and Olduvai Subchron. Biostratigraphy is one of the oldest dating KVKUVJGUMGNGVCNGXKFGPEGVJCVUJQYUnJQYYJGPCPFYJGTGYGGXQNXGFe#NNVJGUGSWGUVKQPUTGSWKTGHQUUKNGXKFGPEGVQ techniques, and is still indispensable: in East Africa, for example, the use of various species as markers (i.e. time-specific) be answered’. Accordingly, their recommendations over which sites should be considered were entirely fossil-led, perhaps played a major role in clarifying the age of various sites; various types of fulfil the same role in Europe. unsurprisingly, as Stringer is the UK’s foremost expert on fossil hominin remains.

The danger of this viewpoint is that archaeological evidence is seen as irrelevant or inconsequential unless associated with Four points about dating worth making: hominin remains, and even then, is of lesser importance. Those at the Addis Ababa meeting (including this author) felt strongly that a palaeolithic site could have outstanding value without human remains on the grounds that it is the archaeological (a) Almost every major site and discovery in human evolution studies has or has had its dating controversy. This evidence that shows how our ancestors interacted with the environment and each other. Thus the wooden spears from includes ‘Lucy’ (see above), several major hominin specimens from Lake Turkana, Olduvai Gorge, and the South African Schöningen, or evidence for early symbolism, sea-faring, stone tool-making, subsistence or the colonization of a new type australopithecine sites. The same applies to their counterparts in Europe and Asia. From this it follows that the more dating of environment could be seen as having outstanding value, even if hominin remains were absent. This author’s advice from techniques that can be applied to a site, the more robust its dating is likely to be: ‘triangulation’ and cross-checking are ICOMOS is thus whilst hominin skeletal evidence is of course the primary source of evidence of our physical development, it essential for establishing the age of most human evolution sites. is the archaeological evidence that best illustrates our social development and means of adapting to differing environmental conditions: the fossil evidence shows us the actors, but it is the archaeological evidence that shows us their actions. In short, (b) As with shares and house prices, dates of sites can go up or down – dating is a dynamic process. The age of a human evolution site can have outstanding value without human fossil remains. sites can change through the application of more refined techniques, or through re-examination of its original stratigraphic context. A well-known example from outside Africa was the re-dating of the earliest sites in the Dome (Java) from QXGT|/CVQE||/CQVJGTUCTGVJGRTQITGUUKXGN[QNFGT CPFRTQDCDN[OQTGTGNKCDNG CIGGUVKOCVGUHQTECXGUGSWGPEGUKP International scientific status: in what language? the (especially Tabun), and at Zhoukoudian (China). Paragraph 80 of the Operational Guidelines describes the scientific status of a site as ‘the degree to which information (c) Because dating is dynamic, the significance of a site can also change if its estimated age changes. As example, sources about this value may be understood as credible or truthful’. As palaeoanthropology is now a global discipline, one VJGECXGQH%JCWXGV (TCPEG KUQHVGPEKVGFCUEQPVCKPKPIGXKFGPEGQHVJGQNFGUVRKEVQTKCNCTVKPVJGYQTNFE|[GCTUQNF can reasonably expect that a world-class human evolution site – or the most significant aspects of it – should be published clear evidence, for some, of the first arrival of modern humans into Western Europe. However, a strong argument is now being in English (as the global scientific language) in the top scientific journals – Nature, Science, PNAS (Proc. National Academy of advanced that the art is late glacial in age, and probably only 12,000–15,000 years old. The paintings are still magnificent, but Sciences USA), J. Human Evolution, J. Archaeological Science, American Journal of Physical Anthropology (AJPA), Quaternary if the younger age estimate is accepted, their ‘universal value’ has been fundamentally altered. International, Quaternary Science Reviews, etc.

(d) Because dating is so crucial in palaeoanthropology, a human evolution site may be regarded of immense importance Two caveats are appropriate here. First, journals are not always bias-free, and many of the above give greater primacy to human – or having a universal value – if it preserves unambiguously a major chronological marker horizon that can be linked to skeletal evidence over archaeological material. The second is whether material has to be published in English in order to have fossil and archaeological evidence. As examples, the sites of Olduvai (Tanzania), and (Georgia), are of immense evident international scientific status. In some countries, this position was adopted long ago: examples are the Netherlands, significance because fossil hominin and archaeological evidence can be tied to the Olduvai Subchron, which is a short period Israel and . However, many French researchers (and politicians), for example, would disagree strongly, and indeed, much QHRCNCGQOCIPGVKEPQTOCNKV[ KGVJG'CTVJoUOCIPGVKEHKGNFRQKPVGFPQTVJCUVQFC[ DGVYGGP|/CCPF|/CCIQ exceptional material has been published in French but not English. However, there seems to be an increasing recognition among French scientists that their work is often overlooked if not published in English, and many are now publishing in both languages; some French journals (e.g. Palévol) now have bilingual texts. The same trend is being followed by researchers in Spain, Germany, Italy, the , and more recently China. There is however a danger that some outstanding human Site contents sites remain unrecognized because they are not published in English, in major international journals. There is still a mountain of material published in Chinese that is impenetrable to non-Mandarin readers, although their most important material is These can vary from a single find to large, complex and multi-facetted assemblages of hominin and other mammalian remains, now appearing in Western outlets. The most impenetrable material is Japanese: has some superlative sites from the stone tools, plants remains and a variety of palaeoenvironmental evidence (pollen, phytoliths, insects, sediment types, etc.). RCUV|-CVJCVCTGXKTVWCNN[WPMPQYPQWVUKFGVJGEQWPVT[DGECWUG,CRCPGUGOCVGTKCNKUTCTGN[RWDNKUJGFKP9GUVGTPLQWTPCNU These can be divided into two broad categories of primary and secondary evidence: the main types of primary evidence are (i.e. in English or French). hominin remains, artefacts (primarily stone, but sometimes bones, ivory, shell or organic materials; sometimes with later sites, evidence of parietal or mobiliary art), butchered animal bones and (rarely) evidence of plant foods. Secondary evidence usually To summarize, a human evolution site cannot be recognized as having international scientific recognition unless it is accessible relates to past environmental conditions, and can include small mammals (especially rodents), pollen, phytoliths, etc. Ideally, to an international audience; and that in turn leads to the expectation that it is published in a language that most international an outstanding human evolution site should have superlative primary and secondary evidence, but preservation is very rarely scholars can read. If researchers in a particular country feel that their evidence is undervalued because it is published in a local language, they need to find ways of presenting it to a wider international audience.

78 79 4 The World Heritage List in Africa The World Heritage List in Africa 4

Protection Suggested amendments to the criteria for inscription of human evolution sites

As shown above, the issue of protection is problematic for many human evolution sites, particularly in open-air contexts where In this section, an attempt is made to provide an alternative set of criteria for evaluating human evolution sites for inscription on erosion rates are high, and where sites are exposed as well as destroyed by ongoing (and usually long-running) processes of the World Heritage List. These could be appended as an annex, or as subsets of Paragraphs 77–78 and the relevant paragraphs erosion. As also explained above, such evidence as may be found is often very ephemeral – a few bones or flaked stones. on authenticity and integrity. The proposed criteria also allow for serial and cluster nominations. It is important to emphasize that few sites would satisfy each of the proposed criteria; however, a nominated site should satisfy at least one of them to What can be suggested is that steps can sometimes be taken to safeguard the geological contexts in which discoveries are merit inscription. Potential examples are indicated. made. These might include restricting building or agricultural developments (as at Ain Hanech, for example), limiting/controlling mining, restricting livestock and thereby reducing trampling and vegetational degradation, or conserving a stretch of coastline that contains an important series of caves (as in South Africa). Protection also implies that staff are locally available to monitor For human evolution sites and discoveries: sites or an area of sites, and able to restrict illegal collecting or excavation; and it also implies a reliable management structure so that those tasked with protection have demonstrable and effective back-up at government level. This is obviously difficult (i) the geological formation should contain evidence of a major point, episode or aspect of human evolution since the in many African situations, but aspirations of the possibility of acquiring World Heritage status might provide the necessary divergence of our lineage from those of gorillas, chimpanzees and bonobos (potential examples: Koro Toro, Chad (Figure 4); stimulus for national and international cooperation. Tugen Hills; Lucy + local area, WT15000; Laetoli, etc. – the point here is to shift the emphasis from the ‘site’ (i.e. a few bones or stones, or some fossil footprints, to their geological context);

Curation (ii) the site or sites in its/their associated geological context should represent a major example of the technology of our ancestors before the end of the most recent ice-age (potential examples: Kada Gona, Olorgesailie (Figure 5), Schöningen); Effective curation requires proper dedicated storage facilities (i.e. with suitable shelving, containers, , etc.), an effective cataloguing system that can record what is being curated, and also locate it in storage, and trained personnel who can and (iii) the local sequence of geological deposits should contain outstanding and well-dated evidence of how our ancestors will check that material is not deteriorating or missing. A small but often crucial requirement is that labels do not fade, rot or developed over time (potential examples: the Casablanca sequence; Olduvai Beds I–IV; Ain Boucherit/Ain Hanech [Oldowan get eaten by insects/rats, or become detached from their objects. All these require money, but also personal motivation, and a to Acheulean]; ‘Ubeidiya, Israel; long cave sequences e.g. Haua Fteah, Libya, Tabun, Israel; Mumba); recognition by management that curation is a long-term and important responsibility. As with issues of protection, aspirations of the possibility of acquiring World Heritage status might provide the necessary stimulus to ensuring that curation is effective. (iv) the site should represent a major development in our understanding of the antiquity and complexity of human evolution (potential example: Taung);

Table 1. Checklist for evaluating human evolution sites

The aim of the checklist is to allow an accurate profile of a site and its contents to be established. As a guideline it lists the type of information that could be included in a nomination file. A formal submission would of course require documentation on each relevant aspect, as with any research proposal.

Site name: Site type (cave, open-air):

Relevant to: pre-Homo, early Homo; Homo sapiens (indicate which)

Time-span/Age:

Attributes Present/absent  -QTQ6QTQ%JCFVJKUCTGCQHPQY Dating: PalaeoMag/K-A, Ar-Ar, Th-U, C14, biostratigraphy, other (when dated, HGCVWTGNGUUFGUGTVJCURTQFWEGFUQOG and how many dating methods) QWVUVCPFKPIGZCORNGUQHQWTGCTNKGUVCPEGUVQTU 6JGINQDCNUKIPKHKECPEGQHVJKUV[RGQHGXKFGPEG lies in the geological formation containing Primary evidence: hominin remains VJGUGHQUUKNUTCVJGTVJCPCP[UKPINGRNCEG YJGTGHQUUKNUYGTGHQWPF5KOKNCTGZCORNGU Primary evidence: material culture (stone/bone/other) QHHQUUKNTKEJCPEKGPVNCPFUECRGUCTGMPQYPKP #NIGTKCCPF'CUV#HTKEC5QWTEGn/KUUKQPUFG VGTTCKPo/KUUKQP2CNÅQCPVJTQRQNQIKSWG(TCPEQ Primary evidence: evidence of diet (butchered animal remains, plant foods, shell-fish, fish, etc.) 6EJCFKGPPG /2(6 

Other types of primary evidence (symbolism, art, organic etc.; fossil footprints)

Secondary evidence: environmental data (e.g. small mammals, pollen, palaeosols, sediments, volcanic ash, etc.)

International scientific status; high quality publications (e.g. top international journals or 5. Olorgesailie, Kenya. monographs) 6JKUUKVGEQPVCKPUXKXKF GXKFGPEGQHVJGV[RGQH Acheulean technology that ‘Added global value’: in relation to comprehensive comparative analysis is found throughout Africa, 'WTQRGCPFYGUVGTP#UKC Protection measures for the site(s); applied research for the protection of the site and thus illustrates a major VGEJPQNQIKECNRJCUGKP our evolution. It is also an Applied research for conservation or curation of materials; standards for curation and/or GZCORNGQHVJGV[RGQHQRGP preservation of mobiles air site that is relatively easy VQRTQVGEVCPFFKURNC[VQVJG RWDNKE |4QPCNF|%NCTMG 80 81 4 The World Heritage List in Africa The World Heritage List in Africa 4

(v) the site and its associated geological context should represent a major example of the lifestyle of our ancestors in a particular Bibliography environmental setting and under a particular set of climatic conditions (potential examples: Ain Hanech, Koobi Fora, Melka Kunture, Olduvai, Olorgesaillie; Gesher Benot Ya’aqov, Israel); ICOMOS. 1964. International Charter for the Conservation and Restoration of Monuments and Sites (The Venice Charter 1964). Available at: http://www.international.icomos.org/charters/venice_e.pdf [Accessed 10 April 2012]. (vi) the site, or group of sites in a well-defined area, should represent a major example of how our ancestors developed and demonstrated their ability to engage in symbolic behaviour (potential example: the coastal caves in South Africa (Figure 6); ICOMOS. 2007. The role of ICOMOS in the World Heritage Convention. Available at: http://www.icomos.org/en/what-we-do/ areas of rock art and associated habitation sites). image-what-we-do/268-he-role-of-icomos-in-the-world-heritage-convention [Accessed 10 April 2012].

UNESCO. 2011. Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention. Paris, UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Available at: http://whc.unesco.org/archive/opguide11-en.pdf [Accessed 10 April 2012]. Potential for Africa

#HTKECKUVJGQPN[EQPVKPGPVYKVJCTGEQTFQHVJGYJQNGQHJWOCPKV[oUGZKUVGPEGQXGTVJGRCUVs|/CKVCNUQEQPVCKPUVJG earliest evidence of our ancestors’ ability to make stone tools, the earliest evidence of our genus, and of our own species. It EQPVCKPUVJGQPN[HQUUKNTGEQTFQHQWTGXQNWVKQPDGHQTG|/CCPFCUWDUVCPVKCNRCTVQHQWTGXQNWVKQPVJGTGCHVGT+VJCUOCP[ outstanding palaeolithic sites of all periods, and these include some of the earliest examples of hunting, using marine resources, and symbolism. There is in short an immense amount in the African record to celebrate, and to highlight as worthy of World *GTKVCIGUVCVWUCUQWVUVCPFKPIGZCORNGUQHJWOCPKV[oUGZKUVGPEGQXGTVJGRCUVs|/C+VKUJQRGFVJCVVJGUGECPDGTGEQIPK\GF under criteria of the Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention.

 2KPPCENG2QKPV5QWVJ#HTKECKUQPGQHUGXGTCNEQCUVCNECXGUKP5QWVJ#HTKECVJCVJCXGRTQFWEGFUQOGQHVJGGCTNKGUVGZCORNGU KPVJGYQTNFQHRGTUQPCNQTPCOGPVUGXKFGPEGQHU[ODQNKEVJQWIJVCPFVJGWUGQHOCTKPGTGUQWTEGUD[GCTN[*QOQUCRKGPU DGVYGGP-CCIQ#NVJQWIJGCEJECXGUKVGKUKORQTVCPVVJGKTINQDCNUKIPKHKECPEGNKGUKPVJGEQNNGEVKXGGXKFGPEGHTQOCNNVJG ECXGUKVGUVJCVJCXGDGGPKPXGUVKICVGFCNQPIVJKUEQCUVNKPG 5#%2

82 83 5 Eastern Africa

7RRGT*GTVQ/GODGT$QWTKRGPKPUWNC/KFFNG#YCUJ'VJKQRKC 6KO&9JKVG

85 5 Eastern Africa Eastern Africa 5

Ethiopia’s paleoanthropological World Heritage sites: antiquity and of paramount importance research and conservation further south of the already inscribed area. The Lower Valley of the Omo was the Yonas Beyene second major paleoanthropological site to French Centre for Ethiopian Studies – Ethiopia be inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1980, based on the data available at the time of its inscription. Since its inscription, new sites have been discovered on the Background – the geographical distribution of paleoanthropological sites in Ethiopia Eastern side of the Omo River, in the Fejej area (WoldeGabriel et al., 1992). Ethiopia’s paleoanthropological importance is linked to its location in the Great East African Rift System. This Rift System has provided favourable conditions for the geological processes that allowed the creation of sediments that preserved The Konso Gardula paleoanthropological archaeological materials, fossil remains of ancestral humans and ancient animals. In Ethiopia, the Rift begins in the site is located in southern Ethiopia, 580 Afar Triangle in the north, where the three arms of the Rift System, including the Gulf of Aden and the Red Sea come km from Addis Ababa (Figure 2). The site together forming a triple junction. The Rift extends to the south slicing through Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania and Malawi. was discovered in 1991 and soon became The geological history of the ‘Afar Rift’ has had dynamic features of geological transformations, with continuous and famous for the abundant fossil remains, undisrupted evolution witnessed with multiple fault-blocks, layers of volcanic ash and sedimentary rocks preserved including the discovery of well-preserved with interbedded units of soil formations. Imbedded in these sedimentary formations are abundant Miocene and Plio- fossil hominids including Homo erectus Pleistocene-age hominid and faunal remains, and the material evidence of early human activities across the ancient and Australopithecus Boisie, and the oldest landscapes. Currently, these fossil-bearing sedimentary beds are being exposed because of continuous geological activities Acheulean artefacts dated to 1.7 Ma BP. and erosion. The present day landscape located within the Ethiopian section of the East African Rift (stretching from The Konso site is composed of small and the Afar Triangle in the north to the Main Ethiopian Rift in the centre, and extending to the Omo Rift in the south) has patchy localities (Asfaw et al., 1992; Suwa produced numerous research areas and sites of paleoanthropological importance. et al., 1997) (Figures 3, 4, 5 and 6).

 -QPUQ2CNGQCPVJTQRQNQIKECNUKVG.QECNKV[-)# The most prominent of these sites with direct bearing on human evolution include, from north to south: Hinti Megeita, © Yonas Beyene As agricultural land is very scarce in Konso, Ledi, Mille-Chiffra, Hadar, Gona, Dikika, the Middle Awash, Kessem-Kebena, Galili, Chorora, Melka Kunture, Gadamota, farmers were encroaching into the site and Konso-Gardula, Fejej and the Lower Omo. Each of these research areas and sites has multiple localities, such as the Middle Awash, which often provided chronologically sequenced dates covering the last 6 Ma. Thousands of fauna (including human remains) and archaeological materials have been collected from these sites. Thus, the major discoveries made in the last 50 years have placed Ethiopia at the forefront of paleoanthropological research in the world.

Ethiopia has two major paleoanthroplogical sites already inscribed on the World Heritage List: the ‘Lower Awash’ and the ‘Lower Omo’ sites.

At the time of its inscription in 1980 the Lower Valley of VJG#YCUJEQXGTGF|MOŽ which included the area properly known as Hadar (where Australopithecus afarensis or the fossil hominid commonly known as ‘Lucy’, or [AL. 288–1], was discovered), the southern Hadar, or present day Dikika area, located to the south of the , and part of the Gona research area. Thus, most of the Gona research area, the recently named Busidima Formation, and all of the Middle Awash research area were not included in the 1980 nomination. Nonetheless, discoveries made since the 1980s along the Awash  -QPUQCTEJCGQNQIKECNUKVGU ;QPCU$G[GPGCPF)GP5WYC  /CLQT'VJKQRKCPRCNGQPVQNQIKECNRCNGQCPVJTQRQNQIKECNCPFCTEJCGQNQIKECNUKVGU River have demonstrated the &GRCTVOGPVQH#TEJCGQNQI[CPF2CNGQPVQNQI[ #4%%* 'VJKQRKC  presence of sites of great 86 87 5 Eastern Africa Eastern Africa 5

some of the most important localities had been The palaeoanthropological impacted. Efforts were exerted by the researchers sites located to the north, working at the site, and the local and federal east and west of the Hadar culture office representatives. A conservation area study area was delineated and maps prepared, together with community leaders and the concerned officials. It is important to note here that several Efforts continue to teach and sensitize the recently investigated sites located to community about the need for site conservation. the north and to the west of the Lower Awash have yielded important discoveries. Among the solutions deemed reasonable by the Just to the north of the Hadar, a series researchers was to salvage the archaeological and of paleoanthropological research areas paleontological sites by applying a 100% collection a b have recently delivered hominid remains strategy of all identifiable fossils, and controlled dated between 3.4 and 4 Ma. The study surface archaeological collections. Still this leaves all areas known as Gona, Mille-Chiffra, Ledi, CCPFD *QOQGTGEVWUCPF#WUVTCNQRKVJGEWUDQKUGKTGOCKPUHTQO-QPUQ unexposed fossils to be impacted by farming. |)GP|5WYC etc. have been actively researched over the past two decades and have yielded 6JGYGCNVJQHKPHQTOCVKQPCOCUUGFKPVJGNCUV|[GCTU important data with major implications or so, i.e. since the inscription of the Lower Awash about our past.  OKNNKQP[GCTQNFCTVGHCEVUUECVVGTGFQPVJGUWTHCEG-QPUQ 2CNGQCPVJTQRQNQIKECNUKVG-)#.QECNKV[ ;QPCU$G[GPG and Lower Omo sites, warrants revisiting of their status, either to retain their status, or include new sites as serial nominations or as recommendations of Mille-Chiffra new nomination files. It would be equally important to revisit the old nomination files and update them in The Mille-Chiffra is an important new line with new developments within the nomination research area surveyed since 2002. system, such as the creation of appropriate maps Although some reports exist about earlier for the sites, preparation of management plans, brief visits to the site, no discoveries were review of the nomination criteria and revision of their reported until recently. Among the major Outstanding Universal Value (OUV). discoveries from this area include a partial skeleton of a hominid that lived 3.8 Ma ago. Furthermore, the latest major discoveries Research conducted in the Ethiopian Rift at this site have shown definite presence over the past 40–50 years of more than one hominid species in the 4.0–3.0 Ma time interval (Haile-Selassie et As noted above, in 1980 the Lower Awash site al., 2012). Thus far the Lucy species has was inscribed on the World Heritage List based on been the only well-defined hominid from the major discoveries made in the area during the this time interval in the Afar (See Leakey et 1970s. The discovery of Lucy and numerous other al., 1995 for Kenyanthropus platyops). similar hominid fossils that lived between 3.0 and  5EKGPVKUVUNQQMKPIHQTKORQTVCPVHQUUKNTGOCKPU ;QPCU$G[GPG 3.6 Ma ago at Hadar has resulted in the naming of  #TVGHCEVUCV-QPUQ2CNGQCPVJTQRQNQIKECNUKVG ;QPCU$G[GPG Australopithecus afarensis, a new hominid species Gona (Johanson et al., 1982; Kimbel et al., 1994, and references therein). The discovery and publication of The Current Gona Project study area this new species by a team of international scientists includes sites that lie outside of the 1980 (French and American) at that time, pushed back the Lower Awash inscription. The area to antiquity of humans and the advent of bipedalism by the east and west of the Gona River has at least one million years. In addition, the discovery been surveyed since the beginning of the of stone tools, evidence of the earliest material 1990s yielding the earliest stone artefacts culture dated at 2.5 Ma had significantly changed dated to 2.6 Ma ago, and several new the perception of the antiquity of culture and discoveries that enabled the area to be humanness. It was thus based on the data available recognized for its new important localities at that time that the Lower Valley of the Awash was (Semaw, 2000) (Figure 8). A number of inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1980 under new archaeological localities investigated criteria C (ii) (iii) (iv). The description used in the at Gona since 2000 have yielded stone PQOKPCVKQPUVCVGUVJCVne#TGHGTGPEGRQKPVKPVJG artefacts and associated fossilized fauna study of the origins of mankind, the Awash Valley bearing evidence of cutmarks dated to contains one of the most important groupings of 2.6 Ma ago, the earliest such evidence paleontological site on the African continent.’ That documented in the archaeological record description is true and still stands firmly today. (Semaw et al., 2003; Dominguez-Rodrigo  6JGQNFGUVUVQPGVQQNUHTQO)QPC&CVGFVQOKNNKQP[GCTU$2 et al., 2005) (Figure 9). Fossil hominids  -QPUQ2CNGQCPVJTQRQNQIKECNUKVG ;QPCU$G[GPG © Yonas Beyene 88 89 5 Eastern Africa Eastern Africa 5

attributed to Ardipithecus ramidus (first recognized and named from the western margin of the Middle Awash research area) human ancestors discovered from this time period from the were also discovered at Gona (Semaw et al., 2005). In addition, the Gona study area is known for yielding the first Homo western margin are named Ardipithecus Kadaba and are dated erectus female pelvis dated ~1.2 Ma (Simpson et al., 2008). What is now part of the Gona study area has been included in between 5.2 and 5.8 Ma ago (Haile-Selassie, 2001; Haile- the Lower Valley of the Awash nomination of 1980. Selassie et al., 2004).

The younger sediments from the area known as the ‘central Dikika Afar complex’ are dated between 4.0 and 4.4 Ma ago, a very critical time period in the study of human evolution and its Dikika is well known for yielding a skeleton of a baby Australopithecus afaraensis nicknamed ‘Salam’ (Alemseged et al., 2006). environmental context. The series of sites located near a small Although the site is situated south of Gona, much of the study area is located to the south of the Awash River opposite Afar village called Aramis and its surroundings have produced, the well-known site of Hadar. The site was not investigated in greater detail at the time, but part of this research area was through 20 years of field research work involving a team of included in the Lower Valley of the Awash nomination of 1980. Recently, the Dikika team has reported the presence of fossil 48 international scientists from 12 countries, the remains of a bones dated to 3.4 Ma ago with evidence of cutmarks attributable to the activity of Australopithecus afarensis (McPherron new hominid species named Ardipithecus ramidus (White et et al., 2010). If further proven, this claim pushes the evidence of the use of stones much further back in time, and further al., 1995; 2009). Various localities that yielded the remains of investigations are needed to corroborate early hominid use of tools at such an early date. Ardipithecus ramidus were studied and securely dated using key tephra horizons. It is worth noting that a skeleton of Ardipithecus ramidus (dubbed as ), representing 60% of a female individual was recovered from Aramis and has been The Middle Awash research area  %JQTQTCRCNGQCPVJTQRQNQIKECNUKVG ;QPCU$G[GPG made public. Fossil remains of various animals that coexisted with Ardipithecus ramidus have allowed greater understanding of the environmental context in which the hominids existed Western side of the Awash River and evolved. The importance of these localities goes beyond the evolutionary history of human ancestors to include the The area south of the Lower Awash is commonly known as the Middle Awash. This area was surveyed from the mid-1970s bio-communities and environmental settings that were up to 1981. Further survey and research in the area since 1991 has led to the discovery of more than 300 localities that have instrumental, perhaps to changes, which may have directed our produced more than 50,000 fossils and stone artefacts. This research area contains a 1 km-thick sequence of sedimentary units evolutionary path. The details of the research work undertaken spanning the time between the Holocene and Upper Miocene (10 Ka and 5.8 Ma BP) (WoldeGabriel et al, 1999) (Figure 11). in the central Afar complex have been published in detail (e.g., White et al., 2009. See also the 10 accompanying articles in the The oldest sediments are same issue of Science). located on the western edge of the rift floor along The integrity of the above-mentioned sites is well maintained, the area commonly known and these sites are very critical for understanding the evolution as the ‘western margin’. of hominids and their environments between 4.4 and 5.8 Ma Here, pockets of sediments ago. Also, it should be noted that, to date, these are the only are exposed between fault large number of securely dated and in situ occurrences known blocks which have opened from this significant time interval in human evolution. small windows through

which animals and hominid  &T)KFG[9QNFGICDTKGNKUUCORNKPIXQNECPKECUJHQT fossils are exposed. A FCVKPIKPVJG/KFFNG#YCUJ 6KO&9JKVG number of localities were designated here. These localities are very small in size but the wealth of materials recovered in the western margin has enabled scientists to understand the paleoenvironmental settings in which our ancestors had evolved between 5.2 and 5.8 Ma ago (Figure 12). The presence of volcanic ash has enabled the localities to be dated using radiometric methods (Figure 13). As a result these sites are among the most securely dated for this time period. The fossil

 6JG*GTVQUKVG#WUVTCNQRKVJGEWUICTJKCPFUVQPGVQQNUFKUEQXGTGFKPVJGCTGC  /CLQT2CNGQCPVJTQRQNQIKECNNQECNKVKGUQHVJG/KFFNG#YCUJTGUGCTEJCTGC ;QPCU$G[GPG © David L. Brill 90 91 5 Eastern Africa Eastern Africa 5

To the south of Aramis and still within the ‘central complex’, localities East side of the Awash River at Assa-Issie have produced remains of Australopithecus anamensis, known originally from Kenya (Leakey et al, 1995). The A. anamensis The Middle Awash includes the area that lies to the west side of the Awash River between Sihbabi located southwest of fossils from the Middle Awash are securely dated at 4.2 Ma ago. (White Gewane and Meselu in the north. This area lies on the opposite side of the central Afar complex which is located west of the et al. 2006). Awash River.

Further to the south of the central complex, series of sites dated Localities from the eastern side, among the best known, include Bodo, Maka, Belodlehe, Hargufia, Matabeitu and Meadura. between 3 and 0.85 Ma ago have delivered important hominid fossils, Bodo and Maka are well known for yielding important fossil hominids. In 1978 an almost complete Homo erectus/ rhodesensis notably, Australopithecus garhi, Homo erectus, archaic Homo sapiens skull (commonly known as the Bodo Man) and dated to about 600 Ka ago was discovered at the Bodo site. Stone artefacts of and Homo sapiens remains (Asfaw et al., 1999, 2002; de Heinzelin Acheulean technology (handaxes) were found in associatioin with Bodo. The Bodo skull exhibits cut marks made by sharp stone et al., 1999; White et al., 2003; Clark et al., 2003; Beyene, 2010). tools, which is believed to be indicative of cannibalism (White, 1986). Among these, the earliest indication for tool use is evidenced from a locality known as Bouri where Australopithecus garhi was found in The Maka site has delivered the remains of Australopithecus afarensis and associated fauna (White et al., 1993). The Belohdelie close proximity with cut marked and broken bones (de Heinzelin et site has also delivered important skull fragments assigned to Australopithecus afarensis. Hargufia, Matabeitu, Meadura and al., 1999). The cut marks and chop marks on these bones resulted Bodo are significant sites for the middle Pleistocene archaeological records that they contain (see de Heinzelin et al., 2000). from the use of sharp edged stone tools, suggesting meat and marrow However, none of the above-mentioned sites have been considered for nomination so far. consumption by hominids leading to consequent brain expansion in early Homo. It is to be noted here that the oldest evidence for stone VQQNOCMKPIEQOGUHTQOVJG)QPCUKVGUFCVGFCV|/CCIQ 5GOCY 2000; Semaw et al., 1997; 2003). The Upper Awash

The Awash River has a series of  6JGOKNNKQP[GCTQNFGXKFGPEGHQT stone tool use by hominids. From Herto site. Paleoanthropological sites along its © David L. Brill catchments in the Upper Awash area. These sites include the Kessem-Kebena Paleoanthroplogical research area and the Melka-Kunture research area (Figure 17). Further south of Kessem Kebena, an important Miocene age site called Chorora has been documented on the east side of the Awash (Figure 18).

The Kessem Kebena research area was discovered in 1988 by the inventory team of the Ministry of Culture of Ethiopia. Paleontological evidence which are as old as 4 Ma ago and archaeological sites dated to 1 Ma ago were recorded. The  6JG/GNMC-WPVWTGCTEJCGQNQIKECNUKVG8KUKVQTUCVVJGHKGNFOWUGWO ;QPCU$G[GPG fossiliferous and archaeology bearing sediments are very patchy and sparsely placed, but the Kessem-Kebena research area is among the most important paleoanthropological sites in Ethiopia (WoldeGabriel et al., 1992).

Further south of the road between Bordede and the town called the ‘Awash’ is the Chorora Paleontological site which contains a series of patchy pockets of Miocene sediments located to the east of the Awash River. Chorora has been known since the 1970s and earlier research in the area has yielded non-primate fossil fauna. Recent field investigation of the site has led to the discovery of a new species of ancestral  #TEJCGQNQIKECNKPXGUVKICVKQPCV*GTVQYJGTGCTEJCKE*QOQUCRKGPUMWNNUYGTGFKUEQXGTGFCUUQEKCVGFYKVJUVQPGVQQNU © David L. Brill gorilla, Chororapithecus aethiopicus,  OKNNKQP[GCTQNF%JQTQTCRKVJGEWUCD[UUKPKEWUVGGVJHTQOVJG%JQTQTC (QTOCVKQPKP5QWVJGTP#HCT4KHV )GP5WYC dated to 10 Ma ago (Suwa et al. 2007).

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The above-mentioned series of sites has been documented along the Awash basin, south of the Lower Valley of the Awash Conservation of sites in the Afar Rift World Heritage site, i.e. south of the Hadar and adjacent research areas. The above-mentioned sites are located in the Afar which is inhabited by Afar nomadic pastoralists. The area is sparsely All of the above-mentioned sites are located between Hinti-Megeita to the north and Chorora to the south in the Central populated and no major conservation problem of sites has been encountered as there was no major development undertaking Afar Rift. They are all located within the Ethiopian part of the East African Rift, specifically within the Afar Rift and along its in the area. However, times have now changed and the situation is different since the Lower Valley of the Awash was inscribed. margins. The fossils of ancient faunas recovered at these sites were critical for elucidating the paleoenvironmental conditions Ethiopia is now taking major initiatives to develop its natural resources to alleviate poverty: dams are under construction; in which ancestral hominids lived. Detailed environmental studies have shed light on the interrelationships between the mechanized farms are underway; roads are being built connecting the various regions; and new towns are being founded. factors that led to ancestral hominid biological and cultural evolution allowing better understanding of how humans evolved. These activities no doubt will affect the integrity of the once pristine landscapes and environments. In order to mitigate the Paleoenvironmental studies clearly have shown that ancestral humans and the surrounding animal communities lived near impacts of development programmes, the boundary of the various sites should be clearly delineated and mapped. Once lake shores or river channels. After the deposition of the bones and artefacts, the sites were covered by sediments and/or this is accomplished, management systems that involve all stakeholders including local communities should be put in place. volcanic rock – to be buried for millions of years – and finally exposed through uplift and/or erosion. These exposures provide Development and conservation of sites should complement each other. windows of times across the ancient Afar landscape. These windows are sometimes small with few fossil bones, and sometimes covering a large exposed area across many kilometres, as in the Hadar area.

Further to the west of these series of sites, around the head waters of the Awash, we have the famous paleanthriopological New nominations in the Afar Rift? site of Melka Kunture. Melka Kunture which was discovered in the early 1960s . Research at the site is still in progress and successive investigations by French and Italian research groups has documented multiple layers of prehistoric habitats rich with As noted above, Hadar, part of Gona and Dikika areas were included in the inscription of the Lower Valley of the Awash in animal fossils and prehistoric artefacts that were dated as far back as 1.9 Ma ago (Chavaillon et al., 1979; see also Chavaillon 1980. Several new sites further to the south, north and east of the above-mentioned sites were discovered since then and and Piperno, 2004). numerous very important discoveries were made over the past two decades. In addition to Australopithecus afarensis (Lucy’s species), other additional genus and species with major bearings on human evolution such as Ardipithecus kadaba (5.8 Ma), Ardipithecus ramidus (4.4 Ma), Australopithecus garhi (2.6 Ma), and Homo sapiens idaltu (0.165 Ma) were discovered in the Afar Rift and introduced to the world. The southern Afar has also produced the oldest primate, Chororapithecus aethiopicus (10 Ma).

It would be difficult and perhaps unwise to nominate all of the above-mentioned sites individually. It may be commendable to prepare a serial nomination based on precise maps of the individual sites and a workable management plan.

The southern Ethiopian sites

The Lower Valley of the Omo

The Lower Valley of the Omo, inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1980 under criteria (iii) and (iv), is the second Ethiopian paleoanthropological site inscribed on the World Heritage List. At the time, the site was inscribed based on the discoveries made in the late 1960s and 1970s.

CDCPFE #P#HCTXKNNCIGYKVJVJG #[GNWXQNECPQCVVJGDCEMITQWPF CDQXG  and village children (left), Herto. © Yonas Beyene

19. Hadar AL 666–1. © Yonas Beyene  .QYGT8CNNG[QHVJG1OQ ,4$QKUUGTKG1OQ)TQWR 4GUGCTEJ'ZRGFKVKQP

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The Omo paleoanthropological site is located about 1,000 km south of Addis Ababa. As the nomination dossier indicates A new nomination in the area? VJGUKVGYCUne+PXGUVKICVGFKPVJGUD[2TQHGUUQT%COKNNG#TCODQWTICPFCICKPHTQOQPYCTFUD[CNCTIGVGCOQH specialists as these sites have been the subject of a great number of what are perhaps the best documented monographs and As noted above for the ‘Afar Rift’ along the Awash River, nominating a series of sites around Omo may not be appropriate publications. This site is consequently of exceptional universal value from the historical and scientific point of view’ (UNESCO, at this stage. It would rather be reasonable to carefully map the sites in the region and prepare a management plan for their 1980). Currently a French research team is undertaking active field research in the Omo (Boisserie et al., 2010; Delagnes et proper conservation, taking into account the current ongoing development plans in Ethiopia. Tentatively, the Fejej site could al., 2011). Careful investigation of the site using up-to-date has enabled better documentation of the various be included with the ‘Lower Omo’ as a serial nomination. localities discovered in the 1960s and 70s (e.g., Howell et al., 1987).

Discoveries made within the 1– 4 Ma sediments of the Lower Omo have enabled scientists to document and investigate major Conservation in the Lower Valley of the Omo human and faunal evolutionary stages during the Plio-Pleistocene. The multiple volcanic ash layers interbedded at the site have proven to be amenable for dating the Omo discoveries. As a result, Omo has been used as a reference point for dating many The Omo has been one of the best preserved sites, mainly because of its inaccessibility due to its location in the remotest other sites in Africa. Thus, the ‘Lower Omo’ is referred to as the benchmark for biochronological dating of Plio-Pleistocene part of Ethiopia. However, its remoteness is coming to an end as roads connecting the various regions of the country are sites elsewhere in the African continent (White and Harris, 1977). approaching the Omo. Based on the rapid development plans launched by the Ethiopian Government and current public need for modernization, numerous changes are underway all across the country. Yet, the Government is conscious of the At the time of its inscription, very few sites were known and recognized south of Lower Omo. Further surveys to the east need to protect the sites and the Authority for Research and Conservation of Cultural Heritage (ARCCH) is commissioned to of the Omo River in 1989 resulted in the discovery of yet another important site known as Fejej (Figure 22). Ongoing field undertake detailed mapping and documentation of national heritage. In addition, the research group actively working in the research undertaken at Fejej has led to the discovery of important Plio-Pleistocene hominids and archaeological sites. Remains Omo, under the direction of Jean-Renaud Boisserie of the CNRS, France, is collaborating with the ARCCH with the mapping of human ancestors dating between 2 and 4 Ma ago were discovered together with animal fossil bones. The Fejej archaeology and management-related technicalities. Such joint work between the antiquities administration and researchers is among the is dated to 1.9 Ma and the materials are typical of Oldowan (Mode I), similar to other core/flake assemblages known around best practices that need to be pursued further. 2 Ma ago. Further, the Fejej ancient landscape has yielded a spectacularly petrified fossil dated to around 28 Ma ago. This important site has become a reference point since it fills a time gap missing in many other sites (de Lumley and Beyene, 2004) (Figure 23). Management bodies and regulations

The Constitution of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Proclamation No. 1/1995; Article 91 declares that ‘Government and all Ethiopian citizens shall have the duty to protect the country’s natural endowment, historical sites and objects.’ Based on the Constitution, the Ethiopian Cultural Policy (1997) also underlines that ‘...Creating awareness that the conservation and preservation of cultural, historical and natural heritage are the duties and responsibilities of governmental and nongovernmental organizations, religious institutions and all Ethiopian nationals.

The national institution entrusted for the protection of sites and monuments, as well as sites that are already on World Heritages List, is the Authority for Research and Conservation of Cultural Heritage (ARCCH), Ministry of Culture and Tourism of Ethiopia.

Sites are administered and protected based on decrees issued both by the Federal House of Representatives and Parliaments of the Regional Governments. Sites of national importance are directly candidates for nomination. Sites that are proposed by regional governments are candidates for the National List and could eventually be proposed for nomination. All the sites are administered jointly by the Federal and Regional Institutions. Thus, management of the Lower Awash and the Omo sites are under the responsibility of the Federal Government (ARCCH), like that of Axum, Lalibela, Gondar, Harar, Tiya megalithic site, the Konso Cultural Landscape and the Semien Natural Park.

The ARCCH is organized under a General Director with the following divisions: Research Directorate; Collection and Laboratory Directorate; Inventory, Inspection and Standard Directorate; Conservation Directorate; the National Museum and World Heritage Sites Directorate.

Plans and projects related to key needs and future growth

It has been frequently discussed that management plans are critical for the conservation of sites. It is true that in  6JG(GLGLUKVG6JGTGUGCTEJGToUECORKUKPVJGOKFFNGQHVJGNGHVUKFG ;QPCU$G[GPG 22. Omo 2.3 Ma. © Yonas Beyene the absence of such an instrument, it would be difficult to

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maintain the OUV of sites. The contribution of researchers in the preparation of management plans for sites that they are Clark, J.D., Y. Beyene, G. WoldeGabriel, W.K. Hart, P.R. Renne, H. Gilbert, A. Defleur, G. Suwa, S. Katoh, K.R. Ludwig, J.-R. working on has to be considered. Input from researchers is critically important in providing the necessary data for designing Boisserie, B. Asfaw and T.D. White. 2003. Stratigraphic, chronological and behavioral contexts of Pleistocene Homo sapiens plans that could be effectively implemented. Whereas management plans involves all stakeholders and owners, it is imperative from the Middle Awash, Ethiopia. Nature (London, New York, Tokyo), Vol. 423, pp. 747–752. that the State Party takes the responsibility for properties that are already on the List. As management plans involve inventories, documentation, mapping, identification of values of the sites, legal issues, ownership, use, etc., a concerted effort has to be Delagnes A., J.-R. Boisserie, Y. Beyene, K. Chuniaud, C. Guillemot, M. Schuster. 2011. Archaeological investigations in the Lower employed. Omo Valley (Shungura Formation, Ethiopia): New data and perspectives. Journal of Human Evolution, Vol. 61, pp. 215–222.

The Ethiopian Government has included tourism in its poverty alleviation programme. Therefore, it is timely to use this Ethiopia. The Constitution of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Proclamation No. 1/1995; Article 91. See http:// opportunity for conservation, capacity-building and for developing responsible tourism in the areas of paleo-tourism and eco- www.ethiopia.gov.et/English/Information/Pages/NationalPolicyPrinciplesandObjectives.aspx [Accessed 2 May 2012]. tourism. The construction and functioning of interpretive centres close to sites serve, in addition to its services to tourism and benefits from it, to increase the interest and awareness of local communities. de Heinzelin J. J.D. Clark, T.D. White, W. Hart, P. Renne, G. WoldeGabriel, Y. Beyene and E. Vrba. 1999. Environment and behavior of 2.5-million-year-old Bouri hominids. Science (Washington D.C.), Vol. 284, pp. 635–629. In order to accomplish the above-mentioned objectives, a new tourism policy is now in place. This policy should pave the way for a tourism plan based on management plans for paleoanthropological sites as well. Based on this policy the local people de Heinzelin, J., J.D. Clark, K.D. Schick, W.H. Gilbert (eds.). 2000. The Acheulean and the Plio-Pleistocene Deposits of the can learn about the significance of the sites and their cultural heritage, and international tourists can be attracted to visit these Middle Awash Valley Ethiopia, Vol. 104. Royal Museum of Central Africa () Annales Sciences Géologiques. areas. As such, the wealth of paleoanthropological discoveries made in the Ethiopian Rift could be used to promote tourism. In order to effectively exploit this wealth, training should periodically be given to tour guides, and local authorities and community Feibel, C., F.H. Brown, I. McDougall. 1989. Stratigraphic context of fossil hominids from Omo Group deposits: northern Turkana members need to be aware of the significance of cultural heritage and be sensitized for their protection and conservation. basin, Kenya and Ethiopia. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, Vol. 78, pp. 595–622.

Synergy between the various above-mentioned players could support the conservation efforts of sites on the World Heritage Haile-Selassie, Y. 2001. Late Miocene hominids from the Middle Awash, Ethiopia. Nature (London, New York, Tokyo), Vol. List and the recognition and nomination of new ones. 412, pp. 178–81.

Haile-Selassie Y., B. Saylor, A. Deino, N. Levin, M. Alene and B. Latimer. 2012. A new hominin foot from Ethiopia shows multiple Pliocene bipedal adaptations. Nature (London, New York, Tokyo), Vol. 483, pp. 565–569. Bibliography Howell, F.C., P. Haesaerts and J. de Heinzelin. 1987. Depositional environments, archaeological occurrences and hominids Alemseged Z, F. Spoor, W.H. Kimbel, R. Bobe, D. Geraads, D. Reed and J.G. Wynn. 2006. A juvenile early hominin skeleton from Members E and F of the Shungura Formation (Omo Basin, Ethiopia). Journal of Human Evolution, Vol. 16, pp.665–700. from Dikika, Ethiopia. Nature (London, New York, Tokyo), Vol. 443, pp. 296–301. Johanson, D.C., M. Taieb and Y. Coppens. 1982. Pliocene hominid fossils from Hadar, Ethiopia (1973–1977): Stratigraphic, Asfaw B., Y. Beyene, G. Suwa, R.C. Walter, T.D. White, G. WoldeGabriel and T. Yemane. 1992. The earliest Acheulean from chronologic, and paleoenvironmental contexts, with notes on hominid morphology and systematics. American Journal of Konso-Gardula. Nature (London, New York, Tokyo), Vol. 360, pp. 732–735. Physical Anthropology, Vol. 57, pp. 373–402.

Asfaw, B., T. D. White, O. Lovejoy, B. Latimer, S. Simpson and G. Suwa. 1999. Australopithecus garhi: a new species of early Katoh, S., S. Nagaoka, G. WoldeGabriel, P. Renne, M.G. Snow, Y. Beyene and G. Suwa. 2000. Chronostratigraphy and hominid from Ethiopia. Science (Washington D.C.), Vol. 284, pp. 629–635. correlation of the Plio-Pleistocene tephra layers of the Konso Formation, southern main Ethiopia rift, Ethiopia. Quaternary Science Reviews, Vol. 19, pp. 1305–1317. Asfaw B., H. Gilbert, Y. Beyene, W.K. Hart, P.R. Renne, G. WoldeGabriel, E. Vrba and T.D. White. 2002 . Remains of Homo erectus from Bouri, Middle Awash, Ethiopia. Nature (London, New York, Tokyo), Vol. 416, pp. 317–320. Kimbel, W.H., D.C. Johanson and Y. Rak. 1994. The first skull and other new discoveries of Australopithecus afarensis at Hadar, Ethiopia. Nature (London, New York, Tokyo), Vol. 368, pp. 449–451. Beyene Y. 1997. The Acheulean at Konso-Gardula: results from locality KGA4–A2. In K. Fukui E. Kurimoto, and M. Shigeta (eds.), Ethiopia in Broader Perspective. Kyoto: Shukado Book Sellers, Vol. 1, pp. 376–378. Kimbel, W. H., R.C. Walter, D.C. Johanson, K.E. Reed, J.L. Aronson, Z. Assefa, C.W. Marean, G.G. Eck, R. Bobe-Quinteros, E. Hovers, Y. Rak, C. Vondra, T. Yemane, D. York, Y. Chen, N. M. Evenson and P.E. Smith. 1996. Late Pliocene Homo and Oldowan ____. 2010. Herto Brains and Minds: Behavior of Early Homo sapiens from the Middle Awash. ‘Social Brain Distributed Mind’. Tools from the Hadar Formation (Kada Hadar Member), Ethiopia. Journal of Human Evolution, Vol. 31, pp. 549–561. Proceedings of the British Academy. Oxford University Press, Vol. 158, pp. 43–54. Leakey, M. G., C.S. Feibel, I. MacDougall and A. Walker. 1995. New four-million-year old hominid species from Kanapoi and Beyene Y., G. Suwa, B. Asfaw and H. Nakaya. 1996. Prehistoric research at Konso-Gardula. In G. Pwiti and R. Soper (eds.), Allia Bay, Kenya. Nature (London, New York, Tokyo), Vol. 376, pp. 565–571. Aspects of African Archaeology. Harare, University of Publications, pp. 99–102. de Lumley, H. and Y. Beyene (sous la direction de) 2004. Les Sites Préhistoriques de la région de Fejej, Sud Omo, Ethiopie, Boisserie, J.-R., A. Delagnes, Y. Beyene and M. Schuster. 2010. Reconstructing the African background to human expansions Dans Leur Contexte Stratigraphique et Paléontologique. Ministère des Affaires Etrangères (eds.), Editions Recherches sur les in Eurasia: new research in the Shungura Formation, Ethiopia. Quaternary International, Vol. 223–224, pp. 426–428. Civilisations.

Brown F.H., B. Haileab and I. McDougall. 2006. Sequence of tuffs between the KBS Tuff and the Chari Tuff in the Turkana McPherron, S.P. Z. Alemseged, C.W. Marean, J.G. Wynn, D. Reed, D. Geraads, R. Bobe and H.A. Bearat. 2010. Evidence for Basin, Kenya and Ethiopia. Journal of the Geological Society (London), Vol. 163, pp. 185–204. stone-tool-assisted consumption of animal tissues before 3.39 million years ago at Dikika, Ethiopia. Nature (London, New York, Tokyo), Vol. 466, pp. 857–860. Chavaillon, J., N. Chavaillon, F. Hours and M. Piperno. 1979. From the Oldowan to the Middle Stone Age at Melka-Kunture (Ethiopia): Understanding Cultural Changes. Quaternaria, Vol. 21, pp. 87–114. Nagaoka, S., S. Katoh, G. WoldeGabriel, et al. 2005. Lithostratigraphy and sedimentary environments of the hominid bearing Pliocene–Pleistocene Konso Formation in the southern Main Ethiopian Rift, Ethiopia. Paleogeography, Paleoclimatology, Chavaillon, J. and M. Piperno (ed.). 2004. Studies on the Early Paleolithic Site of Melka Kunture, Ethiopia. Istituto Italiano di Paleoecology, Vol. 216, pp. 333–457. Preistoria e Protostoria, Florence. Phillipson, D.W. 2005. African Archaeology, Third edition. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. 98 99 5 Eastern Africa Eastern Africa 5

Semaw S., et al., 2000. The world’s oldest stone artifacts from Gona, Ethiopia: Their implications for understanding stone The earliest Stone Age of Ethiopia technology and patterns of human evolution between 2.6–1.5 million years ago. Journal of Archaeological Science, Vol. 27, pp. 1197–1214. in the East African context

Semaw, S., M.J. Rogers, J. Quade, P.R. Renne, R. F. Butler, D. Stout, M. Dominguez-Rodrigo, W. Hart, T. Pickering and S.W. Anne Delagnes Simpson. 2003. 2.6-Million-year-old stone tools and associated bones from OGS–6 and OGS–7, Gona, Afar, Ethiopia. Journal PACEA, CNRS – Université 1 (University of Bordeaux 1) – France of Human Evolution, Vol. 45, pp.169–177.

Semaw, S., P. Renne, J.W.K. Harris, C. Feibel, R. Bernor, N. Fesseha and K. Mowbray. 1997. 2. 5 million-year-old Stone tools from Gona, Ethiopia. Nature (London, New York, Tokyo), Vol. 385, pp. 333–338. Introduction

Simpson, S.W., J. Quade, N. E. Levin, R. Butler, G. Dupont-Nivert, M. Everett and S. Semaw. 2008. A complete female Homo The earliest ancestors of human lineage as well as the earliest prehistoric record are still today concentrated in East Africa. erectus pelvis from Gona, Ethiopia. Science, Vol. 322, pp. 1089–1092. In this context, Ethiopia has a leading position, which can be seen in the multiplicity of interdisciplinary international research projects in the field, the significant proportion of Ethiopian scientists involved in all human evolution-related Suwa, G., B. Asfaw, Y. Beyene, T.D. White, S. Katoh, S. Nagaoka, H. Nakaya, K. Uzawa, P. Renne and G. WoldeGabriel. 1997. fields, and the outstanding number of site complexes related to the early stages of humankind. This potential has long The first skull of Australopithecus boisei. Nature (London, New York, Tokyo), Vol. 389, pp. 489–92. been recognized by UNESCO which is reflected in its inscription of the Lower Valley of the Omo and the Lower Valley of the Awash in Ethiopia on the World Heritage List in 1980. Today these properties remain the only two Early Stone Age Suwa G., H. Nakaya, B. Asfaw, H. Saegusa, A. Amzaye, R. T. Kono, Y. Beyene and S. Katoh. 2003. Plio-Pleistocene terrestrial site complexes in East Africa on the World Heritage List. mammal assemblage from Konso, southern Ethiopia. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, Vol. 23, pp. 901–916.Suwa G., R.T. Kono, S. Katoh, B. Asfaw and Y. Beyene. 2007. A new species of great Ape from the late Miocene epoch in Ethiopia. Nature But Ethiopia is also part of a broader set of East African countries that share a common heritage and common physical (London, New York, Tokyo), Vol. 448 (7156), pp. 921–924. features. Because of the great antiquity of the earliest East African prehistoric sites, and in addition to their specificities and low visibility compared with built heritage, they require adapted conservation and awareness-raising methodologies. UNESCO. 1980. Nomination file, ‘The Lower Valley of the Omo’, inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1980 under criteria This paper does not attempt to make an exhaustive overview of past and current research on the Early Stone Age. Rather, (iii) and (iv). it focuses on the specific aspects that need to be considered for assessing the Outstanding Universal Value (OUV) of the earliest archaeological sites, with a special concern for the prehistoric record ranging from 2.6 to 1.8 million years (Ma) White, T. D. 1986. Cutmarks on the : a case of prehistoric defleshing. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, ago, which corresponds to the initial stage of the Early Stone Age in East Africa. Vol. 69, pp. 503–509.

White, T.D, and M.J. Harris. 1977. Suid evolution and correlation of African hominid localities. Science (Washington D.C.), Vol. 198, pp. 13–22. Physical settings

White, T. D., G. Suwa, W.K. Hart, R.C. Walter, G. WoldeGabriel, J.D. Clark, B. Asfaw and E. Vrba. 1993. New discoveries of The physical settings that characterize the Early Stone Age record from East Africa play a determining role in the preservation, Australopithecus at Maka in Ethiopia. Nature (London, New York, Tokyo), Vol. 366, pp. 261–265. study and management of this cultural heritage. During the Neogene and Quaternary periods, the combination of intense volcanic and tectonic activities with rapid sediment deposition in the East African Rift System has enabled the preservation of White, T. D., G. Suwa and B. Asfaw.1995. Australopithecus ramidus, a new species of early hominid from Aramis, Ethiopia. fossils and artefacts within rift graben or half-graben basins (Chorowicz, 2005; Woldegabriel et al., 2000). The concentration of Nature (London, New York, Tokyo), 371: 306–33. early hominin habitats in these tectonically altered landscapes would not only relate to exceptional conditions of preservation. It would also reflect a hominin choice that targeted these basins because of their high biodiversity (Reynolds et al., 2011). The White T. D. et al., 2003. Pleistocene Homo sapiens from Middle Awash, Ethiopia. Nature (London, New York, Tokyo), Vol. East African Rift basins thus constitute physical and ecological 423, pp. 742–747. clusters that merit consideration as complete heritage entities. They form unique bio-environmental and geo-chronological White T. D., G. WoldeGabriel, B. Asfaw, S. Ambrose, Y. Beyene, R.L. Bernor, J.-R. Boisserie, B. Currie, H. Gilbert, Y. Haile- contexts for the study of hominin cultural behaviors and Selassie, W.K. Hart, L.J. Hlusko, F. Clark Howell, R.T. Kono, T. Lehmann, A. Louchart, C. O. Lovejoy, P.R. Renne, H. Saegusa, E. Hadar settlement dynamics at the onset of humankind. S. Vrba, H. Wesselman and G. Suwa. 2006. Asa Issie, Aramis and the origin of Australopithecus. Nature (London, New York, Gona Tokyo), 440: 883–889. The manufacturing of stone tools constitutes one of the most important adaptative shifts in human evolution and it also White, T. D., B. Asfaw, Y. Beyene, Y. Haile-Selassie, C.O. Lovejoy, G. Suwa and G. WoldeGabriel. 2009. Ardipithecus ramidus marks the beginning of prehistory. As a consequence, the East African Rift System and the Paleobiology of Early Hominids. Science (Washington D.C.), Vol. 326, pp. 75–86. Omo-Shungura Fejej unique material indication of early prehistoric sites is provided Lokalalei Koobi Fora by the presence of stone tools that have been intentionally WoldeGabriel, G., T.D. White, G. Suwa, S. Semaw, Y. Beyene, B. Asfaw and R.C. Walter. 1992. Kesem-Kebena: A Newly produced by early hominins. Their authenticity is given by Discovered Paleoanthropological Research Area in Ethiopia. Journal of Field Archaeology, Vol. 19, pp. 471–493. a set of direct indicators related to the objects but also to Kanjera the contexts where they are found. The earliest prehistoric WoldeGabriel, G., G. Heiken, T.D. White, B. Asfaw, W.K. Hart and P.R. Renne. 1999. Volcanism, tectonism, sedimentation, and sites (prior to 2 Ma) are so far limited to the northern part of the paleontological record in the Ethiopian Rift System. In F. W. McCoy and G. Heiken (eds.), Volcanic Hazards and Disasters Olduvai the East African Rift System and are located in two regional in Human Antiquity. Boulder, Colorado, Geological Society of America Special Paper 345, pp. 83–99. contexts: the in northern Ethiopia and the Omo- in southern Ethiopia and northern Kenya. Site  )GQITCRJKEFKUVTKDWVKQPQHVJGGCTNKGUV5VQPG#IGUKVG WoldeGabriel G., Y. Haile-Selassie, P.R. Renne, T.D. White, W.K. Hart, S. Ambrose, B. Asfaw and G. Heiken. 2001. Geology EQORNGZGUKP'CUV#HTKEC VJGTGFFQVUEQTTGURQPFVQVJGUKVG distribution becomes broader after 2 Ma ago, extending over and palaeontology of the Late Miocene Middle Awash Valley, Afar rift, Ethiopia. Nature (London, New York, Tokyo), Vol. 412, EQORNGZGUQNFGTVJCP/CVJG[GNNQYFQVUEQTTGURQPFVQVJG CFKUVCPEGQH|MOHTQOVJG#HCTVTKCPINGKPPQTVJGTP UKVGEQORNGZGUFCVGFDGVYGGP/CCPF/C  pp.175–178. #PPG&GNCIPGU%045s1)4' Ethiopia to the basins of Northern Tanzania (Figure 1).

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The archaeological sites are stratified in geological formations that are overwhelmingly rich in fossilifereous localities which yield Indirect evidence of stone tool use has been reported at a number of sites where cutmarks and fractures on a variety of animal and hominin species. The paleontological record is by far more prolific in quantity and more widely present, herbivore bone fragments have been identified, but with no associated artefacts and sometimes with no available rocks suitable both in time and space, compared with the archaeological record. This unique paleontological and paleoanthropological record for knapping in the environment of the sites. Examples of such indirect associations are documented for instance at Bouri in allows for an accurate reconstruction of the bio-environmental settings and their impact on hominin settlement dynamics. the Middle Awash Valley at 2.5 Ma (cut-marked and broken mammalian bones associated with Australopithecus garhi) (Asfaw A demonstrative example is given by the Shungura formation in the Omo Basin, where more than 53,000 vertebrate fossils et al., 1999; de Heinzelin et al., 1999), and at Dikika in the Lower Awash Valley at 3.39 Ma ago (cut-marked and broken have been recovered, encompassing more than 150 animal species and at least 4 hominin taxa in a temporal interval ranging mammalian bones in a context where fossils of Australopithecus afarensis are present) (McPherron et al., 2010). However, from 3.6 Ma to 1.0 Ma ago (Coppens and Howell, 1976; Howell and Coppens, 1976), while less than 3,000 archaeological in these contexts of open-air localities where bones might have been subject to a number of modifications by mammals remains have been recorded that are mostly concentrated in a limited chronological range between 2.3 Ma and 2.1 Ma ago (e.g. trampling, breakage or gnawing) or by water transport within coarse fluviatile sands, the reliability of the modifications (Howell et al., 1987). assigned to hominins is to be validated by solid experimental or actualistic database (Dominguez-Rodrigo et al., 2010, 2012). Furthermore, the absence of associated stone tools – and, in the case of Dikika, the absence of unmodified faunal fragments and in situ material – considerably undermine the relevance of these finds. More convincing taphonomic and archaeological arguments are still required to support the hypothesis of regular meat consumption using stone tools prior to 2.6 Ma ago, Archaeology in East Africa: brief historical background which corresponds to the earliest evidence of cutmarked bones documented at Gona, in indisputable archaeological contexts (Dominguez-Rodrigo et al., 2005). Archaeology in East Africa initially developed in the wake of paleontological research. The remarkable development of paleoanthropological and prehistoric research from the 1930s was first initiated by paleontologists. Among the pioneers who Indirect associations between hominin fossils and stone tools found in close proximity are documented in West Turkana gave a decisive impulse to the investigations, Camille Arambourg (who worked in the Omo region in the early 1930s) and Louis (early Homo) (Prat et al., 2005) and in the Omo-Shungura Formation (early Homo and Australopithecus boisei) (Howell et al., Leakey (who started his investigations at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania, during the same period) appear as major figures. They gave 1987). Whether the hominin fossils are found in direct association with stone tools or not, it can never be firmly established rise to generations of ’fossil hunters’ and initiated the first interdisciplinary studies, from which emerged the first research into that they belong to the tool-makers. They could as well be part of the background paleontological record that lived in the prehistory. Since the 1930s, paleontology has maintained a leading position in the study of hominin-bearing formations in East surroundings of the sites and formed potential preys for large carnivores. As a consequence, the earliest tool-makers may be Africa, and many more efforts have been made in support of paleontological investigations compared to that of archaeology. any of the hominin taxa who were present in East Africa between 2.6 and 1.8 Ma ago, including the diverse forms of robust australopithecines, and the early Homo who first appeared in East Africa by 2.6 – 2.5 Ma ago. This debate has long been biased Field methods developed by archaeologists have kept their specificities compared with paleontological investigations, due to by the tautological reasonings that linked the emergence of the genus Homo with the capacity for making tools, resulting in a the specific nature of both kinds of records. The paleolontological record forms a taphocenosis which is by nature widespread, hominin taxonomic classification largely grounded in cultural arguments (de la Torre, 2011). It cannot be excluded that several as a result of primary dispersed habitats combined with secondary dispersion and fragmentation processes after animal (or taxa might be involved in the development of stone technology during this time range. This crucial issue is still open and its hominin) death, due to water transport in particular. The field investigations developed by the paleontologists are therefore clarification remains one of the most important challenges for the current and future investigations. based on large-scale surveys and surface samplings complemented by scarce and limited test excavations. This large-scale approach contrasts with the methods developed by the archaeologists who have to deal with scarce and circumscribed localities where hominins produced, used and discarded stone tools. As a consequence, archaeological investigations focus mainly on the extensive excavation of a limited number of sites, sometimes to the detriment of a broad-based field approach. From tool recognition…

In this context archaeology has also greatly benefited from some methodological inputs from paleontology and, in particular, Based on the current archaeological record, the recognition and identification of the earliest known prehistoric sites rest on by taphonomic studies (Behrensmeyer, 1975, 1983). Since the 1980s, the study of site formation processes has been one of a single category of remains: lithic artefacts. They are neither very complex nor of great esthetic value, but they nevertheless the major focuses of archaeologists working in East Africa. Based on the statement that all sites have suffered post-depositional constitute a unique cultural and scientific heritage. Although very simple, the hominin-made artefacts are easily distinguishable disturbances (Isaac, 1997), these studies developed with the aim of assessing the degree of site preservation in terms of spatial from geofacts, i.e. naturally broken stones, and from non-human-primate stone artefacts. The latter include pounding implements patterning and integrity or homogeneity of the archaeological assemblages. The research carried out at Koobi Fora has played used for cracking nuts or other hard organic materials, and occasional sharp-edged flakes issued from non-controlled stone a pivotal role in this domain and its prehistoric research has largely transcended the East African boundaries. Combining flaking processes (Haslam et al., 2009). The capacity to systematically produce sharp-edged flakes with a controlled hand-held the data related to diagenetic and hydraulic processes with experimental studies of site formation processes (Schick, 1986, percussion technique is a human specificity. It gives end- and by-products that are easily identifiable by specialists. 1997), these studies provide basic clues for discriminating the anthropic versus non-anthropic induced processes that lead to site formation. With field approaches that remain largely distinct, archaeology and paleontology are still closely linked. They The first stone tools resulting from an intentional manufacturing process and issued from indisputable geo-chronological explore the same fields and share a number of basic issues related particularly to early hominin subsistence behaviours and contexts are dated to 2.6–2.5 Ma ago. They have been uncovered at the Gona EG10 and EG12 localities in the Afar region adaptability to varying biotic environments. (Ethiopia) (Semaw, 2000; Semaw et al., 1997). They form part of a set of site complexes, ranging between 2.6 and 1.8 Ma ago, which constitute the earliest prehistoric record yet documented in the world. No more than 8 site complexes are documented for this time range (Fig. 1): 4 are located in Ethiopia (Gona, Hadar, Omo-Shungura and Fejej site complexes), 3 in Kenya (Lokalalei, Koobi Fora and Kanjera South site complexes) and one in Tanzania (Olduvai site complex). All these site complexes The first tool-makers include a number of archaeological localities that varies between 2–3 and several tens of localities. They are all investigated as part of long-term interdisciplinary and international projects, with a significant involvement of East African scholars. We do not yet precisely know who the first tool-makers were, as almost all hominin fossils have been uncovered in large paleontological surface localities outside any archaeological context. Direct associations between both categories of remains The earliest prehistoric sites are most commonly assigned to the Oldowan culture, initially introduced by Louis Leakey (1936) are extremely rare. Such occurrences are limited to the sites of Hadar A.L. 666 (Kimbel et al., 1996), Fejej–1 (Lumley de and and later on more precisely defined and classified by Mary Leakey (1971) at Olduvai. She divided the industries from Bed Marchal, 2004), both associated with hominin remains ascribed to early Homo, and Olduvai FLK Zinj and Olduvai FLK NN I to Upper Bed IV (1.9 to 1.1 Ma ago) into several stages: Oldowan (Beds I and II), Developed Oldowan A (Middle Bed II), Level 3 (Leakey, 1959; Leakey et al., 1964; Tobias, 1967) where the fossils of Australopithecus boisei and Homo habilis were Developed Oldowan B (Middle and Upper Bed II) and Developed Oldowan C (beginning of Upper Bed IV), based on the relative found in direct association with archaeological material. At a number of localities, the association between hominin fossils frequencies of distinct typological categories (e.g. light duty tools, spheroids and subspheroids). Since Mary Leakey’s pioneer and stone tools is indirect, either because the use of stone tools is only documented by the presence of cutmarked bones, or work, a number of alternative classification systems of the Oldowan artefacts have been proposed, in particular by Glynn Isaac because hominin fossils have been found in geological deposits that are contemporaneous with archaeological material in and Nick Toth (Isaac et al., 1997; Toth, 1985), resulting in a great diversity of studies that have a limited comparative potential the same micro-regional context. (Schick and Toth, 2006). Currently almost as many classification systems as Oldowan site complexes exist, which is not so surprising given the high inter-assemblage diversity. Therefore, a more and more detailed picture of the Oldowan is emerging at the site level, while the overall picture remains quite elusive.

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The term ‘Mode 1’ is preferred by some researchers, most probably because of its more universal value. It was initially proposed groups: fine-grained lavas at Gona, Lokalalei, and Hadar A.L. 666, at the Omo-Shungura sites. At Lokalalei 2c, the by Graham Clark and designates all the simple technologies based on ‘-tools and flakes’ (Clark, 1961). In East Africa, earliest tool-makers also targeted angular blocks or cobbles that provided to the tool-makers natural angles directly workable the terms Oldowan and Mode 1 equally apply to the simple stone technologies prior to 1 Ma ago. Grouping together all for producing flakes (Delagnes and Roche, 2005; Harmand, 2009). The major difference after 2 Ma ago consists in the first the lithic assemblages dated between 2.6 and 1 Ma ago in a single techno-complex called Oldowan, or Mode 1, implies the evidence of raw material transport over relatively long distances (> 10 km), in particular at Kanjera South (Braun et al., 2008), existence of a long-lasting initial stage of stone technology with no major behavioral or cognitive shift, as suggested by a associated with a broader spectrum of occupied habitats (Plummer et al., 2009). Together with the recent data concerning number of archaeologists (Semaw, 2000; Semaw et al., 1997; Stout et al., 2010). Other archaeologists prefer to distinguish FwJj20 site at Koobi Fora that point out an increased diversity of early hominin dietary adaptations (Braun et al., 2010), these a pre-Oldowan (or archaic Oldowan) stage that encompasses all the assemblages prior to 1.9–2 Ma ago (Lumley de, 2006; data suggest more advanced strategies of resource acquisition after 2 Ma ago. It seems very likely that the tool techno- Lumley de and Beyene, 2004; Roche, 2000), given a number of shared technological features. It is also true that a drastic lack functional diversification after 2 Ma ago originates from this increased diversity of subsistence patterns. It certainly marks an of sites between 2.3 and 2 Ma ago limits our understanding of the evolutionary technological processes that could link the important step in hominin adaptation to varying environments. earliest assemblages with the ‘classical’ Oldowan ones, after 2 Ma ago. Does the shift related to raw material transport and tool functional diversity after 2 Ma ago reflect a major evolutionary shift The specificities of the earliest assemblages are documented by a number of sound technological markers which can be listed for the human lineage? The answer depends upon the behavioral patterns that are considered as significant for defining as follows: thresholds in hominin cultural evolution. Whatever the criteria which are adopted, differences do exist between the earliest and the ‘classical’ Oldowan assemblages, that deserve to be highlighted considering their significance for assessing the a. advanced knowledge and control of stone fracture mechanics; behavioral adaptation of the early hominins to their environment. Neither the notion of a pre-Oldowan stage which would have b. prevalence of a simple flake-core technology, with no core volume management; been drastically distinct from the Oldowan, nor the notion of a large Oldowan entity encompassing the pre- and post–2 Ma c. débitage method consisting basically in unifacial and unidirectional removals; assemblages are fully satisfying, given these behavioral shifts. This taxonomic issue, which is currently one of the most debated d. intended for the obtention of unmodified and unstandardized flakes with cutting edges; issue with regard to the earliest human cultures, has to be considered as a means rather than an end, all the more as “if the e. exclusive use of locally available raw materials; system is effectively a least-effort one then the recurrence of the defining features across time and space doesn’t necessarily f. marked preference for homogeneous fine-grained source materials; imply cultural continuity or affinity (i.e. participation in a particular network of cultural connections that was transmitting g. selective procurement of angular morphologies with angles that were suitable for a direct flake extraction. distinctive, idiosyncratic traditions).” (Isaac et al., 1997).

Although the functional properties of the artefacts look perfectly adapted for cutting soft tissues, in particular meat, there Variability also exists with regard to the elaboration of the earliest stone tool assemblages compared with the post–2 Ma are very few indications of carcass processing for meat and marrow consumption prior to 2 Ma ago. No microwear analysis Oldowan assemblages, but its interpretation appears more debatable. The first reason is that elaboration is a very subjective of stone tool edges has yet been carried out. Furthermore, evidences of bone modifications resulting from butchery activities and hazy notion, which can be assessed according to a number of criteria that differ according to the researchers and that can are extremely rare. The oldest and best documented examples of cutmarks on herbivore bone fragments are found at Gona interfere with external factors, such as variations in raw material quality and availability or variations in the hominin groups OGS6, EG13, WG9 at 2.6–2.5 Ma ago (Dominguez-Rodrigo et al., 2005), but yet concern a very small portion of the bone involved in stone tool making. The criteria that are most commonly used, whether alone or combined, are mainly based on: specimens uncovered at these localities. There is however no doubt that the earliest stone tools were prominently, if not productivity or intensity of core reduction (Delagnes and Roche, 2005), control of flake detachment (Semaw, 2000), grip and exclusively, cutting implements used for butchery. gesture control (Delagnes and Roche, 2005), anticipation of needs via raw material or tool transport (Potts, 1991), adaptability to flaking accidents (Hovers, 2009). The available data are heterogeneous and only few case studies provide a set of relevant Do the earliest lithic assemblages differ from the classical Oldowan ones? In a way, it is clear that a continuity exists, based information regarding these criteria that can be directly compared. on the persistence, in the post–2 Ma Oldowan assemblages, of a simple flake technology which is also often described as a least-effort technology (Isaac et al., 1997). This technology has in fact persisted over a much longer time period and it is The second reason which makes the interpretation of inter-assemblage variations quite tricky to assess in terms of elaboration also present during the Acheulean and in many more recent assemblages up to the Holocene. In these contexts, simple flake is that the observable variations do not fit with a linear process of changes. For example, grip and gesture control, productivity, technologies correspond to expedient tool productions that complement more elaborated systems of production, either by control of flake detachment look more advanced at Lokalalei 2c (Delagnes and Roche, 2005; Roche et al., 1999), and likely shaping or flaking. The main specificity of the earliest stone tool industries in comparison with younger industrial complexes, at Gona (Stout et al., 2010), than in the much younger Oldowan assemblages at Olduvai Bed I (de la Torre and Mora, 2005). including the post–2 Ma Oldowan, is that the unique target of the tool-makers was to produce flakes from a simple core However, variations between pene-contemporaneous sites may also exist according to the same criteria. Within the same site reduction technology. complex and in a similar ecological context, marked variations in knapping control have been evidenced between Lokalalei 1 and the slightly younger Lokalalei 2c site (Delagnes and Roche, 2005; Roche, 2000), that likely reflect distinct technical Conversely, the post–2 Ma Oldowan assemblages appear to be more diversified, with the development of the first shaped and cognitive capacities. Similar variations are observable between Lokalalei 2c and the Omo-Shungura archaeological series implements on pebbles, e.g. choppers and proto-bifaces, the presence of pounding implements, e.g. spheroids and anvils, (Chavaillon, 1976; de la Torre, 2004; Delagnes et al., 2011; Merrick and Merrick, 1976), but in this case they rather relate, at that are particularly abundant in the Olduvai Beds I and II assemblages (Leakey, 1971; Mora and de la Torre, 2005), together least in part, to dissimilar environmental constraints. In the Omo-Shungura Formation, raw materials were indeed scarce and with more frequent retouched tools on flakes. The first appearance of flaked bone tools and bone hammers, documented exclusively composed of small river pebbles, while a wide range of high quality materials were available to the tool makers in at Olduvai in several assemblages (Backwell and d’Errico, 2004), also coincides with this time range. These innovations likely the surroundings of the Lokalalei sites (Harmand, 2009). Raw material constraints, in terms of availability, morphology and responded to the emergence of new technological needs after 2 Ma ago. It makes no doubt that stone tool categories as petrography, thus appear as a major factor of inter-assemblage variability prior to 2 Ma ago. distinct as simple flakes, heavy duty tools on pebbles and pounding implements had dissimilar functional properties, although no much data related to tool function are yet available for the post–2 Ma Oldowan assemblages. These categories likely Whatever their elaboration, all the earliest stone tool assemblages evidence technical skills that are well beyond the basic fulfilled distinct tasks, with a plausible diversity of worked materials and motions related to each category (Keeley and Toth, understanding of stone conchoidal fracture mechanisms. It implies that they do not reflect an initial stage of tool-making 1981; Mora and de la Torre, 2005). This functional diversification after 2 Ma ago reflects an accretion process, as it consists apprenticeship. An earlier stage certainly occurred, which still has to be identified (Panger et al., 2002). If the emergence in the addition of new technological patterns to pre-existing ones. of stone tool making corresponds to an abrupt event, as proposed by some (Rogers and Semaw, 2009), then the temporal resolution of the available geo-chronological data would drastically limit our chances to clearly identify it. On the other hand, Shifts in raw material procurement equally occurred between the earliest assemblages and the post–2 Ma Oldowan series, if we consider that the invention of tool-making rather fits with a long process of emergence, it is very likely that the low as pointed by Goldman-Neuman and Hovers (2012). In the earliest assemblages, the raw materials that were used for degree of technological elaboration of the first artefacts and/or the low-density of the lithic clusters would result in a weak knapping correspond exclusively to locally available materials. However, a selective procurement among the local resources archaeological visibility. Whatever the alternative, the recovery of the first stone tools assemblages remains one the most was performed by the earliest tool makers, as early as 2.6–2.5 Ma ago at Gona (Stout et al., 2005), and around 2.3 Ma ago at exciting challenges in prehistory. It makes no doubt that the East African Rift System forms potentially the best context in the Lokalalei (Delagnes and Roche, 2005; Harmand, 2009), Hadar A.L. 666 (Goldman-Neuman and Hovers, 2012; Harmand, 2009; world for taking up this challenge. Stout et al., 2005) and at the Omo-Shungura sites (Delagnes et al., 2011). The selectivity focused on specific petrographic

104 105 5 Eastern Africa Eastern Africa 5

…to site authentication The combination of these basic sedimentological, geo-chronological and archaeological criteria has recently been used in the Omo-Shungura Formation in order to test the reliability of several archaeological sites (Delagnes et al., 2011). These The authentication of the earliest prehistoric record cannot rest exclusively on broken stones, although we have seen that a set sites, recovered and excavated by Chavaillon’s team in the late 1960s and early 1970s (Chavaillon, 1970, 1975, 1976), were of reliable technological markers exists for identifying hominin-made artefacts. Site authentication is also given by the context. supposedly older (2.4 to 2.32 Ma ago: Member E) than the undebatable archaeological occurrences recorded in Member Only strong contextual evidence can transform a simple find into a meaningful scientific record. The contextual data related to F (2.32 to 2.23 Ma ago) by Chavaillon and Merrick (Chavaillon, 1976; Merrick et al., 1973; Merrick and Merrick, 1976). the earliest prehistoric record from East Africa vary significantly from one site complex to another. The scientific and heritage Furthermore, their anthropogenic origin has recently been questioned (de la Torre, 2004). The site of Omo 71 had an historical management of the earliest prehistoric sites has to consider this variability in order to: 1. take into consideration only the sites value because it was the first archaeological site recovered by Chavaillon in the Lower Omo Valley in 1969, which significantly that correspond with reliable archaeological and geo-chronological contexts; 2. adapt the scientific and heritage strategies to pushed back the age of the earliest stone tool production documented at that period, some hundred thousand years prior to the specificities of each context. Discriminating the reliable archaeological occurrences from the unreliable ones is not always the Olduvai and Koobi Fora prehistoric record. The stratigraphic position of the site, in member E, is firmly established thanks an easy task. A valid diagnostic is necessarily a multi-criteria diagnostic that considers the three basic elements formed by the to the presence of two major tuffs (E and F) directly below and above the site. But the sedimentary context: a high-energy sedimentary context, the chronostratigraphic data and the archaeological remains. flow deposit rich in large mammal bone fragments and river pebbles, is not a favorable one. Archaeologically, the absence of in situ material, the small number of the lithics, composed mainly of abraded broken pebbles, and the absence of flakes with With regard to the sedimentary context, the earliest archaeological sites from East Africa are found in lake margin, alluvial the exception of a small flake which resembles the typical Holocene flakes from the overlying Kibbish Formation, confirm, floodplain and river bank deposits. They are either in primary geological position, which does not mean that they are in as stated by de la Torre (2004), the unreliability of this site which has to be eliminated from the Omo archaeological record. primary spatial position, or in secondary geological position in paleochannels. In this latter case, the archaeological remains have been displaced over a distance that depends on the energy of the water flow. As I previously mentioned, East Africa has The site of Omo 84 displays very distinct features. Its sedimentary context appears very favorable for site preservation, as it been a pioneer land for taphonomic studies aiming at assessing the site formation processes, according to water action in consists of a silty deposit totally devoid of gravels and pebbles, and typical of a floodplain environment. The archaeological particular (Petraglia and Potts, 1994; Schick, 1986, 1997). High-energy flow deposits form unfavorable sedimentary contexts setting consists in a circumscribed and quite dense accumulation of artefacts which have been found in situ. The assemblage characterized by significant modifications of the archaeological material, e.g. artefact edge damage and abrasion, stone includes a significant proportion of intentionally knapped flakes and its petrographic composition, clearly distinct from that of natural breakage, artefact size-sorting and eventually admixture of distinct assemblages. The primary and low-energy flow the local pebble sources, is indicative of a selective raw material procurement focused on quartz. All these features point to an deposits provide the best sedimentary conditions for site preservation. In either case, there is no chance that the sites have kept anthropic assemblage preserved in an archaeological site which has likely not been drastically disturbed by post-depositional perfectly intact, considering the time span elapsed from their formation and the pedogenetic processes, e.g. argiliturbation, processes. Nevertheless, the complexity of the stratigraphy around the site, with multiple faults crosscutting (Chavaillon and bioturbation, that have inevitably affected the sediments. With this in mind, the questions to address in priority are: how and Boisaubert, 1977; Howell et al., 1987), makes impossible a reliable chrono-stratigraphic positioning of this site. Omo 84 forms to which extent has the site been modified? And which behavioral patterns are still discernible? thus an undated archaeological locality, with a low scientific and heritage value.

The chronostratigraphic data accumulated since the years1960s in the East African volcanic basins form a unique Plio- This site reevaluation in the Omo-Shungura Formation has been combined since 2008 with extensive surveys performed in the Pleistocene record for studying the evolution of faunas, hominins and their material cultures in relation with the physical geological members (B to E) that range below Member F, where most archaeological sites are concentrated (Delagnes et al., environments. This high-resolution chronology results from the datation of the volcanic ashes that are interstratified within 2011). Following the same strict sedimentological, geo-chronological and archaeological criteria, these investigations result the sediments, by means of K-Ar and Ar-Ar radiometric methods, complemented by indirect methods of age determination, in a total absence of sites in Members B to E, which have however yielded abundant fauna and hominin fossils. It implies in particular tephrochronology and magnetostratigraphy. The ages thus apply to time-stratigraphic markers and do not directly either that the invention of stone tool-making has been locally abrupt (circa 2.3 Ma ago) and asynchronous with regard to date the archaeological occurrences. In the best contexts, the sites are bracketed between two dated tephra layers, which the earliest known lithic assemblages, or that it results from the arrival of new hominin groups who introduced this invention places them within a limited time window. Such situation is found for instance in the Omo-Shungura Formation, where in the region. The example of the Omo-Shungura Formation illustrates the far-reaching implications of an accurate and multi- most archaeological localities have been recovered in Member F, with an underlying tuff (F) dated to 2.32 Ma ago and an criteria site diagnostic. overlying tuff (G3) dated to 2.19 Ma ago (McDougall and Brown, 2008). In other contexts, either an underlying or an overlying chrono-stratigraphic maker is missing and the age determination is given by a terminus ante-quem or post-quem eventually complemented by age estimations, based for instance on sedimentation rate estimations (Brown and Gathogo, 2002; Tiercelin et al., 2010). Another important issue regarding tephra datations relates to the origin of the ashes. Solid geological studies Site categorization must accompany the datation process in order to avoid to dating reworked, i.e. secondary deposited, material that is liable to be significantly older than the age of its deposit. Accurate stratigraphic correlations are also required to position the The site complexes reported to the Earliest Stone Age record from East Africa include a number of archaeological localities archaeological occurrences in relation to the dated deposits, in contexts where tectonics has continuously been active for which have yielded hominin-made artefacts associated with large mammal bone fragments. They are most often preserved millions of years, transforming drastically the initial geomorphological features. within a single archaeological horizon. They vary significantly in terms of spatial configuration or preservation and artefact/bone density, ranging from high density accumulations concentrated in small circumscribed areas to isolated scattered pieces. The The reliability of the archaeological material makes usually no doubt for the experts when dealing with intentional hominin- question most often arises as to whether bones and lithics are functionally linked or secondarily mixed (Dominguez-Rodrigo, made artefacts on homogeneous sedimentary rocks that break following conchoidal fractures. The diagnostic may be more 2009), insofar as the sites correspond to open-air settlements in environments that were rich in biotic resources and that tricky for non-homogeneous or very coarse rocks and minerals that break either randomly, following internal fracture planes, attracted hominins as well as a variety of small and large mammals. In these contexts, site recovery depends on several natural or in the form of faceted fractures, as observed for some quartz. Other difficulties occur when the lithic samples are small processes, mainly tectonics and erosion. While tectonics has enabled entire blocks of sediment to get unearthed and accessible and lack the most diagnostic technological products, such as cores and flakes with several previous negatives of removals. as a result of block uplifts and overturnings, erosion continuously brings out archaeological remains from the natural slopes or Angular fragments in particular are very frequent in the earliest assemblages and deserve a cautious interpretation, as they sections thus created. As a consequence, what is visible to the archaeologists when surveying is a small eroded portion of sites may be the result of natural processes, such as trampling or cracking due to the compaction of the sediment (Hovers, which are either still buried to a large extent within the sediments or largely, even sometimes completely, eroded (Figure 2). 2003). As a consequence, assemblages which would be exclusively composed of angular fragments cannot be considered as The only way to test these two alternatives is to carry out test excavations that may lead to extensive excavations in the best relevant hominin-made assemblages. The pounding and percussion implements also form ambiguous categories that may cases. Site preservation and integrity cannot be assessed without excavating, at least partially, the sites, and this evaluation is be confused with non-human primate anvils and percussors or even with naturally battered pieces (Mora and de la Torre, essential for defining their scientific potential and heritage relevance. 2005; Willoughby, 1987). A way to cope with this kind of problem is to compare the archaeological material with natural lithic material recovered in the same geological formations, in terms of morphology and petrographic composition (de la Torre The most classic and easily identifiable archaeological sites are formed by dense accumulations of remains in well-dated and Mora, 2005). Experimental tool sets made on similar source materials also provide solid comparative data for assessing and in situ geological deposits. Most part of past and current investigations focus on these sites which are the remnants the anthrogenic nature of the lithics as well as the technical skills of the early tool makers. Such perspectives have motivated of indubitable anthropic settlements. This category of site is present in the archaeological record from the earliest stages of extensive experimental programs since the early 1980s, in particular at Olduvai (Jones, 1981, 1994) and Koobi Fora (Toth, stone tool production, in particular at Gona EG10 and EG12 (Semaw, 2000; Semaw et al., 1997), at Lokalalei 1 and Lokalalei 1982, 1997). Other actualistic referential datasets are provided in some instances by recent (Holocene) or even modern stone 2c (Kibunjia et al., 1992; Roche et al., 1999), and Hadar A.L. 894 (Goldman-Neuman and Hovers, 2009; Hovers, 2003), as tool productions issued from the same contexts. well as in a number of post–2 Ma localities, e.g. Olduvai FLK Zinj (Leakey, 1971), Koobi Fora FxJj 50 (Bunn et al., 1980), Fejej 106 107 5 Eastern Africa Eastern Africa 5

FJ–1 (Lumley de and Beyene, 2004), and Kanjera Excavations 1 and 2 (Plummer et al., 1999). Some of these sites could result yet recorded in an area of circa 4 km² situated in the middle part of the Shungura formation. Isolated non in-situ pieces as from several successive hominin short-term settlements mixed together within a palimpsest, with the pending question of well as groups of artefacts scattered on modern erosive floors, e.g. gully beds, cannot be considered as relevant site indicators the relationship between the artefacts and the faunal remains in most occurrences. Several sites seem to result from a single and are not considered in this record. The archaeological sites are plotted via a GIS inventory together with the paleontological occupational phase, as suggested by their spatial patterning (e.g. Lokalalei 2c, FxJi50, Fejej FJ–1: op. cit.). They constitute the localities and raw material sources in order to assess hominin settlement patterns with regard to the biotic and mineralogical most relevant contexts for accurate restitutions of hominin activities at the site scale. resource distribution. Our current working hypothesis is that the fluviatile system, either braided or meandering, in which the Omo tool-makers settled, has involved a patchy distribution of resources that might have favored short-time settlements by The potential of these high density sites is also due to the abundance of the lithics, which include the products and by-products small and highly mobile groups of hominins, resulting in a great number of small archaeological sites (Delagnes et al., 2011). of a significant number of knapped blocks or pebbles, allowing in-depth analyses of core reduction strategies and hominin Whatever the final interpretation, no doubt that this patchy distribution responds to distinct hominin land-use patterns than technical skills. Refits that conjoin cores and flakes have been performed in most assemblages, following the pioneer refitting what prevails in sites complexes characterized by a small number of high-density occurrences. Low-density sites are highly work performed at Koobi Fora since the early 1980s (Kroll, 1981; Kroll and Isaac, 1984). The refits have been initially used to meaningful for assessing some aspects of early hominin behaviors that are still poorly documented, regarding site function, assess what stages of have been performed in the sites. It has been convincingly shown that some high density hominin settlement dynamics and resource management at micro-regional scales. They form a discrete and thus particularly sites correspond to places where hominins passed in and out, transporting flakes and cores at different stages of reduction from fragile record that deserves as much attention as high-density sites. one place to another, which implies complex organizational strategies (Delagnes and Roche, 2005; Toth, 1987). More recently, the significant refits achieved for the Lokalalei 2c assemblage have led to a blow-by-blow reconstruction of core reduction sequences, giving new insights on the advanced technological behaviors of some of the earliest tool-makers (Delagnes and Roche, 2005). The earliest archaeological sites from East Africa form high-resolution contexts which can thus compare with Conclusion many younger prehistoric sites in terms of preservation and scientific potential. The Earliest Stone Age record from Ethiopia, and from East-Africa as a whole, suffers from intense erosion processes due to A part of the archaeological record consists in lower density sites, also mentioned as ‘off-site‘ scatters or mini-sites (Isaac et al., precipitations of high-intensity and short duration which are characteristic of the arid tropical regions. But In reality, people 1981). They yield several tens to few hundreds of artefacts, in connection or not with faunal remains. Their relevance depends are today a far greater menace to this vulnerable heritage. The rapid agricultural and demographic development of some largely on their preservation and it is important to distinguish the low-density sites that proceed from discrete occupations from remote areas from East Africa is most often performed without prior coordination and conciliation between the relevant the ones that correspond more likely to the margins of high-density sites that have been largely eroded (Figure 2). The latter stakeholders. The local heritage authorities have little influence when faced with the powerful political and economical lobbies have a limited archaeological potential while the former are true archaeological sites. They may also likely be the remnant of that promote far-reaching development strategies based on the sale of large areas for agricultural purpose, without concern a single occupational event by contrast with high-density sites formed by successive overlapped occupation episodes mixed for their heritage content. A genuine threat weighs in particular on the cultural and natural heritage of the Lower Omo Valley within palimpsests. The relevance of such low-density occurrences for accurately defining hominin activities at the site scale in southern Ethiopia. Conciliations that aim to balance the cultural and economical interests are in progress with the support is optimal. Their scientific relevance has long been recognized, in particular by Isaac who has stressed their potential for inter- of UNESCO. One important challenge that the heritage authorities will have to face in the coming years rests on their ability site analyses, due to their functional to promote alternative development strategies that preserve the unique cultural and ecological heritage formed by the East complementary with regard to the African rift basins, in agreement with the interests and the development of the local communities. high-density occurrences (Isaac TUFF et al., 1981). This approach was These issues transcend the actual political borders and concern all the African countries that form the native land of humankind. particularly well adapted to Koobi Furthermore, the heritage value of the East African fossil bearing formations is not restricted to the documentation already Fora were both types of sites coexist. acquired. It also reposes on an outstanding potential which still has to tell us a lot regarding our origins, as suggested by the multiplicity of major paleoanthropological and archaeological discoveries that have been done in these contexts during In other contexts, the low- the last two decades. These discoveries have considerably refined our understanding of early hominin biological diversity, density sites constitute the unique behavioral complexity and biogeographic adaptability. Interdisciplinarity is the essential prerequisite to all theses discoveries category of archaeological site and the central pivot of all related studies. Since the beginning of field investigations in the early 1930s, it has played a major that is documented. Such is the role in the conduct of research. More collaborative endeavors between the specialists could still be performed and no doubt TUFF A case in particular in the Omo that paleontologists and geologists would gain much by developing finer-grained field methods in some contexts, while Shungura Formation where all the archaeologists would also benefit a lot from the development of broader-scale field approaches. A more systematic use of sites correspond to circumscribed methodological tools such as satellite imagery and geographic information systems could also greatly enhance the interactions concentrations of small series of between the disciplines. The development of geographically-referenced database would help for compiling multidisciplinary TUFF artefacts, rarely associated with data in common interactive research tools, for integrating a wider array of occurrences in the archaeological record, including faunal remains. The excavations the low-density sites that are very rarely excavated and most often neglected, and for providing site inventories and large- carried out by Chavaillon and Merrick scale mappings. Such mappings are part of a feedback process that researchers should more systemically prioritize in order in the 1970s focused on a small to better assist the relevant authorities in their decision-making capacity with regard to the protection and valorization of the number of sites that correspond to Earliest Stone Age heritage. the richest localities (e.g. Omo 123, Omo 57, FtJi1, FtJi2: (Chavaillon, 1976; Merrick et al., 1973), whose collections nevertheless do not Acknowledgements exceed 400–500 artefacts. The surveys conducted since 2008 in I am greatly grateful to Nuria Sanz for her invitation to the UNESCO meeting held in Addis Ababa in February 2011, and to TUFF Member F (Boisserie et al., 2010; Penelope Keenan for her constant help and editing assistance. My researches in Ethiopia are indebted to Yonas Beyene, Jean- B Boisserie et al., 2008; Delagnes et Renaud Boisserie and the whole ARCCH team that I warmly thank. al., 2011) have brought to light an

2. Schematic alternative reconstitutions of site preservation (based on the unexpected large number of low- configuration of the Omo-Shungura deposits); A: artefacts scattered on the eroded density occurrences. More than 100 slopes of the deposits indicate the presence of an archaeological occurrence in situ within the sediment; B: artefacts scattered on the eroded slopes of the deposits are the localities, comprising from less than remnant of an archaeological site that has disappeared. © Anne Delagnes/CNRS–OGRE ten to several tens of artefacts, are 108 109 5 Eastern Africa Eastern Africa 5

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Willoughby, P.R. 1987. Spheroids ans Battered Stones in the African Early Stone Age. BAR International Series, Oxford. Introduction

Woldegabriel, G., Heiken, G., White, T.D., Asfaw, B., Hart, W.K. and Renne, P.R. 2000. Volcanism, tectonism, sedimentation, The first trail of the Laetoli hominin footprints consisting of four prints were initially discovered in 1976 by Mary Leakey and the paleoanthrological record in the Ethiopian Rift System. In: F.W. McCoy and G. Heiken (eds.) Volcanic Hazards and and her co-workers, followed by a full excavation in 1977 that revealed a sequence of well-preserved footprints in Disasters in Human Antiquity. Geological Society of America, Boulder, Colorado, pp. 83–99. volcanic ash dated to 3.66 Ma (Leakey and Hay, 1979; Leakey, 1981). The prints were preserved in volcanic ash (tuffaceous tuff that was numbered as Tuff 7) that hardened into a soft stone. The prints were molded and extensively studied by Robinson (1987), White and Suwa (1987), before they were reburied to preserve them until a better solution could be found. Tuttle (1987; 1990; 1992) produced perhaps the most systematic and thorough study of positional behaviors of the Laetoli printmakers based on the first generation of the hominin footprints trail cast. The interpretation of the Laetoli printmakers continues to generate heated debates in the scientific corridors, where interpretations range from an Australopithecus afarensis-like printmakers to a much more human-like australopithecine (Meldrum et al., 2011; Reicheln et al., 2010, 2008; Tuttle, 2008; Berge et al., 2006; Harcourt-Smith 2005; Deloison, 1991; Day and Wickens, 1980; and White, 1980).

Conservation efforts of the footprints trackway

In 1996 the prints were re-excavated and re-studied under the supervision of the conservation expertise of the Getty Conservation Institute and the Department of Antiquities in Tanzania. The prints were carefully treated and reburied again with several layers of herbicide-treated industrial construction fabrics and various types of sediments as a permanent solution for conservation and preservation in what was considered to be an appropriate and a pristine method (Figure 1). In their brief

1a and b. The covered footprint trail (left) and the 4 m² partial re-opened area (right) for re-evaluation of the footprints. © Charles M. Musiba 114 115 5 Eastern Africa Eastern Africa 5

field reports, Agnew and Demas (1998), Demas et al. (1996), and Feibel et al. (1995, 2005) argued that the burial of the prints The present re-excavation of a limited section of the southern end of the footprints trail at Laetoli provided us with an seemed not only a better conservation solution, but an action that Tanzania could afford given the fact that Laetoli was then opportunity to re-evaluate the methodology of the Antiquities-Getty Conservation Institute (GCI) project (which was purely so remote and the country could not afford to either transport the prints to a proper museum or erect an in-situ structure a P2 strategy) after 15 years. Based on the archaeological and geological evaluation of a 4 m² area we re-excavated at the on the site. Perhaps 10, 15 or 30 years ago that would have been the case, but now there is a need for a reconsideration of southern end of the trackways, the P2 conservation strategy at Laetoli seems to have not entirely served its intended purpose, an alternative solution that is central to all stakeholders and focuses on a sustainable and better use of the Laetoli hominin which was to preserve the footprints from weathering, root penetration and chemical dissolution. Ironically the conservation footprint site for both the economic well-being of local communities in the Endulen/Laetoli area as well as for the promotion strategy that was used, based on carefully designed laboratory-controlled experiments, did not suffice in the Ngorongoro of science and education in Tanzania. ecosystem because the environment is so dynamic and randomly patterned that it defeated the whole conservation process. In this report we provide first hand archaeological and geological evaluation of the current conservation status of the Laetoli Since their discovery in 1976/77 by Mary Leakey and her co-workers, the 3.66 million-year-old Laetoli hominin footprints hominin footprints. have been a highly contested issue in that the burial of the footprints, which freezes them in time is based on traditional conservation strategies which may or may not necessarily be appropriate and continue to pose conservation and preservation challenges for Tanzania and the international community. The Laetoli hominin footprints, which are preserved in the footprint Tuff 7, are currently the oldest and the only documentation of human ancestral upright and bipedal gait. They provide the most Geological description of the Laetolil Beds important ichnofossil evidence today of our ancestor’s positional behaviors during the Pliocene. In the past 15 years the prints have been meticulously conserved in what may seem to have been an experimental and sound scientific process suitable for Laetolil sediments, which were deposited on top of the basement rock of basalt origin, also provide important information ichnofossil preservation (Figure 2). However, preservation of ichnofossil sites such as Laetoli, which can be accomplished by a relevant to the discussion of the preservation of the hominin footprints at Site G. The Upper and Lower Laetolil Beds were combination of ‘primary’ and ‘secondary’ strategies prove to be so complex and difficult to achieve. According to Lockley et entirely deposited on land, on the crest and flanks of a broadly uplifted dome overlying the bedrock in the Eyasi al. (2008), primary ichnofossil conservation strategies usually include: building of protective structures (P1); burial of footprints Plateau. The Laetolil Beds occur in a series of shallow outcrops with many discontinuous exposures spreading about 1,600 (P2) like what is currently applied at Laetoli; and repair of tracks or removal of original specimens to museums (P3 & P4). km2 to the south and west of Lemagruti, and to the northwest of Lakes Masek and Ndutu (Hay, 1987; Manega, 1993; Deino, 2011). The Laetolil Beds, especially the Upper Beds preserve a unique type of fossil record of hominin footprints and animal Furthermore, secondary strategies involve: replication of the prints in three dimensional (3D) physical molding (S1); imaging in trackways that have been dated to 3.5 Ma and they also provide a snapshot of past environments at Laetoli. A generalized 3D including photogrammetric and digital scanning (S2) or 2-dimension photography; tracing and mapping (S3); or written description of the columnar section of Plio-Pleistocene Laetoli sediments by Hay (1987) indicates that, lithologically, the Laetolil documentation (S4). All these strategies are equally important conservation measures, however, they usually depend on the Beds consist of deposits characterized by lava flow, tuffs and clay stone. The deposits are mainly of nepheline-phonolite, nature of the site, location and its importance to the region or nation where one or a combination of strategies can be utilized. melilitite-carbonatite composition and/or aeolian tuff origin. In general, reburial or P2 strategy provides a somewhat ‘pseudo proven preservation methodology’ especially when dealing with easily monitored and/or in controlled environmental situations such as frescos and/or rock shelters. Though, The lower unit of the Laetolil Beds consists of graded water-worked tuffs, lapilli tuffs and conglomerates (in the upper 30 m) some conservationists (Agnew, 2011 pers. Communication) argue that burying the prints is the only best way to conserve the that are chemically easily identifiable. The unit consists of mudflow deposits, aeolian and water-worked tuffs with channel prints at Laetoli. The approach does not provide a controlled and well monitored system. Even though the process may help fillings from the eroded Ogol Lavas and few layers of conglomerates and breccia (Hay, 1987; Manega, 1993). The topmost to stabilize the environment of the object, the disadvantages are several fold, particularly as the object cannot be seen and part of this unit, however, is about 75% reworked tuff of aeolian origin with numerous thin water-worked tuff layers that are cannot be monitored without re-excavation (which adds another risk of possible physical damage during the whole process 45–60 m thick, indicating the existence of a substantial amount of water in the area during and after their deposition. The and re-excavation is very expensive). remainder of the Upper Laetolil Beds is composed of approximately 20% air-fall volcanic ash. One to two percent of the upper unit consists of easily distinguishable stream-reworked tuffs (Hay, 1987). The water-worked tuffs within the unit are generally Additionally, P2 strategy does composed of fine to coarse-grained, moderate to well-rounded and highly-indurated tuffs. They are well sorted with thin not provide access to the original laminae that vary in thickness. The water-worked tuffs are also dominated by clay-like deposits, which comprise about 90% ichnofossil record (footprints). or less of the entire unit. This sedimentary evidence points toward a set of complex depositional environments. Although the original reburial by Mary Leakey ensured a short-term At Locality 8, which includes Site G for example, the exposed Upper Laetolil Unit exhibits a 120°SW – 210°SW strike and a 5° preservation of the tracks it could to 10°SW dip with a two-joint system (vertically and horizontally) filled with calcite material of varying size and width ranging not protect the prints from the from 1–60 cm in thickness. The calcite-filled joints can easily be distinguished within the exposed Upper Laetolil Beds below unexpected threat of root growth the footprint tuffs. The thickness of the two joints at Locality 8 tends to increase as one moves northward towards and beyond from on the trackways, the footprint site G. An open joint of about 40 cm thick characterized by a 210° SW and 195° SW striking system occurs, and which continues to be a serious most sediments at Locality 8 are dominated by air- and water-fall tuffs that are distinctively laminated. The laminae are closely A threat as was observed by our interbedded and vary in thickness (12 – 15 cm) thus indicating the possible existence of a substantial amount of water that B team in February 2011. The P2 may well have supported a variety of flora and fauna. C strategy, however, provides minimal E protection in that it does not allow Exposures of about 3 m thick located northeast of the footprint site G are composed of sediments that reveal evidence of A D E F for systematic real-time monitoring, intensive bioturbation. The sediments in this area consist of deposits that are downgraded, heavily worn, reworked and loosely A and does not necessarily imitate the packed. These deposits consist of laminated layers with medium to fine grain sands. About 150 m southeast of site G, the A E original burial conditions of the prints Upper Laetolil exposures bear a 300°SW strike with a 6°SW magnitude dip. The exposures here consist of a sorted fine to A G as in the case of Laetoli hominin medium topmost layer about 60 cm thick, subdivided into sub-layers of 15 to 45 cm-thick loosely packed tuffs. F footprint trackways.  E  2. Cross-section of the partial re-excavated hominin footprints showing various layers used to protect the prints. The topmost layer (A) is a volcanicA (lava) boulders layer, layer Figure 2. (B) is a cotton soil layer on top of an Enkamat layer (10 mm thick covered by a plastic tarp in this image). The yellow line indicates a bio barrier 1 layer impregnated with herbicide on top of sandy layer (C) overlying another dark sandy layer (D) and (E) Cross-section of the partial re-excavated hominin footprints showing various layers used to protect the prints. The topmost layer (A) which are separated by another bio barrier. Layer (F) consists of sand placed in a north- is a volcanic (lava) boulderssouth layer, layerbump (B fashion) is a black tapering cotton soiloff layerto the on east top ofand an westEnkamat sides layer (it (is10 25cm mm thick to 35cm covered deep by ata plastic tarp in this image). Thethe yellow center line of indicatesthe mound) a bio placedbarrier 1directly layer impregnated over the geotextile with herbicide layer on (redtop of line) sandy separating layer (C) the fine sand layer (G) on top of the footprint Tuff. © Charles Musiba

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The re-excavation of the prints in 2011 h. Geotextile: A layer of geotextile is placed over Layer 1. It is placed over the region of excavated tuff and covers a small, unexcavated surface just southwest of the tuff. The geotextile is a horizontal separator and a small defense As directed by the Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism (Division of Antiquities), the partial re-excavation of the Laetoli against plant growth. hominin trackway took place from 8 to 16 February 2011 with the stated objective of re-evaluating the current conditions of the footprint trackway1. Ideally, to obtain a maximum evaluation and a better picture of the trackway condition, a complete i. Biobarrier 1: 1.45 m-wide strips are laid directly over Layer 2 extending further to the east 1995 trench wall and and full-fledged excavation would have been proper, but the timing and the enormity of the project would have logistically to the west 1979 trench wall. Biobarrier strips cover the vertical walls of the entire 1979 trench walls, including been impossible in such a short time. Therefore, a 4 m² area was excavated at the southern end of the footprints trail (Figure the drainage trench. 1). Accordingly, the southern end of the footprints trail happens to be the area that contains the better preserved hominid footprints, therefore it was the best place to perform the re-evaluation. We can also say that it was scientifically the most j. Layer 1: This layer is characterized by 5 cm thick of fine (0.9mm) sieved sand placed directly on the footprints. It appropriate area to re-excavate and use the obtained qualitative and quantitative data as a baseline to draw scientifically covers only the excavated section of the tuff and acts as a direct protective layer to the footprint tuff. informed conclusions about the current status of the trackway. Our observations and conclusions were based on what was observed in the field and supported by quantitative data from the photogrammetry work conducted by Neffra Matthews and The excavation work started after the systematic photographing of the entire site G was done, where a 4m² grid system was her co-workers from the U.S. Bureau of Land Management (BLM) during the excavation process. We would have liked to mapped out. Once the grid was established the excavation proceeded with the removal of the volcanic boulders that make include quantitative data from Heinz Rüther and Julian Smit’s work (1996) from the University of Witts, South Africa, who so up the topmost layer on the footprint burial site. The removal of the top layer was done in one day where large and small far have the best data from the original conservation project, but due to the fact that the two arrived late to the field (due to boulders were placed in separate piles. Then photogrammetry data was taken immediately after the boulders were removed. travel logistics and fieldwork timing issues) and the fact that their data could not be available until later this year, we decided All plants growing on top of the layer were also cleared out as well (Figure 3a); some of the plants were taken to the NCA to go ahead and provide what we believe to be a sound preliminary report that is purely rooted in scientific observations. headquarters for species identification. The plants were identified as Gynura pseudochina, Senecis schure, Berlcheya spekeana, Hibiscus apolinercus, and asparagus africanus.

The team continued with a meticulous work of removing Layer 5, which consists of black cotton soil. Some plant roots were Methods encountered in this layer (Figure 1) and samples were taken for identification. Stephan Simon from ICCROM took some samples for geochemical analysis from the black cotton layer as well. The layer provides protection to the other underlying layers (4 and The re-excavation efforts from 8 to 16 February 2011 included a site documentation that was carried out by the BLM 3) that are separated by an Enkamat and biobarrier 2 layers (Figure 2). When the black cotton soil was removed, the Enkamat photogrammetry team before the excavation started. To better understand the partial re-excavation of the Laetoli footprints and biobarrier 2 were carefully placed in a pile and covered with a plastic sheet to protect them from rain and direct sun. at the southern end of Site G, the following schema modified from the GCI-Antiquities 1995 conservation work (Figure 2) was adopted and written to describe the layers and the order in which they were removed to expose the footprint tuff: Lessons learned a. Volcanic (Lava) Boulders: This is a layer that consists of large, medium and small lava boulders. The volcanic rocks and cotton soil creates the topmost protective burial layer at site G. The layer was created to protect the prints from Perhaps one of the biggest surprises during the re-excavation occurred when Layer 4 and the subsequent Layers 3, 2, and 1 animal trampling and gully erosional process, which occurs during the rainy season. were exposed. Although all these layers were protected and treated with herbicide and insecticides, they all revealed some intensive bioturbation and root growth from various plant species native to the Laetoli area (Figure 3a). The excavation of Layer b. Layer 5: This layer consists of black cotton soils that can be seen everywhere in the Laetoli area. The layer is 4, which is 20 cm thick and characterized by a gravel/sand mixture (pale in color and well sorted) has an undulated surface characterized by heavy volcanoclastic matrix of clayey- soil that is expansive when wet and will contract when it is layer, which reflected the uneven distributed weight of its overlaying layer of volcanic boulders and the black cotton soil. dry. It was laid down to protect Layer 4 from erosion, reduce water infiltration into the lower levels when the wet Roots, compaction, and insect tunneling were observed on this layer. The photogrammetry team took some photos before clay expands. The layer is also high in carbonate content and provides a chemical buffer against calcite dissolution the layer was removed. The gravel/sand mix from Layer 4 was carefully placed on a tarp and covered to be used later during by infiltrating rainwater. the reburial process. Furthermore, the excavation work continued with careful removal of Layer 3, a sand layer that varies in thickness from 25 – 35 cm thick. During the removal of this layer, we noticed that the edges were damp whereas the middle c. Layer 4: This is a sand layer consisting of Garusi sand, which was uniformly placed (about 20 cm thick). A small part part of the excavated area was very dry, particularly the western part. Two herbicide-treated plant stumps were removed from of Layer 4 is the remainder of the 1979 Leakey’s fill, which had been sieved to obtain the fine sand used in Layers this layer; they were identified by Martha Demas from the Getty Conservation Institute (GCI) as S3 and S4 plant remains from 2 and 3. The rest of Layer 4 is newly quarried Garusi sand, which has a wider particle size distribution.

d. Enkamat: This is a 10 mm-thick and 1 m wide geoindustrial piece that was used to reduce the slippage of Layer 4 from the underlying surface of the biobarrier and to reduce soil erosion. The strips was tied together with plastic ties and pinned to the biobarrier with wire to prevent it from shifting during the work.

e. Biobarrier 2: This is a layer which has been impregnated with Roundup™ herbicide designed to inhibit vegetation growth. The 1.45 m-wide strip is laid directly over Layer 3 (Figure 2).

f. Layer 3: This layer is identical in composition to Layer 2. It is mounded in the centre over the first layer of the biobarrier (elevated to a height of 25 to 35cm) in a north-south direction. With Layer 3 the centre of the mound shifts to the west, extending from the 1995 trench wall on the east to the 1995 wall on the west.

g. Layer 2: Is sand placed in a north-south mound tapering off to the east and west sides. It is 25cm to 35cm deep at the centre of the mound. It is placed directly over the geotextile layer.

3a and b. Insect tunneling and bioturbation (above) and root growth (below) on the fine sand layer covering the footprint tuff. © Charles M. Musiba 1 The intervention was undertaken as a national decision. Ed. 118 119 5 Eastern Africa Eastern Africa 5

the 1996 GCI-Antiquities conservation work. The exposed layer also revealed the drainage system that was put in place as day was also part of an outreach effort officially planned to enable the President and other Government dignitaries to visit to well as the sedimentary sections from Mary Leakey’s work in 1977. the site. The day started with a briefing by Donatius Kamamba, Director of Antiquities, on the details of the presidential visit to the site and what was expected to be presented to Jakaya Mrisho Kikwete, President of the United Republic of Tanzania, by the Another set of photogrammetry data documentation of the Biobarrier 1 was conducted, and the material was then carefully various expert teams that participated in the re-excavation work. All teams (conservation, photogrammetry and documentation, removed. Removal of Layer 2 commenced after Layer 3 was completely removed. Layer 2 is composed of unevenly distributed geology and archaeology) produced a summary report that was discussed and merged into a single, concise document. sand in a north-south direction with an east-west tapering. The layer varies in thickness from 25–35 cm thick and was placed 1PG|QHWU%JCTNGU/WUKDCYCUVCUMGFVQRTQFWEGVJGFQEWOGPVYJKEJYCURTGUGPVGFVQ2TGUKFGPV-KMYGVGCPF'\GMKGN directly over the geotextile barrier that separates it from Layer 1 (the fine sand layer). The sand layer was carefully removed Maige, Minister of Natural Resources and Tourism. As the document was being prepared another photogrammetry and 3–D and placed on plastic sheets and covered to be used later during the reburial process. Despite the herbicide impregnated in scanning team lead by Heinz Rüther and Julian Smits scanned the entire site using their 3D laser scanner for documentation the Biobarrier 1, which was intended to protect the underlying layers, roots and traces of bioturbation have thrived on this purposes and they further undertook a photogrammetry documentation that was planned to be used in a qualitative and layer (Figure 3b). Some of the roots penetrated through the biobarrier separating Layer 2 and Layer 1. On the surface below quantitative comparative analysis of the GCI-Antiquities 1995 work and the 2011 work. As the two finished with their work, the biobarrier, a combination of clay-silicate termite tracks were also observed (samples were taken for chemical analysis at Martha Demas from the GCI and Jesuit Temba from the Antiquities Division continued with the fine cleaning of the footprints the Geology Department of the University of Dar es Salaam). After the roots were photographed, they were then measured tuff, which included removing some roots that had penetrated the tuffaceous layer (Figure 3d). and removed. Some root samples were taken for further identification in the botanical laboratory at the Ngorongoro Conservation Area Authority (NCAA). The roots were identified to be: Hypoestes triflora, Desmodium spp., Sporobolus By mid-morning various dignitaries arrived at the site and at noon the President Kikwete arrived at the site accompanied by ludwigii, Eriochloa sinensis and Setaria spp. The roots and tunneling tracks were measured, where the tunneling averaged Minister Ezekiel Maige, the Permanent Secretary of the Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism, Dr Ladislaus Komba, several between 5 – 10 mm deep. NCAA Board Members, the Chief Conservator of the NCAA and the British High Commissioner was also in attendance. Two of us (Audax Mabulla and Charles Musiba) respectively briefed the President at the newly-constructed Laetoli Visitors Centre Exposure of the footprints trackway was carried out by removing Layer 1, which is characterized by 10 cm-thick fine-grained and at the site as part of the official visit to the site. After the President and dignitaries left the site, the photogrammetry sand. Only three excavators could work in tandem at a time. This was perhaps one of the most difficult task that required team (BLM team) continued with the documentation, and covering the re-excavated area commenced. The reburial work proper care and attention. A cast was brought to the site to guide us with the removal of Layer 1. For this work only fine brush, was conducted under the supervision of Martha Demas and Jesuit Temba where Layer 1 was first sieved for plant seeds and soft wood spatula and wooden picks were used. The team noticed that as we got closer to the footprints tuff the fine sand other debris before it was finely distributed on the footprint tuff. Unfortunately by early afternoon it started to rain again and layer had crystalized (carbonate precipitates) and was adhering to the tuff making it difficult to remove it just by brushing it work has to be stopped. off. The volcanic tuff preserving the footprints was extremely moist, and the rim impression of two of the prints G2/3–28 had dissolved into a clay-like matrix, thus losing its original state (Figure 3d). The reburial work of the excavated area On the fifth day of work, it rained and the surface around the site was so wet that buckets of water had to be used to remove the standing water before we could remove the protective plastic tarps. Some water seeped through the tarp into the footprint On the eighth day of re-excavation, work started with sieving and drying sand from Layer 2 before it could be put back on tuff; paper towels were used to sponge out the water from the tuff. As the footprint tuff was exposed, a decision was made the exposed footprint area. All 2011 re-excavation participants helped with the reburial work. All layers were carefully and not to completely clean off the sand since that would have scoured the tuff surface thus obscuring the surface topography. meticulously laid back on the excavated area in a reverse sequence (starting with Layer 1 all the way through Layer 5, finishing G2/3–30 print had some mechanical damage, which resulted from sediment movement during the re-excavation (Figure 3d). with the volcanic (lava) boulder layer). Before Layer 4 and 5 could be laid down it started to rain again, so work was postponed Such damage has great implications in future monitoring plans, suggesting that every time the prints are re-excavated for until the next day. The excavation team and many other excavation participants finished the covering of the prints on the 9th monitoring purposes, chances for mechanical damages will also increase. Despite the adhering of sand to the footprint tuff, day of the field work. the team noticed that complete cleaning of the tuff surface could only achieved under a climate controlled structure in the future. Layer 1 was meticulously documented by the BLM photogrammetry team. Technical observations

Public outreach and presidential visit to the site Although the GCI-Antiquities conservation effort was well crafted and meticulously applied at Laetoli, some conservation conditions such as nature’s dynamics could and cannot necessarily be created in a controlled laboratory environment. As a For many years, it has been argued that people in developing countries have immediate priorities which do not include the result, the team was surprised to see how some flora and micro fauna managed to survive and thrive under the buried prints. appreciation and/or conservation of their cultural heritage. That notion continues to echo with many in the conservation and One could argue that observed results from the re-excavation yielded some lessons learned that will help with the future preservation field even today. However, those perceptions seem to be outdated in that there is no scientific basis or data to conservation efforts of the Laetoli hominin footprints. Below is a summary of technical observations that were individually support it. For example, grassroots conservation efforts such as the ‘hug the tree movement’ in India were very successful drawn up by the geology and archaeology team and jointly discussed and agreed upon. The two teams independently observed because local communities directly impacted by environmental issues took the initiative. The same can be said for the Laetoli that: footprints conservation efforts today. Having recognized the importance and voices of local people in the area, the Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism reserved the sixth day as a day where the general public could view the exposed footprints. This Geologically the overlaying of prints with fine sand created morphologic interactions (by obscuring micro-details of the footprint topography) and by bonding with the tuffs. The sand contains calcium carbonates which precipitates this process;

1. Taphonomically, the cleaning of the sand from the tuffs, the abrasive nature of the sand abrades the tuff surface (a process that cannot be observed with a naked ) at the microscopic level. This may have great implications in the interpretations of the footprints by modifying the topography;

2. Cleaning the tuff surface to remove the sand (even when it is not adhering to the tuffs) is also abrading the surface with the tools used in this process. Therefore, every time the footprints are re-opened for evaluation, the process will further degrade the surface topography;

3. Examination of the recently reopened trackways tuffs revealed some dampness in several places that geologically leads to sediment dissolution by alteration of tuff chemistry resulting in volcanoclastic matrix with crumbly clay- like properties. Furthermore, this process results in chemical alteration where a thin film of calcite compound was 3c and d. Root penetration through the footprint tuff (above), and the dissolution on print G2/3-28 and rim damaged print. © Charles M. Musiba observed. In the long term this could result in calcite build-up commonly observable in many Laetoli paleontological 120 121 5 Eastern Africa Eastern Africa 5

sites. Such a process can accelerate sediment (tuffs) cracking, flaking and embedding of the overlaying sand into 1. Construction of a climate-controlled museum seems to be the best solution contra to reburying the footprints the tuffaceous clay; because it guarantees a real-time monitoring of the site. It also opens the window to sustainable use of this site to improve the human living condition; 4. Bioturbation was observed to have penetrated the geotextile and the tuffaceous surface. It is caused by the spreading of roots coming from both sides of the protected site, and is one of the most conspicuous damages that 2. That, in order to do this, the exposure of the footprints can only be carried out after proper geological and escapes control by reburying; conservation studies are conducted. So far no detailed geological survey showing the geochemical and geomorphological properties of the sedimentary sequences documented at the site exists; 5. As a result of the above-mentioned bioturbation process, the second alteration type was detected in the form of insect tunneling, adding more impact to the potential integrity of the tuffaceous surface; 3. That climatic-controlled data has to be collected on the physical and chemical properties of the sediments;

6. All these unexpected modifications position doubts to the scientific basis of the control protocols that were 4. That all conservation measures successfully applied to other open footprints sites in other countries be taken into adopted in protecting the site, especially in light of taphonomic research, which clearly demonstrate the variability account to provide guidance for decision-making process; of conditions of similar lithological contexts when subjected to different chemical and physical processes irrespective of their spatial proximity; 5. That a proposed museum at Site G will be in harmony with the natural surroundings and the environments by offering a closed space where climatic and physical conditions can be monitored and modified as needed; 7. Sediment compaction, the impact of the weight added to the footprints bearing tuffs by the addition of multiple layers and boulders, is hard to evaluate. Nobody knows what effect that has on the tuffs. Furthermore, chemical 6. That available technologies (particularly infra-red geothermal sensors) used to monitor humidity and temperature conditions that are locally generated by creating artificial sedimentation are also more difficult to assess; using solar energy, in conjunction with well-trained museum personnel, will guarantee the proper monitoring of the footprints on a daily basis. This will leave faith out of the monitoring process, where sound data and appropriate 8. Thin fractures which were also observed in some parts of the exposed tuff do pose some serious questions on the observations will lead to best predictive models that will allow for re-evaluation of the process. integrity of weight bearing on – and overburdening – the footprints tuff. 7. For these reasons we urge for the formation of a panel of experts in collaboration with museum curators, technicians and other properly-trained personnel appointed to oversee and monitor the exposure and exhibition of the footprints trail. Conclusion and further recommendations 8. Education programmes should not only focus on the footprints conservation and human origins but also empower Consequently we may ask ourselves whether the conservation strategy of the Laetoli hominin footprints have indeed served the communities surrounding the site in order to guarantee sustainability of the museum. Tanzania’s best interests in education and science for the general public. It has been argued that replicas of the hominin footprints together with documentation of the conservation project are showcased at the Olduvai Gorge Visitors Centre and in the National Museum in Dar es Salaam (Agnew and Demas, 1996). Pan intended, when one takes a critical look at those two exhibits, then we realize that the displays have been showcased not to promote science education in Tanzania but to Acknowledgements popularize the conservation effort that was undertaken from 1996 to 1998. Here we argue, however, that the exhibit itself takes on a turn from a popular – and largely western – manifestation of Laetoli with a representation that heavily projects an The geology, archaeology and paleoanthropology team would like to acknowledge the Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism abstract, harsh, remotely disembodied landscape. This particular and yet abstracted static Laetoli landscape, which has been (Hon. Ezekiel Maige, Ladislaus Komba and Donatius Kamamba) and the Chief Conservator of Ngorongoro Conservation Area vividly reproduced in the displays, remain largely unchallenged, appearing innocent and perhaps irrelevant to the contemporary (Bernad Murunya) for extending their invitation for the experts to participate in the re-excavation and evaluation of the southern northern Tanzania landscape and its people. end of the Laetoli hominid footprints. We also thank the Laetoli Technical Advisory Committee (particularly Paul Msemwa) and the Laetoli National Steering Committee for providing guidance and terms of references for the partial re-excavation of All the above-mentioned observations has led the geology and archaeology teams to conclude that a tight control of the soil the Laetoli hominin footprints this year. We would like to thank the GCI-Antiquities conservation team for their conservation chemistry, temperature, and water content is needed on a regular basis, not sporadically as it has been observed. Burial of the attempt to preserve the Laetoli footprints for future generations and for providing valuable information that contributed to the footprint trackway site exposes the tuffs to so many chemical, mechanical, and biological variables whose parameters are hard success of the re-excavation work at Laetoli in February 2011. We are also indebted to the photogrammetry team lead by Neffra to control. Therefore, it is our conclusion that burying the footprints – even though well intended as a conservation strategy Matthews and Tom Noble from the BLM, Jackson Washa and Ferdinand Mizambwa from the Ministry of Natural Resources – does not guarantee the long-range survival of the footprints and the integrity of the site due to the following challenges: and Tourism. Our profound gratitude goes to His Exc. Jakaya Mrisho Kikwete , President of the United Republic of Tanzania, for his continued support of sustainable conservation and use of the paleoanthropological resources in Tanzania. We thank the a. Exposing the footprints (partial or complete) trail every 5 to 10 years for evaluation would require a large amount Technical Committee’s Secretariat for coordinating and seamlessly facilitating the entire operation at Laetoli. of resources; b. Every time the footprints would be exposed to further unavoidable damage, and weathering will be imprinted on the tuff surface. Bibliography Based on the teams’ observations and the above-listed shortcomings, we believe that reburial is not only an expensive short- term solution, but does not guarantee the integrity of the footprints, because nature is stochastic and therefore hard to control Agnew, N. and M. Demas. 1998. Preserving the Laetoli footprints. Scientific American, Vol. 262, pp. 44–55. when real-time monitoring is lacking. Two critical questions have to be asked: (a) can the hominin footprints be sustainably and scientifically conserved and monitored in real time at Laetoli?; and (b) what needs to be done in order for such a project to not &GNQKUQP;.GUCWUVTCNQRKVJÄSWGUOCTEJCKPVKNUEQOOGPQWU!+P|;%QRRGPUCPF$5GPWV GFU Origine(s) de la bipédie only take off but also be sustainable? These two questions are essential in that they require an assessment of both the current chez les Hominidés. Cah. 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Fayum Depression, Egypt. © David L. Brill

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Lower Palaeolithic settlements in the Maghreb: current state human remains were discovered, at Tighennif by Arambourg (1954; 1955; 1957) and at ‘Grotte des Littorines’ in Casablanca by Biberson (1956; 1964). The 1950s also saw the publication of three important syntheses on Maghrebian prehistory by of knowledge and perspectives in the framework of the Alimen (1955), Vaufrey (1955) and Balout (1955), providing for the first time a chronological framework of the successive Palaeolithic cultures. The synthesis by Balout in particular laid solid foundations for the North African prehistoric chronology, World Heritage Convention and resolved controversies about the authenticity of previously collected lithic materials, and the naming of industries and Palaeolithic cultures. The 1960s was a time of progress, with more emphasis on refined methods of studying Lower Palaeolithic Mohamed Sahnouni lithic industries. These included the work done mainly on the typology of ‘pebble tools’ by Ramendo (1963) and Biberson Centro Nacional de Investigación sobre la Evolución Humana – CENIEH (National Research Centre for Human Evolution) – Spain (1967), and the study of bifacial tools by Balout (1967). Stone Age Institute & CRAFT – Indiana University – of America

The period from the 1980s onwards is characterized by studies of lithic assemblages which were excavated from sites discovered in the 1950s, and the systematic reinvestigations of major sites. The lithic analyses emphasized the technological and typological patterns of the assemblages, including Ain Hanech (Sahnouni, 1985; 1987), Tighennif (Djemmali, 1985) and Introduction Sidi Zin (Boussofara, 1985). The sites reinvestigated include Ain Hanech, Tighennif and the Casablanca sequence. The main focus of the investigations at Ain Hanech was to resolve the questions relating to the dating of the site and the nature of the 6JG/CIJTGDTGHGTUVQVJGCTGCQH0QTVJ#HTKECVJCVNKGUDGVYGGPŒ|0QPVJG#VNCPVKEEQCUVQH/QTQEEQVQŒ|'KP association of the fossil bones with the Oldowan stone tools (Sahnouni, 1998; Sahnouni and de Heinzelin, 1998; Sahnouni the Libyan littoral. It was named by the Arab geographers Moghrib (‘westernmost island’). The present dominant et al., 1996; 2002; 2004). The research at Tighennif focused primarily on sediments analyses, dating the site, and taphonomy physiographic feature in this part of the African continent is the . In this, the world’s largest desert, the landscape of the faunal assemblages (Denys et al., 1987; Geraads et al., 1986). The revised work at Casablanca put more emphasis on has been shaped over time by wind, creating one of the harshest environments on Earth, characterized by sheer slopes, the chronostratigraphy of the sequence as well as descriptions of the associated industries (Raynal and Texier, 1989; Raynal shifting sand , sand seas called ergs, barren stone plateaus, lifeless gravel valleys, seasonally inundated basins et al., 2001; 2002). In addition to the systematic reassessment of the sites above, new sites were discovered including the known as chotts and dayas, and sparse large-depression oases fed by springs. Hence, the Sahara with its current pre-Acheulean sites of Monts Tessala (Thomas, 1973), Bordj Tan Kena (Heddouche, 1980–1981), and Acheulean sites of Kef inhospitable habitat constitutes a sort of natural barrier impeding terrestrial movements of plants, animals and humans Sefiane (Amara, 1981) and Oulad Hamida Cave in Morocco (Raynal et al., 1993). between sub-Saharan Africa and the northern part of the continent. Yet, palaeoenvironmental evidence indicates that the Sahara desert has undergone various climatic and environmental shifts since the Plio-Pleistocene with periods of substantially wetter conditions when the Sahara formed a corridor allowing free movements of early humans and fauna in both directions. The chronostratigraphic framework and its weaknesses

Such periods of favourable environmental conditions must have allowed early hominids to disperse from the tropical The Maghrebian Lower and Middle Pleistocene deposits suffer from the absence of a precise chronological framework due to savannahs of Africa into the southern Mediterranean temperate regions. Indeed, recent studies have shown that there a lack of datable volcanic materials. Uranium-series, electron spin resonance (ESR) and optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) are a number of Lower Palaeolithic sites in the Maghreb that are sealed in a primary context, bearing witness to an dates are most applicable only for late Middle and Upper Pleistocene deposits. As a result, the dating of the Lower Palaeolithic earlier hominid settlement in this part of the African continent than was commonly assumed. For example, the site of Ain sites relies primarily on biochronology and inferred correlations of sea-level sequences between the Atlantic coastal sites and Hanech on the Algerian High Plateau preserves Oldowan occurrences that date back c.||/CYKVJ1NFQYCPKPFWUVT[ the Mediterranean deposits. Indeed, the Casablanca coastal area offers the most extensive Pleistocene stratigraphic sequence, truly similar to that documented in eastern Africa. Furthermore, the sites document a continuous archaeological record which exposes a series of fluctuating high and low sea levels interbedded with terrestrial sediments reflecting changes in and a thriving development of the Acheulean tradition characterized by important technical innovations and associated climate. The sequence is used by geologists (Neuville and Rhulman, 1941; Choubert et al., 1956; Biberson, 1961a; 1971) as with fossils of Homo erectus. Unlike previous ideas that the North African Lower Palaeolithic assemblages are of little a chronostratigraphic framework for dating the prehistoric industries known from the region. It consists of a series of seven archaeological value (e.g. Clark, 1992), there are now many sites in sealed stratigraphic sequences providing ample marine cycles, interbedded with six terrestrial episodes named after stratigraphic description of type-localities. The marine opportunities for addressing early hominid behaviour and adaptation in the Maghreb. This chapter reviews the Lower cycles include, from the oldest to the youngest, Moghrebian, Messaoudian, Maarifian, Anfatian, Harounian, Ouldjian and Palaeolithic settlements in the Maghreb, emphasizing the current information and their chronological and behavioural Mellahian. The terrestrial cycles are Moulouyan, Saletian, Amirian, Tensiftian, Presoltanian and Soltanian. The ‘pebble-culture’ implications in reference to the recent studies carried out at major sites (e.g. at Ain Hanech in Algeria and the Casablanca or pre-Acheulean industries are dated to Moulouyan and Saletian continental episodes, while the Acheulean spanned from the area in Atlantic Morocco) and, to a lesser extent, to the knowledge emanating from previous studies. It also emphasizes #OKTKCPVQ2TGUQNVCPKCP $KDGTUQPR| #NVJQWIJVJKUEJTQPQUVTCVKITCRJKEU[UVGOYCUFGHKPGFHQT#VNCPVKE/QTQEEQ the significance of Ain Hanech, Tighennif and the Casablanca sites for the world archaeological heritage and underlines it became increasingly a classic scheme and a widespread Quaternary chronological framework for the entire Maghreb. the urgent need for their future conservation and inclusion in the World Heritage List of human origin sites in Africa. However, the validity of the Casablanca chronostratigraphic system was questioned by a number of researchers (Beaudet, 1969; Texier et al., 1986; 1994). They argue that the system presents a number of weaknesses such as the ambiguity of the pluvial-arid alternate principle, the complexity of correlating the Moroccan climatic episodes with the European glaciations, Historical background and negligence of the role of the local Quaternary uplift and isostatic movements controlling the deposition of the successive episodes. Based on a lithostratigraphic approach, Texier et al. (1994) suggested an alternative chronology for the Pleistocene Pioneer research on the Lower Palaeolithic of the Maghreb began with the colonization of the region by the French. During the sequence, incorporating four main formations. These formations include, from the oldest to the youngest, Oulad Hamida late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, avocational prehistorians (military personnel, doctors, teachers, road engineers Formation, Anfa Formation, Kef el Haroun Formation and Dar Bouaza Formation (Lefèvre and Raynal, 2002; Texier et al., 2002). and bureaucrats), who were influenced by prominent figures of French prehistory (e.g. Abbé H. Breuil, M. Boule and R. Vaufrey) The Lower Palaeolithic sites, which consist basically of Acheulean occurrences, spanned from Oulad Hamida Formation to Kef carried out the first explorations leading to the discovery of numerous Lower Palaeolithic sites, the most important of which are el Haroun Formation, from c.||/CVQ|-C 4JQFGUGVCN  Sidi Abderrahman in Morocco, Tighennif (formerly Ternifine) and El-Ma-Abiod in Algeria, and Sidi Zin in Tunisia. Subsequently, major developments occurred in the Maghrebian Lower Palaeolithic research. For example, until the early 1950s no pre- In the Sahara, the alternating erosion-sedimentation cycles, in the absence of any other chronological criteria such as preserved Acheulean (similar to Oldowan) artefacts had been discovered in the Maghreb. That changed when Arambourg discovered fauna and datable volcanic material, served as a guide to build up a chronological framework for the succession of the the so-called ‘pebble tools’ associated with Plio-Pleistocene faunas at Ain Hanech in Algeria (Arambourg, 1949). This was prehistoric industries of the Saoura region in the north-western Sahara (Alimen, 1978; Chavaillon, 1964). Six erosional and followed by discoveries of more ‘pebble tools’ at Mansourah near Constantine by Laplace-Jauretche (1956), at Aoulef in the depositional cycles have been identified. The ‘pebble culture’ is correlated with the Mazzerian episode (Early Pleistocene), and Central Sahara by Hugot (1955), and at the coastal sequence in Casablanca by Biberson (1961a; 1961b). In addition, fossil the Acheulean with the Taouritian and Ougartian episodes (Middle Pleistocene).

128 129 6 Northern Africa Northern Africa 6

The Oldowan tradition investigations (Sahnouni, 1998; Sahnouni and de Heinzelin, 1998; Sahnouni et al., 2002; 2004). Ain Hanech is not a single site but rather a Plio-Pleistocene site complex with several palaeontological and archaeological localities, including Ain The earliest lithic artefacts attributed to Mode I that are presently known are in Eastern Africa and are dated roughly between Boucherit, Ain Hanech and El-Kherba. Ain Boucherit is a palaeontological locality and the oldest in the region, and it is situated |/CCPF|/C/CLQTUKVGUKPENWFG')')CPF1)5)QPC'VJKQRKC 5GOCYGVCN .QMCNCNGK9GUV stratigraphically 13 m below Ain Hanech. It has yielded a Late Pliocene fauna (Arambourg, 1970; 1979; Sahnouni et al., 2002). Turkana, Kenya (Roche et al., 2003); Koobi Fora, East Turkana (Isaac, 1997); Olduvai Gorge, United Republic of Tanzania Ain Hanech is located near a small local . El-Kherba is a newly discovered Oldowan locality in the immediate vicinity (Leakey, 1971; 1975); Melka Kunture, Ethiopia (Chavaillon and Piperno, 2004). South African sites that yielded Mode I artefacts south of Ain Hanech. Preliminary palaeomagnetic and biochronological evidence indicates that both localities are estimated include Sterkfontein (Kuman et al., 2005) and Swartkrans (Clark, 1993). These artefacts are generally assigned to the Oldowan to date c.||/C Industrial Complex, named for Olduvai Gorge in northern Tanzania. The Oldowan technology is simple but required mastering by early hominids of some fundamental stone-flaking techniques. The Oldowan assemblages incorporate cores and core-tools Major excavations were undertaken mainly at Ain Hanech and El-Kherba yielding rich archaeological assemblages. The remains (choppers, polyhedrons, subspheroids, spheroids), debitage, and less-frequent retouched pieces as well. Similar assemblages are contained in three distinct levels (A, B and C) sealed in a fine sedimentary matrix, indicating burial in a floodplain deposit, are known from the earliest archaeological sites in the Maghreb, including Ain Hanech. These assemblages were generally with a low-velocity regime, and that minimal site reworking might have occurred. Fossil bones are well preserved overall, referred to as ‘pebble culture’ and sometimes as pre-Acheulean. except for a few that underwent some minor post-depositional alteration. They show neither a strongly preferred orientation nor high inclination. The stone artefacts are fresh with an overwhelming amount of debitage present. Figure 1 shows the sites yielding ‘pre-Acheulean’ assemblages, most of which are located in Morocco and Algeria. Outwith these countries, only a single bifacially flaked core/chopper, encountered within a sandy-clay deposit, has been reported in The archaeological assemblages consist of Oldowan artefacts associated with fossil animal bones. The fossil fauna is savannah- Tunisia (Gragueb and Oueslati, 1990). In Atlantic Morocco, Mode I assemblages recovered from investigated sites in the vicinity like and comprises proboscidean (Anancus, moghrebiensis); equids ( libycum [rare], numidicus, Equus of Casablanca allowed Biberson (1961b) to construct a typological chronological sequence showing the evolution of the pre- tabeti); rhino (Ceratotherium mauritanicum); hippo (), suid (Kolpochoerus heseloni); giraffids ( Acheulean industry over time. He divided the pre-Acheulean (previously labelled ‘pebble-culture’) into four successive stages. maurusium, Giraffa pomeli); bovid ( howelli, Gazella pomeli, Oryx eleulmensis, ‘Alcelaphus’, Numidocapra crassicornis, Stage I includes the oldest artefacts from simple technological gestures (unidirectional). Stage II incorporates ‘pebble tools’ Taurotragus gaudryi); carnivores (cf. Vulpes, Lycaon, Crocuta crocuta); Mauremys, Crocodylia and Lagomorpha. Some of characterized by bidirectional flaking. In Stage III the multidirectional technique appears where the artefacts are considered to the taxa, which were unknown previously from the site, point to its great antiquity, particularly Anancus, ‘Dicerorhinus-like’ be more evolved. The last stage (IV) is characterized by the emergence of the first Acheulean tools. Stages I and II constitute rhino, Kolpochoerus, Equus numidicus and Pelorovis (Sahnouni and van der Made, 2009; Hadjouis and Sahnouni, 2006). the ‘Ancient Pre-Acheulean’ while Stages III and IV depict ‘Evolved Pre-Acheulean’ forms (Biberson, 1976). However, Raynal Made primarily from limestone and flint, the lithic assemblages incorporate a full range of Oldowan artefact categories, and Texier (1989) and Raynal et al. (1990, 2004) revised Biberson’s stratigraphic sequence casting doubts on the antiquity including cores, unifacial and bifacial choppers, polyhedrons, subspheroids, spheroids, whole flakes and retouched pieces of his ‘pebble culture’. They claim that the ‘pebble culture’ assemblages are either surface finds, reworked materials, from (chiefly scrapers and denticulates) (Figure 2). Several simple flakes and retouched pieces were used to cut meat as evidenced polycyclic colluviums, or even pseudo-artefacts generated by high-energy deposits. The authors concluded that the earliest by the presence of meat polishes on their JWOCPQEEWRCVKQPKP/QTQEEQKU#EJGWNGCPGUVKOCVGFVQCOCZKOWOQH|/C 4C[PCNGVCN  edges. The lithic artefacts from Ain Hanech and El-Kherba are very similar to those known Located on the edge of the eastern Algerian High Plateau, the site of Ain Hanech contains the oldest North from Olduvai upper Bed I and lower Bed II, African archaeological occurrences. Ain Hanech was discovered by Arambourg (1970; 1979) and yielded a Plio- especially in terms of flaking patterns and Pleistocene fauna associated with Oldowan artefacts. Since 1992–93 this major site is subject to systematic resultant artefact forms (Sahnouni, 2006b).

The Oldowan site of Ain Hanech may be viewed as a spot for short-term occupations by early hominids. The site was near a shallow river embankment, where raw materials were accessible from nearby river beds, and with plenty of game for acquiring meat. The technology used by Ain Hanech hominids is simple (Mode I technology), expedient and characterized by a low degree of standardization. There is no evidence for long- distance raw material transport. The industry is primarily composed of core-tools/choppers, flakes, fragments and occasional retouched pieces that are the main characteristics of early stone artefact assemblages assigned to the Oldowan. Bones belonging to different animal taxa such as equids, large and small bovids, hippo and elephant were recovered in association with the lithic artefacts. One taxon, equids, appears to dominate the faunal assemblages. Whole flakes and retouched pieces were used to process soft animal tissue, suggesting that meat was a major component of early hominid diet in North Africa. An in-depth study is under way for documenting subsistence patterns, the 2. Ain Hanech Oldowan Industry. 1–3: Core-forms made from limestone; 4, strategy employed for meat acquisition and 5 and 7: whole flakes made from limestone; 6: whole flake made from flint; breaking bones for marrow. 1. The major Lower Palaeolithic sites in the Maghreb. © M. Sahnouni 8–13: casual retouched pieces made from flint. © M. Sahnouni 130 131 6 Northern Africa Northern Africa 6

Monts Tessala In the Saoura region, Alimen and Chavaillon (1962) collected 110 ‘pebble tools’ in situ from several localities contained in alluvial and lacustrine deposits dated to the Mazzarian pluvial cycle (= Lower Pleistocene). Made primarily from and Another potentially important Oldowan site is Monts Tessala in north-western Algeria where the localities of Douar Kailia quartz; the ‘pebble tools’ include split pebbles, and unifacial and bifacial choppers with an alternate flaking reduction (Figure near Oued Tlilat and Douar El Ouennene near Sig have yielded in situ Oldowan artefacts (Thomas, 1973). These localities 4c–f). Sediments and pollens analyses indicate that the climate was fairly humid during the Mazzerian episode (Alimen, 1981). are situated at the limits of the sub-coastal valleys and the southern Tell (Tessala and Oulad Ali Mounts) of the Oran region. Stratigraphically, the artefacts were contained in a detrital deposit sometimes comprising heterometric gravels wrapped in a clear sandy or silty matrix. The deposit, sealed by a palaeosol, was correlated with the Saletian pluvial cycle dated to the Lower Pleistocene. The lithic assemblages totalling 237 pieces included 48 artefacts recovered from Kailia and 187 from El The Acheulean 1WGPPGPG6JGCTVGHCEVUYGTGHTGUJCPFOCFGRTKOCTKN[HTQONKOGUVQPG |RGTEGPV CPF,WTCUUKEQT%TGVCEGQWUUCPFUVQPG 6JGCUUGODNCIGUEQORTKUGFWPKHCEKCNCPFDKHCEKCNEJQRRGTU |RGTEGPV RQN[JGFTQPUCPFQTEQTGU |RGTEGPV YJQNG The Acheulean is much better represented than the Oldowan. There are numerous sites distributed all across the Maghreb HNCMGU |RGTEGPV TGVQWEJGFHNCMGU |RGTEGPV CPFURNKVEQDDNGU |RGTEGPV  (KIWTGC $CUGFQP$KDGTUQPoU and the Sahara showing remarkable technological development over time. The major sites are in Atlantic Morocco, on the classification system, the industry is assigned to the ‘pebble culture’ Stages III or IV. High Plateaus and in the Sahara.

Oldowan-like artefacts from the Sahara The Acheulean of Atlantic Morocco

Oldowan-like artefacts have also been found in at least four localities in the vast Algerian Saharan landmass. These include A very informative Acheulean sequence is remarkably represented in the Casablanca area. The sequence was first explored Aoulef (Hugot, 1955), Reggan (Ramendo, 1963), Saoura region (Alimen and Chavaillon, 1962) and Bordj Tan Kena (Heddouche, by Neuville and Ruhlman (1941), extensively studied by Biberson (1961b), and recently revisited by French researchers (Raynal 1980). While the specimens from Aoulef and Reggan are surface collections, those from the Saoura region and Bordj Tan Kena and Texier, 1989; Raynal et al., 2002). These studies showed the long development of the Acheulean tradition over time in were excavated in situ. #VVJKUNCVVGTUKVG Qo|'Qo|0 *GFFQWEJG ss JCUGZECXCVGFnRGDDNG the Atlantic Morocco. While the broader lines of the sequence from previous studies remain unchanged, the recent revised tools’ (Figure 3b) from a Glacis type deposit. However, not a single flake was reported associated with the flaked cobbles, work especially enhanced the chronological framework using a range of dating means and techniques, such as magneto- which raises the issue of site integrity. The assemblage incorporates unifacial and bifacial choppers, discoids, a partial biface stratigraphy, biochronology, OSL and ESR. and a trihedral pick made from quartzite. Because of the abundance of bifacial choppers, Heddouche (1982–83) assigned the industry to the later stages of the Evolved Pre-Acheulean of Biberson’s classification system. Beginning with the Lower Acheulean at the Thomas Quarry 1 Unit L, the sequence spans c||/CVQ|-C#EEQTFKPIVQ Raynal et al. (2002), Thomas Quarry 1L represents the oldest human occupation in the Atlantic Morocco. Comprised of two The Aoulef and Reggan collections comprise 90 and 321 specimens respectively. The artefacts include a range of types: stratigraphic units (L1 and L5), this cave site yielded typical Acheulean artefacts associated with a small faunal assemblage. unifacially, bifacially, multifacially flaked pebbles, discoids, and whole flakes made from variable raw materials (quartz, quartzite, The faunal assemblage included a few diagnostic elements: Loxodonta atlantica, Equus mauritanicus, Gazella atlantica and , flint, fossil wood and other eruptive rocks) (Figure 4). Interestingly, the surface collection from Reggan includes apparently Kolpochoerus15.FCVGUKPFKECVGCOCZKOWOCIGQH|-CHQT7PKV. 4JQFGUGVCN 6JG15.CIG a flake that refits nicely with a bifacially-flaked chopper made from quartz (Figure 4a) (Ramendo, 1964). If the flake was not is particularly consistent with the biochronology of diagnostic elements of the large mammalian fauna recovered at the site. removed as a result of post-depositional processes, these conjoined pieces suggest that the assemblage may not have been The stone artefacts, made from quartzite and flint, comprise trihedrons, bifaces (see Figure 5a 1–4), cleavers, and large flakes heavily disturbed by natural agencies. obtained from boulder cores. Other artefacts include unifacial and bifacial choppers, polyhedrons and spheroids, as well as a few denticulates.

3. Oldowan artefacts from: (A) Monts Tessala sites, Algeria 4. Oldowan artefacts from Saharan sites in Algeria (redrawn after 5. Early Acheulean artefacts from: (A) Thomas Quarry 1 Level 1, Morocco, (1–2: picks, 3–4: bifaces) (redrawn after Raynal et (redrawn after Thomas, 1973); and (B) Bordj Tan Kena (redrawn after Biberson, 1967), including a–d: choppers from Reggan; e: from al., 2002); and (B) Tighennif (formerly Ternifine, Algeria (5–6: picks, 7–8: bifaces) (redrawn after Balout, et al., 1967). Heddouche, 1981–82). Note that both sites include proto-bifaces. Aoulef; f: from Mazzer. 132 133 6 Northern Africa Northern Africa 6

The Middle Acheulean is illustrated at Cave and Thomas Quarry Hominid Cave. ESR dating at Rhinoceros Cave made (Geraads et al., 1986), as well as by hominid involvement in the accumulation of the faunal remains (Denys et al., 1984). Evidence QPTJKPQVQQVJGPCOGNUJQYUCYKFGTCPIGQHFCVGU(QTGZCORNGHKTUVECNEWNCVGFCIGUICXG|-CHQTGCTN[WRVCMGCPF of cutmarks left on hippo and bones suggests that the hominids hunted or scavenged animal carcasses failing on the |-CHQTNKPGCTWRVCMG 4JQFGUGVCN 6JGTGECNEWNCVGFCIGUCTGEQPUKFGTCDN[QNFGTVJCPVJQUGLWUVRWDNKUJGFFWG NCMGDCPMU &GP[UGVCNR| CPFRTQEGUUGFVJGOYKVJVJGKTVQQNU*QYGXGTVJGOQUVPQVCDNGCEVKXKV[CV6KIJGPPKH VQVJGTGXKUGFUGFKOGPVICOOCFQUGTCVGXCNWGCVVJGUKVG6JGPGYFCVGUCTG|-CHQTGCTN[WRVCMGCPF|-CHQT is the hominid manufacture of bone tools. A small equid metacarpal bone, found during the latest excavations, exhibits an linear uptake (Rhodes et al., 2006). The excavations at Rhinoceros Cave have yielded a faunal assemblage in which white rhino KPVGPVKQPCNTGVQWEJQPKVUFKUVCNRCTVHQTOKPICPCDTWRVRQKPV &GP[UGVCNRNCVG| #UKOKNCTTGVQWEJGFOGVCECTRCNHTQO TGOCKPUCTGCDWPFCPVUWIIGUVKPInURGEKCNK\GFJWPVKPIoD[JQOKPKFU 4C[PCNGVCNR| 6JGCUUQEKCVGFNKVJKECUUGODNCIG VJG/KFFNGCPF7RRGT$GF++CV1NFWXCK)QTIGCNUQCVVGUVUVQCPGCTN[WUGQHDQPGVQQNU .GCMG[RNCVGU|  is characterized by an increase of discoid cores, flakes, rare cleavers and large ‘bifacial’ pieces. Thomas Quarry Hominid Cave has yielded hominid remains, fauna, and artefacts deposited in secondary context with materials from outside washed into the cave (Raynal et al., 2004). The bifaces are rare, and carnivores appear to be responsible for collecting much of the faunal remains. With similar composition of artefacts to Rhinoceros Cave and Thomas Quarry Hominid Cave, the Sidi Al Khadir-Hélaoui Quarry, Kef Sefiane and Errayeh STIC quarry, Bears Cave, Littorines Cave and Cap Chatelier sites are also assigned to the Middle Acheulean. Kef Sefiane and Errayeh are two newly discovered Acheulean sites in Algeria. Kef Sefiane is situated in the north-eastern High Sidi Abederrahman-Extension in the Casablanca area is the main site representing the Upper Acheulean. The OSL estimated Plateau, and consists of three main Acheulean horizons noticeably separated by deposits. Limited test trenches CIGKU|-C 4C[PCNGVCNR| 6JGCUUGODNCIGKUEJCTCEVGTK\GFRCTVKEWNCTN[D[RTGFGVGTOKPGFHNCMGRTQFWEVKQPU have yielded a total of fifty-one artefacts made from limestone, most of which are bifaces. Other artefacts include choppers, thin small bifaces made on large flakes, and rare cleavers. cleavers and spheroids. Using Bordes’ typology, Amara (1981) concluded that the horizons represent three stages of a local development of the Acheulean tradition: Lower Acheulean, Middle Acheulean and Upper Acheulean. Yet, no fauna or debitage elements were recovered due to their presumed chemical dissolution which would have been active in the travertine formations The Acheulean on the High Plateaus #OCTCR| 

The Acheulean is known from a number of localities across the High Plateaus in Algeria, including Tighennif, Kef Sefiane, 'TTC[GJKUNQECVGF|MOYGUVQH6KIJGPPKHQPVJGYGUVGTP*KIJ2NCVGCWU+VKUUKVWCVGFQPDQVJUKFGUQH$QWMTCCTCXKPGEWVD[ Errayeh, Lac Karâr and Sidi Zin in Tunisia. different phases of the gully active in the region. There are two archaeological levels separated by a sterile consolidated reddish sand deposit (Derradji, 2003; 2006). The lower level yielded a typical Acheulean industry contained in a gravel and sandy matrix. The assemblage incorporated choppers, polyhedrons, simple cores, cleavers, bifaces, as well as large and small flakes made from quartzite, sandstone and flint. The industry is very similar to that of Tighennif in terms of both raw material use Tighennif and techno-typological characteristics. Regrettably, unlike Tighennif, there is no fauna associated with the lithic assemblage.

Situated in north-western Algeria, Tighennif (formerly Ternifine or Palikao) is among the most significant Acheulean sites not only for North Africa but also for the entire Old World. The site was discovered in the nineteenth century in the course of sand quarry exploitation, where vertebrate fossil bones and lithic artefacts were collected. Subsequent sporadic investigations Lac Karâr and Sidi Zin by Pomel and Pallary showed the importance of the site. Between 1954 and 1956 Arambourg carried out large-scale excavations that led to the discovery of the oldest North African hominid remains associated with a rich fauna and very Lac Karâr was discovered by Gentil in 1894 north of Tlemcen city in north-western Algeria. This site presents some similarity with informative Acheulean assemblage (Arambourg and Hoffstetter, 1963). The fauna by and large belongs to the base of Tighennif at least with regard to its location on an artesian spring. Boule (1900) studied the fauna and associated artefacts. The the Middle Pleistocene. A revised list includes particularly Loxodonta atlantica, Cerathotherium simum, Equus mauritanicus, fauna includes Loxodonta atlantica, Equus mauritanicus, Ceratotherium simum, Hippopotamus amphibious, Sus scrofa, Cervus, Metridiochoerus compactus, Giraffa cf. pomeli, Oryx cf. gazella, Chonochaetes, Crocuta crocuta, Theropithecus cf. oswaldi, Alcelaphus, Conochaetes gnu, Ovis sp. and Homoioceras antiquus. The artefacts, assigned to the Upper Acheulean, comprise Homo erectus and three forms of (Geraads et al., 1986). lanceolate and cordiform bifaces, cleavers, as well as large and small The lithic assemblage comprises Oldowan and Acheulean artefacts, including choppers, polyhedrons, trihedrons, bifaces (Figure flakes. Balout (1955) argued that 5b 5–8), cleavers, cores, retouched pieces, large and small flakes, and fragments. The artefacts are made from quartzite, the Lac Karâr occurrences are sandstone, limestone and flint. The industry is assigned to the Lower Acheulean based on the use of hard hammer percussion heterogeneous and they may CPFRTQRQTVKQPUQHnRGDDNGVQQNUo |RGTEGPV VTKJGFTQPUCPFDKHCEGUYKVJEQTVGZDCUG |RGTEGPV CPFnRTQVQENGCXGTUo incorporate a mixture of different |RGTEGPV  $CNQWVGVCN &LGOOCNK  EQPUKFGTGFVJGUOCNNHNKPVHNCMGU |RGTEGPVQHYJKEJCTGTGVQWEJGF CUC prehistoric cultures. Thomas chronologically separate lithic assemblage but there is no stratigraphic proof of this. The technology employed is particularly (1977) considered the site to sophisticated, suggesting a higher level of hominid skill and intelligence. In addition to a fairly materialized symmetry on the DGUNKIJVN[QNFGT |-C VJCP bifaces and the successful production of large cutting tools, the hominids used a novel flaking technique called Kombewa. Tihodaine. The Kombewa technique involves manufacturing flakes with dual ventral faces, providing the hominids with the advantage QHUJCRKPIENGCXGTUYKVJCEQPXGZGFIGCPFNCTIGUETCRGTU $CNQWVRR|s&CWXQKU  The site of Sidi Zin near Kef in north-western Tunisia has been In spite of the additional research carried out at Tighennif, its age still remains uncertain. For example, palaeomagnetic studies studied by Gobert (1950). It made on the lower deposits indicated ‘probably’ a normal polarity, which is correlated with the Brunhes Chron (c.||/C  consists of a sequence of three (Geraads et al., 1986), yet the Jaramillo Subchron could not be ruled out. Biochronologically, the fauna contrasts sharply with archaeological levels sealed by that of Ain Hanech. The similarities between the two sites are limited to a few taxa that persisted throughout the Pleistocene, a tuff deposit. The lower and i.e. rhino, hippo and . In contrast, the taxa that are biochronologically older are found only at Ain Hanech and not at middle levels yielded Acheulean Tighennif (e.g. elephant, equids, suids, girrafids and ). Given the great faunal turnover between the two sites, a late assemblages dominated by Lower Pleistocene age for Tighennif is plausible. In fact, both the macro-mammals and the lithic assemblage are very similar to lanceolate and cordiform bifaces that of Thomas Quarry 1 level L whose age is estimated as c.||-C 4JQFGUGVCN UGGCDQXG0QPGVJGNGUUTGFCVKPI (Figure 6, 1–2). The upper level the site of Tighennif is totally warranted. is rich in unifacial points and 6. Upper Acheulean artefacts, including 1: biface; 2: cleaver from Sidi Zin, Tunisia; cleavers. In the tuff stratum the 3: bifaces from El-Ma-Abiod, Algeria; 4: biface from Sidi Abel-Rahman-Extension, Based on taphonomic evidence, it can be inferred that Tighennif hominids carried out their activities near a lake. The site has Morocco. (1 and 2 redrawn after Gobert, 1950; 3 redrawn after Camps, 1974; and 4 Acheulean disappears entirely been minimally disturbed as judged from the very low density of archaeological materials recovered at the site (0.8 items/m3) redrawn after Raynal, et al., 2004). and it was replaced by a Middle 134 135 6 Northern Africa Northern Africa 6

Palaeolithic-like assemblage. Balout (1955) assigned the industry to the Late Acheulean. The fauna associated with the lithic Ougartian cycle. In this period, finely made bifaces and cleavers predominate the assemblages followed by retouched flakes assemblages includes Elephas, Equus, Rhinoceros, Bos, Gazella and Vulpes, but is of no help for dating the site. which were mainly scrapers. ‘Pebble tools’ become rare at this stage.

In southern Morocco, Antoine and Biberson (1954) and Biberson (1965) explored the Tarfaya basin and Wadi Draa, respectively. The Acheulean in the Sahara Biberson (1965) outlined the development of the Acheulean in the region based on surface materials collected primarily from dismantled terraces. Based on an in-depth technological and typological analysis, Nocairi (2000) concluded that the Acheulean The Sahara is rich in Palaeolithic resources and an enormous amount of material was collected during the nineteenth-century in Tarfaya is characterized by the preponderance of the and tools on flakes with few bifaces and cleavers. colonial explorations by the French military. Subsequent scientific expeditions have also shown the overwhelming presence of the Acheulean in much of the Sahara. The major sites include Tihodaine in the Central Sahara, in Algeria (Arambourg, 1948; Arambourg and Balout, 1955; Reygasse, 1935), Saoura in the north-western Sahara, in Algeria (Chavaillon, 1964; Alimen, Development of the Acheulean 1978) and Draa Valley in southern Morocco (Biberson, 1954; 1965; Nocairi, 2000). Tihodaine is among the most important sites in the Sahara, yielding an abundant Acheulean industry associated with mammalian fauna. The site is situated north- 6JGQNFGUV#EJGWNGCPQEEWTTGPEGUCTGTGEQTFGFKP'CUV#HTKECCPFCTGFCVGFVQCTQWPFs|/CCV-QPUQ)CTFWNC east of the Ahaggar area bordering the Tassili n’Ajjer plateau in Algeria. It consists of four localities (Tihodaine I, II, III and IV) (Ethiopia) and West Turkana (Kenya) (Beyene, 2004; Roche et al., 2003). By this time new technological innovations appear spanning from the Lower Palaeolithic to the . The Acheulean site (Tihodaine I) was discovered in 1861 and had been in the archaeological record, such as bifaces, picks and cleavers often made from boulder cores. The major Acheulean sites in investigated primarily by Arambourg (1948), Arambourg and Balout (1955) and Thomas (1977). The Acheulean deposits East Africa are Kokiselei 4 (KS4) in Western Turkana (Roche et al., 2003), Konso Gardula (Asfaw et al., 1992; Beyene, 2004), consist of residual buttes partially covered by sands of the current erg. The Acheulean artefacts and associated fauna Olduvai Bed II and IV (Leakey and Roe, 1994), Peninj (Isaac, 1975; Isaac and Curtis, 1974), Melka Kunturé (Chavaillon and were contained in lacustrine sediments with diatomite and a high proportion of kaolinite deposited during the first lacustrine Piperno, 2004), East Turkana (Isaac and Harris, 1978), and Sterkfontein (Kuman et al., 2005). Technologically, the Acheulean episode of the formation of the lake. Thomas (1977) correlated the site with the middle level of Sidi Zin, and estimated its age DKHCEGUCTGVJGTGUWNVQHVJGEQPEGRVWCNFGXGNQROGPVHTQODKHCEKCNEJQRRGTU $KDGTUQP5CJPQWPKR| CPF VQCVNGCUV|-C6JGHCWPCQH'VJKQRKCPV[RGKUCOKZVWTGQHTGNKEVCZCUWEJCUElephas, Equus, Mesochoerus, Ceratotherium it is not surprising that at Olduvai the Developed Oldowan with bifaces and the Acheulean overlapped (Leakey and Roe, simum, Connochaetes, Taurotragus and Alcelaphus; and Sahel-Sudanese taxa such as Gazella and Oryx. There is no precise  'XGPVJQWIJKVNCUVGFHQTCRRTQZKOCVGN[|/CVTGPFUCTGYGCMKPVJG#EJGWNGCPVQVJGGZVGPVVJCVKVKUJCTFVQFCVG account of the bifaces and cleavers (Figure 7) collected from surface from the earlier expeditions. However, Oussedik (1972) Acheulean assemblages on typological and technological grounds (Klein, 1999). Nevertheless, late Acheulean assemblages, analysed 300 complete bifaces, which are primarily ovate and cordiform, as well as numerous bifaces that are finer and thinner particularly bifaces and cleavers (c.|-C ECPUVTCKIJVHQTYCTFN[DGFKUEGTPGFHTQOGCTNKGTQPGU+PEQPVTCUVVQVJGGCTN[ compared with those known from Tighennif. Acheulean, the late Acheulean assemblages incorporate remarkably symmetrical and thinner bifaces, well-made cleavers, as well as predetermined techniques for standardized flake productions. The north-western Sahara has a long sequence of Acheulean sites, especially at the two sites of Saoura and Tabelbala- Tachenghit. Chavaillon (1964) and Alimen (1978) undertook a comprehensive study of the Pleistocene deposits of the region Unlike East Africa, there is no record of chronological transition from the Oldowan to the Acheulean in the Maghreb. Here, and showed a developmental sequence of the local Acheulean tradition. The lithic assemblages, made up of local metamorphic whereas the Oldowan is dated to c.||/C GI#KP*CPGEJCPF'N-JGTDC VJGQNFGUVUGEWTGN[FCVGF#EJGWNGCPKUQPN[ rocks, occur in gravel FCVGFVQCTQWPF|/CHQTGZCORNG6JQOCU3WCTT[WPKV.CPFRQUUKDN[6KIJGPPKH6JWUVJGTGKUCJWIGEJTQPQNQIKECN terraces and in fine- and hiatus between the Oldowan and Acheulean in this part of the African continent probably due to either the lack of systematic coarse-grained sediments. fieldwork or the preservation of transitional sites. There are three sites with potentially early Acheulean occurrences, including The sequence consists of the Ain Hanech upper level deposits, Monts Tessala and Bordj Tan Kena. At Ain Hanech, crude bifaces and large flakes are seven stages grouped into HQWPFKPECNETGVGUGFKOGPVUNQECVGF|OCDQXGVJG1NFQYCPJQTK\QPU 5CJPQWPK 6JGRTG#EJGWNGCPCUUGODNCIGUHTQO three major periods. The Monts Tessala (Thomas, 1973) and Bordj Tan Kena (Heddouche, 1981–82) have a very small frequency of proto-bifaces and earliest period (Stages I crude bifaces. On typological grounds, these assemblages can be characterized as early Acheulean. Regrettably, although they and II) is correlated to the are stratigraphically in situ, none of these assemblages can be securely dated. sedimentary Taouritian cycle, and is characterized The North African Acheulean tradition has been divided into several phases reflecting stages of development over time in D[QXGT|RGTEGPVnRGDDNG order to date the Acheulean assemblages. The proposed stages include: tools’, crude trihedrons, rare bifaces, nucleus and Q four stages (I, II, III and IV) for the Maghreb (Balout, 1955); flakes. The second period Q three stages for the Atlantic Morocco (lower, middle and upper) (Raynal et al., 2002); and (Stages III, IV and V), rich Q three periods for the Sahara (Proto-Acheulean, Euacheulean and Neoacheulean) (Alimen, 1978). in Acheulean assemblages, is dated to the Ougartian These subdivisions are often based upon frequencies of ‘pebble tools’ versus bifaces/cleavers, higher frequency of cores and depositional episode. In Levallois index (Alimen, 1978); presence of bifaces with cortical base (made from cobbles and pebbles) (Biberson, 1961b), this period, the ‘pebble size and morphological changes of bifaces (e.g. from triangular to cordiform to ovate) and use of soft hammer-stone (Balout VQQNUo HQTO QPN[ | RGT et al., 1967; Tixier, 1958–59); and technological sophistication of manufacturing cleavers (Tixier, 1957). However, as stressed cent and the bifaces were by several Palaeolithic archaeologists, time trends in the Acheulean are not strong, and thus not appropriate for dating the produced using the soft Acheulean assemblages (e.g. Klein, 1999). With regard to the Acheulean of the Maghreb, the Middle Acheulean stage is not hammer-stone. Cleavers clearly defined. For example, Sidi Al Khadir-Hélaoui Quarry and Bears Cave sites are considered Middle Acheulean in spite of are numerous, and Levallois VJGCDUGPEGQHDKHCEGUKPVJGHQTOGTCPFVJGJGCX[OCTKPGFKUVWTDCPEGQHVJGTGOCKPUKPVJGNCVVGT 4C[PCNGVCNR|  flakes are already present The frequency of artefacts such as ‘pebble tools’ versus bifaces and flake industry are often based on assemblages lacking OCMKPIWRVQ|RGTEGPV integrity due to their secondary geological context. Moreover, shape of bifaces may have been impacted by the quality of of the total flakes. There raw materials used. are also assorted types of nucleus (Kombewa, West In my opinion, only the early and late Acheulean stages can be obviously characterized in the Maghreb. The early Acheulean Victoria, Levallois). The third is remarkably well represented at the sites of Thomas Quarry 1 Level L, Tighennif and Errayeh, and in north-western Sahara. period (Stages VI and VII) In addition to typical Oldowan tools including cores/choppers, the early Acheulean assemblages contain a large number 7. Biface and cleaver from the site of Tihodaine (Central Sahara, Algeria). © CNRPAH, Algeria is correlated with the Final of bifaces, trihedrons, cleavers, discoid cores and flakes produced using hard hammer stone. Sometimes, the Oldowan 136 137 6 Northern Africa Northern Africa 6

Table 1. CTVGHCEVUOC[VQVCNQXGT|RGTEGPVQHVJGCUUGODNCIGUCUCV Middle Pleistocene hominids of the Maghreb. Estimated age after (1): Geraads et al., 1986; (2): Geraads, 2002; (3): Raynal et al., Tighennif (Balout et al., 1967). The bifaces are overall thick, 2002; (4) Hublin, 1985. triangular and/or sub-triangular, and characterized by large and deep scars. The cleavers are made from large flakes, and Fossils Taxa Sites Age References the ‘proto-cleaver’ type usually predominates. This type of cleaver represents the simplest and probably the earliest form Three mandibles, a parietal Early H. erectus / Tighennif (ex. 0.8 Ma?(1) Arambourg (1955; of such artefacts. It is produced on a large cortical flake with fragment, and isolated H. ergaster Ternifine, Algeria) 1956) its lateral sides slightly retouched to shape the distal edge molars Arambourg and into a transversal cutting edge (Tixier, 1957). Hofstetter (1963)

6JGNCVG#EJGWNGCPKUTQWIJN[GUVKOCVGFDGVYGGP|/C A left femoral shaft H. erectus Ain Maarouf (Morocco) 0.7 Ma?(2) Geraads et al. (1992) and c||-C6JGOCLQTUKVGUTGRTGUGPVKPIVJKUUVCIGCTG Hublin (1992) Sidi Zin (Figure 6[1–2]), El-Ma Abiod (Figure 6[3]), Bears A mandibular fragment, H. erectus Hominid level of 0.6 Ma?(2,3) Ennouchi (1969) Cave, Cap Chatelier, Sidi Abderrahman-Extension (Figure three teeth Thomas Quarry 1 Raynal et al. (2002) 6[4]), Tihodaine (Figure 7), and assemblages dated to the (Casablanca, Morocco) late Ougartian climatic cycle from the North-western Sahara, A cranial remain with part H. erectus Oulad Hamida 1, 0.6Ma?(2,3) Ennouchi (1972) especially Tabelbala-Tachenghit. The density of the Oldowan- of the face, frontal and Thomas Quarry 3 type artefacts is less, and the typical Acheulean specimens are temporal bone, and several (Casablanca, Morocco) generally thin and finely made. The bifaces display particularly upper teeth a well-designed symmetry, and are usually ovate, lanceolate and coordiform. Likewise, the cleavers show a high degree Two mandibular fragments H. erectus Sidi Abderrahman, c. 0.4 Ma(3) Biberson (1956; 1964) of refinement and generally outnumber the hand-. Of Littorines cave particular interest are the cleavers from Tabelbala-Tachenghit (Morocco) (Figure 8) manufactured using a novel technique of core A quasi-complete calvarium Early H. sapiens Salé (Morocco) 0.4 Ma(4) Jaeger (1975) preparation and flake detachment. As described by Tixier and fragment of upper left Hublin (1985) (1957), the method entailed predetermining the shape of maxilla (I2-M2), natural the cleaver before knocking it off the core. This technique is 8. Cleaver (type IV of Tixier classification system) a variant of the Proto-Levallois prepared core method. The A mandible fragment Early H. sapiens Rabat (Kebitat, c. 0.35Ma Marçais (1934) manufactured using a Proto-Levallois technique that entails use and generalization of these technological innovations predetermining the shape of the cleaver before knocking it Morocco). off the boulder core. © CNRPAH, Algeria probably coincided with the gradual emergence of North African early Homo sapiens around 400–300 Ka. As a whole, the hominids of the Maghreb appear to form two groups that are chronologically and morphologically distinct. The first group is older, encompassing hominids from Tighennif, Ain Hominid association Maarouf, Hominid level of Thomas Quarry 1 (Th1–G), and Oulad Hamida 1-Homo erectus cave (OH1–HEC) (formerly Thomas Quarry All the hominids discovered so far in the Maghreb are associated with the Acheulean activities (Table 1). They are known from 3). The second group is slightly younger and comprises hominids Tighennif in Algeria and from several Moroccan sites. The Tighennif hominids include three mandibles (Figure 9), a fragment of from Sidi Abderrahman, Salé and Rabat (Kebitat). Taxonomically, the a parietal and isolated teeth (two incisors, a canine, two premolars and four molars) (Arambourg, 1955; 1956; Arambourg and Tighennif and the Sidi Abderrahman hominids are closely related to Hofstetter, 1963). The age of Tighennif is estimated at c.||/C )GTCCFUGVCN 6JGQPN[RQUVETCPKCNTGOCKPMPQYPKP Asian Homo erectus, but they cannot be identified precisely to this the region comes from Ain Maarouf near El Hadjeb, Morocco. It is a left femoral shaft displaying both H. erectus and archaic group. Because of this variation, Arambourg considered them as a H. sapiens features (Hublin, 1992). Based on fauna, Ain Maarouf is believed to be older than Thomas Quarry 1 and slightly local geographic subspecies Atlanthropus mauritanicus (= H. erectus younger than Tighennif (Geraads et al., 1992; Geraads, 2002). At the adjacent cave sites of Hominid level of Thomas Quarry mauritanicus) (Arambourg, 1954; 1955; 1956; 1957; Arambourg and 1 and Oulad Hamida 1 (formerly Thomas Quarry 3) fragmentary remains have been collected. These include an incomplete Biberson, 1956; Arambourg and Hostetter, 1963). The Thomas Quarry mandible (Ennouchi, 1969) and three teeth (Raynal et al., 2002) at Thomas Quarry 1; and a cranial piece with part of the (Ennouchi, 1969; 1972) and Kebitat (Saban, 1977) hominid specimens face, a right frontal, temporal and isolated teeth (two canines, four premolars and two molars) (Ennouchi, 1972). The Sidi are assigned to H. erectus. Like the Ain Maarouf femoral shaft (Hublin, Abderrahman Litorines cave yielded two mandibular fragments consisting of a posterior part of the right mandibular corpus 1992), the Salé specimen, with small cranial capacity, displays a with three molars, and a left post symphyseal part with P3. The two mandibular parts do not articulate but apparently belong mosaic of archaic and progressive features. Thus, it is regarded by to the same individual (Arambourg and Biberson, 1956). The Litorines cave sequence is believed to be contemporaneous Jaeger (1975) more as H. erectus and by Hublin (1985) as H. sapiens with Isotope Stage 11 (c|-C  4C[PCNGVCN #V5CNÅYQTMGTUGZRNQKVKPISWCTTKGUQPVJG#VNCPVKEEQCUVTGEQXGTGFC retaining H. erectus characteristics. quasi-complete calvarium (Figure 9) associated with a fragment of the upper left maxilla (I2–M2), and a natural endocranial cast (Jaeger, 1975). The calvarium was found isolated but appears to come from an iolianite deposit corresponding to the Recently, palaeoanthropologists have attempted to make a taxonomic #PHCVKCPOCZKOWOVTCPUITGUUKXGOCTKPGGRKUQFGFCVGFVQ|-C ,CGIGT *QYGXGT*WDNKP R| EQPUKFGTU separation between early African H. erectus (= H. ergaster) dated VJCVVJG5CNÅJQOKPKFKUTCVJGTQNFGTCPFECPRTQDCDN[DGFCVGFWRVQ|-C9QTMGTUFKIIKPIVJG/KHUWF)KWFKEG3WCTT[ VQs|/CCPFVJGKT#UKCPEQWPVGTRCTVUCTIWKPIVJCVVJGNCVVGT in Rabat (Kebitat) fortuitously found a mandibular fragment, a fragment of upper left maxilla and several cranial fragments possess several autapomorphic features that are not found in the (Marcais, 1934). Based on earlier stratigraphic descriptions by various authors, Jaeger (1975) assigned the deposit believed to former. Klein (1999) considers even later African H. erectus (until have yielded the hominid remains to the Middle Tensiftian. The Tensiftian was recently redefined as belonging to the Upper Bed 9. Hominids of the Maghreb including: (A) Salé skull |/C UWEJCU6KIJGPPKHJQOKPKFUCUH. ergaster. He argues that (Morocco) (redrawn after Larsen et al., 1991), and (B) QH/GODGTQH#PHC(QTOCVKQPYJKEJKUEQTTGNCVGFYKVJVJGEQNF+UQVQRG5VCIG s|-C  6GZKGTGVCNR|  Atlanthrope I Tighennif (formerly Ternifine, Algeria) H. erectus developed exclusively in Asia whereas H. ergaster persisted TGFTCYP|CHVGT#TCODQWTICPF*QHHUVGVVGT  in Africa until the emergence of H. sapiens. Whatever the adopted 138 139 6 Northern Africa Northern Africa 6

taxonomy of the Maghreb hominid fossils, the consensus of most authorities is that they probably represent an endemic stock the fauna. The carbon-isotopic evidence suggests that El-Kherba palaeovegetation predominately consisted of C3 types of from which the local H. sapiens developed, for example human fossils from Djebel Irhoud, Temara, Dar Esoltan and Tangier. plant, both woody and grasses. Moreover, the evidence shows a general positive trend of decreasing b13C values as depth increases, suggesting a temporal increase in C4 vegetation and in aridification as shown by the b18O values of pedogenic carbonates (Figure 11) (see details in Sahnouni et al., 2011), which is consistent with the general Plio-Pleistocene continental trend of increasing aridification and grassland expansion. When correlated with El-Kherba archaeological stratigraphic profile, Subsistence patterns the temporal trend in grassland expansion and aridity is seen to be clearly related to level A. If this correlation is true, unlike their predecessors in the level B below, the Oldowan hominids in level A evolved in an open grassland and arid environment. Only limited information on early hominid subsistence in the Lower Palaeolithic of the Maghreb is available, which is based An open landscape would provide a shortage of food resources and water supplies as opposed to a riparian habitat, which on study of microwear on lithic artefacts and fossil bone modification patterns. The evidence from both studies indicates that offers an abundance of water and food supplies. Therefore, it can be inferred that the evidenced climate change at El-Kherba early hominids processed primarily meat with their lithic tools. For example, microwear analyses carried out on a selection of probably limited Oldowan hominids foraging capabilities during level A by exposing them to the risk of carnivore predators Ain Hanech artefacts made from flint show that both simple flakes and retouched pieces were utilized for meat cutting (Figure and the lack of opportunities of plant and animal biomasses. 10) (Sahnouni and de Heinzelin, 1998; Verges Bosch, 2002). An ongoing study of Ain Hanech faunal remains points to the presence of bones with hominid-inflicted butchery marks and carnivore-inflicted tooth marks, suggesting possible competition The Acheulean hominids lived in both lacustrine and alluvial, and savannah-like habitats. For example, at Tighennif the with carnivores for early access to animal carcasses. taphonomic conditions of micro-vertebrate fossils indicate a primary accumulation in a closed lake environment fed by artesian upwellings and the absence of water flow into the area (Denys et al., 1987). Alcelaphines, gazelles and gerbillids Evidence of Acheulean hominid butchering marks is present on antelope and hippo pelvic bone fragments from the Acheulean dominate the faunal assemblages, pointing to an open and arid environment, but hippopotamus and amphibian remains also site of Tighennif. The antelope remains were probably broken as a result of marrow extraction. The hippo bone fragment suggest the presence of water (Geraads et al., 1986). Carbon Isotope studies on Tighennif terrestrial fossil animals showed a bears a clear-cutmark made for cutting the oblique internal muscle of the abdomen (Denys et al., 1984). Wood-working and nearly exclusive diet of C3 plants suggesting an open C3 grassland ecology (Bocherens et al., 1996). At Thomas Quarry, the bone-scraping polishes are evident on several Acheulean artefact edges (quartzite and sandstone) from Thomas Quarry I and environment consisted of a near seashore depression in which an intermittent braided stream drained, with probable ponds III sites (Beyries and Roche, 1982). These include two choppers, a polyhedron, a flake and a denticulate (from Thomas Quarry and sparse vegetations (Texier et al., 2002). The abundance of alcelaphines, gazelles and white rhinoceros suggest an open 1); and two bifacial choppers and two flakes (from Thomas Quarry 3 [currently Oulad Hamida]) savannah but gelada, porcupine and lynx also reflect a rugged landscape (Geraads, 1980).

In the Sahara, Palaeolithic occupations are associated with alternating ‘humid-arid’ climatic periods. The humid periods correspond to lacustrine and fluvial deposits whereas the arid episodes are related to eolian depositions and the dissection Palaeoecological settings of wadis. In the north-western Sahara, Oldowan assemblages dated to the early Pleistocene are found within lacustrine sediments and associated with pollens of Mediterranean flora (Alnus, Ulmus) suggesting that Oldowan tool-makers occupied Only a few palaeoenvironmental and palaeoclimatic reconstructions are known to be associated with Lower Palaeolithic the area during a humid period (Alimen, 1981). Similarly, the Acheulean occupation took place primarily during a humid sites in the Maghreb. The available information is mainly derived from research recently undertaken on some sites, and the period with a great deal of rainfall. Fossil pollens found in conglomeratic deposits sealing Acheulean occurrences indicate the reconstruction attempts were inferred from stratigraphy, fauna, carbon isotope ratios and pollen. At the Oldowan sites of Ain existence of Mediterranean species along with tropical taxa (Beucher in Alimen, 1981). Lastly, according to Thomas (1977), the Hanech and El-Kherba, sedimentological evidence indicates an alluvial floodplain setting possibly traversed by a meandering heterogeneity of Tihodaine fauna was due to fluctuations between humid and arid climate. For example, while Cerathotherium channel. The fauna suggests an open and arid landscape, inferred from the presence of more hypsodont bovines, an increase simum, Taurutragus cf. derbianus, Alcelaphus buselaphus, Connochaetes cf. prognu and Canis aff. aureus correspond to in the abundance of equids, and the disappearance of the gazelle Parantidorcas that inhabits a less open landscape (Sahnouni wooded savannah, Gazella and Oryx indicate a desert environment. The vegetation cover was characterized by a mixture of et al., 2010; 2011). Yet, Hippopotamus and crocodile at El-Kherba indicate the presence of standing water or a riverine Mediterranean and semi-desert species. environment. A stable-carbon isotopic study of El-Kherba pedogenic carbonates corroborates the indications provided by

10. Example of a whole flake made from flint bearing usewear evidence, used in meat processing (analysis 11. Evidence of environmental change at the early Pleistocene site of El-Kherba (Algeria) based on carbon isotopic undertaken by Verges Bosch, 2002). © J.M. Vergès analysis of pedogenic carbonate stable carbon (A) and stable oxygen (B) isotope values plotted against the major palaeosol intervals and archaeological levels (after Sahnouni et al., 2011).

140 141 6 Northern Africa Northern Africa 6

Perspectives in the framework of the World Heritage Convention the generally accepted scenario regarding hominid expansion into the Northern Hemisphere. The current evidence indicates VJCVGCTN[JQOKPKFUEQNQPK\GFVJG'WTCUKCPNCPFOCUUUJQTVN[DGHQTG|/C+PFGGFVJGQNFGUVRTGUGPEGQHJQOKPKFUQWVQH#HTKEC As is clearly shown throughout this chapter, the Maghreb has a wealth of Lower Palaeolithic sites that are significant not KUFQEWOGPVGFKPVJG%CWEWUCVVJGUKVGQH&OCPKUKKP)GQTIKC&OCPKUKKUFCVGFVQ|/CCPFJCU[KGNFGFUGXGTCNJQOKPKF only for the fields of palaeoanthropology and prehistory but also for the world archaeological heritage. Of these sites, the fossils associated with an early Pleistocene fauna and Oldowan-like artefacts (Gabunia and Vekua, 1995; Gabunia et al., 2000, Ain Hanech/Ain Boucherit sequence and Tighennif (formerly Ternifine) in Algeria, and the Casablanca sites in Morocco, are FG.WONG[GVCN /QFG+CTVGHCEVUHTQO%JKPCCTGFCVGFVQ|/CCV/CLWCPIQW 0KJGYCPDCUKP 

Considering that the three sites are subject to an increasing threat of destruction by development, and that they have potential for World Heritage candidature, it is strongly recommended that these sites be submitted to the Tentative List for the future recognition, conservation and research of sites relating to the process of human evolution in Africa within the framework of the Action Plan of the World Heritage Thematic Programme, Human Evolution: Adaptations, Dispersals and Social Developments (HEADS). The sites are suitable candidates for inscription on such a list, given that they fulfil the criteria being set by the international experts for the selection of African human origin sites, including the presence of hominids (in Tighennif and some Casablanca sites), artefacts and fauna; appropriate dating; availability of palaeoenvironmental data; and publication in international peer-reviewed journals. The recognition and inclusion in the World Heritage List of African human origin sites will better ensure their long-term conservation and the management of their specific vulnerability, as well as their promotion for multidisciplinary international research and diffusion of knowledge.

Conclusions

This chapter summarizes the current evidence on the Lower Palaeolithic record in the Maghreb (Figure 12). The Maghreb documents major Lower Palaeolithic sites found in sealed and primary context; and a large number of these sites have yielded pertinent information on the time, nature and palaeoecology of ancestral hominid settlements in this region of Africa. The Ain Hanech archaeological evidence shows that the human presence in North Africa dates back to c.||/CCPFVJG earliest artefact tradition was the Oldowan (Sahnouni, 2006a; Sahnouni and de Heinzelin, 1998; Sahnouni et al., 2002; 2004), sensu stricto East African Oldowan (e.g. Leakey, 1971; Semaw et al., 1997; Semaw, 2000). This contrasts with the short chronology model proposed by archaeologists working in Morocco (Raynal et al., 2001; 2002; 2004). According to VJKUUJQTVEJTQPQNQIKECNOQFGNVJGGCTNKGUVJWOCPQEEWRCVKQPKPVJG/CIJTGDKUFCVGFVQ|/CCPFVJGGCTNKGUVUVQPGVQQN 12. Synopsis presenting the main Lower Palaeolithic sites of the Maghreb including their chronologies, tradition was the Acheulean. While this model may be appropriate for Atlantic Morocco, it cannot be extrapolated to the industries and hominids correlated with key cultural events and hominids in sub-Saharan Africa. entire Maghreb. In contrast, the long chronology model for an early human occupation in the Maghreb fits relatively well in © M. Sahnouni 142 143 6 Northern Africa Northern Africa 6

their acquisition of food resources and water supplies. In spite of the changing ecology, meat probably constituted a major ____. 1957. Les fouilles du gisement de Ternifine et l’Atlantropus (1954–6). Poitiers-Angoulême, Congrès Préhistoriques de part of early hominid diet, as indicated by the presence of cutting meat traces on stone tools and hominid-inflicted butchery (TCPEGRR|s marks on fossil animal bones. No Oldowan hominids have been discovered so far, but those responsible for the Acheulean activities may form two groups: H. ergaster (= early H. erectus) and late H. erectus from which the modern humans of the ____. 1970. Les vertébrés du Pléistocène de l’Afrique du Nord. Archives du Museum National d’Histoire Naturelle8QN| Maghreb might have emerged. RR|s

To summarize, the Lower Palaeolithic evidence from the Maghreb shows that this part of the African continent has the potential ____. 1979. Les vertébrés Villafranchiens d’Afrique du Nord. Paris, Singer-Polignac. for contributing significantly to a better understanding of early human adaptation to the Mediterranean ecology, and for providing possible clues on the time and route of their subsequent dispersal into Europe. For this reason, sites yielding pertinent Arambourg, C. and Balout, L. 1955. L’Ancien lac de Tihodaïne et ses gisements préhistoriques. In: L. Balout (ed), Actes du knowledge of the history of humanity – particularly Ain Hanech, the Casablanca sequence and Tighennif – need to be further Congrès Panafricain de Préhistoire, Alger2CTKU#TVUGV/ÅVKGTU)TCRJKSWGURR|s considered for their potential inclusion in the World Heritage List of human origin sites in Africa for future conservation. Arambourg, C. and Biberson, P. 1956. The fossil human remains from the Paleolithic site of Sidi Abderrahman (Morocco). American Journal of Physical Anthropology8QN|RR|s

Acknowledgements Arambourg, C. and Hoffstetter, R. 1963. Le gisement de Ternifine. Paris, Archives de l’Institut de Paléontologie Humaine, 0Q| I would like to thank Dr Nuria Sanz for inviting me to attend the UNESCO meeting, ‘African Human Origin Sites and the World Heritage Convention’, held in Addis Ababa (Ethiopia), in February 2011. I am also grateful to several institutions for making my Arzarello, M., Marcolini, F., Pavia, G., Pavia, M., Petronio, C., Petrucci, M., Rook, L. and Sardella, R. 2009. L’industrie lithique du Palaeolithic research possible through financial support and logistic help, especially for the Ain Hanech Palaeoanthropological site pléistocène inférieur de Pirro Nord (Apricena, Italie du Sud): une occupation humaine entre 1,3 et 1,7 Ma. L’Anthropologie, Research Project (AHPRP, Algeria), including the Algerian Ministry of Culture, the Institute of Archaeology of the University 8QN|RR|s of Algiers, Centre National de Recherche Préhistorique, Anthropologique et Historique (CNRPAH) and the local authorities of Guelta Zergua village in Algeria; CENIEH (Spain); Stone Age Institute and CRAFT Research Center (Indiana University), National #UHCY$$G[GPG;5WYC)9CNVGT4|%9JKVG6|&9QNFG)CDTKGN)CPF;GOCPG66JGGCTNKGUV#EJGWNGCP Science Foundation, L.S.B. Leakey Foundation, Wenner-Gren Foundation and the Society for Exploration from Konso-Gardula. Nature8QN| RR|s and Research (United States). Balout, L. 1955. Préhistoire de l’Afrique du Nord. Paris, et Métiers Graphiques.

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____. 1964. Note sur un galet aménagé de Reggan. Libyca8QN|RR|s Sahnouni, M., Hadjouis, D., van der Made, J., Derradji, A., Canals, A., Medig, M., Belahrech, H., Harichane, Z. and Rabhi, M. 2002. Further research at the Oldowan site of Ain Hanech, north-eastern Algeria. Journal of Human Evolution8QN| Raynal, J.P., Geraads, D., Magoga, L., E-Hadjraoui, A., Texier, J.P., Lefèvre, D. and Sbihi-Alaoui, F.Z. 1993. La Grotte des RR|s Rhinocéros (Carrière Oulad Hamida 1, anciennement Thomas III, Casablanca), nouveau site Acheuléen du Maroc Atlantique. Comptes Rendus de l’Académie des Sciences8QN|5GTKGU|++RR|s ____. 2004. On the earliest human occupation in North Africa: a response to Geraads et al. Journal of Human Evolution, 8QN|RR|s Raynal, J.P., Sbihi Alaoui, F.Z., Geraads, D., Magoga, L. and Mohi, A. 2001. The earliest occupation of North Africa: the Moroccan perspective. Quaternary International8QN|RR|s Sahnouni, M. and van der Made, J. 2009. The Oldowan in North Africa within a biochronological framework. In: N. Toth and K. Schick (eds), The Cutting Edge: New Approaches to the Archaeology of Human Origins. Bloomington, Stone Age Institute Raynal, J.P., Sbihi Alaoui, F.Z., Magoga, L., Mohib, A. and Zouak, M. 2002. Casablanca and the earliest occupation of North 2TGUURR|s Atlantic Morocco. Quaternaire8QN|RR|s Sahnouni, M., van der Made, J. and Everett, M. 2010. Early North Africa: chronology, ecology, and hominin behavior: insights Raynal, J.P., Sbihi-Alaoui, F.Z., Mohib, A. and Geraads, D. 2004. Préhistoire ancienne du Maroc Atlantique: bilan et perspectives from Ain Hanech and El-Kherba, north-eastern Algeria. Quaternary International8QN|sRR|s régionales. Bulletin d’Archéologie Marocaine8QN|RR|s

148 149 6 Northern Africa Northern Africa 6

____. 2011. Ecological background to Plio-Pleistocene hominin occupation in North Africa: the vertebrate faunas from Ain Desert environment: background and consequences for con- Boucherit, Ain Hanech and El-Kherba, and paleosol stable-carbon-isotope studies from El-Kherba, Algeria. Quaternary Science Reviews8QNRR|s servation of early archaeological sites in North Africa

Sbihi-Alaoui, F.Z. and Raynal, J.P. 2002. Casablanca: un patrimoine géologique et préhistorique exceptionnel. Quaternaire, Rudolph Kuper 8QN|0Q|RR|s Heinrich-Barth-Institut e.V. – Universität zu Köln (University of Cologne) – Germany

Semaw, S. 2000. The world’s oldest stone artefacts from Gona, Ethiopia: their implications for understanding stone technology and patterns of human evolution between 2.6–1.5 million years ago. Journal of Archaeological Science, vol. 27(12), pp.1197– 1214. The Egypto- is vulnerable to man’s activities in another, very different sense. Having been subjected to wind erosion for a great period of time, evidence of its past successive human occupations are all concentrated together on the 5GOCY54GPPG2*CTTKU,9-(GKDGN%$GTPQT5(GUUCJC0CPF/QYDTC[4|OKNNKQP[GCTQNFUVQPGVQQNU present surface. Hence if appreciable progress is ever to be made in the interpretation of the human past in this desert it seems from Gona, Ethiopia. Nature8QN|RR|s probable that special methods involving comparative statistics concerning the surface density and distribution of the various V[RGUQHCTVKHCEVUYKNNDGPGEGUUCT[|e|$WVCNCUJWOCPPCVWTGKUUWEJVJCVVJGVGORVCVKQPVQRKEMWRCPFTGOQXGCPEKGPV Semaw, S., Rogers, M.J., Quade, J., Renne, P.R., Butler, R.F., Dominguez-Rodrigo, M., Stout, D., Hart, W.S., Pickering, T. and artifacts seen lying on the ground is almost irresistible. Even now the original statistical pattern of artifact distribution must in 5KORUQP59|OKNNKQP[GCTQNFUVQPGVQQNUCPFCUUQEKCVGFDQPGUHTQO1)5sCPF1)5s)QPC#HCT'VJKQRKC some places have already spoilt (Bagnold, 1982). Journal of Human Evolution8QN|RR|s

Texier, J.P., Lefèvre, D. and Raynal, J. P. 1994. Contribution pour un nouveau cadre stratigraphique des formations littorales quaternaires de la région de Casablanca (Maroc). Comptes Rendus de l’Académie des Sciences8QN|5GTKGU|++ RR|s Introduction

Texier, J.P., Lefèvre, D., Raynal, J.P. and El Graoui, M. 2002. Lithostratigraphy of the littoral deposits of the last one million years The above quote from Ralph Bagnold, one of the best-known early explorers of the Libyan desert, clearly presents the in the Casablanca Region (Morocco). Quaternaire8QN|RR|s dilemma that we face when trying to implement arrangements to protect the cultural and environmental heritage in desert areas. In this chapter, I do not deal with desert parks in general but try to focus – mainly from the viewpoint of Texier, J.P., Raynal, J.P. and Lefèvre, D. 1986. Thoughts on the Quaternary chronology of Morocco. In: F. Lopez-Vera (ed.), Climatic an archaeologist, for whom the desert is an open book of history – on some problems of the management of protected fluctuations during the Quaternary in the Western Mediterranean Regions: Quaternary Climate in Western Mediterranean. areas arising mainly from their remoteness and the impracticability of organizing any kind of control. Most of the /CFTKF7PKXGTUKFCF#WVQPQOKCFG/CFTKFRR|s pertinent problems, however, are not specific to protected areas but concern the conservation of desert heritage in general. Protected areas do, however, provide a chance to focus on certain threats and to develop means and methods 6JQOCU)&ÅEQWXGTVGFoKPFWUVTKGFWITQWRGFGNC‡RGDDNGEWNVWTG|—UWTNGXGTUCPVPQTFFGU/QPVUFW6GUUCNC #NIÅTKG  that can then be implemented on a larger scale for the general protection of the environment and archaeology. Sa place dans la stratigraphie du pléistocène inférieur et moyen de l’Oranie. Comptes Rendus de l’Académie des Sciences, 8QN|5GTKGU|&RR|921–24. UNESCO has repeatedly stressed the need for a more balanced and credible list of cultural and natural World Heritage sites and mentioned the less-represented sites, especially the desert landscape of the Sahara and the cultures that Thomas, H. 1977. Géologie et Paléontologie du gisement acheuléen de l’Erg Tihodaine, Ahhagar-Sahara Algérien. Mémoires have developed within it. This part of the world, which for so long has been regarded as an expanse without history, du Centre de Recherches Anthropologiques Préhistoriques et Ethnographiques XXVII, Alger, SNED. JCURNC[GFCETWEKCNTQNGKPVJGRCTVKEWNCTN[KORQTVCPVRJCUGDGVYGGP|$%CPF|$%YJGPHCXQWTCDNGENKOCVKE conditions allowed the development of the first African pastoralist societies. At the end of this humid phase, around Tixier, J. 1957. Le hachereau dans l’Acheuléen nord-africain. Notes typologiques. Actes du Congrès Préhistorique de France. |$%VJGRTQITGUUKXGCTKFKV[QHVJG5CJCTCCPFVJGEQPUGSWGPVOQXGOGPVUQHRGQRNGVQYCTFUVJG0KNG8CNNG[CPFVJG 2QKVKGTU#PIQWNÆOG:8ÄOG5GUUKQPRR|s sub-Saharan areas set in motion the processes which led to the development of the Egyptian civilization and the great African migrations. It is this special historical role that puts this region at the centre of African history and instigates ____. 1958–59. Les industries lithiques d’Ain Fritissa (Maroc Oriental). Bulletin d’Archéologie Marocaine8QN|RR|s measures for the protection of its heritage.

Toro-Moyano, I., de Lumley H., Barsky, D., Celiberti, V., Cauche, D., Moncel, M-H., Fajardo, B. and Toro, M. 2003. Las industria líticas de Barranco León y Fuenta Nueva 3 de Orce. Estudio técnico y typológico. Análisis traceológico. Resultados preliminares. In: El Pleistoceno Inferior de Barranco León y Fuenta Nueva 3, Orce (Granada)/GOQTKC%KGPVÉHKEC%CORCĢCUs The cradle of African pastoralism Junta de Andalucía, Consejería de Cultura. Looking at the stunning assemblage of hundreds of skulls around the Vaufrey, R. 1955. Préhistoire de l’Afrique. Tome 1, Maghreb. Paris, Masson. second-millennium BC tombs at the city of Kerma in (Chaix, 2001; Bonnet, 2004) or the early dynastic bucrania from Saqqara in Egypt (Emery, Verges Bosch, J.M. 2002. Caracterizacio dels models d’instrumental litic del mode I a partir de les dades de l’analisi funccional 1954), and recognizing the pride and intimate relations between humans and dels conjunts litotecnics d’Ain Hanech i El-Kherba (Algeria), Monte Poggiolo i Isernia la Pineta (Italia). Tarragona, Spain, cattle expressed by countless much older rock paintings from all over the Sahara Universitat Rovira i Virgili. (Figure 1), it becomes evident that cattle pastoralism with its related ideological background must have played an important role in arid north-east Africa for Zhu, R.X., Potts, R., Xie, F., Hofmann, K.A., Deng, C.L., Shi, C.D., Pan, Y.X., Wang, H.Q., Shi, R.P., Wang, Y.C., Shi, G.H. and thousands of years. Pastoralism based on cattle, often combined with sheep Wu, N.Q. 2004. New evidence on the earliest human presence at high northern latitudes in Northeast Asia. Nature8QN| and goats, is still the prevailing subsistence strategy in the arid and semi-arid RR|s zones of Africa which today make up more than one-third of the continent. 1. Rock paintings from all over the Sahara The origins and development of this cultural phenomenon are far beyond the give a vivid impression of the crucial role that cattle played during the period of the chronological reach of cultural anthropology, and it is one of archaeology’s ‘Sahara Savannah’ and obviously also reflect strengths to be able to record cultural behaviour over long periods of time the pride of the herders in their animals. Here is an example from Uan Derbaouen in and to differentiate between changes of various time depths. On the other the Tassili Mountains, Algeria. © Lhote Fund, hand, prehistoric evidence is scarce due to the frequently poorly-developed coll. de Préhistoire, copyright and courtesy MNHN, Paris. 150 151 6 Northern Africa Northern Africa 6

state of archaeological research in Africa and the mostly poor preservation of Collaborative Research Centre ACACIA (Kuper and Kröpelin, 2006). Although far from complete and inclined to reveal the faunal remains at open-air settlement sites in arid regions, especially because of gaps in knowledge – especially regarding environmental and economic data – it can nevertheless serve as the background to the effect of wind erosion. Moreover, today this scarce evidence is endangered a scenario of Holocene human occupation in the desert areas of north-east Africa (Figure 4). by the impact of growing desert tourism.

Radiocarbon dates for the earliest domesticated animals in Africa clearly prove that the north-eastern part of the continent is where animal husbandry took off /CE&QPCNFCPF/CE&QPCNF%NQUG TGCEJKPI9GUV#HTKECKP|$% $TGWPKICPF8CP0GGT.KPUGGNG 'CUV#HTKECKP|$% /CTUJCNN 2000), and the southern end of the continent about 2000 years ago (Smith, 2. Scene of daily life in a cattle herders camp from the region between 5CFT #UCTGXKGYQHVJGTCFKQECTDQPFCVGFUKVGUKPPQTVJ and Jebel Ouenat in south-west Egypt. GCUV#HTKECUJQYU 4KGOGT WPGSWKXQECNGXKFGPEGHQTECVVNGMGGRKPIKPVJKU |*GKPTKEJ$CTVJ+PUVKVWVG8 CTGCUVCTVUCVCTQWPF|$%(TQOVJGPQPYCTFUKVYCURTGUGPVVJTQWIJQWVVJG 0GQNKVJKERTGF[PCUVKERGTKQFQH'I[RVWPVKNKVHQWPFFWTKPIVJGVJKTFOKNNGPPKWO $%OCTXGNNQWUGZRTGUUKQPKPVJGHCUEKPCVKPI illustrations – such as those furnishing the Old Kingdom tombs of Ti, Mereruka and QVJGTPQDNGUKP5CSSCTCsXKXKFN[TGHNGEVKPI the daily life of the farmers and testifying to close human–animal relations. Outside VJG0KNG8CNNG[VJGUCOGKPVKOCE[KUOKTTQTGF in numerous Saharan rock paintings that, FGURKVG VJGKT QPN[ CRRTQZKOCVG FCVKPI WPGSWKXQECNN[FGOQPUVTCVGVJGGZVGPVVQ which cattle dominated the life of the artists (Figure 2).

.QQMKPIHQTVJGQTKIKPUQHVJKUYC[QHNKHG the Holocene human occupation of the 'CUVGTP 5CJCTC CPF KVU FGRGPFGPEG QP changing environmental conditions needs to be followed up with regard to different geographical settings and latitude in the various sub-areas. The following general outline of the Holocene development is TGHNGEVGFKPOQTGVJCPTCFKQECTDQP FCVGUHTQOVJG'CUVGTP5CJCTCCPFVJG0KNG 8CNNG[ 6JKU HTCOGYQTM EQORTKUKPI HQWT stages of Holocene human occupation from n'CTN[oVJTQWIJn/KFFNGoCPFn.CVGoVQn(KPCNo (Figure 3), may serve as a background for a more comprehensive understanding of the importance of this region for the history of Africa as a whole.

The Sahara savannah

The chronological framework for the eastern Sahara now available, covering an area from 3. Earliest appearance of domesticated cattle, sheep, and goats in the regional sequences of the Holocene occupation of the eastern Sahara, Siwa in the north to Wadi Howar more than 4. Climate-controlled occupation in the eastern Sahara during the main phases of the Holocene (Kuper arranged along a north–south gradient. Outlined cattle represent |MOHCTVJGTUQWVJKUOCKPN[VJGTGUWNV and Kröpelin, 2006). Red dots indicate major occupation areas; white dots indicate isolated settlements in uncertain identification or dating. Sequences are represented by ecological refuges and episodic transhumance. Rainfall zones are delimited by best estimate isohyets on the cumulative curves of calibrated radiocarbon dates from the B.O.S. and of large-scale interdisciplinary research into basis of geological, archaeozoological, and archaeobotanical data: A – During the last Glacial Maximum and ACACIA projects (green) and from other research conducted in the VJGNCPFUECRGCTEJCGQNQI[QHVJG'CUVGTP terminal Pleistocene (20,000–8500 BC) the Saharan desert was void of any settlement outside of the Nile Valley. Valley, the Egyptian oases, and the region of Nabta Playa / Bir Kiseiba B – With the abrupt arrival of monsoon rains at 8500 BC, the hyper-arid desert was replaced by savannah-like (blue). The dashed line indicates the latitudinally distinct times of human 5CJCTC6JKUYCUUVCTVGFKPD[VJG environments and was swiftly inhabited by hunter-gatherer groups. C – After 7000 BC human settlement became abandonment of rain-dependent core desert areas; dates to the right of Besiedlungsgeschichte der Ost-Sahara $15  well-established all over the Egyptian Sahara, fostering the earliest adoption of domesticated animals (by c. 6000 VJGNKPGCTGHTQOUKVGUNQECVGFENQUGVQRGTOCPGPVYCVGTQT|KPGZVTC\QPCN BC) by hunter-gatherer groups. D – Retreating monsoonal rains caused the onset of desiccation of the Egyptian ecologically-favoured areas, such as the Gilf Kebir. project at the University of Cologne and was Sahara at 5300 BC. Pastro-foragers were forced to emigrate to the Nile Valley, to ecological refuges, or to the © Heinrich-Barth-Institut e.V. EQPVKPWGFDGVYGGPCPFD[KVU Sudanese Sahara where they developed fully-fledged pastoralism. © Heinrich-Barth-Institut e.V. 152 153 6 Northern Africa Northern Africa 6

(QTCRGTKQFQHCVNGCUV[GCTUFWTKPIVJGVGTOKPCNRJCUGQHVJG2NGKUVQEGPGCPFDGHQTGVJGQPUGVCHVGT|$%QH CV'CUVRCPUPGCTVJGGCUVGTPGPFQHVJG#DW$CNNCUTGIKQPYJGTGECVVNGCTGYGNNFQEWOGPVGFKPVJGCTEJCGQ\QQNQIKECNTGEQTF OQPUQQPCNTCKPUVJCVQRGPGFVJG*QNQEGPGKPPQTVJGTP#HTKECVJG5CJCTC&GUGTVGZVGPFGFCDQWV|MOHCTVJGTUQWVJVJCP CTQWPF|$% )GJNGPGVCN )GPGTCNN[KVYCUPQVWPVKNVJGGPFQHVJG(QTOCVKQPRJCUGCV|$%VJCVJGTFKPI KVFQGUVQFC[ -TÒRGNKPR| 6JKUKUENGCTN[TGHNGEVGFD[VJGNCEMQHNCVG2NGKUVQEGPGUKVGUKPFGUGTVTGIKQPU (KIWTGC  CRRGCTUVQJCXGDGEQOGCXKVCNJWOCPUWDUKUVGPEGUVTCVGI[KPVJG'I[RVKCP5CJCTCYJKNGCVVJGUCOGVKOGVJGHKTUVHCTOKPI +PEQPVTCUVKPVJG0KNG8CNNG[CENWUVGTQH.CVG2CNCGQNKVJKEUKVGUECPDGQDUGTXGFGURGEKCNN[KPVJGCTGCPQYEQXGTGFD[VJG communities developed in the Fayum area. #UYCP.CMGYJGTGUKIPKHKECPVCTEJCGQNQIKECNTGUGCTEJCPFTGUEWGYQTMVQQMRNCEGKPVJGGCTN[U*QYGXGTCVVJGGPFQH VJG2NGKUVQEGPGVJG0KNG8CNNG[GZRGTKGPEGFOCLQTEJCPIGUQHVJGTKXGToUEQWTUGVTKIIGTGFD[KPETGCUGFTCKPHCNNKPVJG#HTKECP JKIJNCPFU1DXKQWUN[FWGVQCn9KNF0KNGo $WV\GT NKXKPIEQPFKVKQPUCNQPIVJGTKXGTDGECOGJCTUJCPFOC[JCXGECWUGF EQORGVKVKQPHQTURCEGCPFHQQFTGUQWTEGU6JKUKUUWIIGUVGFHQTGZCORNGD[FTCUVKEGXKFGPEGQHXKQNGPEGYKVJKPVJGEGOGVGT[ Return of the desert QH,GDGN5CJCDCCVVJGGCUVGTPDCPMQH#UYCP.CMGFCVGFVQDGVYGGPCRRTQZKOCVGN[|$%CPF|$% 9GPFQTH  #VVJKU5WFCPGUGUKVGPGCT9CFK*CNHCENQUGVQVJG'I[RVKCPDQTFGTOCP[QHVJGUKZV[QPGGZJWOGFKPFKXKFWCNU KPENWFKPI 6JGTGVTGCVCHVGT|$%HTQOTGIKQPUVJCVYGTGDGEQOKPICTKFKPVQCTGCUYKVJRGTOCPGPVYCVGTKPVQGZVTC\QPCNGEQNQIKECN nine children) were found with flint points in their decayed bodies or embedded in their skeletons. PKEJGUUWEJCUVJG)KNH-GDKTRNCVGCWQTHCTVJGTUQWVJVQVJG5WFCPGUGRNCKPUYJGTGTCKPHCNNCPFUWTHCEGYCVGTYGTGUVKNN sufficient (Figure 4d), fostered more regionally diverse sociocultural adaptations. A small number of radiocarbon dates from #VVJGDGIKPPKPIQHVJG*QNQEGPGYKVJVJGCTTKXCNQHOQPUQQPCNTCKPUKPVJGPKPVJOKNNGPPKWO$%CUCXCPPCJNKMGGPXKTQPOGPV VJGYGUVGTPHTKPIGUQHVJG)TGCV5CPF5GCCPFVJG#DW/WJCTKS2NCVGCWTGHNGEVURQTCFKEQEEWRCVKQPYJGTGCUVJGGCUVGTP#DW OCFGVJG'CUVGTP5CJCTCJCDKVCDNG9JGPVJGHKTUVRGQRNGTGQEEWRKGFVJGCTGCKUUVKNNCOCVVGTQHURGEWNCVKQP0KNGFYGNNGTU /KPSCTCPF#DW$CNNCUCTGCUNKGYKVJKPVJGTCPIGQHVTCPUJWOCPEGHTQOVJG(CTCHTCCPF&CMJNCQCUGU+PVJGXCNNG[UYJKEJ might have left the then inhospitable river valley, while groups from the south, already adapted to savannah ecology, would FKUUGEVGF)KNH-GDKTEGTCOKEVTCFKVKQPUFGXGNQRGFVJCVECPDGFGVGEVGFNCVGTKPVJG.CSK[CCTGCQHPQTVJGTP5WFCP+PIGPGTCN LWUVJCXGHQNNQYGFVJGKTVTCFKVKQPCNYC[QHNKHG6JGKT'RKRCNCGQNKVJKEVQQNMKVCUYGNNCUCTEJCGQ\QQNQIKECNHKPFKPIUTGXGCNVJGO VJGRTGXKQWUN[YKFGURTGCFn9CX[NKPG%QORNGZo QTn-JCTVQWOUV[NG%QORNGZo YCUTGRNCEGFD[PGYTGIKQPCNFGXGNQROGPVUKP CUJWPVGTICVJGTGTUYJQsHQNNQYKPI9GPFQTHoUCTIWOGPVU )CWVKGT9GPFQTHGVCN sRQUUKDN[CNTGCF[ pottery and other cultural components. This includes, in particular, the rise of cattle pastoralism as reflected in the rock art of RTCEVKUGFUQOGECVVNGJWUDCPFT[KPVJG0CDVC-KUGKDCTGIKQP (KIWTGD 9JKNGVJGGXKFGPEGHQTUWEJCPGCTN[nRCUVTQHQTCIKPIo ,GDGN1WGPCVCPF)KNH-GDKTCPFKPVJGNCVGTUGVVNGOGPVTGOCKPUQHVJG.CSK[C#TGCCPF9CFK*QYCT -GFKPI  economy is inconclusive, the presence of well-made pottery bearing wavy-line decorations is a general achievement of the PKPVJOKNNGPPKWO$%CPFKUCNUQHQWPFKPQVJGTRCTVUQHVJGUQWVJGTP5CJCTCDGVYGGPVJG0KIGTCPFVJG0KNG ,GUUG 6JKU %QORCTKPIVJKU5CJCTCPRCVJYC[KPVQHQQFRTQFWEKPIGEQPQOKGUYKVJVJGVTCFKVKQPCN0GCT'CUVGTPOQFGNQHn0GQNKVJK\CVKQPo TGQEEWRCVKQPQHVJG'CUVGTP5CJCTCOWUVJCXGRTQEGGFGFTCVJGTSWKEMN[WRVQVJGHCTPQTVJYGUVQH'I[RVYJGTG'RKRCNCGQNKVJKE KVVWTPUQWVVQDGCURGEKHKE0QTVJ#HTKECPXCTKCPVQHVJKUDCUKEEJCPIGKPEWNVWTCNGXQNWVKQPKPUVGCFQHVJGYGUVGTP#UKCP UGVVNGOGPVKPVJG4GIGPHGNFCTGCKPVJGEGPVTCN)TGCV5CPF5GCRTQXGUVJCVUWKVCDNGNKXKPIEQPFKVKQPUYGTGCNTGCF[RTGUGPV transition from mobile hunter-gatherers to sedentary, yet pre-ceramic farmers and stock-keepers, we see pottery-producing DGHQTG|$%KPYJCVKUVQFC[VJG.KD[CPFGUGTVoUOQUVDCTTGPRCTV 4KGOGT-WRGT  hunter-gatherers, pastro-foragers, as well as hunter-fishers replaced by nomadic cattle-herders in desert or the dry savannah GPXKTQPOGPVUQHVJG5CJCTC9KVJVJGGZEGRVKQPQHVJG0KNG8CNNG[CPFVJGQCUGUEGTGCNHCTOKPIFQGUPQVUGGOVQJCXGDGGP Most striking in the overall distribution of sites from this period is an almost complete lack of evidence of occupation of the a constituent of this Saharan mode, given that even the best environmental settings were insufficient for agriculture and the 'I[RVKCP0KNG8CNNG[YJGTGQPN[VJGUKVGQH'N-CDVGUVKHKGUVQJWOCPRTGUGPEGFWTKPIVJCVVKOG 8GTOGGTUEJ 6JKU mid-Holocene savannah still provided ample wild-growing grains, fruits and tubers. EQTTGURQPFUVQVJG9CFK*QYCTCTGCKPPQTVJGTP5WFCPYJKEJCNUQNCEMUFCVGURTKQTVQ|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ÀFVGTCPF-TÒRGNKP 6JGUGHCXQWTCDNG environments farther south. EKTEWOUVCPEGUOC[JCXGOCKPVCKPGFVJGTKEJEWNVWTGQHECVVNGMGGRGTUYJQNGHVVJGKTCTVKP,GDGN1WGPCVCPF)KNH-GDKTFWTKPI VJGUGEQPFJCNHQHVJGHKHVJCPFVJGHQWTVJOKNNGPPKWO$% #HVGT|$%JWOCPUGVVNGOGPVDGECOGYGNNGUVCDNKUJGFCNNQXGTVJG.KD[CPFGUGTVFWGVQGEQPQOKECPFVGEJPQNQIKECN CFCRVCVKQPVQVJGFKHHGTGPVTGIKQPCNGEQNQIKECNTGSWKTGOGPVU (KIWTGE +PVJGPQTVJYKVJKPVJGTGCEJQHVJG'I[RVKCPNKOGUVQPG #EQORCTKUQPDGVYGGPVJGFKUVTKDWVKQPQHJWOCPUGVVNGOGPVCTQWPF|$%YKVJVJCVQHCTQWPF|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|$%CTGENGCTN[TQQVGFKPVJG0GCT'CUVGTP Riemer and Jesse, 2006). However, the most important achievement of this formative phase was the adoption and rapid 0GQNKVJKE*QYGXGTQPVJGQVJGTJCPFPQVQPN[VJGCDQXGOGPVKQPGFGNGOGPVUQHVJGKTUVQPGVGEJPQNQI[DWVCNUQGUUGPVKCN URTGCFQHNKXGUVQEMJGTFKPICHVGTVJGKPVTQFWEVKQPQHFQOGUVKECVGFUJGGRCPFIQCVUHTQOVJG0GCT'CUV (KIWTG 1PVJG aspects of their social and cognitive world might be traced back to western origins. This especially concerns the role of Saharan QVJGTJCPFECVVNGOKIJVJCXGDGGPFQOGUVKECVGFNQECNN[CPFCTGYGNNFQEWOGPVGFCVRNCEGUUWEJCU0CDVC2NC[C 9GPFQTH ECVVNGJGTFGTUCPFVJGKTURKTKVWCNJGTKVCIGKPVJG0GQNKVJKEQHVJG0KNG8CNNG[4GEGPVN[KVJCUDGGPUVTGUUGFVJCVVJG$CFCTKEWNVWTG GVCN)CWVKGT YJGTGVJG[OCTMVJGDGIKPPKPIQHJGTFKPIsVJGWNVKOCVGQTKIKPQH#HTKECPRCUVQTCNKUO*QYGXGT QPVJGOKFFNG0KNGKUOCKPN[TGRTGUGPVGFD[EGOGVGTKGU 9GPITQY /QUVQEEWRCVKQPUKVGUEQPUKUVQPN[QHCUJNC[GTU FWGVQTGIKQPCNHCEVQTUVJGGEQPQOKEDCUGFKHHGTGFUWDUVCPVKCNN[HQTGZCORNGDGVYGGPCTGCUUWEJCU0CDVC2NC[CCPFVJG#DW cultural debris and animal droppings, and they recall African stock pans. Together with poor evidence for permanent dwellings $CNNCUTGIKQPYJGTGTKEJHCWPCNOCVGTKCNHTQOUGXGTCNUKVGUCV/WFRCPUsFCVGFVQDGVYGGP|$%CPF|$%sTGXGCNGF CPFFQOGUVKECTEJKVGEVWTGVJKUUWIIGUVUCTCVJGTOQDKNGQTUGOKUGFGPVCT[GZKUVGPEGFWTKPIVJGGCTN[RTGF[PCUVKEQHVJGUGEQPF PQGXKFGPEGQHFQOGUVKENKXGUVQEM 8CP0GGTCPF7GTROCPP-WRGT  JCNHQHVJGHKHVJOKNNGPPKWO$%+PVJGTGEGPVRCUVVJGGZECXCVKQPQHVJGUGCUQPCNJWPVKPICPFHKUJKPIUKVGQH/CJICT&GPFGTC EQPHKTOGFVJGnVGORQTCT[EJCTCEVGTQH$CFCTKCPUGVVNGOGPVUo *GPFTKEMZCPF8GTOGGTUEJ*GPFTKEMZGVCN DWV While neither the dates themselves nor the radiocarbon curves indicate any rupture in the development during this phase, at also illustrated that hunting and fishing still continued; the first in elite and religious behaviour, the second to complement UQOGNQECNKVKGUUWEJCU&LCTCCUYGNNCU/WFRCPUCHCKPVEJCPIGKPRQVVGT[CPFUVQPGCTVGHCEVUKUFGVGEVCDNGDGHQTG|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n.CVG0GQNKVJKEo |$%YJGPVJGTGIWNCTOQPUQQPCNTCKPUEGCUGFVQTGCEJVJG'I[RVKCP5CJCTCCUKIPKHKECPVFGENKPGQHFCVCKPVJGEQTG EQORNGVGCPKOCNDQFKGUYGTGGZJWOGFKPENWFKPIQPGKPVGTTGFKPCECTGHWNN[DWKNVDWTKCNEJCODGTYKVJCYQQFGPUWRGTUVTWEVWTG FGUGTVQHVJG)TGCV5CPF5GCCPFQPVJG#DW/WJCTKSRNCVGCWKPFKECVGUCVGTOKPCVKQPQHUGVVNGOGPV%QORCTKPIHQTGZCORNG CPFFCVGFVQ|$% 9GPFQTHCPF5EJKNF 6JWU5CJCTCPECVVNGVTCFKVKQPUOKIJVYGNNJCXGDGEQOGCPGUUGPVKCNRCTV the radiocarbon dates from Djara with those from the Fayum and Dakhla Oasis, emigrations from the desert into the latter QH0GQNKVJKENKHGQPVJGHTKPIGUQHVJG0KNG8CNNG[CPFOC[JCXGEQPVTKDWVGFRTCEVKECNN[CPFURKTKVWCNN[VQVJGNQPINCUVKPICPF areas become obvious (Figure 3). EQORNGZRTQEGUUQHVJGTKUGQHVJG2JCTCQPKEEKXKNK\CVKQP+PRCTVKEWNCTJQYGXGTECVVNGTGNCVGFRTCEVKEGUKFGQNQI[CPFUQEKCN DGJCXKQWTETGCVGFKPVJG'CUVGTP5CJCTCOCFGVJGKTYC[HTQOJGTGVJTQWIJVJGEQPVKPGPVYJQUGUQWVJGTPVKRYCUTGCEJGF 6JGHGYFCVGUCHVGT|$% (KIWTGTGFNKPG DGNQPIVQUKVGUTGNCVKXGN[ENQUGVQRGTOCPGPVYCVGTCPFsKPVJGECUGQH&LCTC only 2,000 years ago. In many parts of the continent today African herders – whether Fulani in West Africa, Dinka in , sOKIJVTGHNGEVGRKUQFKEXKUKVUD[UOCNNUVQEMJGTFGTUHTQOVJG0KNG8CNNG[#NVGTPCVKXGN[UWEJGXKFGPEGQHUJQTVVGTOUGVVNGOGPV /CUCKKP-GP[CQT*KODCKP0COKDKCsYKVJVJGKTRTQWFVTCFKVKQPUUVKNNRTQXKFGCXKXKFRKEVWTGQHYJCVOKIJVDGECNNGFnNKXKPI OC[DGNKPMGFVQNQECNN[CXCKNCDNGITQWPFYCVGTYJKEJCVVTCEVGFQEECUKQPCNITC\KPIVTKRUHTQOVJGQCUGUTGIKQPHQTGZCORNG CTEJCGQNQI[o 154 155 6 Northern Africa Northern Africa 6

Desert parks in the eastern Sahara museum, can be driven by their pursuit of discovery and souvenirs and thoughtlessly, even if not deliberately, impact the EQPVGZVWCNKPHQTOCVKQPJKFFGPKPRTGJKUVQTKEUKVGUsCNQUUQHEWNVWTCNJGTKVCIGVJCVECPPGXGTDGTGENCKOGF$GECWUGOQUV This new estimation of the Holocene development in north-east Africa is mainly based on the results of archaeological and FGUGTVRCTMUCTGNQECVGFKPTGOQVGCTGCUPQTGIWNCTEQPVTQNKURQUUKDNGCPFCUVJG[ECPPQVDGHGPEGFKPnHGPEGUoJCXGVQDG GPXKTQPOGPVCNTGUGCTEJECTTKGFQWVKPVJG'CUVGTP5CJCTCFWTKPIVJGNCUVVJKTV[[GCTU#UCEQPUGSWGPEGQHVJGKTGZRGTKGPEGU erected in the minds of the visitors and their guides. So from the outset, all efforts of conservation should be accompanied by FWTKPIGZVGPFGFHKGNFYQTMKPVJGFGUGTVUEJQNCTUQHVJG7PKXGTUKV[QH%QNQIPGYJQYGTGKPXQNXGFKPVJGUGUVWFKGUQXGTVJG RTQITCOOGUQHKPHQTOCVKQPGFWECVKQPCPFVTCKPKPICPFDGEQORNGVGFD[OGCUWTGUQHnRTGXGPVKXGCTEJCGQNQI[o years tried to support the endeavours of concerned states to protect important sites of their cultural and natural history, KPENWFKPIUQOGWPKSWGCTEJKXGUQHTQEMCTV5QVGP 6JGHQNNQYKPIEQPUKFGTCVKQPUCFFTGUUOCKPN[VYQITQWRUQHFGUGTVVTCXGNNGTU C VJQUGYKVJNKVVNGQTPQKPVGTGUVKPNCPFUECRG years ago Sudan had already designated Wadi Howar and history who regard the desert merely as a scenario for an adventurous trip, and (b) others who, fascinated by the scenery CUC0CVKQPCN2CTMKP'I[RVGUVCDNKUJGF)KNH CPFVJGQOPKRTGUGPVVTCEGUQHOCPoURCUVKPKVCTGEQPUWOGFD[VJGVGORVCVKQPUQHCOCVGWTCTEJCGQNQI[$GVYGGPVJGUGVYQ -GDKT0CVKQPCN2CTM%JCFKUEWTTGPVN[RTQOQVKPI groups are (c) those who are simply hunting for souvenirs. All of them, however, are the intended targets of information and VJGEQPEGRVQH'PPGFK1WPKCPIC0CVKQPCN2CTMCPF education programmes which aim to raise awareness of the vulnerability of the desert and the understanding that archaeology KP70'5%1NCWPEJGFCPKPKVKCVKXGVQOCMG KUPQVUKORN[VJGSWGUVHQTJKUVQTKECNQDLGEVUDWVHWPFCOGPVCNN[VJGUGCTEJHQTVJGKTEQPVGZV the Jebel Ouenat natural and cultural heritage site C6TCPUDQWPFCT[%WNVWTCN.CPFUECRGQH'I[RV.KD[C %QPUGSWGPVN[KPHQTOCVKQPRTQITCOOGUCKOGFCVTCKUKPICYCTGPGUUHQTVJGFGUGTVoUXCNWGUKPVJGHKTUVKPUVCPEGYKNNCFFTGUUVJG CPF5WFCP -TÒRGNKP-TÒRGNKPCPF1GJO open-minded members within a tourist group, but should at the same time activate and enable its guides and accompanying -WRGT 6JGTGCNK\CVKQPQHVJG official personnel to control the remainder. With regard to the high environmental motivation of many desert travellers, there original aims of all these projects (Figure 5), however, seems to be a realistic chance of finding active support among them when trying to convince them to refrain from moving has been substantially hampered by a number of CPFEQNNGEVKPICTVGHCEVU+VFQGUPQVUGGOGCU[YJGPVCNMKPICDQWVVJGKORQTVCPEGQHRTGUGTXKPIEQPVGZVVQTGEQIPK\GCPF political, financial, bureaucratic and also personal FGHKPGYJCVEQPUVKVWVGUCPCTEJCGQNQIKECNUKVG5QOGETKVGTKCCTGUGNHGXKFGPVQVJGTUJCXGVQDGFGFWEGFHQTGZCORNGHTQO KUUWGUVJCVSWGUVKQPVJGHGCUKDKNKV[QHRTQLGEVUWPFGT VJGRTGUGPEGQHCTVGHCEVU5KVWCVKQPUYJGTGECWVKQPUJQWNFDGCFXKUGFDGECWUGCTEJCGQNQIKECNGXKFGPEGECPDGGZRGEVGFCTG such circumstances and how their effectiveness can for instance, obvious in be developed. Q rock shelters and caves that are a priori possible habitation sites of prehistoric man and preferred places for rock paintings and engravings; Q stone circles, and other structures that might be remains of dwellings, graves or hunting devices; Raising awareness of ‘hidden Q geological profiles, such as stratified sediments of fossil lakes, that might enclose prehistoric objects like potsherds, monuments’ stone artefacts, bones, etc.

The main difficulties are rooted in the environmental The major part of archaeological surface sites, however, is difficult to conditions that make the desert an open book of FKUVKPIWKUJKPVJGFGUGTVNCPFUECRG'XGPVJQWIJVJG[CTGVJGOCKP JKUVQT[YJGTGsCU$CIPQNFJCURQKPVGFQWV   features representing human habitation sites in this environment, – due to wind erosion all remains from the past are they essentially consist only of a scatter of stone artefacts that to the GZRQUGFQPVJGUWTHCEG (KIWTG 6JKUHCUEKPCVKPI untrained eye are hard to differentiate from natural stones. Only where situation now often turns into a problem as, in the larger objects like milling stones and grinders, or bones and even boundlessness of the desert, visitors, who would stones catch the eye do such structures more easily reveal their normally never steal an artefact from an open-air UGVVNGOGPVEJCTCEVGT0GXGTVJGNGUUVJGUGnJKFFGPOQPWOGPVUoCTGVJG main source of information about the daily life of past societies, about 5. Map of existing and planned desert parks in the eastern Sahara. their economic base, the state of technology, the social structure of © Heinrich-Barth-Institut e.V. the community and the environmental conditions that determined its NKHG6QCPUYGTUWEJSWGUVKQPUJQYGXGTKUQPN[RQUUKDNGnKHVJGQTKIKPCN UVCVKUVKECNRCVVGTPQHCTVKHCEVFKUVTKDWVKQPKUWPFKUVWTDGFoCUUVCVGFD[ 4CNRJ$CIPQNF  #OGFKGXCNFQEWOGPVOKUUKPICPWPMPQYP PWODGTQHRCIGUQTC2JCTCQPKEKPUETKRVKQPOKUUKPIRGEMGFQWV hieroglyphs are virtually as worthless as the stolen pieces themselves YJGPVJG[CTGVCMGPQWVQHEQPVGZV6JGTGCUQPHQTFGUVTWEVKQPOKIJV DGUKORN[XCPFCNKUO (KIWTG VJGRNC[KPUVKPEV (KIWTG EQNNGEVKQP \GCN (KIWTG QTRGTJCRUGXGPVJGKPVGPVKQPVQJGNRVJGCTEJCGQNQIKUVU (KIWTG 6JGnLWUVQPGVQQNoVCMGPQWVQHVJGEQPVGZVQHVJQWUCPFU QHQVJGTUEQWNFDGsCUVJGGZCORNGKP(KIWTGUJQYUsCETWEKCNNKPM in a chain of information decoding a message from the past.

6. Excavation in %QPUGSWGPVN[VJGOCKPEJCNNGPIGVQRTGXGPVHWTVJGTFGUVTWEVKQPQH Egypt’s Great Sand prehistoric desert sites is twofold. First, visitors have to be informed Sea. The car tracks visible in the centre of the picture 7. In spite of its difficult visibility, some visitors demonstrate how to the Gilf Kebir National Park detected this assemblages of settlement site and used the stone artefacts to pottery exposed in write their initials ‘KO-MA’, thus damaging the the foreground could contextual information hidden in their distribution. have been impacted. |*GKPTKEJ$CTVJ+PUVKVWVG8 |*GKPTKEJ$CTVJ Institut e.V. 156 157 6 Northern Africa Northern Africa 6

and their visits monitored. Second, and most essential, their guides, drivers and official escorts have to be sufficiently trained to be able to identify prehistoric artefacts and sites. Only then will they be able to act as rangers and not only observe the visitors, 9. At the foot of the ‘’ in Wadi Sura DWVCNUQVJGKTQYPVGCOOGODGTUYJGPHQTGZCORNGUGVVKPIWRECORQTYJGTGCECTJCUCEEKFGPVCNN[JKVCPCTEJCGQNQIKECN 8. Visitor impact at a herder’s visitors have collected grinding equipment that campsite close to the ‘Cave of originally might have marked single dwelling places UKVG+VKUGXKFGPVVJCVUWEJCPGEGUUCT[VTCKPKPIRTQITCOOGYKNNDGSWKVGFKHHKEWNVVQTGCNK\GPQVQPN[YKVJTGICTFVQVJG Swimmers’ in Wadi Sura (south- within the settlement around the lake, visible by its heterogeneous participants but particularly because of the local infrastructure and administrative obstruction. west Egypt). deposits in the foreground. © Heinrich-Barth-Institut e.V. © Heinrich-Barth-Institut e.V. 1HVJGFGUGTVRCTMUOGPVKQPGFCDQXGQPN[)KNH-GDKT0CVKQPCN2CTM'I[RVoUNCTIGUVRTQVGEVGFCTGCCV|MOŽJCUDGGP UWDLGEVVQUQOGCFOKPKUVTCVKXGGHHQTVUUKPEG+P5WFCPVJGHWTVJGTFGXGNQROGPVQH9CFK*QYCT0CVKQPCN2CTMYCU QDUVTWEVGFD[VJG&CTHWTEQPHNKEVYJKNG'PPGFK1WPKCPIC0CVKQPCN2CTMKP%JCFKUUVKNNKPRTGRCTCVKQP#NUQVJGRTQLGEVQH ,GDGN1WGPCVCUC6TCPUDQWPFCT[%WNVWTCN.CPFUECRGQH'I[RV.KD[CCPF5WFCPKUUVKNNCVCRTGNKOKPCT[UVCIG5QVJGHQNNQYKPI TGOCTMUOCKPN[TGN[QPUQOGQDUGTXCVKQPUCPFGZRGTKGPEGUFWTKPIVJGHQWT[GCTUUKPEG)KNH-GDKT0CVKQPCN2CTMYCUGUVCDNKUJGF

Conclusion

+VKUEGTVCKPN[CFKHHKEWNVEJCNNGPIGVQOCPCIGCRCTMCTGCVJCVKUUKVWCVGFHCTVJGTVJCP|MOHTQOKVUJGCFSWCTVGTU WPEQPPGEVGFVQCP[VTCHHKETQWVGCPFXQKFQHCP[JWOCPRQRWNCVKQP$GECWUGQHVJGUGEQPFKVKQPU)KNH-GDKT2CTMENGCTN[FKHHGTU HTQOQVJGTEQORCTCDNGFGUGTVRCTMUUWEJCU#ECEWUQT6CUUKNKPo#LLGT0GXGTVJGNGUUVJKUUKVWCVKQPRTQXKFGUVJGEJCPEGVQFGXGNQR new protection strategies that might serve as pilot projects for similar problems.

Indeed – bearing in mind that it is not possible to establish regular ranger posts and that instead of fencing in the park area, nHGPEGUoPGGFVQDGUGVWRKPVJGOKPFUQHVJGXKUKVQTUsCVTCKPKPIRTQITCOOGJCUCNTGCF[DGGPNCWPEJGFKPVJGHKTUV[GCTQH )KNH-GDKT0CVKQPCN2CTMKP$CJCTK[CQCUKUHQTFGUGTVFTKXGTUCPFIWKFGUKPQTFGTVQCESWCKPVVJGOYKVJFKHHGTGPVCURGEVUQHVJGKT LQDHTQOIGQITCRJ[CPFCTEJCGQNQI[VQOGFKECNECTGCPFVJGRTQVGEVKQPQHVJGGPXKTQPOGPV (KIWTG #NVJQWIJCRTQRGT curriculum was still lacking, the reception among the thirty participants was very positive, not least because these efforts met with the growing understanding among tour operators that the desert only can continue to attract tourists as long as it can maintain its natural pristine state.

10. At the extended Stone Age 11. Before the site of ‘Willmann’s Camp’ had been habitat of ‘Willmann’s Camp’, impacted by visitors, excavations at the foot of the where visitors have systematically dune revealed unique evidence: 14 re-sharpening arranged artefacts. spells of a could be refitted to the original © Heinrich-Barth-Institut e.V. engraving instrument. Found within a circle of only |OVJG[ENGCTN[OCTMVJGWPFKUVWTDGFYQTMKPIRNCEG of a Stone Age craftsman from c. 8 Ka ago. © Heinrich-Barth-Institut e.V.

12. Training course for desert drivers and guides of Farafra and Bahariya oases in western Egypt, 2007. |*GKPTKEJ$CTVJ+PUVKVWVG8

158 159 6 Northern Africa Northern Africa 6

6JGTGKUCPGGFHQTCRTQRGTOCPCIGOGPVRNCPCFGSWCVGXKUKVQTKPHQTOCVKQPGFWECVKQPRTQITCOOGUU[UVGOCVKEVTCKPKPIQH %JCKZ.#PKOCNUCUU[ODQNU6JGDWETCPKCQHVJGITCXG-0 -GTOC0QTVJGTP5WFCP +P*$WKVGPJWKUCPF9 TCPIGTUCPFKPETGCUGFEQPVTQNCPFOQPKVQTKPIQHVQWTKUVITQWRUCPFVJGKTXKUKVU'ZVGTPCNGZRGTVUYJQEQWNFRTQXKFGURGEKHKE 2TWOOGN GFU Animals and Man in the Past. Essays in Honour of Dr A.T. Clason)TQPKPIGP)GTOCP[#4%RR|s field studies necessary for a comprehensive management plan should be, in turn, supported by the administrative bodies #4%2WDNKECVKG regulating access to the park. Monitoring of foreign funding in favor of conservation measures and ensuring its proper KORNGOGPVCVKQPKUCNUQTGSWKTGF6JGGHHGEVKXGOCPCIGOGPVQHUWEJCEJCNNGPIKPICTGCECNNUHQTCDQF[QHUMKNNGFRGQRNGYKVJ %NQUG#|'5KPCK5CJCTC5CJGNVJGKPVTQFWEVKQPQHFQOGUVKEECRTKPGUVQ#HTKEC+P,GPPGTUVTCUUG GFU QREKV CPGHHKEKGPVHNGZKDNGKPHTCUVTWEVWTG1PN[WPFGTUWEJOCPCIGOGPVYKNNKVDGRQUUKDNGVQCEJKGXGCRTQRGTFGITGGQHRTQVGEVKQP RR|s CPFKORNGOGPVUQOGQHVJGHQNNQYKPITGEQOOGPFCVKQPU 'OGT[9|$Great Tombs of the First Dynasty, 8QN|.QPFQP'I[RV'ZRNQTCVKQP5QEKGV[ Q Regularly repeated training courses for desert drivers and guides. Q Framing comprehensive curricula for these courses. )CWVKGT#6JG'CTN[VQ.CVG0GQNKVJKECTEJCGQHCWPCUHTQO0CDVCCPF$KT-KUGKDC+P9GPFQTHGVCN GFU QREKV Q 2TKPVKPINGCHNGVUYKVJDCUKEKPHQTOCVKQPQPVJGFKHHGTGPVVQRKEUQHVJGEQWTUGU RR|s Q Including military and police escorts in this programme. Q Distributing information leaflets among tourist groups and in hotels. AAAA#PKOCNFQOGUVKECVKQPKP0QTVJ#HTKEC+P/$QNNKI1$WDGP\GT48QIGNUCPICPF*29QV\MC GFU Aridity, Q Desert code of conduct signed by each registered tourist. Change and Conflict in Africa%QNNQSWKWO#HTKECPWO8QN|%QNQIPG)GTOCP[*GKPTKEJ$CTVJ+PUVKVWVRR|s Q 1DNKICVKQPVQMGGRVQHKZGFTQWVGUKPOCLQTUKVGUQHKPVGTGUV Q Control by remote route-tracking devices. )GJNGP$-KPFGTOCPP-.KPUVÀFVGT,CPF4KGOGT*6JG*QNQEGPGQEEWRCVKQPQHVJG'CUVGTP5CJCTCTGIKQPCN Q Random ranger patrols. EJTQPQNQIKGUCPFUWRTCTGIKQPCNFGXGNQROGPVUKPHQWTCTGCUQHVJGCDUQNWVGFGUGTV+P,GPPGTUVTCUUG GFU QREKV Q Arrangement of camping areas with sanitary facilities at main sites of interest. RR|s Q Setting up information plates at main sites of interest. Q #EVKQPUQHnRTGXGPVKXGCTEJCGQNQI[o *GPFTKEMZ5CPF8GTOGGTUEJ22TGJKUVQT[(TQOVJG2CNCGQNKVJKEVQVJG$CFCTKCPEWNVWTG cs$% +P+ Shaw (ed.), The Oxford History of 1ZHQTF7-1ZHQTF7PKXGTUKV[2TGUURR|s 6JGNCUVRQKPVGUUGPVKCNN[EQPEGTPUVJGRTGUGTXCVKQPQHCTEJCGQNQIKECNUKVGU#UVJGGZCORNGQH&LCTCUJQYUYJGTGVJGFTKRUVQPG cave now attracts thousands of tourists every year, it is possible to implement protection if the relevant information reaches *GPFTKEMZ5/KFCPV4G[PGU$CPF8CP0GGT9 Mahgar Dendera 2 (Haute Egypte), un site d’occupation Badarien. concerned institutions at the right time. At Djara – thanks to the immediate notification by the discoverer and well before 'I[RVKCP2TGJKUVQT[/QPQITCRJU8QN|.GWXGP$GNIKWO.GWXGP7PKXGTUKV[2TGUU VJGHKTUVVQWTKUVTGCEJGFVJGUKVGsKPCPCTEJCGQNQIKECNUWTXG[CPFVGUVGZECXCVKQPUYGTGCDNGVQDGECTTKGFQWVVJCVNCVGT TGUWNVGFKPCOCLQTCTEJCGQNQIKECNTGUGCTEJRTQITCOOGKPVJGGPVKTGCTGC -KPFGTOCPP +PEQPVTCUVPGCTVJG%CXGQH *QRG%|#'CTN[CPF/KF*QNQEGPGEGTCOKEUHTQOVJG&CMJNGJQCUKUVTCFKVKQPUCPFKPHNWGPEGU+P4(TKGFOCP GF  $GCUVUCV9CFK5WTCKPVJG)KNH-GDKTTGIKQPVJGCTEJCGQNQIKECNEQPVGZVKPKVUUWTTQWPFKPIUYCUFCOCIGFTKIJVCHVGTKVUFKUEQXGT[ Egypt and Nubia – Gifts of the Desert.QPFQP$TKVKUJ/WUGWO2TGUURR|s in 2004 (Figure  *QYGXGTCUOCP[VQWTKUVUYJQRGTJCRUFKUEQXGTCPCTEJCGQNQIKECNUKVGYKNNDGTGCF[VQEQQRGTCVGYKVJVJG TGURGEVKXGKPUVKVWVKQPUKVKUOCKPN[COCVVGTQHQTICPK\KPIVJGKPHQTOCVKQPCPFCEVKPIQPKV6JKUEGTVCKPN[TGSWKTGUOQDKNGWPKVU +NNKHHG,Africans: The History of a Continent.%CODTKFIG7-%CODTKFIG7PKXGTUKV[2TGUU of an Archaeological Desert Survey that could well be integrated into the park management. It does not seem too utopian to think about combined patrols of environmental and archaeological rangers who could also regularly monitor the main tourism ,GPPGTUVTCUUG GFU Tides of the Desert – Gezeiten der Wüste. Contributions to the Archaeology and Environmental routes and survey hitherto untrodden areas. History of Africa in Honour of Rudolph Kuper#HTKEC2TCGJKUVQTKEC8QN|%QNQIPG)GTOCP[*GKPTKEJ$CTVJ+PUVKVWVJVVR WPKMQGNPFGUHDUQPUVKIGUMTQGRGNKP#2(GUVUEJTKHVRFH=#EEGUUGF#RTKN? n1PGQHVJGOQUVGZEKVKPIVJKPIUCDQWV#HTKECPJKUVQT[KUVJCVOWEJQHKVUVKNNYCKVUDGPGCVJVJGGCTVJoCPQRVKOKUVKEUVCVGOGPV HTQOVJG%CODTKFIGJKUVQTKCP,QJP+NNKHHG  OC[JQNFVTWGHQTVJGOCLQTRCTVQHVJGEQPVKPGPVDWVPQVHQTVJGRWTGFGUGTV Jesse, F. 2003. Rahib 80/87. Ein Wavy-Line-Fundplatz im Wadi Howar und die früheste Keramik in Nordafrika. Africa TGIKQPUYJGTG$CIPQNFoUYCTPKPI  OCMGUWUCYCTGQHVJGXWNPGTCDKNKV[QHJKUVQTKECNJGTKVCIGn2TGXGPVKXGCTEJCGQNQI[o 2TCGJKUVQTKEC8QN%QNQIPG)GTOCP[*GKPTKEJ$CTVJ+PUVKVWV might show a way to cope with this challenge. -GFKPI$Djabarona 84/13. Untersuchungen zur Besiedlungsgeschichte des Wadi Howar anhand der Keramik des 3. und 2. Jahrtausends v. Chr#HTKEC2TCGJKUVQTKEC8QN|%QNQIPG)GTOCP[*GKPTKEJ$CTVJ+PUVKVWV

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____. 2005. African Herders. Emergence of Pastoral Traditions.9CNPWV%TGGM%CNKH#NVCOKTC2TGUU

162 163 7 Southern Africa

Fossil Hominid Sites of Sterkfontein, Swartkrans, Kromdraai, and Environs, South Africa. © David L. Brill

165 7 Southern Africa Southern Africa 7

Conservation and management of human evolution-related FKUEWUUKQP 70'5%19QTNF*GTKVCIG%GPVTGb.) Integral to this theme is the biological, behavioural and technological changes – the adaptations, dispersals and social development processes – which shaped humanity into what it is today (Jacobs sites in South Africa: present and future perspectives GVCN$TQYPGVCN  6JGUGRTQEGUUGUCNUQQHHGTCYKPFQYVQCRRTGEKCVGJWOCPKV[oUVTCPUHQTOCVKQPHTQOTGNKCPEG on the natural habitat, to the largely built environment of today, making it imperative to consider cultural developments of Nonofho Mathibidi Ndobochani EQPVGORQTCT[RQRWNCVKQPUCPFJQYVJG[TGNCVGVQGCTN[VKOGU 70'5%19QTNF*GTKVCIG%GPVTGa). PhD candidate, Archaeology Department – – South Africa 6JTQWIJVJG*'#&5VJGOGVJG9QTNF*GTKVCIG%QOOKVVGGKPVGPFUVQUVTCVGIKECNN[GXCNWCVG#HTKECoUJWOCPGXQNWVKQPKUUWGU and identify the priorities for conservation and management of already listed sites, and guide the formulation of strategies HQTUKVGUKPVJG6GPVCVKXG.KUV6JG%QOOKVVGGVJGTGHQTGEQPUKFGTUVJGEQPUGTXCVKQPCPFOCPCIGOGPVQHJWOCPGXQNWVKQPUKVGU Introduction integral to its upholding of humanistic values associated with such sites, ensuring that they are enjoyed by all.

In general, recognition of human evolution as a continuing process enabling understanding of the development of early humans, the associated adaptations, dispersals and social development mechanisms that led to modern-day humanity HEADS related sites in South Africa and habitat have become fundamental to the UNESCO World Heritage Committee, as in the Action Plan of the World Heritage Thematic Programme on Prehistory (UNESCO World Heritage Centre, 2010a). The investigation of human +PEQPVGZVWCNK\KPIVJGQDLGEVKXGUQHVJG*'#&52TQITCOOGVQ#HTKECKPIGPGTCNCPFVQ5QWVJ#HTKECKPRCTVKEWNCTVJGKFGCQH evolution does not therefore end with understanding how early humans evolved, but encompasses the development #HTKECCUVJGETCFNGQHJWOCPMKPFPGGFPQVDGGORJCUK\GF5EKGPVKHKETGUGCTEJJCUCVVGUVGFVJKUCPFVJG9QTNF*GTKVCIG.KUV QHJWOCPKV[CPFKVUGZRNQKVCVKQPQHVJGGPXKTQPOGPVCUNQPICU|/CCIQCPFVJGYC[KPYJKEJUQEKCNFGXGNQROGPV CUYGNNCUVJG6GPVCVKXG.KUVUDGCTUYKVPGUUVQVJGUKIPKHKECPEGQH#HTKECKPVJGKPXGUVKICVKQPCPFWPFGTUVCPFKPIQHJWOCPKV[ RTQEGUUGUJCXGEQPVKPWGFVQUJCRGVJGGPXKTQPOGPVWPVKNVQFC[ /E$TGCTV[CPF$TQQMU5KPIGT 7PVKN recently, the emphasis has been on studying the emergence of humanity with no strong interest in the preservation The World Heritage Committee inscribed the human evolution-related property, Fossil Hominid Sites of Sterkfontein, of the places that host such evidence. This precipitated the UNESCO World Heritage Centre to push for the secure 5YCTVMTCPU-TQOFTCCKCPF'PXKTQPU 5QWVJ#HTKEC QPVJG9QTNF*GTKVCIG.KUVKPYJKEJYCUNCVGTGZVGPFGFKP conservation and management of sites bearing evidence of human evolution which it sees as a way of facilitating 6JKUUKPINGNKUVKPIKPENWFGUVJG%TCFNGQH*WOCPMKPF9QTNF*GTKVCIG5KVG %1*9*5 KP)CWVGPIRTQXKPEGVJG6CWPI5MWNN the perservation of the conditions of authenticity and integrity relating to human evolution sites. It should be noted 9QTNF*GTKVCIG5KVGKP0QTVJYGUVRTQXKPEGCPF/CMCRCP8CNNG[9QTNF*GTKVCIG5KVGKP.KORQRQRTQXKPEG6JGUKIPKHKECPEG however that, to achieve this, States Parties must have the relevant legislative frameworks to support the formulation of these sites to the understanding of the emergence of early and modern humans – anatomically and biologically – and of conservation and management strategies that allow for synergy between science and management of sites or the their relationship with the environment as it may be evidenced by the social development and cultural processes, will not be environment that preserves this invaluable record. The Committee fosters public access to these sites and engages local discussed here as it is addressed elsewhere in this volume. communities in their management. This chapter discusses the conservation and management of sites in South Africa (both listed and in the Tentative List) related to Human Evolution: Adaptations, Dispersals and Social Developments (HEADS), *QYGXGTKVKUYQTVJJKIJNKIJVKPICHGYETKVKECNKUUWGUTGICTFKPIVJGKTEQPVTKDWVKQPVQ and how the current lessons can be incorporated in developing a road map for the conservation and management of human evolution and prehistoric sites in Africa. It reviews the legislative framework protecting HEADS related sites in Q the understanding of origins and the diversity of the genus Homo, and how its genetic, biological and the country, existing conservation and management strategies and partnerships, as well as public access to such sites. CPCVQOKECNEJCTCEVGTKUVKEUCUYGNNCUVJGCUUQEKCVGFUQEKCNCPFEWNVWTCNFGXGNQROGPVCPFQTICPK\CVKQPYJKEJCTG It also highlights the complexities of conservation and management of heritage resources, with the issues of multiple CRRCTGPVCV5VGTMHQPVGKP5YCTVMTCPU-TQOFTCCKCPF6CWPIUKVGU 6QDKCUCPF%NCTMG5WUOCPGVCN pieces of legislation and decision-making bodies at times complicating, rather than simplifying, the process. In addition &o'TTKEQGVCN6JCEMGTC[GVCN6JCEMGTC[ 6JGUGUKVGUJCXGGXKFGPEGQHCFWNVOCVGTKCNQHVJG to this challenge is the lack of synergy between scientific research, management of the environment or sites, traditional hominin Australopithecus africanus, HQTGZCORNG/TU2NGUUMWNNCPFn.KVVNG(QQVoCRGOCPParanthropus robustus, management systems of such landscapes, and issues of making science in general relevant and accessible to the public. GZVKPEVOCOOCNUCPFGXKFGPEGHQTRTQDCDNGVQQNOCMGTUCPFHKTUVGXKFGPEGHQTEQGZKUVGPEGDGVYGGPGCTN[JWOCPU Although these challenges exist, South Africa has made some quantifiable progress in the management and protection CPFTQDWUVCWUVTCNQRKVJGEKPGU $GTIGTCPF6QDKCU-WOCPCPF%NCTMG6JCEMGTC[6JCEMGTC[CPF of these sites. )QOOGT[  Q the understanding of the Earth’s history, record of life and human/environment relationships as may be presented through in situRCNCGQPVQNQIKECNFGRQUKVUYJKEJCTGGXKFGPVCV)QPFQNKP)NCF[UXCNGCPF&TKOQNGP -G[UGT -G[UGTGVCN/WVVGTGVCN/GPVGT 6JGUGUKVGUCNUQJCXGGXKFGPEGQHGZVKPEVOCOOCNU Background GZVTGOGN[TQDWUVParanthropus robustusCPFOCVGTKCNUFCVKPIDGVYGGP|/CCPF|/CHQUUKNKHGTQWUFGRQUKVUFCVKPI HTQO|/CVQ|/CYKVJCTCTGQEEWTTGPEGQHLWXGPKNGHomo, HQTGZCORNG at Drimolen. 6JG70'5%19QTNF*GTKVCIG%QOOKVVGGFGHKPGUJWOCPGXQNWVKQPUKVGUCURTQRGTVKGUVJCVCTGTGNCVGFVQPCVWTCNCPFEWNVWTCN processes regarding human lineages. These are believed to include ‘biological and cultural changes testifying to the remarkable #UCEQPVTKDWVKQPVQWPFGTUVCPFKPIJWOCPKV[oUEQNQPK\CVKQPQHPGYGPXKTQPOGPVUCPFJQYVGEJPQNQIKECNKPPQXCVKQPUCPF success of our predecessors who continuously adapted to ever-changing environments and whose worldwide dispersals record social developments facilitated adaptations and dispersals, South Africa has three human evolution-related areas included VJGKTUWTXKXCNGXGPKPVJGOQUVGZVTGOGEQPFKVKQPU 70'5%19QTNF*GTKVCIG%GPVTGa). Scientific research has shown that QPKVU6GPVCVKXG.KUV6JGUGCTGKPENWFGFKPVJGUCOGRTQRGTV[2NGKUVQEGPGQEEWRCVKQPUKVGUQH-NCUKGU4KXGT$QTFGT%CXG the heritage of human evolution spans millions of years and offers insight to the emergence of the anatomical, biological and Wonderwerk Cave and comparable sites relating to the emergence of modern humans, which allows for the addition of other behavioural characteristics of humans, allowing for a better understanding of the diverse biological and socio-cultural features comparable human evolution-related sites. These sites record some of the oldest materials relating to modern humans, with VJCVEJCTCEVGTK\GJWOCPKV[ 2JKNNKRUQP 4GUGCTEJJCUHWTVJGTUJQYPVJCVGSWCNN[KORQTVCPVKPVJGWPFGTUVCPFKPIQH CTEJCGQNQIKECNOCVGTKCNUURCPPKPIVJQWUCPFUQH[GCTUCPFGXKFGPEGQHGZRNQKVCVKQPCPFKPVGTCEVKQPYKVJEQCUVCNTKXGTKPGCPF JWOCPGXQNWVKQPKUVJGTGEQTFQHNKHGKPIGPGTCNCPFVJG'CTVJoUJKUVQT[ KPXGUVKICVGFVJTQWIJIGQNQIKECNCPFRCNCGQPVQNQIKECN ECXGGPXKTQPOGPVU.QECVGFKP-YC

KP9GUVGTP%CRG2TQXKPEG$GCTKPIKPOKPFVJKUCPFVJGKUUWGUFKUEWUUGFCDQXGKVKUETKVKECNVJCVEQPUGTXCVKQPCPFOCPCIGOGPV representing all critical stakeholders, regulations, standards and procedures for these pieces of legislation need to be streamlined strategies, with legislative backing, are in place to safeguard these sites and ensure continuing research on human evolution. to ensure effectiveness and synergy. Other related challenges are discussed below.

Although the South African World Heritage Convention Act promotes that ‘the participation of all interested and affected RCTVKGUKPVJGIQXGTPCPEGQHEWNVWTCNCPFPCVWTCNJGTKVCIGOWUVDGRTQOQVGFoCPFVJCVnFGEKUKQPUOWUVVCMGKPVQCEEQWPVVJG Legislative framework KPVGTGUVUPGGFUCPFXCNWGUQHCNNKPVGTGUVGFCPFCHHGEVGFRCTVKGUoVJGTGKUUVKNNCEJCNNGPIGYKVJU[PGTIK\KPIFGEKUKQPOCMKPI RTQEGUUGU6JQWIJ5QWVJ#HTKECPUKVGUJCXGPQVDGGPRWVWPFGTVJGn9QTNF*GTKVCIGKP&CPIGToNKUV[GVVJGTGKUCPGGFVQ 6JG9QTNF*GTKVCIG%QPXGPVKQPPQYTCVKHKGFD[QHVJG/GODGT5VCVGUQH70'5%1HCEKNKVCVGFGHHQTVUVQYCTFU consider how this can easily happen if heritage concerns are not streamlined into socio-economic planning, and vice versa. HQTOWNCVKPIRQNKEKGUCPFNGIKUNCVKXGHTCOGYQTMUVQUCHGIWCTFJGTKVCIGTGUQWTEGU6JG%QPXGPVKQPGPUWTGUVJCV5VCVGU2CTVKGUVCMG Who has an upper hand in ensuring that human evolution-related sites are protected from destruction? Do decision-making effective measures to conserve and present the natural and cultural heritage. Any relevant international legislative framework processes for socio-economic amenities take into consideration commitments that South Africa has made to the World Heritage YJKEJRTQVGEVUDKQFKXGTUKV[UWEJCUVJG%QPXGPVKQPQP$KQNQIKECN&KXGTUKV[ %$& CNUQGORJCUK\GUCRRTGEKCVKQPCPF %QPXGPVKQPVJTQWIJVJG9*%#sYJKEJCRRCTGPVN[RTQVGEVUDQVJNKUVGFUKVGUCPFVJQUGKPVJG6GPVCVKXG.KUV!#FFTGUUKPIVJGUG TGURQPUKDNGGZRNQKVCVKQPQHVJGGPXKTQPOGPVYJKEJJCUUWUVCKPGFJWOCPKV[CPFEQPVKPWGUVQFQUQVJGTGD[RTQXKFKPICP challenges would improve the outlook for human evolution sites and ensure sustainability. QRRQTVWPKV[HQTUVWF[KPIRCNCGQCPFRTGUGPVJWOCPGPXKTQPOGPVTGNCVKQPUJKRU6JGEQPXGPVKQPUEJCTVGTUCPFKPVGTPCVKQPCN bodies have played a critical role in safeguarding heritage by creating a platform for the formulation of legal frameworks to /QUVQHVJG5QWVJ#HTKECPJGTKVCIG *'#&5TGNCVGFUKVGUCPFIGPGTCNCTEJCGQNQIKECNCPFRCNCGQPVQNQIKECNUKVGU KUQPRTKXCVGN[ RTQVGEVJGTKVCIGD[5VCVGU2CTVKGU5QWVJ#HTKECoU9QTNF*GTKVCIGUKVGUCTGRTQVGEVGFVJTQWIJUGXGTCNRKGEGUQHNGIKUNCVKQP+PHCEV QYPGFNCPFCPFCNVJQWIJDQVJVJG9*%#CPFVJG0*4#CTGXGT[ENGCTQPVJGOCPCIGOGPVQHJGTKVCIGTGUQWTEGUKPRTKXCVG 5QWVJ#HTKECKUQPGQHVJGHGY/GODGT5VCVGUQH70'5%1VJCVJCXGFQOGUVKECVGFVJG9QTNF*GTKVCIG%QPXGPVKQPTGUWNVKPIKP property – that there must be management plans and heritage agreements – there are still issues of free access to sites. Of VJG9QTNF*GTKVCIG%QPXGPVKQP#EV 9*%# #EV0QQHYJKEJKUQPGQHVJGOCKPNGICNKPUVTWOGPVURTQVGEVKPI9QTNF VJGUKVGUCNTGCF[NKUVGFCUGZCORNGUXGT[HGYCTGCEEGUUKDNGVQVJGRWDNKEsOQUVNCPFQYPGTUQPN[CNNQYTGUVTKEVGFCEEGUUD[ Heritage sites in the country. Other pieces of legislation that directly or indirectly protect human evolution-related sites in South researchers. While rights of property owners are appreciated, restricted access implies that local communities and the general #HTKECKPENWFGVJG0CVKQPCN*GTKVCIG4GUQWTEGU#EV'PXKTQPOGPV%QPUGTXCVKQP#EV0CVKQPCN'PXKTQPOGPVCN/CPCIGOGPV#EV RWDNKEEQPVKPWGVQDGCNKGPCVGFHTQOJWOCPGXQNWVKQPUKVGUsOCMKPIVJGOnGNKVGoUKVGUVJCVECPQPN[DGCEEGUUGFD[UEKGPVKUVU 0CVKQPCN'PXKTQPOGPVCN/CPCIGOGPV2TQVGEVGF#TGCU#EVCPFVJG0CVKQPCN'PXKTQPOGPVCN/CPCIGOGPV$KQFKXGTUKV[#EV 2TQRGTV[QYPGTUCNUQQHVGPYCPVVQMPQYYJQJCUCPWRRGTJCPFKPKUUWGUQHCEEGUUsRTQRGTV[QYPGTUQTVJGNCYRTQVGEVKPI heritage? Where access is granted, who pays for the conservation and management of resources in their properties, and who 6JG9QTNF*GTKVCIG%QPXGPVKQP#EV 9*%# #EV0QQHGPUWTGURTQVGEVKQPEQPUGTXCVKQPCPFRTGUGTXCVKQPQH9QTNF RC[UHQTVJGOCKPVGPCPEGQHCEEGUUTQCFUKPVJGKTRTQRGTVKGU YJKEJCTGWVKNK\GFHQTTGUGCTEJCPFOCPCIGOGPVRWTRQUGU ! Heritage sites, establishes management authorities for such sites, and mandates formulation of integrated management plans. 6JGOCKPCFXCPVCIGQHVJKU#EVKUVJCVKVGZRNKEKVN[RTQVGEVUVJGPCVWTCNCPFVJGEWNVWTCNJGTKVCIGDQVJQPVJG9QTNF*GTKVCIG .KUVCPFVJG6GPVCVKXG.KUV+VQHHGTUGPXKTQPOGPVCNRTQVGEVKQPCPFRTQOQVGUUWUVCKPCDNGFGXGNQROGPVCPFVQWTKUOCV World *GTKVCIGUKVGUKPNKPGYKVJVJG70'5%19QTNF*GTKVCIG%QPXGPVKQPCPFVJGOperational Guidelines for the Implementation Conservation and management strategies of the World Heritage Convention. Setting up management authorities provided for in this Act is critical for the day-to-day management of sites, and negotiating issues of access where these sites are in private property. Human evolution-related sites and management planning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other issues, materials and their on-site and off-site conservation needs – scientific management, threats to sites, general WPNGUURGTOKVVGFD[CJGTKVCIGCWVJQTKV[5GEVKQPUCHGIWCTFUVJGUGTGUQWTEGUHQTRQUVGTKV[D[CUUGUUKPIVJGKORCEVQHCNN environmental management structures, and public access to sites and information. This makes conservation and management developments with a potential threat on such resources. The advantage of this Act is that it protects – issues of effectiveness RNCPPKPIPQVQPN[CVGEJPKECNRTQEGUUHQTEQPUGTXCVKQPCPFRTGUGTXCVKQPQHJGTKVCIGTGUQWTEGU %NGGTG5OKVJ DWV CUKFGsVJGUGTGUQWTEGUKTTGURGEVKXGQHVJGKTUVCVWUKPVJGYQTNFVJGTGD[RQVGPVKCNN[RTQVGEVKPIVJQUGKPVJG6GPVCVKXG.KUVCPF also the ‘protection and administration of archaeological heritage in its original environment and in its relationship to history VJQUG[GVVQDGFKUEQXGTGF7PFGTVJGCFOKPKUVTCVKQPQHVJG5QWVJ#HTKECP*GTKVCIG4GUQWTEGU#IGPE[ 5#*4# CPF2TQXKPEKCN CPFEQPVGORQTCT[UQEKGV[o $KQTPUVCFRR| +VKUYQTVJPQVKPIVJCVOCPCIGOGPVRNCPPKPIOWUVDGRTGEGFGFD[VJG *GTKVCIG4GUQWTEGU#WVJQTKVKGU 2*4#U VJG#EVOCPFCVGUKFGPVKHKECVKQPCUUGUUOGPVEQPUGTXCVKQPCPFOCPCIGOGPVQH proper inventory and documentation of sites. Sites must be surveyed and documented to create a baseline of their physical JGTKVCIGTGUQWTEGUKPENWFKPIJWOCPGXQNWVKQPTGNCVGFUKVGU5#*4#EQQTFKPCVGUUWEJCEVKXKVKGUHQT0CVKQPCN*GTKVCIG5KVGUYJKNG characteristics which can in turn be used to monitor their deterioration. While scientific research is the main contributor to 2*4#UCTGTGURQPUKDNGHQTTGUQWTEGUCVRTQXKPEKCNCPFNQECNNGXGN+VUJQWNFDGOGPVKQPGFJQYGXGTVJCVYKVJVJGUNQYRTQEGUU this process, the authorities and managers must also ensure that research and conservation concerns are addressed through of identification and evaluation of sites to determine whether they are of national or provincial level, human evolution-related action plans. The World Heritage Committee considers sound conservation and management of human evolution-related sites sites are under threat – with conservation and management becoming the sole responsibility of researchers. as a vehicle to uphold humanistic values that must be enjoyed by all. In response to this, the South African World Heritage Convention Act mandates setting up management authorities, which should facilitate the formulation of conservation and As indicated earlier, there are other legislative tools protecting human evolution-related sites, even though they may have management plans, and ensure coordination and monitoring of resources in WHS by all stakeholders. The management PQVDGGPQTKIKPCNN[UGVHQTVJCVRWTRQUG*WOCPGXQNWVKQPTGNCVGFUKVGUKP5QWVJ#HTKECCNUQIGVRTQVGEVKQPHTQOVJG0CVKQPCN authorities ensure that sites are accessible for research, and where possible, accessible for educational and tourism purposes. 'PXKTQPOGPVCN/CPCIGOGPV2TQVGEVGF#TGCU#EV 0'/2## 0QQHCPFVJG0CVKQPCN'PXKTQPOGPVCN/CPCIGOGPV The management of proclaimed palaeontological, palaeoanthropological and archaeological sites within the WHS is the $KQFKXGTUKV[#EV #EVQH  EQHWPEVKQPQHVJGOCPCIGOGPVCWVJQTKVKGUKPNKPGYKVJVJG9*%#CPF5#*4#VJTQWIJVJG0*4#5#*4#KUTGURQPUKDNGHQT VJGEQQTFKPCVKQPCPFOQPKVQTKPIQHTGUGCTEJQPUWEJUKVGUVJTQWIJ5GEVKQPQH0*4# Considering the above, South Africa seems to have done well in terms of providing the legislative framework necessary for conserving and managing its natural and cultural heritage. This clearly demonstrates that one would want to obtain HTQO/GODGT5VCVGUPQVQPN[TCVKHKECVKQPQHVJG9QTNF*GTKVCIG%QPXGPVKQPDWVOGCUWTGURWVKPRNCEGVQHCEKNKVCVG /CPCIGOGPVUVTCVGIKGU that, particularly legislation. However, there must be synergy between the various pieces of legislation and a coordinated KORNGOGPVCVKQPRTQEGUUVJCVCNNQYUHQTVJGCEJKGXGOGPVQHVJGKPVGPFGFCKOUQHVJGNGIKUNCVKQPYKVJKPVJGEQPVGZVQHEWTTGPV +PVGITCVGFOCPCIGOGPVRNCPUCPFURGEKHKEOCPCIGOGPVRNCPUJCXGDGGPHQTOWNCVGFHQTVJGJWOCPGXQNWVKQPTGNCVGFUKVGU societal needs. included in World Heritage listed properties in South Africa. The advantage of integrated management planning is in relating JGTKVCIGTGUQWTEGUVQVJGDTQCFGTNCPFUECRGKPYJKEJVJG[GZKUVVJGTGD[ETGCVKPICRNCVHQTOHQTKPXGUVKICVKPIJQYJWOCPKV[ 6JG5QWVJ#HTKECP9QTNF*GTKVCIG%QPXGPVKQP#EVTGEQIPK\GUVJGTQNGQHVJG0*4#CPFVJG0CVKQPCN'PXKTQPOGPVCN evolved, the adaptation, dispersal and social development processes, and the associated enabling environmental conditions. /CPCIGOGPV#EV 0'/# KPVJGRTQVGEVKQPEQPUGTXCVKQPCPFOCPCIGOGPVQH9QTNF*GTKVCIGUKVGU6JGQPN[UPCIKUVJG Specific plans for these sites have provided detailed assessments of conservation and management issues at site level, and the challenge of implementing these many pieces of legislation that are overseen by different authorities – too many pieces of development of action plans. These plans discuss the legislative and administrative issues, site descriptions – which include legislation and implementing bodies often create lethargy. Although this can be averted by having management authorities VJGRJ[UKECNHGCVWTGUXCNWGUCPFUKIPKHKECPEGQHUKVGUsCPFUKVGCPCN[UKUVJCVNQQMUCVVJGUVCVWUSWQCPFCUUGUUGUVJGTKUMCV 168 169 7 Southern Africa Southern Africa 7

such sites. Such assessment considers the challenges for the surface and cave deposits, research and research-related issues, YJGTGCPCTTCPIGOGPVKUOCFGHQTKPVGITCVGFRGTOKVUKVOGCPUCNNUVCMGJQNFGTUOWUVDGCFGSWCVGN[GSWKRRGFCPFUVCHHGF and management and public access issues at such sites. The action plans set out the management and monitoring tasks for otherwise research activities will be hampered. SAHRA and the Cradle of Humankind World Heritage Site Management ETKVKECNUVCMGJQNFGTUCUOCPFCVGFD[NGIKUNCVKQPs9*%#CPF0*4#sCPFVQGPUWTGCFJGTGPEGVQVJKUNGIKUNCVKXGTGSWKTGOGPV #WVJQTKV[ %1*9*5/# CTGEWTTGPVN[RKNQVKPIVJGKPVGITCVKQPQHRGTOKVVKPIRTQEGUUGUWPFGT5GEVKQPQHVJG0*4#YKVJ Heritage Agreements are drawn up between landowners and the management authorities (on behalf of other stakeholders). 'PXKTQPOGPVCN#WVJQTK\CVKQPUVJCVVJG%1*9*5/#JCUVQKORNGOGPVKPNKPGYKVJ0'/#TGIWNCVKQPU#NNDGKPIYGNNVJKU 4GUGCTEJQPJWOCPGXQNWVKQPTGNCVGFUKVGUCPFJGTKVCIGTGUQWTEGUKPIGPGTCNKURGTOKVVGFD[5#*4#CPF2*4#U9KVJVJG could be one of the tools for integrated conservation and management of human evolution-related sites, thereby ensuring OCLQTKV[QHKPUETKDGFUKVGUCNUQJCXKPI0CVKQPCN*GTKVCIG5KVGUVCVWUVJTQWIJVJG0*4#5#*4#KUVJGOCKPRGTOKVVKPIDQF[ UWUVCKPCDNGOCPCIGOGPVQH9QTNF*GTKVCIGNCPFUECRGU'ZVGPFKPIVJKUCRRTQCEJVQKORNGOGPVKPIQVJGTUGEVKQPUQHVJG HQTTGUGCTEJCEVKXKVKGU 5GEVKQP CPFEQQTFKPCVKQPQHFGXGNQROGPVCEVKXKVKGU 5GEVKQP VJCVOKIJVVJTGCVGPUWEJUKVGU #EVUYQWNFGXGPGPUWTGRTQVGEVKQPQHUKVGUKPVJG6GPVCVKXG.KUV+PEQTRQTCVKQPQHVJG9QTNF*GTKVCIG%QPXGPVKQP#EVKPVJG #|DKCPPWCNKPURGEVKQPCPFOQPKVQTKPIRTQITCOOGKUEWTTGPVN[KPRNCEGCPFWPFGTVCMGPD[CNNETKVKECNUVCMGJQNFGTU (KIWTG  RGTOKVVKPICPFGPXKTQPOGPVCNFGEKUKQPOCMKPIRTQEGUUGUYQWNFQHHGTGHHGEVKXGRTQVGEVKQPGXGPHQTUKVGUKPVJG6GPVCVKXG.KUV It is meant to monitor research activities as well as to evaluate the implementation of conservation and management plans. which are often under more threat from development than the already listed sites.

$QVJVJG0*4#CPFVJG0'/#OCPFCVGCPKORCEVCUUGUUOGPVHQTRTQLGEVUYKVJRQVGPVKCNKORCEVQPJGTKVCIGTGUQWTEGU The nature of deposits and the state in which the materials present themselves must be accommodated in permitting processes, CPFVJGGPXKTQPOGPV#NNETKVKECNUVCMGJQNFGTUJCXGCUC[CPFVJG&GRCTVOGPVQH'PXKTQPOGPVCN#HHCKTUKUUWGUFGXGNQROGPV conservation and management strategies. As research has shown, the understanding of human evolution does not rely CWVJQTK\CVKQPDCUGFQPVJGUVCMGJQNFGTUoEQPEGTPU7PNKMGOQUV#HTKECPEQWPVTKGU5QWVJ#HTKECJCUNGIKUNCVKQPTGIWNCVKQPU solely on the completeness of what is being studied, as even pieces of bones or fragments of artefacts can yield invaluable guidelines and standards for carrying out impact assessments. This integrated approach to environmental management is KPHQTOCVKQP'SWCNN[KORQTVCPVVJGTGHQTGKUVJGCOQWPVQHVKOGQHVGPTGSWKTGFHQTGZECXCVKPIJWOCPGXQNWVKQPTGNCVGFUKVGU CFXCPVCIGQWUHQT*'#&5TGNCVGFUKVGU6JGQPN[EJCNNGPIGCTKUGUYJGTGVJGUQEKQGEQPQOKEPGGFUCTGRTKQTKVK\GFQXGTJGTKVCIG and permitting bodies, landowners and management authorities must be mindful of this. resources and government overrules the decisions of heritage and environmental authorities, or heritage management is not RNCPPGFKPVJGEQPVGZVQHEQPVGORQTCT[UQEKGVCNPGGFU 6JGTGNCVKQPUJKRDGVYGGPKOOQXCDNGCPFOQXCDNGJGTKVCIGKUQHVJGWVOQUVKORQTVCPEGVQVJG70'5%1*'#&59QTNF*GTKVCIG 2TQITCOOG6JGEQPUGTXCVKQPOCPCIGOGPVRNCPUOWUVGPUWTGU[PGTI[DGVYGGPVJGRTQVGEVKQPEQPUGTXCVKQPCPFOCPCIGOGPV QHVJGOQXCDNGCPFKOOQXCDNGTGUQWTEGUTGNCVGFVQ*'#&5UKVGUKPUVKVWVKQPCNPGVYQTMKPIKUVJWUETKVKECN/CPCIGOGPV Challenges to the implementation of management strategies authorities, heritage authorities, researchers and repositories (museums and universities) must work together to formulate CPFKORNGOGPVEQPUGTXCVKQPUVTCVGIKGUHQTUKVGUCPFEQNNGEVKQPU6JGTGEQWNFHQTGZCORNGDGKUUWGUQHUVQTCIGCPFUGEWTKV[ It should be highlighted that implementation of these plans remains a challenge due to a lack of human and financial capacity, movement of collections among researchers and institutions, and uncontrolled collecting by members of the public, all of which and the other issues that face South Africa and Africa in general. This means that the effectiveness of plans cannot be must be considered by heritage authorities, management authorities and researchers. Standards applicable to sites (immovable) CFGSWCVGN[GXCNWCVGFCPFVJGCRRTQRTKCVGEQTTGEVKXGCEVKQPVCMGP#NUQYJGTGCVVGORVUCTGOCFGVQKPVGITCVGQTUVTGCONKPG OWUVDGGZVGPFGFVQEQNNGEVKQPU OQXCDNG +P5QWVJ#HTKECVJGOCKPTGRQUKVQT[HQTKPUETKDGFJWOCPGXQNWVKQPTGNCVGFUKVGUKU FGEKUKQPOCMKPIRTQEGFWTGUVJGRTQEGUUOC[IGVGXGPOQTGEWODGTUQOGFWGVQCNCEMQHCFGSWCVGTGUQWTEGU(QTGZCORNG the Witwatersrand University in Johannesburg, with the Transvaal Museum housing a lesser percentage. This chapter purports VJCVEQNNGEVKQPUTGNCVKPIVQ*'#&5UKVGUOWUVIGVCUOWEJCVVGPVKQPCUVJGUKVGUKPVGTOUQHTGUGCTEJRTQVGEVKQP NGIKUNCVKQPCPF RQNKE[ EQPUGTXCVKQPOCPCIGOGPVHWPFKPICPFGPLQ[OGPVD[VJGRWDNKE(WPFKPIQH9QTNF*GTKVCIGUKVGUOWUVDGGZVGPFGF to conservation of collections and provision of proper facilities for storage and analysis. However, there are other challenges VJCVUJQWNFRGTJCRUDGCFFTGUUGFCV70'5%1NGXGNHQTGZCORNGVJGTGKUIGPGTCNN[CNCEMQHHWPFKPIHQTTGUGCTEJKP#HTKEC CUGXKFGPEGFD[VJGNCTIGCOQWPVQHTGUGCTEJCEVKXKVKGUKPKVKCVGFD[GZVGTPCNTGUGCTEJGTUCUQRRQUGFVQDGKPIKPKVKCVGFNQECNN[ 6JKUOGCPUVJCVCNVJQWIJ#HTKECJCUYQTNFENCUUJGTKVCIGTGUQWTEGUVJGGZRGTVKUGFQGUPQVTGUKFGKPVJGEQPVKPGPV6JGHCEV that there is also a lack of funding to build world class research facilities will affect capacity building for younger generations.

.KOKVGFHWPFKPIHQTJGTKVCIGTGUQWTEGUCHHGEVUVJGKORNGOGPVCVKQPQHVJGXCTKQWUIQQFRKGEGUQHNGIKUNCVKQPVJCVEQWPVTKGUJCXG CPF5QWVJ#HTKECKUPQVCPGZEGRVKQP#UKUVJGECUGGNUGYJGTGJGTKVCIGTGUQWTEGUJCXGVQEQORGVGHQTHWPFKPIYKVJQVJGT UQEKQGEQPQOKECOGPKVKGUCPFUKPEGVJG[CTGQHVGPEQPUKFGTGFVQJCXGPQKOOGFKCVGKORCEVQPRGQRNGoUNKXGUVJG[VGPFVQIGV less financial attention. Where management authorities are set up and management plans are in place, there is not enough human and capital funding to implement conservation measures. It should be noted that the lifespan and future of sites not QPN[TGN[QPDGKPINKUVGFYKVJ70'5%1DWVCNUQQPVJGKORNGOGPVCVKQPCPFVJGGHHGEVKXGPGUUQHVJGNGIKUNCVKQPCPFEQPUGTXCVKQP and management plans – something that South Africa, and African Member States, need to engage in as a matter of urgency.

The other issue affecting largely African countries is the battle faced by environmental and heritage authorities to protect JGTKVCIGTGUQWTEGUCICKPUVFGXGNQROGPVsCPFVJKUGSWCNN[CHHGEVUKPUETKDGFUKVGUCPFVJQUGKPVJG6GPVCVKXG.KUV$CUKEUQEKQ economic amenities such as access to clean water, housing, energy and employment often attract major projects like mining, RQYGTUVCVKQPUFCOUCPFKPHTCUVTWEVWTCNFGXGNQROGPVUYJKEJVJTGCVGPJGTKVCIGTGUQWTEGU*'#&5TGNCVGFUKVGUYJKEJCVVKOGU appear less appealing to non-scientists, and less meaningful when compared to the need for basic amenities, are often in the HKTKPINKPG$GUKFGUVJGUGNCTIGUECNGKUUWGUVJGTGKUVJGRTQDNGOQHFGXGNQROGPVUGPETQCEJKPIKPVQVJGEQTGCPFDWHHGT\QPGU of sites. This becomes an even more serious threat where World Heritage sites, such as the Cradle of Humankind, are on privately-owned land. Although the properties are at the moment largely used for residential, farming and nature conservation, there may be future challenges if land use drastically changes. At the Taung Skull World Heritage site, neighbouring villages CTGGPETQCEJKPIKPVQVJGDWHHGT\QPG

#PQVJGTKUUWGVJCVEQPEGTPUEQPUGTXCVKQPCPFOCPCIGOGPVRNCPPKPIHQT*'#&5TGNCVGFUKVGUKP#HTKECKUVJGJKUVQT[QHJGTKVCIG OCPCIGOGPVKPVJGEQPVKPGPV0FQTQ  JKIJNKIJVGFVJCVYKVJKPVJG#HTKECPRGTURGEVKXGVJGNCPFUECRGQPYJKEJJGTKVCIG UKVGUGZKUVUJQWNFDGUGGPCURCTVQHVJGEQUOQNQI[QHCRGQRNG*GCTIWGFVJCVVJGTGKUXGT[NKVVNGQTPQFKUVKPEVKQPDGVYGGP nature and culture, and no sharp separation between humanity and nature. The landscapes we study allow interplay between humanity and nature, and this need not be compromised by conservation and management tools. These critical issues, which UWRRQTVVJGQDLGEVKXGQHVJG*'#&5VJGOGOWUVHQTOVJGDCUKUHQTCEVKQPRNCPPKPIHQTUKVGUCUCYC[QHGPUWTKPIUWUVCKPCDKNKV[ 1. Discussions at the Cradle of Humankind during site inspection by SAHRA, the management authority, a researcher and a landowner. © Nonofho M. Ndobochani 170 171 7 Southern Africa Southern Africa 7

Public access to sites and partnerships VQKPEQTRQTCVG%JCNNGPIKPICUKVOC[DGKVYQWNFDGCPGHHGEVKXGCRRTQCEJVQGPUWTGVJCVEQOOWPKVKGUoXKGYUCTGICVJGTGF analysed and presented as corroborative and parallel opinions to the scientific knowledge.

Why public access and community engagement? Communities can also be engaged in scientific research by allowing them physical access to sites and the information. Although RJ[UKECNCEEGUUVQUKVGUOWUVDGFQPGTGURQPUKDN[sKPVJGEQPVGZVQHUCHGV[CPFVJGHTCIKNKV[QTECTT[KPIECRCEKV[QHUKVGUsKV n#EEGUUoKPVJKUEJCRVGTTGNCVGUVQRJ[UKECNKPVGTCEVKQPQHVJGRWDNKEYKVJUKVGUCPFCEEGUUVQKPHQTOCVKQPDQVJRTKPVGFCPF OWUVDGUGGPKPNKIJVQHOCMKPIUEKGPEGOQTGXKUKDNGCPFTGNGXCPVVQVJGRWDNKE$GUKFGUVJGRJ[UKECNCEEGUUUKVGUECPCNUQDG GNGEVTQPKEVJTQWIJYJCVGXGTOGFKC6JG9QTNF*GTKVCIG%QOOKVVGGTGSWKTGURTQRGTUKVGKPVGTRTGVCVKQPCPFDCUKEXKUKVQT made visible and meaningful to communities through formal publications and any other relevant media. However, for many OCPCIGOGPVHCEKNKVKGUUWEJCUYCNMYC[UCPFXKGYKPIRNCVHQTOUYJKEJFQPQVCHHGEVVJG178QHUKVGU9JKNGVJKUKUCOCLQT RCTVUQH#HTKECHQTGZCORNGVJGHQTOCNRWDNKECVKQPUCPFYGDDCUGFEQOOWPKECVKQPOC[PQVDGVJGOQUVGHHGEVKXGOGFKC EQPEGTPHQTQVJGTEQWPVTKGU5QWVJ#HTKECUGGOUVQDGFQKPIYGNNTGICTFKPICEEGUUCPFXKUKDKNKV[QH*'#&5TGNCVGFUKVGUVQVJG as the bulk of the populations where sites are located are less developed. Such aspects must therefore be considered when RWDNKEsUQOGVJKPIVJCVJCUDGGPPQVGFCPFCRRTGEKCVGFKPVJG#EVKQP2NCP*QYGXGTRWDNKECEEGUUVQJGTKVCIGTGUQWTEGUKUPQV developing information dissemination strategies. Also, where management authorities are set up and visitor management QPN[CEQPEGTPHQT70'5%1CUVJGTGKUINQDCNEQPEGTPVJCVUEKGPVKHKETGUGCTEJOWUVDGOCFGOGCPKPIHWNVQNQECNRQRWNCVKQPU facilities such as interpretation centres are in place, interactive devices can be introduced thereby reducing the pressure on D[CNNQYKPICEEGUUVQTGUGCTEJTGUWNVUCPFUKVGU6JG#EVKQP2NCPHQUVGTUEQPUKFGTCVKQPQHNQECNEQOOWPKVKGUCPFVJGKTXKGYUCPF VJGECTT[KPIECRCEKV[QHUGPUKVKXGUKVGU6JGOCKPXKUKVQTEGPVTGHQTVJG%TCFNGQH*WOCPMKPFUKVGUKP5QWVJ#HTKECKUCPGZCORNG ownership rights are carefully documented and embraced in the conservation and management of related sites. of how the public can be engaged through research and physical access to sites (Figure 2) and the use of interactive devices. 6JG6UQFKNQ*KNNU9QTNF*GTKVCIGUKVGKP$QVUYCPCQHHGTUCPGZCORNGQHJQYEQOOWPKVKGUECPDGGPICIGFCUGORNQ[GFCPF 6JGTGKUCNUQINQDCNEQPEGTPHQTCOQTGTGNGXCPVUEKGPVKHKETGUGCTEJVJCVKPEQTRQTCVGUEQOOWPKVKGUoXCNWGUCPFVJGKTTGNCVKQPU independent guides, and how they can be involved in community income-generating heritage tourism projects. Heritage VQNCPFUECRGUWPFGTUVWF[4GUGCTEJGTUQP*'#&5TGNCVGFUKVGUUJQWNFUGGMEQPVGORQTCT[TGNGXCPEGQHVJGKTYQTM +PUQNN tourism should probably be considered as one of the most effective ways of facilitating community and public access to sites. $WIIG[CPF/KVEJGNN CPFRTQXKFGKPHQTOCVKQPYJKEJEQPVGORQTCT[EQOOWPKVKGUECPWUGCUCTGHGTGPEGRQKPV #EEQTFKPIVQ2GFGTUGP  YJGTGVJGNQIKECNCPFJQNKUVKERTQEGUUQHVQWTKUOCPFXKUKVQTOCPCIGOGPVKUU[PVJGUK\GFKP to address their societal problems. This can either be through public meetings and notices, or focused group discussions conservation and management planning, it can facilitate sustainability of heritage resources while meaningfully contributing with any particular sector of the community that may be affected by the World Heritage site. Considering the issue of social to the lives of local people. development and that human evolution is an enduring process, the safeguarding of heritage landscapes for the future must KPENWFGVJGXCNWGUCUUQEKCVGFYKVJUWEJTGUQWTEGUCPFVJGKTTGNGXCPEGVQEQOOWPKVKGU %JKTKMWTGCPF2YKVK0FQDQEJCPK The challenge for implementing the issues above and the general aspirations of the World Heritage Committee would be  #UPQVGFD[)KXGP  RGQRNGEQPVKPWCNN[ETGCVGVJGKTKPVGTRTGVCVKQPUCPFKFGPVKVKGUD[OCMKPITGHGTGPEGVQVJGRCUV FGHKPKPICPFKFGPVKH[KPIYJQVQKPXQNXGCPFVJGGZVGPVQHVJGKTKPXQNXGOGPVsYJQKUVJGNQECNEQOOWPKV[!9JGTGEQOOWPKV[ CPFVJKUEJCRVGTCTIWGUVJCVVJKUUJQWNFDGEQPUKFGTGFKPVJGEQPUGTXCVKQPCPFOCPCIGOGPVQH*'#&5TGNCVGFUKVGU6JGTG KUTGICTFGFCUnRGQRNGNKXKPIQPQTENQUGVQCTEJCGQNQIKECNUKVGUQTRGQRNGYJQVTCEGVJGKTFGUEGPVVQCTEJCGQNQIKECNUKVGUo UJQWNFDGEQPUKFGTCVKQPQHEQOOWPKVKGUoRWTUWKVQHWPFGTUVCPFKPICPFRTQVGEVKPIVJGRCUVYJKEJTGXQNXGUCTQWPFKUUWGUQH Marshall (2002), or heritage resources in general, then this would include landowners, general community membership KFGPVKV[NCPFTKIJVUVTCFKVKQPCPFPCVKQPDWKNFKPI(QTGZCORNG2TGWEGNCPF/GUMGNN RR| JKIJNKIJVGFVJCVQXGTCPF and categories of the community above being a source of knowledge about human evolutionary processes, archaeology is also used ‘in a developing counter- that trace their descent to sites. hegemonic discourse by indigenous peoples throughout the world as they seek to control the presentation of their pasts as a Community involvement activities OGCPUQHTGENCKOKPIVJGKTRTGUGPVUo5EKGPVKHKETGUGCTEJKUVJGTGHQTGQHVGPGZRGEVGFVQEQPVTKDWVGVQCFFTGUUKPIEQPVGORQTCT[ elsewhere have shown that RQNKVKECNCPFUQEKQGEQPQOKEEJCNNGPIGU 4QYNCPFU /GUMGNNoU  CTIWOGPVHQTEQOOWPKV[KPXQNXGOGPVKURTGOKUGF communities can be engaged in on the fact that ‘it is the very materiality of our field – the historical depth of monuments and objects, their iconic value – that VJTGGYC[U KOOGFKCVGN[JCUTGUKFWCNRQVGPE[KPVJGEQPVGORQTCT[KOCIKPCT[o4GEQIPKVKQPQHVJKUTGNCVKQPUJKRYJKEJKUCRRCTGPVN[PQV new according to Marshall (2002), is believed to benefit both the contemporary community, the archaeology discipline and Q D[ TGNKPSWKUJKPI RCTVKCN UEKGPVKHKETGUGCTEJKPIGPGTCN .C[VQP/CTUJCNN/GUMGNN#VCNC[ #EVWCNN[EQPUKFGTCVKQPQHVJGCDQXG control of projects to issues can often become handy when battling for protection of heritage resources which currently compete for funding and communities, or community CRRTGEKCVKQPYKVJOQTGOGCPKPIHWNKUUWGUNKMGUQEKCNCOGPKVKGU0FQTQ  CTIWGFVJCVNQECNEQOOWPKVKGUOWUVDGRTQWF archaeology (Marshall, 2002); of themselves and of their heritage in order to participate in any economic and democratic development in the present world Q by engaging communities UGGCNUQ$WIIG[CPF/KVEJGNN +VOWUVDGRQKPVGFQWVJQYGXGTVJCVYJGTGVJGEQPEGRVQHGPICIKPIEQOOWPKVKGUJCU at all stages of research been embraced, there are still challenges of how and when to engage them, and with what tools. projects, or community- DCUGFCTEJCGQNQI[ )TGGT et al., 2002); Strategies for engaging communities and the general public Q by consultation where TGUGCTEJGTU TGEQIPK\KPI Communities can be involved by assisting during research thereby developing income generation and skills, over and above issues of land rights, the fact that their involvement may facilitate awareness and a sense of belonging through heritage. When skills development negotiate with communities has been successful, it has proven very useful in dealing with fossil sites where fossil-bearing breccias often take long hours of for their consent to already ECTGHWNYQTMVQGZVTCEVVJGHQUUKNU6JGKPXQNXGOGPVQHEQOOWPKVKGUKPUWEJCEVKXKVKGURTQOQVGUCRRTGEKCVKQPQHVJGEQORNGZKV[ identified research projects QHFGCNKPIYKVJ*'#&5TGNCVGFUKVGU%QOOWPKVKGUECPCNUQRTQXKFGIWKFGUGKVJGTCUGORNQ[GGUQHOCPCIGOGPVCWVJQTKVKGUQT 2. Visitor management facility at the Cradle of Humankind. © Nonofho M. Ndobochani )TGGTGVCN  as independent guides. Some members of the community can also be appointed as Heritage Inspectors, in line with Section QHVJG0*4#CUCYC[QHGPUWTKPIVJGOQPKVQTKPIQHUKVGUIKXGPVJGNKOKVGFTGUQWTEGUIQXGTPOGPVUCNNQECVGVQJGTKVCIG protection. Conclusion

Where an integrated management approach is employed, communities can offer valuable knowledge regarding the The discussions above have shown that research on human evolution-related sites in South Africa is largely coordinated at management of landscapes, and their involvement in formulating conservation and management strategies can actually national level. SAHRA issues permits, ensures conditions are adhered to, even though that may not be possible at all times. GPJCPEGVJGGHHGEVKXGPGUUQHUWEJRNCPU(QTGZCORNGVJGGHHGEVKXGPGUUQHEQPUGTXCVKQPOCPCIGOGPVRNCPUCVVJG%TCFNGQH Inspection and monitoring is done with participation by all stakeholders and this is meant to monitor the implementation of Humankind is dependent on the cooperation of landowners and the local communities. It is therefore critical that there is plans, identify risks and plan corrective action. To create a more conducive environment for research, permitting processes CVYQYC[RTQEGUUVJCVCNNQYUHQTKORNGOGPVCVKQPQHNGIKUNCVKQPCPFVJGKPEQTRQTCVKQPQHVJGNQECNRQRWNCVKQPoUCURKTCVKQPU OWUVDGUVTGCONKPGFVQHCEKNKVCVGCEQPEGTVGFGHHQTVVQYCTFUKPVGITCVGFEQPUGTXCVKQP*'#&5TGNCVGFUKVGUCPFEQNNGEVKQPU KPVJGFGEKUKQPOCMKPIRTQEGUU*QYGXGTKVOC[PQVDGCPGCU[VCUMVQKPEQTRQTCVGGHHGEVKXGN[VJGEQOOWPKVKGUoXKGYUKP CUUQEKCVGFYKVJUWEJUKVGUOWUVDGIKXGPGSWCNCRRTGEKCVKQPCPFHWPFKPI6JGTGOWUVDGKPUVKVWVKQPCNPGVYQTMKPIVQOKPKOK\G FGEKUKQPOCMKPICUKVQHVGPTGSWKTGUOQTGVKOGCPFVJGCFQRVKQPQHSWCNKVCVKXGTGUGCTEJOGVJQFQNQIKGUVQFQEWOGPVYJCV KNNKEKVOQXGOGPVQHEQNNGEVKQPUCPFEQPFWEKXGUVQTCIGHCEKNKVKGUCPFTGNGXCPVGZRGTVKUGOCFGCXCKNCDNGHQTTGNCVGFUKVGUCPF

172 173 7 Southern Africa Southern Africa 7

EQNNGEVKQPU6JKUYQWNFRTQOQVGECRCEKV[DWKNFKPIYJKEJKUEWTTGPVN[CEQPEGTPHQT70'5%1CPFKVU/GODGT5VCVGUPQVQPN[ $WEJNK8CPF.WECU)6JGCDUGPVRTGUGPVCTEJCGQNQIKGUQHVJGEQPVGORQTCT[RCUV+P8$WEJNKCPF).WECU GFU  within states but among them for networking at regional and international levels. Archaeologies of the Contemporary Past..QPFQP4QWVNGFIG|RRs

6JG5QWVJ#HTKECP9QTNF*GTKVCIG%QPXGPVKQP#EVVJG0CVKQPCN*GTKVCIG4GUQWTEGU#EVCPFVJG0CVKQPCN'PXKTQPOGPVCN $WIIG[5CPF/KVEJGNN0%WNVWTCNNCPFUECRGOCPCIGOGPVEJCNNGPIGUCPFRTQOKUKPIPGYFKTGEVKQPUKPVJG7PKVGF /CPCIGOGPV#EVCTGVJGOCKPNGIKUNCVKXGKPUVTWOGPVURTQVGEVKPI*'#&5TGNCVGFUKVGUCPFVJGUGHCEKNKVCVGFUGVVKPIWR States and . World Heritage Papers: Cultural Landscapes: the Challenges of Conservation, RR|s9QTNF*GTKVCIG OCPCIGOGPVCWVJQTKVKGUCPFVJGEQQTFKPCVGFTGUGCTEJCPFOCPCIGOGPVQHUKVGU+PUETKDGF*'#&5TGNCVGFUKVGUKP5QWVJ#HTKEC 5JCTGF.GICE[%QOOQP4GURQPUKDKNKV[#UUQEKCVGF9QTMUJQRU(GTTCTC+VCN[s0QXGODGT have conservation and management plans in place that outline their significance and the conservation challenges they face, and generate mitigatory measures. There is however need for more research and baseline documentation of all the resources %JC\CP/4QP*/CVOQP#2QTCV0)QNFDGTI2;CVGU4#XGT[/5WOPGT#CPF*QTYKV\.-4CFKQOGVTKE that make up World Heritage landscapes. Documentation must even include resources which were not considered at the time FCVKPIQHVJG'CTNKGT5VQPG#IGUGSWGPEGKP'ZECXCVKQP+CV9QPFGTYGTM%CXG5QWVJ#HTKECRTGNKOKPCT[TGUWNVUJournal of QHNKUVKPICUGZRNQKVCVKQPQHVJGUGTGUQWTEGUQHVGPCHHGEVUEQPUGTXCVKQPCPFOCPCIGOGPVQHVJGNKUVGFUKVGU2TQRGTVKGUCPFVJGKT Human Evolution8QN0QRRs DWHHGT\QPGUOWUVDGENGCTN[KFGPVKHKGFCPFJGTKVCIGTGUQWTEGUFGHKPGFCVUKVGURGEKHKECPFNCPFUECRGNGXGNUUQVJCVRTGJKUVQTKE NCPFWUGUCTGOCPCIGFKPVJGEQPVGZVQHVJGEQPVGORQTCT[TGSWKTGOGPVU %JKTKMWTG5CPF2YKVK)%QOOWPKV[KPXQNXGOGPVKPCTEJCGQNQIKECNCPFEWNVWTCNJGTKVCIGOCPCIGOGPVCPCUUGUUOGPV of case studies in Southern Africa and elsewhere. Current Anthropology, 8QN|0Q|RR|s There are a number of concerns regarding conservation and management planning at World Heritage sites, in South Africa and #HTKECCVNCTIG6JGOCKPEJCNNGPIGHCEKPI5QWVJ#HTKECKUNCEMQHKORNGOGPVCVKQPFWGVQNCEMQHCFGSWCVGHWPFKPIHQTRGTUQPPGN %NCTM.CPF2NWI+#PKOCNGZRNQKVCVKQPUVTCVGIKGUFWTKPIVJG5QWVJ#HTKECP/KFFNG5VQPG#IG*QYKGUQPU2QQTVCPF CPFECTT[KPIQWVVJGCEVWCNEQPUGTXCVKQPTGEQOOGPFCVKQPUQHEQPUGTXCVKQPOCPCIGOGPVRNCPU$GKPICVCPCFXCPVCIGQH RQUV*QYKGUQPU2QQTVHCWPCHTQO5GDWFW%CXGJournal of Human Evolution, 8QN|0Q|RR|s CNTGCF[JCXKPIEQPUGTXCVKQPOCPCIGOGPVRNCPU5QWVJ#HTKECPGGFUVQCNKIPVJGUGVQVJG#EVKQP2NCP%QPUGTXCVKQPCPF OCPCIGOGPVRNCPUHQTUKVGUKPVJG6GPVCVKXG.KUVOWUVDGFGXGNQRGFCPFWPNKMGVJGGZKUVKPIRNCPUHQTCNTGCF[NKUVGFUKVGUVJGUG &GCEQP*|,'ZECXCVKQPUCV$QQORNCCU%CXGCUGSWGPEGVJTQWIJVJG7RRGT2NGKUVQEGPGCPF*QNQEGPGKP5QWVJ#HTKEC UJQWNFVCMGKPVQEQPUKFGTCVKQPIQXGTPOGPVCPFNQECNCWVJQTKVKGUoUQEKQGEQPQOKECPFFGXGNQROGPVRNCPUKPVJQUGCTGCU World Archaeology,8QN|0Q|RR|s

$GUKFGUKPJGTGPVEQPUGTXCVKQPEJCNNGPIGUVQUKVGUVJGTGCTGKUUWGUQHOCPCIKPIVJGKORCEVQHFGXGNQROGPVDQVJQPKPUETKDGF &GCEQP*,CPF)GNGKULUPG8$6JG5VTCVKITCRJ[CPF5GFKOGPVQNQI[QHVJG/CKP5KVG5GSWGPEG-NCUKGU4KXGT5QWVJ UKVGUCPFVJQUGQPVJG6GPVCVKXG.KUV*GTKVCIGPGGFUCTGQHVGPRTKQTKVK\GFQXGTRTQXKUKQPHQTUQEKQGEQPQOKECOGPKVKGU9JKNG Africa. The South African Archaeological Bulletin, 8QNRRs appreciating that due to the need for states to develop, and that not all heritage can be preserved in situ, preservation by record or rescue of material from highly significant sites should only be allowed if development projects are location-specific and &o'TTKEQ($CEMYGNN.CPF$GTIGT.$QPGVQQNWUGKPVGTOKVGHQTCIKPID[GCTN[JQOKPKFUCPFKVUKORCEVQP cannot be redesigned or relocated. Member States must ensure that the conservation and management of natural and cultural understanding early hominid behaviour. South African Journal of Science8QN|RR|s JGTKVCIGKUPQVKPFKUETKOKPCVGN[RTKQTKVK\GFQXGTQVJGTTGUQWTEGU+POQUVECUGUFGUVTWEVKQPQHUKVGUKUFWGVQNCEMQHKPVGITCVKQP of heritage issues at the planning stages of development – disregarding the fact that heritage concerns should be integrated 'DQTGKOG,%JCNNGPIGUQHJGTKVCIGOCPCIGOGPVKP#HTKEC+P90FQTQ#/WOOCCPF)#DWPIW GFU Cultural KPUQEKQGEQPQOKERNCPPKPI'SWCNN[KORQTVCPVKPVJKUOCVVGTKUVJCVJGTKVCIGCPFGPXKTQPOGPVCNFGEKUKQPOCMGTUUJQWNF Heritage and the Law: Protecting Immovable Heritage in English-Speaking Countries of Sub-Saharan Africa. Rome, International EQPUKFGTJGTKVCIGEQPUGTXCVKQPCPFGPXKTQPOGPVCNOCPCIGOGPVYKVJKPVJGEQPVGZVQHGXQNXKPINCPFUECRGU9JGTGJGTKVCIG %GPVTGHQTVJG5VWF[QHVJG2TGUGTXCVKQPCPF4GUVQTCVKQPQH%WNVWTCN2TQRGTV[RRs CPFFGXGNQROGPVUECPEQGZKUVVJG[OWUVDGCNNQYGFVQFQUQQPEQPFKVKQPVJCVOCPCIGOGPVRTQITCOOGUCTGFGXGNQRGFCPF CRRTQXGFD[VJGCHHGEVGFRCTVKGU$GUKFGUTKUMCUUGUUOGPVHTQOFGXGNQROGPVUVJGTGUJQWNFDGIGPGTCNCUUGUUOGPVQHTKUMCVUKVGU )KXGP/The Archaeology of the Colonized. .QPFQP4QWVNGFIG which may be brought by research and natural processes. Risk assessment must be integral to conservation and management planning at sites, both open-air and cave sites, and this must be done at the time of listing and during the lifespan of sites to )TGGT5*CTTKUQP4CPF/E+PV[TG6COYQ[5  %QOOWPKV[DCUGF#TEJCGQNQI[KP#WUVTCNKC+PWorld Archaeology, UCHGIWCTFVJGKTKPVGITKV[CPFCWVJGPVKEKV['SWCNN[KORQTVCPVKUCRGTKQFKETGXKGYQHRNCPUCPFGPUWTKPIVJCVVJG[CTGCNKIPGF 8QN0QRRsJVVRFZFQKQTI #EEGUUGF#RTKN  to accommodate community and public participation in the management of World Heritage sites. *QFFGT+6JGUQEKCNKPCTEJCGQNQIKECNVJGQT[+P24QDGTVCPF.|//GUMGNN GFU A Companion to Social Archaeology. #WUVTCNKC$NCEMYGNN2WDNKUJKPIRR|s

Bibliography +PUQNN6+PVTQFWEVKQP%QPHKIWTKPIKFGPVKVKGUKPCTEJCGQNQI[+P6+PUQNN GF  The Archaeology of Identities: A Reader. .QPFQP4QWVNGFIGRR|s #ODTQUG5*2CNGQNKVJKEVGEJPQNQI[CPFJWOCPGXQNWVKQPScience0GY5GTKGU8QN|0Q|RR|s ,CEQDU<4QDGTVU4))CNDTCKVJ4(&GCEQP*,)TØP4/CEMC[#/KVEJGNN28QIGNUCPI4CPF9CFNG[. #VCNC[ 1LKDYG 5.)NQDCNCRRNKECVKQPQHKPFKIGPQWUCTEJCGQNQI[EQOOWPKV[DCUGFRCTVKEKRCVQT[TGUGCTEJKP6WTMG[ #IGUHQTVJG/KFFNG5VQPG#IGQH5QWVJGTP#HTKEC+ORNKECVKQPUHQT*WOCP$GJCXKQTCPF&KURGTUCN. Science, 8QNRR +P Archaeologies: Journal of the World Archaeological Congress, 8QN|0Q|RR|s s

$CTCO7CPF4QYCP;#TEJCGQNQI[CHVGTPCVKQPCNKUOINQDCNK\CVKQPCPFVJGEQPUWORVKQPQHVJGRCUV+P;4QYCP ,COGUQP,*+PVTQFWEVKQP+P,*,COGUQP GF Presenting Archaeology to the Public: Digging for Truths. California, CPF7$CTCO GFU Marketing Heritage: Archaeology and the Consumption of the Past.%CNKHQTPKC7NVCOKTC2TGUURR|s #NVC/KTC2TGUURR|s

$GTIGT.4CPF6QDKCU28#EJKORCP\GGNKMGVKDKCHTQO5VGTMHQPVGKP5QWVJ#HTKECCPFKVUKORNKECVKQPUHQTKPVGTRTGVCVKQPU -G[UGT#96JG&TKOQNGPUMWNNVJGOQUVEQORNGVGCWUVTCNQRKVJGEKPGETCPKWOCPFOCPFKDNGVQFCVGSouth African of bipedalism in Australopithecus africanus. Journal of Human Evolution, 8QN|0Q|RR|s Journal of Science8QN|RR|s

$KQTPUVCF/6JG+%1/15+PVGTPCVKQPCN%QOOKVVGGQP#TEJCGQNQIKECN*GTKVCIG/CPCIGOGPV+P*%NGGTG GF  -G[UGT#9/GPVGT%)/QIIK%GEEJK,4C[PG2KEMGTKPI64CPF$GTIGT.4&TKOQNGPCPGYJQOKPKPDGCTKPI Archaeological Heritage Management in the Modern World.QPFQP7PYKP*[OCPRRs UKVGKP)CWVGPI5QWVJ#HTKECSouth African Journal of Science8QN|RR|s

$QWEJGPCMK/2TGHCEGICCROM Conservation Studies0Q|4QOG+PVGTPCVKQPCN%GPVTGHQTVJG5VWF[QHVJG Kuman, K. and Clarke, R.J. 2000. Stratigraphy, artefact industries and hominid associations for Sterkfontein, Member 5. Journal 2TGUGTXCVKQPCPF4GUVQTCVKQPQH%WNVWTCN2TQRGTV[ of Human Evolution8QN|0Q|RRs

$TQYP-5/CTGCP%9*GTTKGU#+4,CEQDU<6TKDQNQ%$TCWP&4QDGTVU&./G[GT/%CPF$GTPCVEJG\, .C[VQP4+PVTQFWEVKQPEQPHNKEVKPVJGCTEJCGQNQI[QHNKXKPIVTCFKVKQPU+P4.C[VQP GF Conflict in the Archaeology (KTGCUCPGPIKPGGTKPIVQQNQHGCTN[OQFGTPJWOCPUScience8QN|0Q|RR|s of Living Traditions.QPFQP7PYKP*[OCPRR|s 174 175 7 Southern Africa Southern Africa 7

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/CTUJCNN;9JCVKUEQOOWPKV[CTEJCGQNQI[!World Archaeology8QN|0Q|RR|sJVVRFZFQK 6QDKCU28CPF%NCTMG4,(CWPCNGXKFGPEGCPF5VGTMHQPVGKP/GODGTHQQVDQPGUQHGCTN[OCP Science8QN QTI #EEGUUGF|#RTKN 0Q|RR|s

/E$TGCTV[5CPF$TQQMU#6JGTGXQNWVKQPVJCVYCUPoVCPGYKPVGTRTGVCVKQPQHVJGQTKIKPQHJWOCPDGJCXKQTJournal 70'5%19QTNF*GTKVCIG%GPVTGa. Action Plan of the World Heritage Thematic Programme on Prehistory. World of Human Evolution8QN|0Q|RR|s *GTKVCIG%QOOKVVGGVJUGUUKQP$TCUKNKC$TC\KN,WN[s#WIWUV 9*%s%1/+0(( JVVRYJEWPGUEQ QTICTEJKXGYJEEQO(KPHGRFH /GPVGT%)*QOKPKPFKUVCNJWOGTKRTQZKOCNTCFKKCPFRTQZKOCNWNPCGHTQO5VGTMHQPVGKPKPEQORCTKUQPYKVJVJGGNDQY DQPGUQHQVJGT2NKQ2NGKUVQEGPGHQUUKNJQOKPKPU2J&VJGUKU7PKXGTUKV[QHVJG9KVYCVGTUTCPF AAAAb9QTNF*GTKVCIG%QOOKVVGGVJUGUUKQP$TCUKNKC$TC\KN,WN[s#WIWUV #PPGZ+++&GEKUKQP%1/ ( JVVRYJEWPGUEQQTICTEJKXGYJEEQO(GRFH /GUMGNN.+PVTQFWEVKQPCTEJCGQNQI[OCVVGTU+P./GUMGNN GF Archaeology Under Fire: Nationalism, Politics and Heritage in the Eastern Mediterranean and Middle East.QPFQP4QWVNGFIG RR|s 8QKIV'5VQPG#IGOQNNWUECPWVKNK\CVKQPCV-NCUKGU4KXGT/QWVJ%CXGUSouth African Journal of Science8QN| RR|s AAAA#TEJCGQNQIKGUQHKFGPVKV[+P+PUQNN GF QREKVRR|s 9CFNG[.2WVVKPIQEJTGVQVJGVGUVTGRNKECVKQPUVWFKGUQHCFJGUKXGUVJCVOC[JCXGDGGPWUGFHQTJCHVKPIVQQNUKPVJG /WPLGTK&.GIKUNCVKQPCPFRTCEVKEGUKORNKECVKQPUCPFVJGYC[HQTYCTF+P90FQTQCPF)2YKVK GFU Legal Middle Stone Age. Journal of Human Evolution, 8QN|0Q|RRs. Frameworks for the Protection of Immovable Cultural Heritage in Africa. Rome, International Centre for the Study of the 2TGUGTXCVKQPCPF4GUVQTCVKQPQH%WNVWTCN2TQRGTV[RR|s AAAAA#PPQWPEKPIC5VKNN$C[KPFWUVT[CV5KDWFW%CXG5QWVJ#HTKECJournal of Human Evolution, 8QN|0Q| pp.|s. /WVVGT4,$GTIGT.4CPF5EJOKF20GYGXKFGPEGQHVJGIKCPVJ[GPCPachycrocuta brevirostris (Carnivora, *[CGPKFCG HTQO)NCF[UXCNG%CXGFGRQUKV 2NKQ2NGKUVQEGPG,QJP0CUJ0CVWTG4GUGTXG )CWVGPI5QWVJ#HTKECPalaeontologia 9WT\58CTKCDKNKV[KPVJG/KFFNG5VQPG#IGNKVJKEUGSWGPEGs[GCTUCIQCV-NCUKGU4KXGT5QWVJ#HTKEC Africana,8QN Journal of Archaeological Science8QN|RR|s

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Dans les périodes géologiques anciennes, NCRQUKVKQPIÅQNQIKSWGFGUQDLGVURCTTCRRQTVCWZPKXGCWZEQPVGPCPVNGUTGUVGU¼JQOKPKFÅU%GVTCXCKNTGRQUGUWTNoGZRGTVKUG NGUFKHHÅTGPVGUÅVCRGUFGNoÅXQNWVKQPJWOCKPGUGUQPVGHHGEVWÅGUUQWUFGUHQTOGUXCTKÅGU IGPTGUGVGURÄEGU TGRTÅUGPVCPV FWIÅQNQIWGGVUWTNCFCVCVKQPFGUEQWEJGUUWEEGUUKXGURCTNGUÅNÅOGPVUXQNECPKSWGUGPNCDQTCVQKTG.oKPVÅTÆVRQWTNGUKVG¼ FKHHÅTGPVGUCFCRVCVKQPUOQTRJQNQIKSWGUNKÅGUCWEJCPIGOGPVFGOQFGFGNQEQOQVKQP¼NoJCDKVCVCWOQFGFGUVTCVÅIKG JQOKPKFÅURGWVÆVTGVQWVCWUUKKORQTVCPVOCKUKNGUVKPFKTGEV%oGUVCKPUKSWGNCRTÅUGPEGFGUHTWKVUEQOGUVKDNGUFoAntrocaryon, CNKOGPVCKTG¼NCHCDTKECVKQPFoQWVKNU¼NCUQEKCDKNKVÅGVE&GNo#HTKSWGUQPVRCTVKGURNWUKGWTUXCIWGUFGOKITCVKQPUFGU ÅVCDNKGFCPUNCXCNNÅGFGNo1OQGPVTGGVOKNNKQPUFoCPPÅGUUGTÅXÄNGTCEQPVGORQTCKPGFGNCRTÅUGPEGFCPURNWUKGWTUUKVGU premiers hommes, venant successivement peupler les autres continents, l’Asie, puis l’Europe et enfin l’Amérique du Fo#HTKSWGQTKGPVCNGFoWPCWVTGIGPTGFoJQOKPKFÅ Australopithecus afarensis, alias Lucy VTQWXÅWNVÅTKGWTGOGPVFCPUNGDCUUKP Nord. Les conditions environnementales dans lesquelles cette évolution s’est produite et les multiples changements FG6WTMCPCGVNCXCNNÅGFGNo#YCUJ SWKNoCEEQORCIPGPVUQPVRTKOQTFKCWZRQWTEQORTGPFTGNGURJÅPQOÄPGUFoCFCRVCVKQPNKÅUCWZOQFKHKECVKQPUFoJCDKVCVU de disponibilité de ressources, et du climat. Leur étude revêt aujourd’hui un intérêt tout particulier dans la perspective de modélisation et de prédiction de changements futurs, notamment du climat, changements auxquels nos sociétés Plantes fossiles non associées aux sites lithiques, mais ayant une valeur archéologique modernes devront s’adapter. 7PVTQKUKÄOGECUFGRTÅUGTXCVKQPFGUTGUVGUFGRNCPVGUOÅTKVGEQPUKFÅTCVKQP%oGUVEGNWKFGTKEJGUIKUGOGPVUQÕFGUEQPFKVKQPU 6QWVGTGEQPUVKVWVKQPFGUEQPFKVKQPUGPXKTQPPGOGPVCNGUFGUUKVGU¼JQOKPKFÅUFCPUNGRCUUÅPÅEGUUKVGWPGHHQTV RCTVKEWNKÄTGUQPVRGTOKUNCEQPUGTXCVKQPGZEGRVKQPPGNNGFGHGWKNNGUITCKPGUDQKUGVE%GUIKUGOGPVUUQPVUQKVRTQEJGUFGUUKVGU pluridisciplinaire de la part des scientifiques engagés dans ces recherches. Aux études géologiques qui permettent de ¼JQOKPKFÅUEQOOGFCPUNoÊNGFG4WUKPICUWTNGNCE8KEVQTKCCW-GP[CUQKVVTÄUNQKPGVFCPUWPCWVTGEQPVGZVGEQOOGRQWTNG FCVGTNGUEQWEJGUIÅQNQIKSWGUGVFGRNCEGTNGUÅXÄPGOGPVUFCPUWPGUWEEGUUKQPEJTQPQNQIKSWGUoCLQWVGPVNGUÅVWFGU UKVGFG%JKNICGP'VJKQRKGCWPQTFFWNCE6CPCUWTNGRNCVGCWÅVJKQRKGP¼FGUEGPVCKPGUFGMKNQOÄVTGUFGUUKVGU¼JQOKPKFÅU RCNÅQPVQNQIKSWGUSWKRTÅEKUGPVNoGPUGODNGFGUCPKOCWZ NCHCWPG CUUQEKÅU¼NCRTÅUGPEGFGURTGOKGTUJQOOGUCWZUKVGU FGNCXCNNÅGFGNo#YCUJFCPUNG4KHV ;GOCPGGVCN %GUKVGGUVTGOCTSWCDNGRCTNCRQUUKDKNKVÅFoQDVGPKTFGUFCVCVKQPU qu’ils occupaient, ainsi que ceux qui furent ultérieurement chassés ou domestiqués. Des techniques plus sophistiquées EJTQPQNQIKSWGUFKVGUpCDUQNWGUqGHHGEVWÅGURCTNCOÅVJQFGFoCPCN[UGGPNCDQTCVQKTGFGUÅNÅOGPVUTCFKQCEVKHUFGUEGPFTGU d’analyses d’éléments biologiques sont également utilisées pour reconstituer les paysages végétaux, les conditions XQNECPKSWGUSWoKNEQPVKGPV7P¾IGFGOKNNKQPUFoCPPÅGUCÅVÅCVVTKDWÅCWZHNQTGUHQUUKNGUFG%JKNIC6TÄUFKXGTUKHKÅGNCHNQTG environnementales, notamment climatiques. Parmi ces techniques, nous discuterons les marqueurs biologiques qui HQUUKNGFWIKUGOGPVFG%JKNICEQPVKGPVRNWUFoWPGEGPVCKPGFGRNCPVGUVCZCDQVCPKSWGOGPVKFGPVKHKÅGU ,CEQDGVCN 'NNG TGPUGKIPGPVUWTNCEQORQUKVKQPFGURC[UCIGUXÅIÅVCWZ ÅEQU[UVÄOGU EQOOGNGUTGUVGUHQUUKNGUOCETQUEQRKSWGUFGDQKU VÅOQKIPGFGNoGZKUVGPEGFGHQTÆVUJWOKFGUFKXGTUKHKÅGUECTCEVÅTKUÅGURCTNoCDQPFCPEGFGURCNOKGTU 2CPGVCN GVFGU fruits, graines ou feuilles, les restes microscopiques tels que pollen ou phytolithes, les éléments biochimiques associés HQWIÄTGUHQTÆVUFCPUNGUSWGNNGUQPVXÅEWFGUHQTOGUCPKOCNGUCWLQWTFoJWKFKURCTWGU.oCPCN[UGFGUCUUGODNCIGUFGRQNNGPGV CWE[ENGFGNoQZ[IÄPGGVFWECTDQPGFCPUNGUÅEJCPIGUGPVTGNoCVOQURJÄTGGVNGURNCPVGU$KGPSWGEQPFWKVGU¼NoGPFTQKV FGURNCPVGUHQUUKNGURTÅUGTXÅGU¼%JKNICCVVGUVGFGNoKPUVCNNCVKQPFoWPENKOCVUCKUQPPKGTFGV[RGOQWUUQPUWTNGRNCVGCWPQTF des sites qui font l’objet de conservation du patrimoine international, de telles études concernent une région s’étendant ÅVJKQRKGP¼WPGÅRQSWGSWKRTÅEÄFGFGDGCWEQWRNoÅOGTIGPEGFGUJQOKPKFÅUGP#HTKSWGQTKGPVCNG1PGPFÅFWKVFQPESWG DKGPCWCWFGN¼FWUGWNUKVGEQPEGTPÅ'PRCTVKEWNKGTNGUEQPFKVKQPUENKOCVKSWGUUGTQPVCRRTÅJGPFÅGUGPVGPCPVEQORVGFGU RTÅEÅFGOOGPV¼NoCRRCTKVKQPFGUCPEÆVTGUFGNo*QOOGKNPoGZKUVCKVRCUGP'VJKQRKGFGHQTÆVJWOKFGRTKOCKTGUGODNCDNG¼NC mécanismes qui déterminent le climat global et ses variations. De telles études doivent être effectués avec un standard HQTÆVÅSWCVQTKCNG5KNCRTGOKÄTGÅVCRGFGNoÅXQNWVKQPJWOCKPGCGWNKGWEQPUÅEWVKXGOGPV¼WPEJCPIGOGPVFoJCDKVCVFGNC UEKGPVKHKSWGFGVTÄUJCWVGSWCNKVÅVGPCPVEQORVGFGURTQITÄUFGNCFKUEKRNKPGUEKGPVKHKSWGWVKNKUÅGGVICTCPVKUUCPVWPÅVCV HQTÆVJWOKFG¼NCUCXCPGCKPUKSWGRTÅUWOÅRCT&CTYKPEGVVGÅVCRGUGUGTCKVGHHGEVWÅGCKNNGWTUSWGUWTNGUJCWVURNCVGCWZ de connaissances le plus avancé, en progression constante et en collaboration internationale. Fo'VJKQRKGGVRQUVÅTKGWTGOGPV¼OKNNKQPUFoCPPÅGUEGSWoKPFKSWGÅICNGOGPVNGUÅVWFGUEQORCTCVKXGUFWIÅPQOGJWOCKP GVFGEGNWKFGUITCPFUUKPIGU%GVVGKPHQTOCVKQPCWPKPVÅTÆVTGNCVKHCWZVJÅQTKGUEQPEGTPCPVNoÅXQNWVKQPJWOCKPG'NNGCWP #UUQEKÅUCWZUKVGU¼JQOKPKFÅUFGNo#HTKSWGQTKGPVCNGNGUGZGORNGUSWGPQWURTÅUGPVQPUFCPUEGVCTVKENGEQTTGURQPFGPV ECTCEVÄTGWPKXGTUGNWPKSWG.GUHNQTGUHQUUKNGUFG%JKNICQHHTGPVRCTCKNNGWTUWPKPVÅTÆVVQWVCWUUKKORQTVCPVTGNCVKH¼NCOKUG ¼EGUETKVÄTGUFoGZEGNNGPEGICTCPVKUUCPVNGWTXCNGWTWPKXGTUGNNGGZEGRVKQPPGNNGœNoGZEGRVKQPFGSWGNSWGUUKVGU GPRNCEGFGNCTGOCTSWCDNGDKQFKXGTUKVÅFGUHQTÆVUCEVWGNNGUFo'VJKQRKG.CFCVCVKQPFGEGUHNQTGUEQPHKTOGNGECTCEVÄTGCPEKGP CTEJÅQNQIKSWGUQÕNGUQDLGVUNKVJKSWGUUQPVEQPUGTXÅUFCPUFGUITQVVGU 2QTE'RKE/QUJGGP'VJKQRKG NCRNWRCTVFGU FGNCDKQFKXGTUKVÅCEVWGNNG%GVGZGORNGKNNWUVTGNGUNKCKUQPURQUUKDNGUGPVTGUKVGUFKUVKPEVUUWUEGRVKDNGUFoÆVTGKPVÅITÅUFCPUFGU UKVGU¼JQOKPKFÅUEQTTGURQPFGPV¼FGUUKVGUFGRNGKPCKTRCTHQKUFGITCPFGUFKOGPUKQPU7PEGTVCKPPQODTGFGETKVÄTGU RTQITCOOGUFKHHÅTGPVUFGEQPUGTXCVKQPFWRCVTKOQKPGOQPFKCN doivent être nécessairement remplis pour prélever sur les sites considérés au patrimoine de l’humanité les marqueurs DKQNQIKSWGUFQPVNoÅVWFGGPNCDQTCVQKTGHQWTPKTCWPGKPHQTOCVKQPGVWPGTÅHÅTGPEGCWECTCEVÄTGWPKSWGGVWPKXGTUGN Outre la qualité scientifique qui doit être unanimement reconnue dans des publications obéissant aux standards des TGXWGUKPVGTPCVKQPCNGUCRRTQRTKÅGUNGUCWVTGUETKVÄTGUXCTKGPVUGNQPNCPCVWTGFGNoKPHQTOCVKQPHQWTPKGUQKVRCTFGUQDLGVU individuels ou des informations successives obtenues sous forme de séries temporelles.

180 181 8 Approaches to the archaeological record Approaches to the archaeological record 8

Pollen et séries polliniques EQTTGURQPF¼RNWUFGRQKPVUNQECNKUÅURCTNGWTUEQQTFQPPÅGUIÅQITCRJKSWGUGVFKUVTKDWÅUFCPUNGUFKHHÅTGPVUÅEQU[UVÄOGU VTQRKECWZECTVQITCRJKÅURCTNGUDQVCPKUVGUGVGPEQTGRTÅUGTXÅUUWTNGVGTTCKP.GUFKHHÅTGPVUV[RGUFGHQTÆVUJWOKFGUUÄEJGU .C2CN[PQNQIKGGUVNoÅVWFGFGUITCKPUFGRQNNGPFGUHNGWTUWPGFKUEKRNKPGUEKGPVKHKSWGFÅXGNQRRÅGFCPUNGOKNKGWFW::eUKÄENG UGORGTXKTGPVGUFÅEKFWGU¼ECTCEVÄTGOQPVCIPCTFQWHNWXKCNNGUUCXCPGU¼CTDTGUQWCTDWUVGUNCXÅIÅVCVKQPKPVGTOÅFKCKTG .CRCTQKTÅUKUVCPVGFGUITCKPUFGRQNNGPGUVEQPUVKVWÅGFGOQNÅEWNGUQTICPKSWGUVTÄUTÅUKUVCPVGURQWXCPVÆVTGEQPUGTXÅGUUWT GPVTGHQTÆVUGVUCXCPGUGPHKPNGURTCKTKGUFGJCWVGCNVKVWFGNGUFKHHÅTGPVUV[RGUFGFÅUGTVUGVEUQPVTGRTÅUGPVÅUFCPUEGVVGDCUG FGURÅTKQFGUIÅQNQIKSWGUFGRNWUKGWTUOKNNKQPUFoCPPÅGU¼EQPFKVKQPFoCXQKTÅVÅRTÅUGTXÅGUFGNoQZ[FCVKQPRCTNoQZ[IÄPGFG FGTÅHÅTGPEGFGFQPPÅGURQNNKPKSWGUOQFGTPGU.oGPUGODNGFGUFQPPÅGUCESWKUGUCWEQWTUFGUFGTPKÄTGUCPPÅGURCTNGU NoCKT2TQFWKVUGPITCPFGSWCPVKVÅGVFKURGTUÅUFCPUNoCVOQURJÄTGQPNGUVTQWXGGPCDQPFCPEGGPHQWKUFCPUNGUUÅFKOGPVUFG URÅEKCNKUVGUGUVOCKPVGPCPVFKURQPKDNGRQWTWPGEQOOWPCWVÅUEKGPVKHKSWGRNWUNCTIGGVFGHWVWTGUKPVGTRTÅVCVKQPUFGUFQPPÅGU NCEUQWFGTKXKÄTGUOKGWZRTÅUGTXÅUFCPUNGUTÅIKQPUVGORÅTÅGUSWGVTQRKECNGU&GUÅVWFGURCN[PQNQIKSWGUQPVÅVÅKPKVKÅGUUWT FGRQNNGPHQUUKNGSWKRGWXGPVÆVTGQDVGPWGUWNVÅTKGWTGOGPVUWTNGUUKVGUCTEJÅQNQIKSWGUENCUUÅUCWRCVTKOQKPGFGNoJWOCPKVÅ NCRNWRCTVFGUUKVGU¼JQOKPKFÅUFo#HTKSWGPQVCOOGPVFGNo#HTKSWGQTKGPVCNG

.GURQNNGPUHQUUKNGUUQPVFGUQDLGVUOKETQUEQRKSWGU.GWTÅVWFGPÅEGUUKVGWPVTCPUHGTVCWNCDQTCVQKTGFGUÅEJCPVKNNQPURTÅNGXÅU 2QNNGPUGVTGEQPUVKVWVKQPUGPXKTQPPGOGPVCNGUFGUUKVGU¼JQOKPKFÅU UWTNGVGTTCKP.GRTÅNÄXGOGPVUoGHHGEVWGFCPUFGUEQPFKVKQPUÅVCDNKGUUGNQPFGUUVCPFCTFURTÅEKU#WNCDQTCVQKTGNGUUÅFKOGPVU UWDKUUGPVWPGRTÅRCTCVKQPRCTFGUVTCKVGOGPVUEJKOKSWGUSWKFÅVTWKUGPVNGUOCVKÄTGUOKPÅTCNGUFGHCÃQP¼PGEQPUGTXGTSWG .GUFQPPÅGURQNNKPKSWGUUGRTÅUGPVGPVUQWUNCHQTOGFGEQORVCIGUFoKPFKXKFWUCVVTKDWÅU¼FGURNCPVGUGVUQPVTÅUWOÅGUGP NCOCVKÄTGQTICPKSWG%GTÅUKFWEQPVKGPVNGURQNNGPURTÆVURQWTNoQDUGTXCVKQPCWOKETQUEQRGUQWUNGSWGNKNUUQPVEQORVÅU ITCRJKSWGUUQWUNCHQTOGFGRQWTEGPVCIGUUQWOKU¼FGUVTCKVGOGPVUUVCVKUVKSWGU1PRCTNGFoKPHQTOCVKQPUSWCPVKVCVKXGU OCPWGNNGOGPV+FGPVKHKÅUEQOOGCRRCTVGPCPVCWZRNCPVGUSWKNGUQPVRTQFWKVURCTEQORCTCKUQP¼FGUTÅHÅTGPEGUOQFGTPGU .GU|XCTKCVKQPUFGRQWTEGPVCIGUFGURQNNGPUCRRCTVGPCPV¼FKXGTUV[RGUFGRNCPVGUUQPVKPVGTRTÅVÅGUGPFKUVKPIWCPV NGURQNNGPUHQUUKNGUHQWTPKUUGPVFGUKPHQTOCVKQPU¼NCHQKUSWCNKVCVKXGUGVSWCPVKVCVKXGUUWTNCEQORQUKVKQPFGNCXÅIÅVCVKQP NoGPXKTQPPGOGPVKOOÅFKCVFGNoGPXKTQPPGOGPVTÅIKQPCN7PGZGORNGGUVHQWTPKRCTNGUTÅUWNVCVURCN[PQNQIKSWGUQDVGPWUCW GPXKTQPPCPVNGUKVGEQPUKFÅTÅ UKVGFo*CFCTSWKOQPVTGPVWPGCDQPFCPEGFGU%[RGTCEÅGUGVFGU4QUGCWZOCUUGVVGU Typha FCPUNGUUÅFKOGPVUNCEWUVTGU¼ NCDCUGFGNCUÅTKG $QPPGHKNNGGVNC SWKEQPVKGPPGPVFGVTÄUPQODTGWZTGUVGUd’Australopithecus afarensis (Kimbel and ,QJCPUQP . .oCDQPFCPEGFGURNCPVGUUWDCSWCVKSWGUKPHÅQFÅGUCWZDQTFWTGUNCEWUVTGUVTCFWKVNCRTÅUGPEGFoWPITCPF %TKVÄTGUQWUVCPFCTFUFGRTÅNÄXGOGPVFGUÅEJCPVKNNQPURQWTÅVWFGGPNCDQTCVQKTG NCEFoGCWFQWEGRGWRTQHQPFFCPUNGSWGNHWTGPVGPHQWKUNGUTGUVGUQUUGWZFGUJQOKPKFÅUVTQWXÅURCTHQKUGPCTVKEWNCVKQP CPCVQOKSWG #NGOUGIGFGVCN .GUCTDTGUKPFKSWGPVNCXÅIÅVCVKQPGPXKTQPPCPVGRCTHQKUFKUVCPVGFGSWGNSWGUMKNQOÄVTGU K2QUKVKQPPGOGPVFGUFQPPÅGURQNNGPKPFKECVKQPIÅQITCRJKSWGNCRNWURTÅEKUGRQUUKDNGEQORTGPCPVNGUEQQTFQPPÅGU 2CTTÅHÅTGPEGCWZPQODTGWUGUFQPPÅGUOQFGTPGUWPGKPVGTRTÅVCVKQPDCUÅGUWTFGUOÅVJQFGUFGUVCVKUVKSWGFGUCUUGODNCIGU IÅQITCRJKSWGUNCVKVWFGNQPIKVWFGGVCNVKVWFGHQWTPKGURCTRQUKVKQPPGOGPV)25 HQUUKNGUCRGTOKUFGTGEQPUVTWKTGNCRTÅUGPEGFGRNWUKGWTUDKQOGUFCPUNoGPXKTQPPGOGPVTÅIKQPCNFoAustralopithecus afarensis. KK&CVCVKQPFGUUÅFKOGPVUFCPUNGUSWGNUUGTCHCKVGNCEQNNGEVGFGUÅEJCPVKNNQPUUWTNGVGTTCKP7PGDQPPGEQQTFKPCVKQP .CUWEEGUUKQPVGORQTGNNGFGEGUDKQOGUCWUKVGFo*CFCTOQPVTGENCKTGOGPVFoKORQTVCPVUEJCPIGOGPVUFoGPXKTQPPGOGPVGV GPVTGURÅEKCNKUVGUFGUDKQOCTSWGWTUGV NGU IÅQNQIWGUICTCPVKVNCRQUKVKQPGZCEVGFGUÅEJCPVKNNQPUTCOGPÅUGP NCDQTCVQKTGRCTTCRRQTVCWZUVTCVGUIÅQNQIKSWGUFCVÅGU FGRTÅHÅTGPEGRCTNGUOÅVJQFGUNGURNWURTÅEKUGURQUUKDNG FGTCFKQEJTQPQNQIKG GVRCTTCRRQTVCWZUVTCVGUEQPVGPCPVNGUHQUUKNGUFoJQOKPKFÅU.GRTÅNÄXGOGPVFGUÅEJCPVKNNQPU FQKVÆVTGCKPUKGHHGEVWÅNQTUFGOKUUKQPUEQOOWPGUFGVGTTCKPGPEQNNCDQTCVKQPCXGENGRCNÅQCPVJTQRQNQIWGGVNGU IÅQNQIWGUFGHCÃQP¼RTÅEKUGTNCRTQXGPCPEGFGUÅEJCPVKNNQPUGVNoÅEJCPIGFoKFÅGUGVNCSWCNKVÅFGUFKUEWUUKQPUNQTU Hadar 13 FGNoKPVGTRTÅVCVKQPFGUTÅUWNVCVU Formation Terrestrial Swamp C Regional b Habitat KKK'ZRGTVKUGUEKGPVKHKSWGTGSWKUGRQWTEJCEWPFGUDKQOCTSWGWTUGPXKUCIÅUICTCPVKUUCPVNoKFGPVKHKECVKQPNCRNWURTÅEKUG Tuffs Pollen

RQUUKDNGIT¾EG¼NCEQPUWNVCVKQPFoWPGEQNNGEVKQPCRRTQRTKÅGFGTÅHÅTGPEG RCTGZRQNNGPUFGURNCPVGUCEVWGNNGUFG KH Samples Trees/Shrubs Grasses Saltbush Sedges Reeds No#HTKSWGVTQRKECNG GVFoQWXTCIGUFGUETKRVKHUFGTÅHÅTGPEGFKURQPKDNGUFCPUNCEQOOWPCWVÅKPVGTPCVKQPCNG BKT-2 13 Woodland &WTCPVNGUFGTPKÄTGUFÅEGPPKGUNoGZRGTVKUGUWTNGURQNNGPUCHTKECKPUFÅXGNQRRÅGGPRCTCNNÄNGCXGENGUÅVWFGUUWTNGUJQOKPKFÅUC KHT DD Dry 12 CDQWVK¼NCOKUGGPEQOOWPFGUEQPPCKUUCPEGURCTNCETÅCVKQPFoWPGCUUQEKCVKQPEQORQUÅGFGPQODTGWZEJGTEJGWTUCHTKECKPU grassland TT-4 11 UGTÅWPKUUCPVVQWUNGUFGWZCPU6TQKUNCDQTCVQKTGUCHTKECKPUFÅXGNQRRCPVNoGZRGTVKUGRCN[PQNQIKSWGQPVÅVÅETÅÅUGP#HTKSWG 10 Wet 9 #FFKU#DGDCGP'VJKQRKG0CKTQDKCW-GP[CCW)CDQPGVFGUGZRGTVUOCKPVGPCPVDKGPHQTOÅUUQPVRTÅUGPVUFCPUFoCWVTGU 8 grassland WPKXGTUKVÅUCW6QIQGP6CP\CPKGGVGP1WICPFC7PGOKUG¼FKURQUKVKQPFGPQODTGWUGURJQVQITCRJKGUFGRQNNGPUWTWPUKVG KDB 7 6 5 9GDD #HTKECP2QNNGP&CVC$CUG EQPVKGPVCWUUKFGUFQPPÅGUEQORCTCVKXGUFoCUUGODNCIGUFGRQNNGPEQTTGURQPFCPV¼FKHHÅTGPVU 4 Woodland ÅEQU[UVÄOGUVTQRKECWZOQFGTPGURQWXCPVUGTXKT¼NoKPVGTRTÅVCVKQPFGUCUUGODNCIGURQNNKPKSWGUHQUUKNGUQDVGPWURQWTNGUUKVGU 3 SH m ¼JQOKPKFÅU7PTÅUGCWUEKGPVKHKSWGFGEGUGZRGTVUHQPEVKQPPGCWPKXGCWKPVGTPCVKQPCN l2 l1 Forest k j i h 2 g Informations fournies par les pollens f L e Wet / dry d2b d2a grassland .oÅVWFGFGURQNNGPUHQUUKNGUHQWTPKVUWTNoGPXKTQPPGOGPVXÅIÅVCNFGUUKVGU¼JQOKPKFÅUFGUKPHQTOCVKQPU¼NCHQKUSWCNKVCVKXGUGV c b SWCPVKVCVKXGU a SHT 1 Forest .GUKPHQTOCVKQPUSWCNKVCVKXGUKPFKSWGPVNGURNCPVGUGPVTCPVFCPUNCEQORQUKVKQPFGNCXÅIÅVCVKQPCKPUKSWGNGUGURÄEGUFoCTDTGU RTÅUGPVU.GWTUECTCEVÅTKUVKSWGURJ[UKQNQIKSWGUVGNNGUSWGHGWKNNCIGURGTUKUVCPVUQWECFWSWGUTGPUGKIPGPVUWTNCUCKUQPPCNKVÅFW 0 50 100% 0 60% 0 40% -26 -20 -18ä ENKOCV.CEQORCTCKUQPCXGENGUGURÄEGUCEVWGNNGUKPFKSWGNCRQUUKDKNKVÅFoQDVGPVKQPFGHTWKVUEQOGUVKDNGUUWTWPGRÅTKQFGFG NoCPPÅGVQWVGKPHQTOCVKQPWVKNG¼NCEQORTÅJGPUKQPFGUOQFGUFGHQPEVKQPPGOGPVFGPQUCPEÆVTGU¼FKHHÅTGPVGUÅRQSWGUFG NGWTFÅXGNQRRGOGPV[EQORTKUCWZRÅTKQFGUTÅEGPVGUFoCRRCTKVKQPFGUEWNVWTGUEÅTÅCNGUOKNNGVQNKXKGTUGVE 1. Hadar, résultats de l’analyse pollinique présentés sous la forme d’un diagramme. En ordonnées, la position des échantillons est indiquée par rapport aux tufs volcaniques datés de la série sédimentaire. La colonne de gauche est un diagramme synthétique dans lequel les pollens ont été groupés par catégories de plantes (arbres, herbacés). Les % de pollens sont calculés en éliminant .GUKPHQTOCVKQPUSWCPVKVCVKXGUTGHNÄVGPVNoCDQPFCPEGFGUFKXGTUGURNCPVGUCXGEEGTVCKPDKCKUSWoKNGUVKORQTVCPVFGEQPPCÊVTGRCT les aquatiques (sedges and reeds) indiqués à droite de diagramme. Membres stratigraphiques SH= Sidi Hakoma, DD= Denen Dora, KH=kada Hadar. Age des tufs volcaniques SHT (3.4 Ma), TT-4 (3.22 Ma), BKT-2 (2.95 Ma). Noter l’importance des aquatiques dans EQORCTCKUQP¼FGUÅVWFGUOGPÅGUUWTFGUCUUGODNCIGURQNNKPKSWGUOQFGTPGUFoÅEJCPVKNNQPUFGUWTHCEGFGUQNURTÅNGXÅUFCPU la partie inférieure de la section en rapport avec un environnement lacustre, et l’augmentation de la densité du couvert arboré NGUFKHHÅTGPVUV[RGUFGXÅIÅVCVKQPEQPPWUGP#HTKSWGVTQRKECNG.CDCUGFGFQPPÅGURQNNKPKSWGUFGTÅHÅTGPEGCKPUKEQPUVKVWÅG autour de 3.2 Ma (Bonnefille et al., 1987; Bonnefille et al., 2004). © Raymonde Bonnefille

182 183 8 Approaches to the archaeological record Approaches to the archaeological record 8

FGOKNKGW $QPPGHKNNGGVCN +NUPoQPVRCUCHHGEVÅNCRTÅUGPEGEQPUVCPVGFGUJQOKPKFÅU¼*CFCTSWKRGTUKUVGPVGVUQPV #RRNKECVKQPCWZUKVGU¼JQOKPKFÅU RTÅUGPVUUCPUOQPVTGTFGOQFKHKECVKQPUCPCVQOKSWGUKORQTVCPVGUFGNGWTUSWGNGVVGQUUGWZFWTCPVWPGRÅTKQFGFoWPFGOK OKNNKQPFoCPPÅGUEQORTKUGGPVTGGVOKNNKQPUFoCPPÅGU%GUKVGGUVRCTCKNNGWTUGZEGRVKQPPGNRQWTNoCDQPFCPEGFGU .CFÅHKPKVKQPFoGZEGNNGPEGGVFGXCNGWTWPKXGTUGNNGFGUOCTSWGWTUKUQVQRKSWGUGUVKNNWUVTÅGRCTFGWZGZGORNGUGORTWPVÅU¼FGU TGUVGUHQUUKNGUFQEWOGPVCPVNCOÆOGGURÄEGFo#WUVTCNQRKVJÄSWGC[CPVCESWKUNCDKRÅFKGGURÄEGECTCEVÅTKUÅGRCTFGITCPFGU UKVGU¼JQOKPKFÅUFÅL¼ENCUUÅUCWRCVTKOQKPGFGNoJWOCPKVÅNC8CNNÅGFGNo#YCUJGP'VJKQRKGGVNGDCUUKPFG6WTMCPCCW-GP[C FKHHÅTGPEGUFGVCKNNGGPVTGNGUKPFKXKFWUO¾NGUGVHGOGNNGUOCKUPoC[CPVRCUGPEQTGFÅXGNQRRÅNoWVKNKUCVKQPFoQWVKNUVCKNNÅU.GU KPHQTOCVKQPUHQWTPKGURCTNGURQNNGPUGPVCPVSWGOCTSWGWTUDKQNQIKSWGUEQPVTKDWGPVFQPE¼NoÅVCDNKUUGOGPVFGNCXCNGWT #XCPVOKNNKQPUFoCPPÅGUNo#HTKSWGÅVCKVGUUGPVKGNNGOGPVEQWXGTVGRCTWPGXÅIÅVCVKQPFQPVNoCEVKXKVÅFWG¼NCRJQVQU[PVJÄUG

TGOCTSWCDNGGVWPKXGTUGNNGFWUKVGFo*CFCT HCDTKSWCKVFGUOQNÅEWNGU¼CVQOGUFGECTDQPG RNCPVGUGP%3XCNGWTUFG¼Œ )NQDCNGOGPVFCPUNGUTÅIKQPU VTQRKECNGUEGV[RGFGXÅIÅVCVKQPCTÅITGUUÅCWRTQHKVFGURNCPVGUGP%4SWKUQPVFGXGPWGURNWUCDQPFCPVGUEQWXTCPVFG 2CTOKFoCWVTGUOCTSWGWTUDKQNQIKSWGUHQWTPKUUCPVFGUKPFKECVKQPUÅEQNQIKSWGURQWTNGUUKVGU¼JQOKPKFÅUEQPUKFÅTÅUCW RNWUGPRNWUFoGURCEGUGPVTGGVOKNNKQPUFoCPPÅGUEQPUÅEWVKXGOGPV¼NoÅVCDNKUUGOGPVFGEQPFKVKQPUFGRNWUGPRNWU RCVTKOQKPGFGNoJWOCPKVÅKNEQPXKGPVFGEKVGTNGURJ[VQNKVJGUGVNGUKUQVQRGUSWKQPVCWUUKWPGXCNGWTWPKXGTUGNNG CTKFGU2CTOKNGURNWUCPEKGPUJQOKPKFÅUVTQWXÅUGP'VJKQRKGArdipithecus ramidusQEEWRGWPGRNCEGRCTVKEWNKÄTGCXGEFGU ECTCEVÅTKUVKSWGUCPCVQOKSWGUCFCRVÅGUEQPLQKPVGOGPV¼NCDKRÅFKGGV¼NCUWURGPUKQPCTDQTKEQNG.CRTÅUGPEGArdipithecus ramidusGUVCEVWGNNGOGPVTGUVTGKPVGCWZUGWNUPKXGCWZFCVÅUFGOKNNKQPUFoCPPÅGU'PNoCDUGPEGFGRTÅUGTXCVKQPFGURQNNGPU NGUTGEQPUVKVWVKQPUUWTNoGPXKTQPPGOGPVFoArdipithecus DCUÅGUUWTNoKPVGTRTÅVCVKQPFGUHCWPGUCUUQEKÅGUQPVÅVÅEQORNÅVÅGU Les phytolithes RCTNoGZCOGPFGURJ[VQNKVJGUGVFGUKUQVQRGU%QORCTÅGU¼WPGPUGODNGFGFQPPÅGUFGTÅHÅTGPEGUOQFGTPGUNGUXCNGWTU des isotopes b%OGUWTÅUFCPUNGUÅEJCPVKNNQPUHQUUKNGUFG/KFFNG#YCUJEQPVGORQTCKPUFGUJQOKPKFÅUKPFKSWGPVWPG .GURJ[VQNKVJGUUQPVFGUEQPETÅVKQPUUKNKEGWUGUHQTOÅGU¼NoKPVÅTKGWTFGUEGNNWNGUQWGPVTGNGUEGNNWNGUFGURNCPVGU'NNGUUG XÅIÅVCVKQPFQPVNGEQWXGTVCTDQTGUEGPVPGTGRTÅUGPVGTCKVRCURNWUFGFGNCUWTHCEGVQVCNG %GTNKPIGVCN .oCPCN[UG TGVTQWXGPVRTÅUGTXÅGUFCPUNGUQNCRTÄUNCFGUVTWEVKQPFGURNCPVGUSWKNGUQPVRTQFWKVGU2CTVKEWNKÄTGOGPVCDQPFCPVGUFCPUNGU FGURJ[VQNKVJGUCÅVÅGHHGEVWÅGUWTNGUOÆOGUUÅTKGUFoÅEJCPVKNNQPUSWGNGUKUQVQRGU'NNGOQPVTGWPGCDQPFCPEGFGRNWUFG ÅRKFGTOGUFGUHGWKNNGUFGITCOKPÅGUNGURJ[VQNKVJGUQPVFGUHQTOGUFKUVKPEVKXGUFÅOQPVTCPVNoCRRCTVGPCPEGFGURNCPVGUCWZ FGURJ[VQNKVJGUFGITCOKPÅGUEGSWKKPFKSWGCWUUKWPGXÅIÅVCVKQPQWXGTVGCXGEWPGHCKDNGRTQRQTVKQPFoCTDTGU.oJCDKVCV ITCPFGUHCOKNNGUFGITCOKPÅGUGPCRRQTVCPVWPGKPFKECVKQPUWRRNÅOGPVCKTGGVWPKSWGUWTNCECTCEVÅTKUCVKQPFGURTQEGUUWURCT CKPUKÅVCDNKRCTNGUOCTSWGWTUDKQNQIKSWGUGUVGPEQPVTCFKEVKQPCXGENoÅXKFGPEGFGOKNKGWDQKUÅKPHQTOCVKQPHQWTPKGRCTNGU NGUSWGNUNGUFGWZITCPFUITQWRGUFGITCOKPÅGUHCDTKSWGPVFGUOQNÅEWNGUQTICPKSWGU¼QW¼CVQOGUFGECTDQPGFWTCPVNC OCETQHCWPGUGVNGUCFCRVCVKQPUOQTRJQNQIKSWGU¼NCXKGCTDQTKEQNGFGEGVJQOKPKFÅ7PGEQPVTQXGTUGUEKGPVKHKSWGHCKVFÅDCV

RJQVQU[PVJÄUG1PNGUFÅUKIPGUQWUNGVGTOGFGRNCPVGUGP%3 et plantes en C4%GUECTCEVÅTKUVKSWGUUQPVRCTCKNNGWTUNKÅGU¼ RCTOKNCEQOOWPCWVÅ%GFÅDCVEQPEGTPGNoKPHNWGPEGFGUEQPFKVKQPUFGOKNKGWUWTNoÅOGTIGPEGFoWPOQFGFGDKRÅFKGCRRCTW FGUEQPFKVKQPUENKOCVKSWGU.GURNCPVGUGP%4UQPVCFCRVÅGU¼WPENKOCVUCKUQPPKGTRNWUCTKFG KN[COKNNKQPUFoCPPÅGU&CPUEGECURCTVKEWNKGTNoÅVWFGFGUOCTSWGWTUDKQNQIKSWGUCHCKVÅOGTIGTWPFÅDCVUEKGPVKHKSWG UVKOWNCPVEQPVTKDWCPV¼NoÅVCDNKUUGOGPVFGNCXCNGWTTGOCTSWCDNGFWUKVGFo#TCOKU¼/KFFNG#YCUJ %QOOGRQWTNGURQNNGPUNGURJ[VQNKVJGUUQPVFGUQDLGVUOKETQUEQRKSWGU.GWTÅVWFGPÅEGUUKVGFGRTÅNGXGTNGUÅEJCPVKNNQPUUWT NGVGTTCKPRQWTÆVTGCPCN[UÅUGPNCDQTCVQKTG.GUETKVÄTGUFGUVCPFCTFUQPVXQKUKPUFGEGWZSWKUQPVÅPWOÅTÅURTÅEÅFGOOGPV 'PVCPVSWGOCTSWGWTUDKQNQIKSWGUNGUKUQVQRGUFWECTDQPGRGWXGPVÆVTGCWUUKOGUWTÅUFCPUNGUEQPETÅVKQPUECNECKTGUSWK FCPUNGEJCRKVTGEQPEGTPCPVNGURQNNGPU.oÅVWFGFGURJ[VQNKVJGUCÅVÅCRRNKSWÅGCWZUKVGUCTEJÅQNQIKSWGUCPEKGPUFÅL¼KPUETKVU UGHQTOGPVFCPUNGUQNSWCPFNoÅXCRQVTCPURKTCVKQPGZEÄFGNoKPHKNVTCVKQPKPFKSWCPVWPUVTGUUFGFÅHKEKVJ[FTKSWG7PVTCXCKN CWRCVTKOQKPGFGNoJWOCPKVÅGV¼1NFWXCK.GUTÅUWNVCVUCRRQTVGPVFGUKPFKECVKQPUKPVÅTGUUCPVGUUWTNCRTÅUGPEGFGRCNOKGTU¼ EQPUKFÅTCDNGCÅVÅTÅCNKUÅFCPUNGDCUUKPFW.CE6WTMCPC 9[PP &GUOGUWTGUKUQVQRKSWGUQPVÅVÅGHHGEVWÅGURCTRNWUKGWTU NoGPFTQKVFGUUKVGU¼JQOKPKFÅUFG/KFFNG#YCUJ $CTDQPKGVCN GVCTEJÅQNQIKSWGUFo1NFWXCK #NDGTVGVCN +NU CWVGWTUUWTFGPQODTGWZÅEJCPVKNNQPUFCVÅUFGOKNNKQPUFoCPPÅGU¼NCRÅTKQFGCEVWGNNGFCPUNGUUÅFKOGPVUQÕQPVÅVÅVTQWXÅU RGTOGVVGPVFoCRRTÅEKGTNCFGPUKVÅFGUCTDTGU¼NoGPFTQKVFWUKVG&GVGNNGUKPHQTOCVKQPUUQPVWVKNGURQWTFÅVGTOKPGTNGUJCDKVCVU FGVTÄUPQODTGWZHQUUKNGUFoJQOKPKFÅUCRRCTVGPCPV¼RNWUKGWTUIGPTGUGVGURÄEGU+NNWUVTÅURCTNC(KIWTGNGUTÅUWNVCVUOQPVTGPV QWNGUCFCRVCVKQPUCWOQFGFGNQEQOQVKQP CTDQTKEQNGQWDKRÄFG FoJQOKPKFÅUVTQWXÅUFCPUEGV[RGFGUKVGUGZENWUKXGOGPV .GUÅVWFGUUWTNGUKVGFo#TCOKU¼/KFFNG#YCUJNGUGWNQÕHWVFÅEQWXGTVArdipithecus, ont de ce fait une valeur universelle GZEGRVKQPPGNNG#RRNKSWÅG¼NoÅVWFGFGUKVGUCTEJÅQNQIKSWGUFCVCPVFGSWGNSWGUOKNNKGTUFoCPPÅGUNoÅVWFGFGURJ[VQNKVJGU TGPUGKIPGUWTNoWUCIGFGEGTVCKPGURNCPVGUEWNVKXÅGU RCTGZGORNGNGTK\ FQPVNCOQTRJQNQIKGFGURJ[VQNKVJGUGUVTGEQPPCKUUCDNG

Les isotopes

Définition et standard d’évaluation

1PFÅUKIPGRCTKUQVQRGUNGUCVQOGUFoWPÅNÅOGPVC[CPVFCPUNGWTPQ[CWNGOÆOGPQODTGFGRTQVQPUOCKUSWKGUVFKHHÅTGPVRCT NGPQODTGFGPGWVTQPU2CTGZGORNGVQWUNGUCVQOGUFGECTDQPGQPVRTQVQPUFCPUNGPQ[CWOCKUKNURGWXGPVCXQKTQW PGWVTQPU.GUKUQVQRGUEQPEGTPÅUUQPVCRRGNÅUC, C, %+NUUQPVRTQFWKVUPCVWTGNNGOGPV.GURNCPVGURWKUGPVNGWTECTDQPG FCPUNoCVOQURJÄTGCWOQ[GPFGNCRJQVQU[PVJÄUGGPGHHGEVWCPVWPHTCEVKQPPGOGPVSWKNGWTGUVRTQRTG%GHTCEVKQPPGOGPV tend à enrichir les plantes en C, le moins abondant des isotopes, et donc à diminuer la proportion de %SWKGUVNGRNWU CDQPFCPV  GVSWGNoQPOGUWTGFQPERNWUHCEKNGOGPV.CXCNGWTFWHTCEVKQPPGOGPVGUVOGUWTÅGRCTTCRRQTV¼WPUVCPFCTF GVGZRTKOÅGUQWUNCHQTOGFoWPGFKHHÅTGPEG de la proportion du carbone lourd %TÅFWKVRCTTCRRQTV¼NCEQORQUKVKQPFW b 2. Relation entre les valeurs UVCPFCTFKPVGTPCVKQPCN%oGUVCKPUKSWGNGUCTDTGUUQPVECTCEVÅTKUÅURCTFGUXCNGWTUFGb%FKOKPWÅGUFG¼ŒVCPFKU isotopiques de b3C mesurées  sur la matière organique des SWGEGTVCKPGUITCOKPÅGUFGUOKNKGWZCTKFGUCWTQPVFGUXCNGWTUFGb %FKOKPWÅGUFGNoQTFTGFGŒ2CTCRRNKECVKQPFG sols de différents écosystèmes tropicaux (température > 15°C). EGRTKPEKRGQPECTCEVÅTKUGNoCDQPFCPEGFGEGTVCKPGURNCPVGUFoWPGOCPKÄTGTGOCTSWCDNGWPKXGTUGNNGOGPVCRRNKECDNG¼VQWV A: comparaison des valeurs UÅFKOGPVEQPVGPCPVFGNCOCVKÄTGQTICPKSWGSWGNSWGUQKVNo¾IGFWUÅFKOGPVGVNCRTQXGPCPEGIÅQITCRJKSWG&ÅXGNQRRÅGKN[C isotopiques de d 13 C avec les valeurs de densité du couvert SWGNSWGUFÅEGPPKGUNCVGEJPKSWGTGSWKGTVFGUÅSWKRGOGPVUOQFGTPGUUQRJKUVKSWÅUFGOGUWTGFGUTCFKQÅNÅOGPVU7PGITCPFG arboré mesurées sur le terrain 3. Comparaison de données non lithiques obtenues dans la série marine du sondage selon une base aérienne. océanique DSDP 231 du golfe d’Aden avec les valeurs isotopiques de 13C obtenues sur OCÊVTKUGFGUOÅVJQFGUCPCN[VKSWGUGUVFQPENCEQPFKVKQPKPFKURGPUCDNGRQWTRGTOGVVTGNGRTÅNÄXGOGPVFoWPGUÅTKGFoÅEJCPVKNNQPU B: comparaison des valeurs b 13 les concrétions carbonatées des séries lithiques datées de la région du lac Turkana. Les CFCRVÅU¼NCRTQDNÅOCVKSWGFGTGEJGTEJGGPXKUCIÅGCWZUKVGUCTEJÅQNQIKSWGUENCUUÅU5GWNUFGUEJGTEJGWTUURÅEKCNKUÅUUGTQPV isotopiques de b C dans les données sont présentées sur une échelle temporelle de 0 à 5 millions d’années, avec différents écosystèmes tropicaux les valeurs indiquées sur l’échelle des abscisses. (d’après 7 in Bonnefille 2010, données JCDKNKVÅU¼RTÅNGXGTUWTNGVGTTCKPNGUÅEJCPVKNNQPUFGTÅHÅTGPEGFGUVKPÅUCWZOGUWTGUFGNCDQTCVQKTG africains. © T.E. Cerling isotopiques marines Feakins et al., 2005, terrestres Wynn 2004).

184 185 8 Approaches to the archaeological record Approaches to the archaeological record 8

WPGÅXQNWVKQPFGUXCNGWTUFGb%FGOQKPUGPOQKPUPÅICVKXGUEGSWKKPFKSWGWPCEETQKUUGOGPVFoCTKFKVÅFCPUNGUEQPFKVKQPU .GUHNWEVWCVKQPUFGURQWTEGPVCIGUFGRQNNGPFoCTDTGUVTCFWKUGPVNGUXCTKCVKQPUFGNCFGPUKVÅFWEQWXGTVXÅIÅVCNVQWVGHQTOG ENKOCVKSWGUFGNCTÅIKQPFW.CE6WTMCPCFGRWKUOKNNKQPUFoCPPÅGU.COKUGGPRNCEGFGEGUEQPFKVKQPURNWUCTKFGUCÅVÅ FGXÅIÅVCVKQPEQPHQPFWG1PPQVGSWGRQWTNCRÅTKQFGEQWXTCPVNGUFGTPKGTUOKNNKQPUFoCPPÅGUFGUHNWEVWCVKQPUQPVGWNKGW OKUGGPRCTCNNÄNGGVFKUEWVÅGRCTTCRRQTV¼NoÅOGTIGPEGFGFGWZNKIPÅGUÅXQNWVKXGUFKUVKPEVGUEGNNGFWIGPTGHomo et celle du VTCFWKUCPVWPGF[PCOKSWGEQPUVCPVGFWEQWXGTVXÅIÅVCNCWEQWTUFGUFKHHÅTGPVGURÅTKQFGUIÅQNQIKSWGU%GUHNWEVWCVKQPUQPVGW genre Australopithecus,SWKTGRTÅUGPVGPVFGUCFCRVCVKQPUÅXQNWVKXGUFKUVKPEVGU2CTNGWTEQPVTKDWVKQPCWZFKUEWUUKQPUTGNCVKXGU FGUCORNKVWFGUFKHHÅTGPVGU2CTOKNGURNWUKORQTVCPVGUPQWUTGVGPQPUNGUVTQKUSWKCRRCTCKUUGPVU[PEJTQPGUUWTVQWVGNCDCPFG CWZRTQEGUUWUÅXQNWVKHUQPCRRTÅEKGNGTÐNGKORQTVCPVSWGNGUOCTSWGWTUDKQNQIKSWGUCRRQTVGPV¼NCXCNGWTWPKXGTUGNNGFWUKVG KPVGTVTQRKECNGFGNo#HTKSWG7PGITCPFGCDQPFCPEGFGUCTDTGUGUVDKGPOCTSWÅGGPVTGGVOKNNKQPUFoCPPÅGU'NNGVTCFWKVUQKV TGEQPPWFGRWKUSWGNSWGUCPPÅGUCWRCVTKOQKPGFGNoJWOCPKVÅ WPGRNWUITCPFGFGPUKVÅFWEQWXGTVCTDQTÅUWTNoGPUGODNGFGNCXÅIÅVCVKQPUQKVWPGRNWUITCPFGGZVGPUKQPFWOCUUKHHQTGUVKGT ÅSWCVQTKCNGZVGPUKQPOKGWZFQEWOGPVÅGGP#HTKSWGQEEKFGPVCNGSWoGP#HTKSWGQTKGPVCNG%GVVGRJCUGHQTGUVKÄTGFCVÅGFGNC HKPFW/KQEÄPGRTÅEÄFGNoCRRCTKVKQPFGNCDKRÅFKGEJG\NGUJQOKPKFÅUVTQWXÅU¼EGLQWT#WVQWTFGOKNNKQPUFoCPPÅGU¼WPG ÅRQSWGFoCUUÄEJGOGPVFGNCOGT/ÅFKVGTTCPÅGNCFGPUKVÅFWEQWXGTVCTDQTÅH×VEQPUKFÅTCDNGOGPVTÅFWKVGUWTNoGPUGODNG Comment un site non lithique peut avoir une valeur archéologique? 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Représentation de l’évolution WPGEJTQPQNQIKGDCUÅGUWTNGUOÆOGUFCVCVKQPU&WHCKVFGNCEQPVGORQTCPÅKVÅÅVCDNKGGPVTGNGUUÅTKGUVGTTGUVTGUGVOCTKPGU de la densité du couvert arboré VQWVGUNGUFQPPÅGUQDVGPWGUUWTEGVVGUÅTKGOCTKPGTGPUGKIPGPVUWTNCXÅIÅVCVKQPGVNGENKOCVFGNoGPUGODNGFGNo#HTKSWGQTKGPVCNG dans la végétation tropicale africaine de 8 à 0 millions d’années $KGPSWGPGEQPVGPCPVCWEWPÅNÅOGPVNKVJKSWGQWQUUGWZNCUÅTKGOCTKPGÅVWFKÅGRTQFWKVWPGKPHQTOCVKQPFoWPGKORQTVCPEG au regard de la succession des EQPUKFÅTCDNG¼NoÅEJGNNGTÅIKQPCNG&GRNWUEQOOGFoCWVTGUÅNÅOGPVUKUQVQRKSWGUCPCN[UÅURCTCKNNGWTUGVRCTFoCWVTGUEJGTEJGWTU différentes formes d’hominidés anciens connues à ce jour. 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186 187 8 Approaches to the archaeological record Approaches to the archaeological record 8

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188 189 8 Approaches to the archaeological record Approaches to the archaeological record 8

.o#HTKSWGQTKGPVCNGCRTQFWKVNGRNWUNQPIGPTGIKUVTGOGPVFGNoJKUVQKTGFGNoÅXQNWVKQPFGPQUCPEÆVTGUFGRWKUOKNNKQPUFoCPPÅGU .GCMG[/&CPF*C[42NKQEGPGHQQVRTKPVUKPVJG.CGVQNKNDGFUCV.CGVQNKPQTVJGTP6CP\CPKC0CVWTG8QNRR WPKPXGPVCKTGVQWV¼HCKVGZEGRVKQPPGN%GTVCKPUUKVGUPoQPVSWGFGUTGUVGUURQTCFKSWGUOCKUFGSWCNKVÅGZVTCQTFKPCKTGECTKNUQPV  RTQFWKVNoGPUGODNGFGURKÄEGUFoWPUSWGNGVVGRTGUSWGEQORNGV.GUUSWGNGVVGUFoArdipithecus ramidus (Ardi) à Middle Awash, FoAustralopithecus afarensis .WE[ à Hadar, et d’Homo erectus $KI$Q[ ¼6WTMCPCUQPVTGOCTSWCDNGU%GRGPFCPVKNGZKUVGFGU .GCMG[/)(GKDGN%5/E&QWICNN+9CTF%8CPF9CNMGT#0GYURGEKOGPUCPFEQPHKTOCVKQPQHCPGCTN[CIG IKUGOGPVUOQKPUURGEVCEWNCKTGUECTC[CPVHQWTPKOQKPUFGTGUVGUFoJQOKPKFÅUOCKUSWKUQPVVQWVCWUUKKORQTVCPVUGVFKIPG HQT#WUVTCNQRKVJGEWUCPCOGPUKU0CVWTG8QNRR FGHKIWTGTCWRCVTKOQKPGFGNoJWOCPKVÅ%oGUVNGECUFWIKUGOGPVFGNCDCUUGXCNNÅGFGNo1OQSWKEQPVKGPVWPGPTGIKUVTGOGPV VGORQTGNGZEGRVKQPPGNRCTNoÅRCKUUGWTFGEQWEJGUHQUUKNKHÄTGUNCTKEJGUUGFGUUWEEGUUKQPUHCWPKSWGUTÅRGTVQTKÅGU.CRTÅUGPEG /QTNG[4)Geological Evolution of Tropical Rain ,QJP9KNG[CPF5QPU.QPFQP FGFÅRÐVUUWEEGUUKHUFGEGPFTGUXQNECPKSWGUCRGTOKUFoÅVCDNKTFGUTGRÄTGUKPFKURGPUCDNGURQWTNGUCWVTGUUKVGUQÕNGUFCVCVKQPU UQPVOQKPUHCEKNGU¼QDVGPKTGVOQKPUHKCDNGU.oGZVGPUKQPFGUEGPFTGUXQNECPKSWGUFCVÅGUSWGNoQPTGVTQWXGFCPUNGUUÅFKOGPVU 2CP#&,CEQDU$(&TCPUHKGNF,CPF$CMGT9,6JGHQUUKNJKUVQT[QHRCNOU #TGECEGCG KP#HTKECCPFPGYTGEQTFU OCTKPUEQPHÄTG¼NCUÅTKGFGNo1OQWPGXCNGWTFGTÅHÅTGPEGWPKXGTUGNNG HTQOVJG.CVG1NKIQEGPG /[C QHPQTVJYGUVGTP'VJKQRKC$QV,QHVJG.KPPGCP5QE8QNRR

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190 191 8 Approaches to the archaeological record Approaches to the archaeological record 8

Geology, stone technology and early populations of humans making the tools, food debris, habitation structures and rare evidence for ways in which social and symbolic parts of VJGKTNKXGUYGTGQTICPK\GF/[GORJCUKUJGTGKUQPVJGUVQPGVQQNUCUVJGUGRTQXKFGVJGNCTIGUVTGEQTFQHRCUVJWOCP in Africa behavioural evolution and diversity. Christian A. Tryon Center for the Study of Human Origins – Department of Anthropology – New York University – United States of America Geology and human evolution

6JGIGQNQIKECNTGEQTFRTQXKFGUVJGEQPVGZVHQTWPFGTUVCPFKPIVJGHQUUKNUCPFCTVGHCEVUVJCVEQORTKUGVJGOCLQTKV[QHQWT Introduction evidence for human evolution.

Determining which African sites related to human origins have Outstanding Universal Value (OUV) is a complex process Q (QUUKNUCPFCTVGHCEVUCTGIGPGTCNN[TGEQXGTGFHTQOQWVETQRU6JGGZVGPVQHQWVETQRURTQXKFGUEQPETGVGDQWPFCTKGUHQT involving multiple variables. The geological record provides the basic framework for understanding much of the relevant FGHKPKPIVJGGZVGPVQHCTEJCGQNQIKECNCPFRCNCGQPVQNQIKECNUKVGU evidence. In particular, the sediments from which artefacts and fossils are recovered provide the context for interpreting Q The preservation of most fossils and artefacts depends on their rapid burial by sediment in the past as well as their these remains, both in terms of the changing environments in which human evolution in Africa occurred as well as the TGEQXGT[D[TGOQXCNQHVJGUGUGFKOGPVUFWGVQNCVGTGTQUKQPQTEQPVTQNNGFGZECXCVKQP6JGPCVWTGQHVJGUGFKOGPVU antiquity and tempo of biological and behavioural change. Geology also dictates much of what is recovered from the EJCTCEVGTK\GU C VJGV[RGQHGPXKTQPOGPVKPYJKEJVJGHQUUKNUQTCTVGHCEVUYGTGFGRQUKVGFCPF D VJGGZVGPVVQYJKEJ archaeological and palaeontological record, and serves as a practical starting point for delineating the boundaries of a variety of formation processes, such as winnowing or chemical weathering from water, have affected the recovered sites with OUV. OCVGTKCN 5EJKHHGT9CVGTU  Q 7PFGTUVCPFKPIVJGVGORQQHJWOCPGXQNWVKQPTGSWKTGUCRTGEKUGEJTQPQNQI[#XCTKGV[QHTCFKQOGVTKEOGVJQFUQH But the geological record itself will, in most cases, be insufficient to provide OUV status to a site. Of critical importance age estimation are now available for multiple components of the geological record, including sediments, organic here are the early human (hominin) fossil remains and archaeological material sometimes found with them. The fossils remains within sediments, lava flows and volcanic ash deposits. provide an important index of the various evolutionary forces that have shaped the evolution of our own species, Homo sapiens/[GORJCUKUJGTGKUQPVJGFKXGTUKV[QHVJGUGGCTN[RQRWNCVKQPUCUOWNVKRNGNKPGUQHGXKFGPEGKPFKECVGVJCVKPVJG 'CEJQHVJGUGKUFGCNVYKVJKPOQTGFGVCKNDGNQY past, unlike the present, multiple species and genera of hominins overlapped in time in Africa. Even within our species there is remarkable morphological variation, and the nature and causes of this variation are still poorly understood. As such, each hominin fossil makes an important contribution to our understanding of human diversity. Geology as a boundary

Hominin fossils are relatively rare things, and as important as each one is, the archaeological record provides the best A practical concern in the study of early fossil and archaeological sites is the definition of site boundaries, and geological units evidence for human diversity, particularly behavioural differences over time and across space. The archaeological record QHQWVETQRUHQTOCVKQPUOGODGTUCPFDGFUECPDGWUGHWNKPVJKUTGICTF (KIWTG +PFGGFVJGXGT[PQVKQPQHnUKVGoKUEQORNGZ preserves the material traces of the actions of early hominins, including the tools they used, the by-products from as it often denotes one specific location where fossils or artefacts have been recovered, and this area of recovery is often only

1. Panoramic view of Locality 1 of the Kapedo Tuffs in Kenya’s Rift Valley during excavation as described in Tryon et al., 2008. Artefact-bearing sediment outcrops capped by resistant volcanic ash deposits (tuff) stand in sharp relief from the surrounding landscape. Outcrop boundaries define the limits of the site. © C.A. Tryon

192 193 8 Approaches to the archaeological record Approaches to the archaeological record 8

CUOCNNRQTVKQPQHVJGVQVCNHQUUKNQTCTVGHCEVDGCTKPIFGRQUKV(QTGZCORNGCPCTEJCGQNQIKUVQDUGTXGUCTVGHCEVUGTQFKPIHTQO OKIJVETWUJCPFHTCIOGPVDQPGU1HVJQUGDQPGUTCRKFN[DWTKGFHGYCTGHQUUKNK\GFYJKEJKUVJGRTQEGUUQHVJGVTCPUHQTOCVKQP CJKNNUKFGEQPFWEVUCEQPVTQNNGFGZECXCVKQPQHCO2-area, recovers a dense concentration of in situ stone artefacts, and QHQTICPKEOCVGTKCNVQKPQTICPKEOCVGTKCNGUUGPVKCNN[DQPGUDGEQOGUVQPGU GI$GJTGPUOG[GT)KHHQTF)QP\CNG\  PQVGUVJCVVJGKTURCVKCNFKUVTKDWVKQPUWIIGUVUVJCVVJGRCVEJQHCTEJCGQNQIKECNOCVGTKCNGZVGPFUHWTVJGTKPVQVJGJKNNUKFG+PVJKU Only those bones deposited in specific kinds of environments such as those conducive to calcium carbonate-rich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oUUWTHCEGYJGVJGTKVKUEQORQUGFQHUGFKOGPVNCXCQTQVJGTOCVGTKCN1WVETQRUOC[EQPUKUVQHTGUKUVCPV durable and tend to survive much better than bones, but the types, numbers and arrangements of stone tools can also be OCVGTKCNGZRQUGFCUCFLCEGPVUQHVGTOCVGTKCNKUGTQFGFYC[QTOC[DGXKUKDNGKPUVGGRGZRQUWTGUHQWPFKPUVTGCOUCNQPIHCWNV affected by a variety of events that occur between the time they are deposited and the time they are recovered for analysis lines, or other places where erosion has made formerly buried rocks visible. The study of the sediments in which fossils or 5EJKEM 7PFGTUVCPFKPIFGRQUKVKQPCNEQPVGZVIKXGUWUUQOGQHVJGUGHQTOCVKQPRTQEGUUGUVJCVEQPVTKDWVGVQVJGHQUUKN CTVGHCEVUQEEWTV[RKECNN[TGSWKTGUVJGCPCN[UKUQHOWNVKRNGQWVETQRU6JGUGFKOGPVCT[TGEQTFKUVJGEQORNGZJKUVQT[QHOWNVKRNG and archaeological record. periods of deposition, erosion and stasis, each of which can represent moments in time ranging from minutes to tens QHOKNNGPPKC5GFKOGPVCT[GPXKTQPOGPVUCNUQXCT[URCVKCNN[5VTGCOUKFGNCMGUKFGCPFECXGUGVVKPIUCTGRCTVKEWNCTN[EQORNGZ &GRQUKVKQPCNEQPVGZVTGHGTUVQVJGPCVWTGQHVJGHKPCNUGFKOGPVCVKQPVJCVDWTKGFHQUUKNUQTCTVGHCEVUDGHQTGVJGKTTGEQXGT[(QT Depositional environments (each with their own distinctive sediments) at streams include the channel, the channel margin and GZCORNGFQVJGHQUUKNUQEEWTKPOWFFGRQUKVUCFLCEGPVVQCNCMGQTCOQPIEQDDNGUCPFDQWNFGTUKPVJGOKFFNGQHCUVTGCO the floodplain. For lakes these include the lake centre, margin and often streams that empty into it. Depositional environments EJCPPGN!'CEJQHVJGUGUGVVKPIUVGNNUWUUQOGVJKPIFKHHGTGPV/WFKUFQOKPCVGFD[HKPGITCKPGFOCVGTKCNOOCPFKV in caves can include areas of roof collapse, water percolation from underground sources, as well as layers of windblown dust. HCNNUQWVQHUWURGPUKQPQPN[KPXGT[UVKNNYCVGTU6JGTGHQTGYGYQWNFGZRGEVCHQUUKNDWTKGFD[OWFPQVVQJCXGVTCXGNNGFHCT 4GEQIPK\KPIVJKUURCVKCNXCTKCVKQPTGSWKTGUVJGGZCOKPCVKQPQHOWNVKRNGQWVETQRU from where the much larger and heavier animal originally died. Muddy deposits often favour the preservation of complete skeletons. In contrast, fossils from a cobble- and boulder-dominated stream deposit have likely travelled some distance from However, comparing multiple outcrops is only a useful way to observe spatial variation if it can be demonstrated that the where they were originally deposited. As the stream has sufficient power to move large rocks along its base, it would also have sediments or other materials among the outcrops compared actually derive from the same time interval. To do this, geologists UWHHKEKGPVRQYGTVQVTCPURQTVCHQUUKNCPFWPNKMGVJGOWFF[NCMGFGRQUKVVJGNQECVKQPQHHQUUKNTGEQXGT[OC[DGSWKVGHCTHTQO TGEQIPK\GCJKGTCTEJ[QHOCRRCDNGNKVJQUVTCVKITCRJKEWPKVUVJCVKUNC[GTUQTUVTCVCQHUGFKOGPVITQWRGFCEEQTFKPIVQUJCTGF where the animal originally died. Similarly, complete skeletons are rare as the different elements get separated, transported characteristics whose presence can be mapped across large areas. The formation is the basic geological unit; multiple and deposited at different places along the stream system. HQTOCVKQPUECPDGEQODKPGFKPVQITQWRUQTUWDFKXKFGFKPVQOGODGTUCPFHWTVJGTKPVQDGFU/QTGEQORNGZYC[UQHNKPMKPI outcrops using volcanic ash deposits are discussed below. &GRQUKVKQPCNEQPVGZVVJGTGHQTGCHHGEVUYJCVKUTGEQXGTGFDWVKVCNUQVGORGTUQWTKPVGTRTGVCVKQPQHYJCVRCUVGPXKTQPOGPVU were like. To continue the above discussion, the cobbles and boulders of the stream could tell us that there was a competent )GQNQIKECNHQTOCVKQPUCPFOGODGTUCTGHTGSWGPVN[WUGFCUVJGDCUKEWPKVQHCPCN[UKUCV#HTKECPUKVGUTGNCVGFVQJWOCPGXQNWVKQP TKXGT KGQPGYKVJCUVTQPIHNQY KPVJGCTGCQHVJCVQWVETQR'XGPKHVJGHQUUKNYKVJKPVJCVUVTGCOFGRQUKVYCUQHCV[RGQH 6JKUKUKNNWUVTCVGFD[VYQGZCORNGU6JGUGFKOGPVUQHVJG5QWVJ#HTKECPECXG5VGTMHQPVGKPCTGCVVTKDWVGFVQVJG5VGTMHQPVGKP animal indicative of a particular kind of environment (e.g. a ), it would only tell us that the savanna environments that (QTOCVKQPCPFFKXKFGFKPVQUKZOGODGTU $TCKP /QUVEQORCTKUQPUCTGOCFGCOQPIOGODGTU6JGOGODGTKUVJG IKTCHHGHCXQWTQEEWTTGFUQOGYJGTGWRUVTGCO $GJTGPUOG[GT 5KOKNCTRTQDNGOUCHHGEVCTEJCGQNQIKECNCUUGODNCIGU(QT appropriate unit of comparison, even in the absence of radiometric age estimates, because inter-member differences record GZCORNGOCMKPIGXGPCUKORNGUVQPGVQQNECPETGCVGFQ\GPUQHFKUECTFGFUJCTRURNKPVGTUQHUVQPGECNNGFHNCMGU+HFGRQUKVGF major changes in sedimentation, either due to changes in depositional environment or intervening periods of erosion or non- in a muddy environment, it may be possible to recover them all and refit them, that is, put them back together in the reverse FGRQUKVKQP+PVJG1MQVG/GODGTQHVJG-QQDK(QTC(QTOCVKQP -GP[C OWNVKRNGUKVGUQEEWTCETQUUCPCTGC |MO2$GECWUG order from which they were removed from a stone core. Doing this is a powerful tool for studying ancient methods of stone UGFKOGPVUQHVJGUCOGOGODGTTGRTGUGPVVJGUCOGCRRTQZKOCVGDNQEMQHVKOG KPVJKUECUGEQPUVTCKPGFD[OWNVKRNGOGVJQFU tool production, discussed below. The same artefacts deposited in a stream would not have the same degree of preservation, VQCRRTQZKOCVGN[s|/CCIQ XCTKCVKQPKPCPEKGPVGPXKTQPOGPVUHNQTCNCPFHCWPCNEQOOWPKVKGUCPFVJGCTEJCGQNQIKECN YKVJUOCNNGTGNGOGPVUDGKPIVTCPURQTVGFRTQITGUUKXGN[FQYPUVTGCO 5EJKEM  TGEQTFQHGCTN[JQOKPKPUECPDGGZCOKPGF 4QIGTUGVCN5VGTPGVCN$TQYPGVCN 5WEJCPCRRTQCEJKU GUUGPVKCNCUJQOKPKPHQTCIGTUTCPIGFCETQUUCPEKGPVNCPFUECRGUVJCVKPENWFGFCXCTKGV[QHJCDKVCVUCPFPQQPGnUKVGoJQYGXGT FGHKPGFYKNNRTGUGTXGVJGHWNNTCPIGQHVJKUGPXKTQPOGPVCNQTDGJCXKQWTCNFKXGTUKV[4GEQIPK\KPIVJKUFKXGTUKV[PGEGUUKVCVGU Age estimates and (tephro-) stratigraphic control CRGTURGEVKXGQPGCTN[UKVGUVJCVOQXGUDG[QPFVJGnHKPFURQVUoYJGTGRCTVKEWNCTN[UVTKMKPIHQUUKNUOC[DGHQWPFQTFGPUG EQNNGEVKQPUQHCTVGHCEVUVQCXKGYVJCVEQPUKFGTUVJGNQPIVGTORQVGPVKCNQHCPEKGPVNCPFUECRGUVQKPHQTOWUCDQWVVJGEQPVGZV Determining the age of fossils, artefacts and environmental data is key to understanding the tempo and pattern of human of ancient hominin behaviours. Using outcrop boundaries of geologically defined formations and members is one way to evolution. Chronology provides the means to estimate first and last appearance dates for various species or behaviours, and achieve this goal. can document the dispersal of early human populations or the spread of new ideas such as those involved in tool production. #UUWEJHQTCRCNCGQCPVJTQRQNQIKECNUKVGVQJCXG178KVOWUVDGYGNNFCVGF(QTGZCORNGKVKUDQVJVJGNQPIUVTCVKITCRJKE UGSWGPEGCPFVJGPWODGTQHTCFKQOGVTKECIGGUVKOCVGUVJCVOCMG1NFWXCK)QTIG 7PKVGF4GRWDNKEQH6CP\CPKC UWEJCP Depositional context, formation processes and palaeoenvironment KORQTVCPVUKVG *C[9JKVGGVCN +VKUVJKUVGORQTCNHTCOGYQTMVJCVOCMGUVJGPWOGTQWUFKHHGTGPVV[RGUQH archaeological sites and hominin fossils of multiple genera and species such an essential part of the palaeoanthropological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diversity of the hominin lineage, as both Paranthropus boisei and Homo habilis are found from the same sedimentary strata 9JKVGGVCN 7PFGTUVCPFKPIVJGRCNCGQGPXKTQPOGPVTGSWKTGUCECTGHWNTGCFKPIQHGXKFGPEGUWEJCUHQUUKNURQNNGPITCKPU there (White et al., 2000). RJ[VQNKVJUCPFUQKNECTDQPCVGEQORQUKVKQPUVJCVKPFKECVGEGTVCKPJCDKVCVU*QYGXGTKVCNUQTGSWKTGUCPWPFGTUVCPFKPIQHJQY fossil sites formed, where the evidence comes from, and how representative the collected data may be. 6JGUVTCVKITCRJKETGEQTFRTQXKFGUVJGHWPFCOGPVCNEJTQPQNQIKECNVQQN6JGUVTCVKITCRJKEUGSWGPEGRTQXKFGUTGNCVKXGCIGU6JKU can include the chronological ordering of strata at a single site, or a comparison of like-aged deposits across multiple sites. The sample of fossils and artefacts used to study human evolution in Africa represents only a fraction of the past. For a fossil to The latter is typically done using lithostratigraphy, identifying the same distinctive stratigraphic layer at multiple outcrops. DGUVWFKGFVJGCPKOCNHKTUVJCUVQFKGQTKVUDQF[JCUVQDGFGRQUKVGFKPCRNCEGEQPFWEKXGVQTCRKFDWTKCND[UGFKOGPVU$QPGU 6GRJTQUVTCVKITCRJ[KUCURGEKCNK\GFDTCPEJQHNKVJQUVTCVKITCRJ[QPGVJCVHQEWUGUQPVTCEKPIXQNECPKECUJFGRQUKVU VGRJTC CETQUU GZRQUGFVQVJGUWTHCEGTCRKFN[FGITCFGYKVJHNWEVWCVKQPUKPVGORGTCVWTGCPFOQKUVWTG8CTKQWUUECXGPIGTUHTQOOKETQQTICPKUOU CPEKGPVNCPFUECRGU .QYG 6GRJTQUVTCVKITCRJ[KUYKFGN[WUGFKPGCUVGTP#HTKECYJGTGTKHVKPICPFTGNCVGFIGQNQIKECN to hyena may feed on and destroy all or part of a bone. Similarly, migratory game animals or tumbling boulders in a stream activity results in widespread volcanic activity. Tephrostratigraphy works on the basis of identifying the characteristic geochemical

194 195 8 Approaches to the archaeological record Approaches to the archaeological record 8

UKIPCVWTGQTnHKPIGTRTKPVoQHCIKXGPGTWRVKQP/QUVXQNECPKECUJFGRQUKVUCTGEQORQUGFQHOKPWVGINCUUUJCTFUVJCVCTGDKVU Stone tool technology QHOCIOCTCRKFN[SWGPEJGFCVVJGVKOGQHGTWRVKQPEQQNGFCHVGTNGCXKPIVJGUQWTEGXQNECPQ/QUVVGRJTQUVTCVKITCRJKEGHHQTVU HQEWUQPCPCN[UKUQHVJGEJGOKECNEQORQUKVKQPQHVJGINCUUUJCTFUCUVJKUTGRTGUGPVUVJGOCIOCEQORQUKVKQP'CEJXQNECPQCPF )GQNQIKECNCRRTQCEJGUHQTOCPCVWTCNEQORQPGPVQHVJGUVWF[QHVJG#HTKECPCTEJCGQNQIKECNTGEQTF5VQPGCTVGHCEVUCTGVJG QHVGPGCEJGTWRVKQPJCUCWPKSWGIGQEJGOKECNUKIPCVWTGDGECWUGQHVJGOCP[EQORNGZRTQEGUUGUCEVKXGKPOCIOCEJCODGTU most abundant part of the archaeological record relevant to the study of human evolution. At the most basic level, stone that affect composition, including melting the host rock on which the volcano is formed, the depth of the magma chamber, artefacts represent the transformation of the geological record (rock) into the archaeological record, the latter preserving the duration since a previous eruption and other factors. physical traces of past human or hominin behaviours. Two elements are particularly important.

/CP[GTWRVKQPUCTGXGT[GZRNQUKXGCPFFKURGTUGCUJTCRKFN[QXGTNCTIGCTGCUQHVGPOGCUWTGFKPJWPFTGFUQHMO2. Identifying Q 6JGRJ[UKECNRTQRGTVKGUQHVJGTQEMUUGNGEVGFHQTWUGCUVQQNU(GYQHVJGTQEMUGZRQUGFQPVJG'CTVJoUUWTHCEGCTG the same ash layer in multiple outcrops provides a time line for comparing among different areas, and thus for studying lateral suitable for making stone tools, and those that are have various physical properties that reflect things such as the ease XCTKCVKQP6JKUCRRTQCEJJCUDGGPRCTVKEWNCTN[WUGHWNKPVJG6WTMCPC$CUKPQHPQTVJGTP-GP[CCPFUQWVJGTP'VJKQRKC $TQYPGV with which they fracture for making stone tools, to how long they will retain a sharp edge for cutting or other tasks. CN YJGTGUQOGQHVJGUCOGCUJNC[GTUJCXGDGGPHQWPFKPFGRQUKVUVQVJGPQTVJGCUVCPFYGUVQH.CMG6WTMCPCCPF 'XGPVJGGCTNKGUVVQQNOCMGTUYGTGCYCTGQHVJGUGRTQRGTVKGUCPFVJGKTUVWF[CNQPIYKVJJQYVQQNUYGTGOCFGCTG RGTJCRUGXGPHCTVJGTCHKGNFKPENWFKPIVJG)WNHQH#FGPVQVJGGCUVCPF7ICPFCVQVJGYGUV 2KEMHQTFGVCN$TQYPGV important clues for understanding the evolution of human cognition and our increasing reliance on tools for survival. CN  Q The distances over which stone was transported, either among mobile foragers or even by trade, provides the GORKTKECNFCVCPGGFGFVQUVWF[VJGGOGTIGPEGQHVJGUQTVUQHEQORNGZUQEKCNPGVYQTMUEJCTCEVGTKUVKEQHOQFGTP #UPQVGFCDQXGKFGPVKH[KPIVJGUCOGCUJNC[GTCTQWPF.CMG6WTMCPCNGFVQVJGFGXGNQROGPVQHCnNCPFUECRGCTEJCGQNQI[o JWOCPU6JGUGCPFQVJGTEJCTCEVGTKUVKEUQHCUVQPGVQQNCUUGODNCIGEQPVTKDWVGVQVJG178QH#HTKECPCTEJCGQNQIKECN YJGTGD[CTEJCGQNQIKECNXCTKCVKQPCVOWNVKRNGUKVGUQHVJGUCOGCRRTQZKOCVGCIGYCUEQORCTGF6JKUUQTVQHEQORCTKUQPKU sites. essential for the study of foragers, particularly those living in seasonally arid tropical settings such as much of Africa. Foragers in these settings are highly mobile, and as such, no single archaeological site will preserve evidence for the full range of behaviours of an early hominin group. Comparison of multiple sites of the same age in different environments may begin to How do we know? accurately capture this variation. Studies of site-to-source distances of stone raw material, discussed in greater detail below, UWIIGUVVJCVGXGPVJGGCTNKGUVJQOKPKPUYGTGOQXKPICDQWV CPFVTCPURQTVKPIUVQPGVQQNU QXGTFKUVCPEGU MO $TCWP Archaeologists have learned about stone tool production from a variety of sources. These include the study of populations GVCN 6JKUGORJCUK\GUVJCVYJGPEQPUKFGTKPIVJG178QHCnUKVGoYGOWUVEQPUKFGTCnUKVGoCUDWVQPGRCTVQHRCUV KP#HTKECVJCVOCMGCPFWUGUVQPGVQQNUQTFKFUQWPVKNSWKVGTGEGPVN[ GI%NCTM9GGFOCP 6JGTGJCXGCNUQ behavioural systems. Widely dispersed tephra provide one means to establish the physical boundaries of some of these past DGGPCPWODGTQHNCDQTCVQT[DCUGFKPXGUVKICVKQPUQHVJGRJ[UKEUDGJKPFVQQNRTQFWEVKQPCUYGNNCUCPWODGTQHGZRGTKOGPVCN systems of landscape use. approaches used, including modern replications of ancient artefacts to understand their methods of manufacture (see 9JKVVCMGT 6JGUGGZRGTKOGPVCNCRRTQCEJGUJCXGJGNRGFUJKHVVJGUVWF[QHUVQPGVQQNUHTQOQPGQHHKPKUJGFRTQFWEVUVQCP #UKORQTVCPVCUOGVJQFUUWEJCUVGRJTQUVCVKITCRJ[CTGQVJGTOGVJQFUCTGTGSWKTGFVQFGVGTOKPGVJGCEVWCNCIGQHUGFKOGPVU GORJCUKUQPVJGRTQEGUUQHOCPWHCEVWTG +PK\CPGVCN 6JKURTQEGUUDGIKPUYKVJVJGTCYOCVGTKCNWPOQFKHKGFPCVWTCNN[ fossils and artefacts. The most relevant for the palaeoanthropological record are a battery of radiometric methods, so called occurring stone. This typically occurs as primary deposits (e.g. outcrops) or as secondary deposits (e.g. rounded cobbles in a DGECWUGKVKUVJGOGCUWTGQHTCVGUQHVJGTCFKQCEVKXGFGEC[QHKUQVQRGUVJCVRTQXKFGUVJGnENQEMoVJCVRTQXKFGUCPCIGGUVKOCVG river bed derived from upstream sources), where material has been eroded from outcrops and redeposited elsewhere. After #UUVTGUUGFD[%QNOCPGVCN  TCFKQOGVTKEOGVJQFUCTGPQVnCDUQNWVGoOGVJQFUPQTFQVJG[RTQXKFGnFCVGUoDWVTCVJGT ECTGHWNUGNGEVKQPQHRKGEGUQHVJGCRRTQRTKCVGOCVGTKCNUK\GUJCRGCPFSWCNKV[UVQPGVQQNOCPWHCEVWTGKUCTGFWEVKXGRTQEGUU provide an age estimate with attendant uncertainties that derive from a number of possible sources of error, including sample using a number of different means, broadly divisible into percussion, pressure and grinding. EQPVCOKPCVKQPCPCN[VKECNWPEGTVCKPV[TGNCVGFVQKPUVTWOGPVCNRTGEKUKQPCPFVJGGHHGEVUQHUCORNGUK\GQPEQWPVKPIUVCVKUVKEU 6JWUHQTGZCORNGCV[RKECNTCFKQECTDQPCIGGUVKOCVGOKIJVDG|[GCTUCIQ6JKUTGUWNVTGRTGUGPVUVJGOGCP 6JGVGTOUnVQQNoCPFnUVQPGVQQNoCTGWUGFTCVJGTNQQUGN[CUQWTCDKNKV[VQKPHGTYJKEJRKGEGUQHUVQPGYGTGWUGFCPFYJCVVJG[ GUVKOCVGFCIG |[GCTUCIQ CPFVJGTCPIGCVQPGUVCPFCTFFGXKCVKQP |[GCTU KPFKECVKPIC|RGTEGPVEJCPEGVJCV were used for is often rather limited. While some pieces such as bifacial points (including arrowheads) are often carefully shaped VJGCIGQHVJGUCORNGQEEWTUYKVJKPVJGTCPIGQHs|[GCTUCIQ%QODKPGVJKUWPEGTVCKPV[YKVJVJGHCEVVJCVOQUV with function inferred by analogy, many sharp edged flakes were probably used for cutting without further modification. radiometric methods do not directly date the objects of interest, such as artefacts or fossils, but rather associated material Although microwear or usewear analyses can sometimes determine the function of these flakes, these methods are not HTQOVJGUCOGQTDQWPFKPIUVTCVC6JWUHQTGZCORNGCNVJQWIJVJG-s#TCPF40#TAr methods can very precisely date lava WPKXGTUCNN[GHHGEVKXGQTCRRNKGFVQCNNOCVGTKCNU6JWUnVQQNoTGHGTUVQVJQUGRKGEGUQHUVQPGVJCVYGTGWUGFQTEQWNFJCXGDGGP flows, the age of a lava flow rarely has any direct interest to palaeoanthropologists. However, if this lava flow overlies an used to accomplish a given task. archaeological site, then it provides a minimum age for the underlying material, which must have been deposited before the lava flowed over the site and capped it. Stone raw material There are a number of radiometric methods of age estimation that are used by palaeoanthropologists working in Africa. Radiometric methods work on the principle of more-or-less steady rates of measured isotopic decay, and more detailed Rocks typically used to make stone tools are fine-grained, homogeneous in composition, hard and fracture in a predictable VTGCVOGPVQHVJGUGOGVJQFUECPDGHQWPFKP.WFYKICPF4GPPG  'CEJOGVJQFKUCRRNKECDNGVQFKHHGTGPVOCVGTKCNU OCPPGT'XGPVJGGCTNKGUV |/CCIQ CTEJCGQNQIKECNUKVGUUJQYVJCVJQOKPKPUEQWNFUGNGEVJKIJSWCNKV[TCYOCVGTKCNHTQOC and different time intervals, and some are considered more reliable than others. Radiocarbon, 40#TAr and uranium series TCPIGQHQRVKQPU#V)QPC 'VJKQRKC CPF.QMCNCNGK -GP[C HQTGZCORNGJQOKPKPURTGHGTGPVKCNN[UGNGEVGFTGNCVKXGN[HKPGITCKPGF are considered among the most reliable. The radiocarbon method dates organic material such as wood or shell, and thus NCXCUVJCVGZJKDKVIQQFEQPEJQKFCNHTCEVWTG6JKUUGNGEVKQPKUPQVCDNGDGECWUGVJGUGJKIJSWCNKV[TQEMUCTGTCTGKPVJGEQDDNG CNVJQWIJKVECPDGWUGHWNHQTFKTGEVN[FCVKPIUQOGCTVGHCEVU GIGCTN[UJGNNDGCFU#UUGHCGVCN VJGOGVJQFKUGHHGEVKXG DCTUKPVJGCFLCEGPVUVTGCOUVJCVYGTGWUGFCUTCYOCVGTKCNUQWTEGU 5VQWVGVCN*CTOCPF #VVJGCRRTQZKOCVGN[ QPN[VQCDQWV-Cs-C|CIQ6JG40#TAr method is effective for volcanic ash and lavas that range from billions of 2-million-year-old site of Kanjera (Kenya), rocks that maintained a sharp edge even after repeated use as cutting devices were [GCTUQNFVQCDQWV[GCTUQNF 4GPPGGVCN DWVKUQHNKVVNGWUGKPPQPXQNECPKETGIKQPUUWEJCU5QWVJ#HTKEC/WEJ UGNGEVGFQXGTVJQUGVJCVHNCMGFOQTGTGCFKN[ $TCWPGVCN 6JGTGCTGVJWUENGCTVTCFGQHHUCOQPIFKHHGTGPVTQEMV[RGU QHVJG1NFWXCK)QTIGUGSWGPEGKUECNKDTCVGFWUKPIVJKUOGVJQF 9CNVGTGVCN/CPGIC 8CTKQWUWTCPKWOUGTKGU KPVJGKTWUGHWNPGUUCUVQQNU GInFWTCDKNKV[oXUnHNCMCDKNKV[o #VUKVGUFCVKPIVQCRRTQZKOCVGN[-CCIQUQOGJQOKPKPUKP methods are widely used in southern Africa (and elsewhere) to date flowstones such as and stalactites in caves 5QWVJ#HTKECYGTGGXGPCRRN[KPIEQORNGZOGVJQFUQHJGCVVTGCVOGPVVQTQEMUVQOQFKH[CPFKORTQXGVJGKTMPCRRKPISWCNKVKGU GI9QPFGTYGTM%CXGKP5QWVJ#HTKEC$GCWOQPVCPF8QIGN DWVOQUVCRRNKECVKQPUCTGGHHGEVKXGQPN[HQTVJGNCUV $TQYPGVCN  -CQTUQ1VJGTOGVJQFUKPENWFGXCTKQWUNWOKPGUEGPEGFCVKPIVGEJPKSWGUGNGEVTQPURKPTGUQPCPEGCOKPQCEKFTCEGOK\CVKQP CPFEQUOQIGPKEPWENKFGFCVKPI .WFYKICPF4GPPG 9JGPEQPUKFGTKPIVJG178QHCUKVGVJGTGUJQWNFDGOWNVKRNGCIG In addition to demonstrating the selection of materials for various physical properties, the study of stone raw material estimates available, preferably showing concordance among results from each of the methods. sources also allows us to determine how far stone tools were transported about the landscape. These data are important as

196 197 8 Approaches to the archaeological record Approaches to the archaeological record 8

they provide empirical evidence for hominin ranging areas. Such a measure can be effective because stone tools were often general broadening of the dietary niche of early humans that represents a fundamental shift in our relationship with the discarded at areas far from where they were made, either because they were made in anticipation of future use (e.g. the GPXKTQPOGPVCPFKPOCP[YC[UYCUCPKORQTVCPVRTGEWTUQTVQVJGQTKIKPUQHRNCPVCPFCPKOCNFQOGUVKECVKQP 5VKPGT  TQEMSWCTT[CPFVJGDWVEJGT[UKVGYGTGCVFKHHGTGPVNQECVKQPU QTDGECWUGUVQPGYCUCXCNWCDNGTGUQWTEGKPUQOGRCTVUQHVJG NCPFUECRG GIVJGTGKUQPN[QPGTCYOCVGTKCNUQWTEGHQTCPCTGCQHMO2). Attributing an artefact to its geological source TGSWKTGUOGVJQFUUKOKNCTVQVJCVGORNQ[GFKPVGRJTQUVTCVKITCRJ[KFGPVKH[KPIWPKSWGRJ[UKECNQTIGQEJGOKECNUKIPCVWTGUQH /GVJQFUQHUVQPGVQQNOCPWHCEVWTG RCTVKEWNCTTCYOCVGTKCNUQWTEGUVJCVECPDGOCVEJGFYKVJCTVGHCEVUHTQOVJCVUQWTEG %JWTEJ5JCEMNG[ 6JGUG sorts of analyses compare artefacts to specimens from geological sources. They can include visual inspection using the naked 6JGOGVJQFTGHGTUVQVJGRCVVGTPGFUGSWGPEGQHIGUVWTGUKPXQNXGFKPUGSWGPVKCNN[TGOQXKPIRKGEGUQHUVQPGKPVJGOCPWHCEVWTG G[GNQYRQYGT ³ OCIPKHKECVKQPQTRGVTQITCRJKEVJKPUGEVKQPU#XCTKGV[QHIGQEJGOKECNCPCN[VKECNVGEJPKSWGUKUCNUQWUGF QHHNCMGUQTVQQNU 6KZKGT /GVJQFUTGHNGEVVJGNGCTPGFUJCTGFYC[UQHFQKPIHCOKNKCTVCUMUQTOCMKPIQDLGEVUVJCV UWEJCU:TC[HNWQTGUEGPEG %JWTEJ5JCEMNG[  EQPVTKDWVGFVQVJGRCVVGTPGFXCTKCVKQPKPVJGCTEJCGQNQIKECNTGEQTF+ORNGOGPVKPIVJGUGOGVJQFUTGSWKTGUIQQFJCPFG[G EQQTFKPCVKQPCPFCEQORNGZXKUWCNCPFURCVKCNWPFGTUVCPFKPIQHEQTGOQTRJQNQI[YJKEJEJCPIGUCUVJGEQTGKUTGFWEGF 5VQWV 6JGUGFCVCOQUVN[CXCKNCDNGHTQOGCUVGTP#HTKECUJQYVJCVD[CDQWV|/CCIQUQOGJQOKPKPUYGTGVTCPURQTVKPIUVQPG GVCN #PWODGTQHFKHHGTGPVHNCMGRTQFWEVKQPOGVJQFUYGTGWUGFCVGCTN[#HTKECPCTEJCGQNQIKECNUKVGUKPENWFKPIVJG CTVGHCEVU |MOCDQWVVJGNCPFUECRG $TCWPGVCN $[-CCIQUQOGCTVGHCEVUQHQDUKFKCP CV[RGQHXQNECPKEINCUU  FKUEQKFCN.GXCNNQKUCPFDNCFGRTQFWEVKQPOGVJQFU'CEJQHVJGUGTGRTGUGPVUCFKHHGTGPVCRRTQCEJVQTGFWEKPICDNQEMQHUVQPG YGTGVTCPURQTVGFCVNGCUV|MOHTQOVJGKTUQWTEG /GTTKEMGVCN 6JKUV[RGQHNQPIFKUVCPEGOQXGOGPVQHUVQPG and often produces a distinctive type of flake and shape of core. Discoidal cores are the outcome of the flaking around the RTQDCDN[GZEGGFUVJGHQTCIKPITCPIGQHRCUVJQOKPKPUCPFKPUVGCFUKIPCNUVJGFGXGNQROGPVQHUQOGUQTVQHVTCFGQTGZEJCPIG perimeter of a core, alternating flaking from one of two opposed surfaces. The resulting discoidal core is circular in plan view, PGVYQTMU /CTYKEM#ODTQUG #OQPITGEGPV#HTKECPHQTCIGTUVJGUGUQTVUQHGZEJCPIGPGVYQTMUCTGVJGOCVGTKCN biconical in profile, and distinguished by an irregular surface from which flakes were removed about its perimeter. Discoidal signals of important social ties among groups that often function to buffer various types of risk associated with drought years EQTGUCTGHQWPFCOQPIUQOGQHVJGGCTNKGUVCTEJCGQNQIKECNUKVGU 1NFQYCP WPVKNVJGRTGUGPV.GXCNNQKUEQTGUCTGVJGQWVEQOG EQOOQPVQOCTIKPCNGPXKTQPOGPVU GI#ODTQUGCPF.QTGP\ 6JG/KFFNG5VQPG#IGCTEJCGQNQIKECNUKVGCV2TQNQPIGF QHCOGVJQFQHHNCMKPIVJCVRTQFWEGUTGNCVKXGN[YKFGVJKPHNCMGU.GXCNNQKUEQTGUCTGUJCRGFUQOGYJCVNKMGFKUEQKFCNEQTGU Drift (Kenya) shows that most of the at that site was obtained from distant sources, despite the availability of closer DWVFKHHGTKPVJCVVJGnWRRGToCPFnNQYGToUWTHCEGUCTGPQVWUGFKPVGTEJCPIGCDN[4CVJGTQPN[VJGWRRGTUWTHCEGKUWUGFHQTVJG QDUKFKCPQWVETQRU #ODTQUG CPFOC[GORJCUK\GVJCVKVYCUVJGUQEKCNCEVKQPQHGZEJCPIGTCVJGTVJCPVJGHWPEVKQPCN RTQFWEVKQPQHVJGNCTIGT.GXCNNQKUHNCMGU +PK\CPGVCN 6JKUUQTVQHVGEJPQNQI[KUEQOOQPN[HQWPFCVVJGUKVGUCUUQEKCVGF SWCNKVKGUQHVJGUVQPGVJCVYCUVJGOQUVKORQTVCPV5VQPGTCYOCVGTKCNUQWTEGUECPTGRTGUGPVCPWPEQPXGPVKQPCNDWVRQVGPVKCNN[ with the earliest fossil Homo sapiens in Africa, leading some to suggest that it is an archaeological marker of the presence KORQTVCPVCURGEVQHVJG178QHCUKVGCPFECPRTQXKFGCFKTGEVOGCUWTGQHVJGGZVGPFGFPGVYQTMUCPFNCPFUECRGUKPJCDKVGF QHQWTURGEKGU (QNG[CPF.CJT /GVJQFUQHDNCFGRTQFWEVKQPTGUWNVKPVJGOCPWHCEVWTGQHGNQPICVGFUVQPGHNCMGU by early hominin populations. and blades typically show less shape variation than the flakes produced by other methods. As such, they are often used in technologies where the stone elements are replaceable parts of composite technologies, as is inferred for some of the backed RKGEGUCPFOKETQNKVJUHQWPFCV/KFFNGCPF.CVGT5VQPG#IGCTEJCGQNQIKECNUKVGU$NCFGUJCXGJKUVQTKECNN[DGGPEQPUKFGTGFC Techniques, methods, innovations JCNNOCTMQHOQFGTPEQIPKVKXGCDKNKV[CNVJQWIJVJKUXKGYKUFKUEQWPVGFD[OCP[ GI$CT;QUGHCPF-WJP 

The study of stone tools reveals an increasingly diverse number of methods of modifying stone for the production of tools. 5VQPGYQTMKPIVGEJPKSWGUCTGVJGOGCPUD[YJKEJHQTEGKUCRRNKGFKPQTFGTVQTGOQXGRKGEGUQHUVQPG 6KZKGT /CMKPI Types of stone tool UVQPGVQQNUD[TGOQXKPIUOCNNGTRKGEGUQHUVQPG nHNCMGUo KUTGHGTTGFVQCUMPCRRKPI&KHHGTGPVMPCRRKPIVGEJPKSWGUXCT[ according to the type of percussor used and the manner in which force is applied. Some percussors, such as , #FKXGTUGTCPIGQHUVQPGVQQNUJCUDGGPHQWPFCV'CTN[/KFFNGCPF.CVGT5VQPG#IGUKVGUKP#HTKEC6JKUFKXGTUKV[CVVGUVUVQ are preserved in the archaeological record. The use of hammers made from bone or wood is inferred from traces left on stone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types that show distinctive variation in time and space may provide the material evidence for more familiar patterns of the JCOOGTUVQPGUCTGKFGPVKHKGFKPVJGCTEJCGQNQIKECNTGEQTFD[VJGRTGUGPEGQHEQDDNGUQTQVJGTUVQPGUYKVJNQECNK\GFRKVVKPI WUGQHVGEJPQNQI[2TQOKPGPVCOQPIVJGUGCTGVJG*QYKGUQPoU2QQTV *2 CPF5VKNN$C[ 5$ KPFWUVTKGUQHUQWVJGTP#HTKEC$QVJ QTDCVVGTKPITGUWNVKPIHTQOTGRGCVGFUVTKMKPICPFJCXGDGGPHQWPFCOQPIUKVGUITGCVGTVJCP|/CQNFKPGCUVGTP#HTKEC GI RGTUKUVHQTCTEJCGQNQIKECNN[UJQTVVKOGURCPU -Cs-C CPFVJGUVTKMKPIN[UKOKNCTHQTOURTQFWEGFCV*2UKVGU FKUVKPEVKXG 4QEJGGVCN 7UGHWNUVQPGHNCMGUECPCNUQDGRTQFWEGFD[VJTQYKPIQPGUVQPGCICKPUVCPQVJGTUVTKMKPICUVQPGEQTG DCEMGFRKGEGU CPF52UKVGU FKUVKPEVKXGDKHCEKCNRQKPVU QEEWTKPUKVGUCETQUU5QWVJ#HTKECCPFRCTVUQH0COKDKC ,CEQDUGVCN CICKPUVCNCTIGTUVQPG VJGnCPXKNo VQKPKVKCVGHTCEVWTGQTTGUVKPICEQTGQPCPCPXKNCPFUVTKMKPIKVHTQOCDQXGVJGUQECNNGF  6JGCRRCTGPVUVCTMEQPVTCUVDGVYGGPVJG*2CPF5$CPFVJG/KFFNG5VQPG#IGKPFWUVTKGUVJCVECOGDGHQTGCPFCHVGT nDKRQNCToVGEJPKSWG 5EJKEMCPF6QVJ6QVJ  VJGOJCXGNGFUQOGVQUWIIGUVVJCVVJGOCMGTUQH*2CPF5$CUUGODNCIGUYGTGCOQPIVJGHKTUVRQRWNCVKQPUQHOQFGTP JWOCPUYJQUWDUGSWGPVN[OKITCVGFPQTVJYCTFUCPFVJGPQWVQH#HTKEC /GNNCTU /QTGFGVCKNGFYQTMHQEWUKPIQPJQY Soft hammer percussion, in contrast, involves flake removal using a hammer or percussor that is softer than the piece being VJGUGUVQPGVQQNUYGTGOCFGKUPQYKPFKECVKPICOQTGITCFWCNCRRGCTCPEGCPFFKUCRRGCTCPEGQHVJG*2CPF5$KPFWUVTKGU struck, typically to produce relatively thin flakes. Soft hammers include organic materials like bone or hard wood, as well as GI2QTTC\GVCN  certain types of relatively soft stone (e.g. limestone or haematite). There is little direct archaeological evidence for organic JCOOGTUKP#HTKECDGECWUGVJG[CTGWPNKMGN[VQRTGUGTXGKPVJGCTEJCGQNQIKECNTGEQTF6GZKGToU  GZRGTKOGPVUUWIIGUVVJGKT WUGKPDKHCEGOCPWHCEVWTGCV+UGP[C -GP[C -CCIQ4GOCTMCDN[VJGWUGQHUQHVUVQPGJCOOGTUKUFQEWOGPVGFCV5KDWFW (South Africa) by traces of ochre or haematite (the rock from which the hammer was made) that rubbed off onto, and are Early populations of humans in Africa RTGUGTXGFQPVJGHNCMGUTGOQXGFVQUJCRG`[GCTQNF5VKNN$C[ /KFFNG5VQPG#IG URGCTRQKPVU 5QTKCPQGVCN  +PCFFKVKQPVQRGTEWUUKQPUVQPGOC[CNUQDGHTCEVWTGFD[VJGRTGUUWTGVGEJPKSWGD[CRRN[KPIRTGUUWTGVQVJGGFIGQHVJGUVQPG 5VQPGUCTGQPN[QPGRTQZ[HQTVJGFKXGTUKV[QHJQOKPKPRQRWNCVKQPUKP#HTKEC6JGQVJGTMG[UQWTEGUKPENWFGVJGJQOKPKPHQUUKNU YJKNGJGNFKPVJGJCPFWUKPICRKGEGQHDQPGQTQVJGTOCVGTKCN6JKUVGEJPKSWGYCUWUGFHQTCRRN[KPIVJGHKPCNUJCRKPIVQ5VKNN as well as the more rare elements of the archaeological record, including early evidence for art or related symbolic behaviour. $C[RQKPVU /QWTTGGVCN  6JGNCVVGTKUCRCTVKEWNCTN[JWOCPEJCTCEVGTKUVKECPFVJG178QHUWEJUKVGUOC[DGEQTTGURQPFKPIN[ITGCVGT

5QOGUVQPGVQQNUCTGCNUQRTQFWEGFD[ITKPFKPI)TQWPFUVQPGVQQNUQHVGPHQTOGFKPEKFGPVCNN[CUCTGUWNVQHITKPFKPIQT processing vegetal matter or . Although often visually unimpressive, such tools can signal major shifts in human The hominin fossil record DGJCXKQWT(QTGZCORNGVJGGZVGPUKXGWUGQHRKIOGPVURGTJCRUCUCEQNQTCPVHQTFGEQTCVKPIVJGDQF[QTUVTWEVWTGUFCVGUVQ CVNGCUV-CCIQ $CTJCO 1VJGTOQTGTGEGPVGZCORNGUQHITKPFUVQPGUUWEJCUVJQUGHTQO9CFK-WDDCPK[C 'I[RV  6JGVCZQPQO[QHJWOCPGXQNWVKQPKUEQORNGZCPFXCTKGUCOQPIRCNCGQCPVJTQRQNQIKUVUYJQFGDCVGVJGUKIPKHKECPEGQHC FCVKPIVQVJG.CUV)NCEKCN/CZKOWOTGEQTFGCTN[GXKFGPEGHQTVJGKPVGPUKHKECVKQPQHTGUQWTEGWUGVQKPENWFGNCDQWTKPVGPUKXG variety of anatomical features for sorting hominin fossils into various categories (Wood, 2005). The issue is complicated, HQQFUVWHHUPGGFKPIGZVGPUKXGRTGRCTCVKQPUWEJCUUGGFUCPFVWDGTU 9GPFQTHGVCNab). These are part of the as fundamental concepts such as genus and species were originally developed for the study of living organisms. Applying

198 199 8 Approaches to the archaeological record Approaches to the archaeological record 8

these concepts to the fossil record has proven difficult, as it is less complete and samples longer time spans, rendering our symbolic behaviour is also difficult because although we may find the objects (e.g. beads), we lack an understanding of WPFGTUVCPFKPIQHXCTKCVKQPKPEQORNGVG(QTGZCORNGIKXGPCVCZQPUWEJCUHomo erectus that persisted for at least a million VJGEQPVGZVUVJCVICXGVJGQDLGEVUOGCPKPI+PFGGFQWTTGEQIPKVKQPQHU[ODQNKEDGJCXKQWTKUNCTIGN[NKOKVGFVQVJQUGKVGOU [GCTUJQYOWEJXCTKCVKQPUJQWNFYGGZRGEVYKVJKPVJKUURGEKGUCPFJQYOWEJQTYJCVMKPFQHXCTKCVKQPPGGFUVQDGRTGUGPV QTCEVKQPUHQTYJKEJYGECPUGGPQQDXKQWUnHWPEVKQPoKPVJGUGPUGQHUQOGJQYCEVKXGN[OQFKH[KPIVJGRJ[UKECNYQTNF(QT VQFKUVKPIWKUJKVHTQOCPQVJGTURGEKGUHQTGZCORNGHomo sapiens!6JGUGCTGEQORNGZSWGUVKQPUCPFTCVJGTVJCPCVVGORVKPI some, the widespread use of symbolic behaviour, particularly the use of personal ornamentation in the form of beads, heralds to provide an answer, I choose instead to focus on the diversity itself. VJGCRRGCTCPEGQHNCPIWCIGCPFVJWUHWNN[OQFGTPEQIPKVKQP -NGKP 6JGTGKUWPFQWDVGFN[CHWPFCOGPVCNEJCPIG KPVJGCTEJCGQNQIKECNTGEQTFCVQTPGCTVJGCRRGCTCPEGQH.CVGT5VQPG#IGUKVGUCRRTQZKOCVGN[-C-CCIQKPRCTV Homo erectusKUCRCTVKEWNCTN[KPVGTGUVKPIVCZQPVQEQPUKFGTKPFKUEWUUKQPUQHFKXGTUKV[+VKUDQVJNQPINKXGF EQPUGTXCVKXGN[ CUUQEKCVGFYKVJCPKPETGCUGFWUGQHUJGNNDGCFU*QYGXGTCUOQTGCPFOQTG#HTKECPCTEJCGQNQIKECNUKVGUCTGGZECXCVGFVJGTG |/Cs-CCIQ CPFYKFGURTGCFDGKPIHQWPFCETQUUOQUVQH#HTKECCPFNCTIGRCTVUQH'WTCUKCKPENWFKPICUHCTGCUVCU KUKPETGCUKPIN[IQQFGXKFGPEGHQTVJGCVNGCUVURQTCFKEGCTNKGTCRRGCTCPEGQHUKOKNCTUJGNNDGCFUCVUKVGUCRRTQZKOCVGN[-Cs OCKPNCPF%JKPCCPFVJG+UNCPFQH,CXC0QVUWTRTKUKPIN[VJGTGKUUWDUVCPVKCNXCTKCVKQPCETQUUVKOGCPFURCEG5QOGFKUVKPIWKUJ -CCIQKPDQVJPQTVJGTPCPFUQWVJGTP#HTKEC *GPUJKNYQQFGVCN$QW\QWIICTGVCN 6QUQOGVJKUUKIPCNUCP VJG#HTKECPCPF'WTCUKCPURGEKOGPUCVVJGURGEKGUNGXGNFGUKIPCVKPIVJQUGHTQOGCUVGTP'WTCUKCCUHomo erectus and those GCTNKGTFCVGHQTVJGCRRGCTCPEGQHOQFGTPU[ODQNKEDGJCXKQWTKP#HTKEC /E$TGCTV[CPF$TQQMU YJGTGCUVQQVJGTUVJG from Africa as Homo ergaster 9QQFCPF%QNNCTF 1VJGTUUWEJCU#PVÏP  GORJCUK\GVJGJKIJNGXGNUQHFKXGTUKV[ XGT[URQTCFKEPCVWTGQHVJGCRRGCTCPEGQHVJKUDGJCXKQWTUWIIGUVUVJCVVJGWUGQHOCVGTKCNGZRTGUUKQPUQHOCVGTKCNDGJCXKQWT among the sample, and suggest that Homo erectus is a highly variable, polytypic species across time and space. The diversity OC[DGVKGFVQRQRWNCVKQPFGPUKV[YJKEJNKMGN[HNWEVWCVGFVJTQWIJQWVRTGJKUVQT[ 2QYGNNGVCN  within Homo erectusKUWPFGTUEQTGFD[VJG$WKCETCPKWOHTQO'TKVTGC #DDCVGGVCN VJCVKPENWFGUCEQODKPCVKQPQH RJ[UKECNEJCTCEVGTKUVKEUQPEGEQPUKFGTGFFKCIPQUVKEQHDQVJVJG'WTCUKCPCPF#HTKECPRQRWNCVKQPU 6JGGZVGPVVQYJKEJVJGTGYGTGTGIKQPCNVTCFKVKQPUQHU[ODQNKEDGJCXKQWTTGOCKPUFKHHKEWNVVQCUUGUU+PRCTVYJCVUJGNNDGCFU were made from depended on geography; marine species were used at the coast, whereas landsnails or ostrich eggshells Although the available data suggest an African origin for Homo erectus, Dennell and Roebroeks (2006) speculate that more YGTGWUGFCVUKVGUKPVJGKPVGTKQT+PUQOGKPUVCPEGUCUCV$KTGN#VGTKP#NIGTKCOCTKPGUJGNNUYGTGVTCFGFWRVQMOKPNCPF EQORNGZUEGPCTKQUUWEJCUCP#UKCPQTKIKPHQTHomo erectus from an earlier pre-erectus migrant may be possible with the back- KPFKECVKPIVJGUQTVUQHNCPFUECRGEQPPGEVKQPUCNUQKPHGTTGFHTQOUVQPGTCYOCVGTKCNU 8CPJCGTGPGVCN 1EJTGCPF migration of Homo erectusKPVQ#HTKEC)KXGPUQOGQHVJGCIGGUVKOCVGUCPFVJGGXGTKPETGCUKPIFCVCDCUGQHFCVGFUKVGUUWEJ QVJGTRKIOGPVWUGKUYKFGURTGCFDWVRCKPVGFECXGUQTTQEMUJGNVGTUCTGTCTGDG[QPFVJG*QNQEGPG -CCIQ CPFFGVCKNGF a hypothesis is plausible. More importantly, their analysis of hominin diversity includes the geography of dispersed hominin EQORCTKUQPUECPPQVDGOCFG9JGTGUKVGUYKVJGCTN[TQEMCTVGZKUVUWEJCUVJGs[GCTQNFRCKPVGFUNCDUHTQO populations as well as the archaeological record. Dennell and Roebroeks (2006) suggest that the variation in hominin fossils #RQNNQ%CXG0COKDKC 8QIGNUCPIGVCN VJG[UJQWNFHGCVWTGRTQOKPGPVN[KPEQPUKFGTCVKQPUQH178 and artefact-making traditions may well result from the geographic isolation of hominin communities. This model need not be specific to Homo erectus+PFGGFUKOKNCTOQFGNUJCXGDGGPWUGFVQGZRNCKPVJGDKQNQIKECNCPFDGJCXKQWTCNFKXGTUKV[COQPI 6TGCVOGPVQHVJGFGCFKUCNUQEQORNGZU[ODQNKEDGJCXKQWTVJGOGCPKPIUQHYJKEJECPDGXGT[FKHHKEWNVVQKPVGTRTGVHTQOVJG EJKORCP\GGU 9JKVGPGVCN CPFKVECPYQTMGSWCNN[YGNNHQTQVJGTRQRWNCVKQPUQHJQOKPKPUCUYGNN archaeological record. The early evidence for treatment of the dead among early African hominins is fragmented, controversial and poorly understood, but hints at diversity among this important activity. Some of the earliest evidence occurs on an CRRTQZKOCVGN[[GCTQNFUMWNNHTQO$QFQKPVJG/KFFNG#YCUJTGIKQPQH'VJKQRKCYKVJCPWODGTQHEWVOCTMUQPVJG Hominin diversity face and brow consistent with defleshing are preserved. As the face is a region with little nutritional value, the marks are EQPUKUVGPVYKVJOQTVWCT[VTGCVOGPV 9JKVG 6JKUEQPVTCUVUYKVJVJGCRRTQZKOCVGN[s[GCTQNFJQOKPKP The diversity of humans on the planet today is one of the hallmarks of what makes us human. The fossil record clearly indicates remains from Klasies River, South Africa. There, remains of Homo sapiens are highly fragmented, burned and show cutmarks VJCVFKXGTUKV[KUCPCPEKGPVEJCTCEVGTKUVKEQHVJGJQOKPKPNKPGCIG'XGT[JQOKPKPHQUUKNFKUEQXGTGFKUVJGTGHQTGCPKORQTVCPV that suggest that the human bodies may have been processed in ways very similar to the animal remains that formed a FQEWOGPVQHVJKUFKXGTUKV[/GCUWTGUQHFKXGTUKV[CTGFKTGEVN[NKPMGFVQUCORNGUK\GCPFVJWUVJGOQTGHQUUKNUHQWPFVJGOQTG NCTIGRCTVQHVJGFKGVQHVJGJQOKPKPUCV-NCUKGU4KXGT 9JKVG 1VJGTGCTN[#HTKECPHQUUKNUCVVTKDWVGFVQHomo sapiens robust the measure of diversity. The variation within Homo erectus has already been discussed above. Our own species, Homo UWIIGUVXGT[FKHHGTGPVRCVVGTPUQHVTGCVOGPVQHVJGFGCF'NUGYJGTGKPVJG/KFFNG#YCUJTGIKQPQH'VJKQRKCCRRTQZKOCVGN[ sapiensCNUQJCUCEQORNGZJKUVQT[QHEJCPIKPIFKXGTUKV[ [GCTQNFUMWNNUQHVYQCFWNVUCPFQPGEJKNFCVVTKDWVGFVQHomo sapiens show signs of defleshing by stone tools and unusual signs of polish that are consistent with repeated handling and perhaps transport (Clark et al., 2003), suggesting 8CTKCVKQPYKVJKPHomo sapiens is seen in the genetic record with the appearance of a number of distinct genetic lineages within that these individuals held substantial meaning to the broader social group long after death. Some of the earliest complete QWTURGEKGUCRRGCTKPIKP#HTKECQXGTVJGRCUV-C| $GJCTGVCN +VKUCNUQUGGPKPVJGHQUUKNTGEQTF(QTGZCORNGKPVJGKT DWTKCNUKPENWFGCPKPHCPVHTQO$QTFGT%CXG 5QWVJ#HTKEC FCVKPIVQQXGT-CCIQCPFRTQDCDN[VQ-CCIQ )TØPCPF CPCN[UKUQHJQOKPKPHQUUKNTGOCKPUHTQO*GTVQ 'VJKQRKC 9JKVGGVCN  CVVTKDWVGVJGVJTGGYGNNRTGUGTXGFETCPKCVQHomo $GCWOQPV CPFDWTKCNUQHCFWNVUCPFKPHCPVUHTQOUKVGUITGCVGTVJCP-CCIQCV6CTCOUC*KNNCPF0C\NGV-JCVGT 'I[RV  sapiens idaltuVJCVKUFKUVKPEVHTQONKXKPIJWOCPUCVVJGNGXGNQHUWDURGEKGU9JKNGUWDURGEKGUECPDGFKHHKEWNVVQTGEQIPK\G 8GTOGGTUEJGVCN8GTOGGTUEJ 6JGUGHGYGZCORNGUJKPVCVUQOGQHVJGTCTGDWVTGOCTMCDNGKPUVCPEGUQHGCTN[ and define even among living populations (and therefore particularly difficult among fossil samples), this designation serves human symbolic behaviour in Africa. VQWPFGTNKPGVJCVOGODGTUQHQWTURGEKGUHTQOCRRTQZKOCVGN[-CCIQFQFKHHGTHTQOVJQUGNKXKPIVQFC[)TKPGGVCN   CPF%TGXGEQGWTGVCN  EQORCTGYGNNFCVGF`[GCTQNFHomo sapiensETCPKCHTQO#HTKEC CUYGNNCU'WTCUKC VQ VJQUGQHTGEGPVRQRWNCVKQPUCPFFGOQPUVTCVGVJCVJKIJGTNGXGNUQHDGVYGGPRQRWNCVKQPCPCVQOKECNXCTKCVKQPGZKUVGFKPVJG RCUVVJCPKPVJGRTGUGPV%QODKPGFYKVJVJG/KFFNGCPF.CVGT5VQPG#IGGXKFGPEGHQTDGJCXKQWTCNFKXGTUKV[ %NCTM Conclusion /E$TGCTV[CPF$TQQMU$CTJCOCPF/KVEJGNN VJGUGFCVCUWIIGUVVJCVCNVJQWIJFKHHGTGPVKPUECNGDGJCXKQWTCN and biological diversity among Homo sapiens has a long pedigree. &GVGTOKPKPIVJG178QH#HTKECPUKVGUTGNCVGFVQJWOCPGXQNWVKQPTGSWKTGUCUUGUUKPICTCPIGQHXCTKCDNGU'XKFGPEGHTQOVJG IGQNQIKECNTGEQTFUVQPGVQQNUCPFJQOKPKPHQUUKNUKUETKVKECNHQTOCMKPIVJKUCUUGUUOGPV)GQNQIKECNEQPVGZVKUHWPFCOGPVCNN[ The hominin fossil record is diverse well before the appearance of Homo erectus or Homo sapiens. Diversity in the fossil important, as it provides the foundation for determining site age and palaeoenvironment, and outcrops delineate the physical TGEQTFECPEQORNKECVGQWTKPVGTRTGVCVKQPUQHVJGCTEJCGQNQIKECNTGEQTFCPFOWNVKRNGJQOKPKPIGPGTCCPFURGEKGUEQGZKUVGFKP boundaries of most artefact- or fossil-bearing sediments. Among recovered artefacts, stone tools and the by-products of #HTKECUKPEG CPFDGHQTG VJGHQTOCVKQPQHVJGGCTNKGUVCTEJCGQNQIKECNTGEQTF|/CCIQ6JKUFKXGTUKV[TGPFGTUKVFKHHKEWNVVQ their manufacture are the most numerous, in part because of their durability. The ways in which stone tools were made KORQUUKDNGVQKFGPVKH[VJGKFGPVKV[QHVJGUVQPGVQQNOCMGTUYKVJCP[EQPHKFGPEG1NFWXCK)QTIGKP6CP\CPKCRTQDCDN[VJGOQUV demonstrates substantial diversity in early human technical skills, including the ability to select appropriate types of raw material famous palaeoanthropological site in Africa or elsewhere, makes an important case in point. From a single level at the site of HTQOCTCPIGQHRQUUKDNGQRVKQPUCPFVQGORNQ[EQORNGZEQODKPCVKQPUQHVGEJPKSWGUCPFOGVJQFUVQRTQFWEGFKHHGTGPVMKPFU (.-

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#ODTQUG5|**QYKGUQPoU2QQTVNKVJKETCYOCVGTKCNRTQEWTGOGPVRCVVGTPUCPFVJGGXQNWVKQPQHOQFGTPJWOCPDGJCXKQT %JWTEJ6Lithic Resource Studies: A Sourcebook for Archaeologists6WNUC1MNC.KVJKE6GEJPQNQI[ 5RGEKCN2WDNKECVKQP CTGURQPUGVQ/KPKEJKNNQJournal of Human Evolution8QN|RR|s 0Q|

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#ODTQUG5|*CPF.QTGP\-|)5QEKCNCPFGEQNQIKECNOQFGNUHQTVJG/KFFNG5VQPG#IGKPUQWVJGTP#HTKEC+P2/GNNCTU AAAA6JG/KFFNG5VQPG#IGQH'CUV#HTKECCPFVJGDGIKPPKPIUQHTGIKQPCNKFGPVKV[Journal of World Prehistory8QN| GF The Emergence of Modern Humans: An Archaeological Perspective'FKPDWTIJ7-'FKPDWTIJ7PKXGTUKV[2TGUURR|s RR|s

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$CTJCO.CPF/KVEJGNN2The First Africans: African Archaeology from the Earliest Toolmakers to Most Recent Foragers. %TGXGEQGWT+4QWIKGT*)TKPG(CPF(TQOGPV#/QFGTPJWOCPETCPKCNFKXGTUKV[KPVJG.CVG2NGKUVQEGPGQH#HTKEC %CODTKFIG7-%CODTKFIG7PKXGTUKV[2TGUU CPF'WTCUKCGXKFGPEGHTQO0C\NGV-JCVGT2GĵVGTCEW1CUGCPF*QHOG[TAmerican Journal of Physical Anthropology8QN| RR|s $GCWOQPV2|$8QIGN,|%1PCVKOGUECNGHQTVJGRCUVOKNNKQP[GCTUQHJWOCPJKUVQT[KPEGPVTCN5QWVJ#HTKECSouth African Journal of Science8QN|RR|s &GPPGNN4CPF4QGDTQGMU9#P#UKCPRGTURGEVKXGQPGCTN[JWOCPFKURGTUCNHTQO#HTKECNature8QN|RR|s  $GJCT&/8KNNGOU45QQF[CNN*$NWG5OKVJ,2GTGKTC./GVURCNW'5EQ\\CTK4/CMMCP*6\WT5%QOCU& $GTVTCPRGVKV,3WKPVCPC/WTEK.6[NGT5OKVJ%9GNNU45CPF4QUUGV56JGFCYPQHJWOCPOCVTKNKPGCNFKXGTUKV[ &GQECORQ&|/$NWOGPUEJKPG4|,CPF#UJNG[)|/9GVNCPFFKCIGPGUKUCPFVTCEGUQHGCTN[JQOKPKFU1NFWXCK The American Journal of Human Genetics8QNRRs )QTIG6CP\CPKCQuaternary Research8QN|RR|s

$GJTGPUOG[GT#6KOGTGUQNWVKQPKPHNWXKCNXGTVGDTCVGCUUGODNCIGUPaleobiology8QN|RR|s (QNG[4CPF.CJT/|//QFGVGEJPQNQIKGUCPFVJGGXQNWVKQPQHOQFGTPJWOCPUCambridge Archaeological Journal, 8QN|RR|s $GJTGPUOG[GT#|-6CRJQPQOKECPFGEQNQIKEKPHQTOCVKQPHTQODQPGYGCVJGTKPIPaleobiology8QN|RR|s )KHHQTF)QP\CNG\&$QPGUCTGPQVGPQWIJCPCNQIWGUMPQYNGFIGCPFKPVGTRTGVKXGUVTCVGIKGUKP\QQCTEJCGQNQI[ $QW\QWIICT#$CTVQP08CPJCGTGP/Fo'TTKEQ(%QNNEWVV5*KIJCO6*QFIG'2CTHKVV54JQFGU'5EJYGPPKPIGT Journal of Anthropological Archaeology8QN|RR|s ,.5VTKPIGT%6WTPGT'9CTF5/QWVOKT#CPF5VCODQWNK#|[GCTQNFUJGNNDGCFUHTQO0QTVJ#HTKEC CPFKORNKECVKQPUHQTVJGQTKIKPUQHOQFGTPJWOCPDGJCXKQTProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences75#8QN| )TKPG(|'$CKNG[4|/*CTXCTVK-0CVJCP4|2/QTTKU#|)*GPFGTUQP)|/4KDQV+CPF2KMG#|9|).CVG RR|s 2NGKUVQEGPGJWOCPUMWNNHTQO*QHOG[T5QWVJ#HTKECCPFOQFGTPJWOCPQTKIKPUScience8QN|RR|s

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$TQYP(|**CKNGCD$CPF/E&QWICNN+5GSWGPEGQHVWHHUDGVYGGPVJG-$56WHHCPFVJG%JCTK6WHHKPVJG6WTMCPC *C[4|.The Geology of Olduvai Gorge$GTMGNG[%CNKH7PKXGTUKV[QH%CNKHQTPKC2TGUU $CUKP-GP[CCPF'VJKQRKCJournal of the Geological Society.QPFQP8QN|RR|s *GPUJKNYQQF%Fo'TTKEQ(8CPJCGTGP/XCP0KGMKTM-CPF,CEQDU</KFFNG5VQPG#IGUJGNNDGCFUHTQO5QWVJ $TQYP(|*5CTPC9QLEKEMK#|//G[GT%|'CPF*CKNGCD$%QTTGNCVKQPQH2NKQEGPGCPF2NGKUVQEGPGVGRJTCNC[GTU #HTKECScience8QNR DGVYGGPVJG6WTMCPC$CUKPQH'CUV#HTKECCPFVJG)WNHQH#FGPQuaternary International8QN|RR|s

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204 205 8 Approaches to the archaeological record Approaches to the archaeological record 8

9GPFQTH(5EJKNF4CPF%NQUG#|' GFU a. The Prehistory of Wadi Kubbaniya8QN|Stratigraphy, Paleoeconomy, How can ethnoarchaeology and human behavioural ecology and Environment&CNNCU6GZ5QWVJGTP/GVJQFKUV7PKXGTUKV[2TGUU inform conservation efforts? AAAA GFU b. The Prehistory of Wadi Kubbaniya8QN|Late Paleolithic Archaeology&CNNCU6GZ5QWVJGTP/GVJQFKUV 7PKXGTUKV[2TGUU Karen Lupo Department of Anthropology – Washington State University – United States of America 9JKVG6|&%WVOCTMUQPVJG$QFQETCPKWOCECUGQHRTGJKUVQTKEFGHNGUJKPI#OGTKECPJournal of Physical Anthropology, 8QN|RR|s

AAAA%CPPKDCNUCV-NCUKGU!Sagittarius8QN|RR|s Introduction

9JKVG6|&#ODTQUG5|*5WYC)CPF9QNFG)CDTKGN)4GURQPUGVQEQOOGPVQPVJGRCNGQGPXKTQPOGPVQH Methodological and theoretical studies derived from studies of modern hunter-gatherers have a long history of #TFKRKVJGEWUTCOKFWUScience8QN|R|G use in archaeology and give life to the stones and bones recovered from prehistoric sites. Here I discuss the use ethnoarchaeology and models derived from human behavioural ecology (hereafter referred to as HBE) as two different, 9JKVG6|&#UHCY$&G)WUVC&)KNDGTV*4KEJCTFU)|&5WYC)CPF*QYGNN(|%2NGKUVQEGPGHomo sapiens but complementary, tools that have special explanatory value for early hominin sites. In comparison to Holocene-age HTQO/KFFNG#YCUJ'VJKQRKCNature8QN|RR|s archaeological sites, early hominin sites often contain a limited range of artefacts, are often poorly preserved and/or taphonomically complex, and lack recognizable features and internal organization (e.g. Dominguez-Rodrigo et al., 2005; 9JKVG6|&&GNUQP'CPF8CP%QWXGTKPI,|#1NFWXCK)QTIG+P'&GNUQP+6CVVGTUCNN,|#8CP%QWXGTKPICPF Kibunjia, 1994). These challenging conditions often make direct interpretation of material remains very difficult without #|5$TQQMU GFU Encyclopedia of Human Evolution and PrehistoryPFGFP0GY;QTM)CTNCPF2WDNKUJKPIRR|s reference to ethnoarchaeological studies or theoretical models. I discuss the value of ethnoarchaeological studies and models derived from HBE as explanatory and predictive tools for the archaeological record, especially as it pertains 9JKVGP#)QQFCNN,/E)TGY9|%0KUJKFC64G[PQNFU85WIK[COC;6WVKP%|'|)9TCPIJCO4|9CPF$QGUEJ to early hominin sites. My focus is on how these tools are used to infer, explain and predict subsistence and economy %%WNVWTGUKPEJKORCP\GGUNature8QN|RR|s patterns from early hominin sites. Human evolution is characterized by a number of significant changes in subsistence economy (see Table 1) and some of these, such as habitual meat-eating and cooking, are believed to play pivotal roles 9JKVVCMGT,|%Flintknapping: Making and Understanding Stone Tools#WUVKP6GZ7PKXGTUKV[QH6GZCU2TGUU in physiological, anatomical and behavioural evolution.

9QQF$|#Human Evolution: A Very Short Introduction1ZHQTF7-1ZHQTF7PKXGTUKV[2TGUU I begin by discussing the history and relevance of contemporary hunter-gatherer populations as sources of information for ethnoarchaeological research and models derived from HBE. I then focus on the use of ethnoarchaeological studies as 9QQF$|#CPF%QNNCTF/6JGJWOCPIGPWUScience8QN|RR|s sources of analogy for the archaeological record. While these studies clearly have explanatory and predictive value for the archaeological record, I also highlight how these tools can have practical applications in conservation assessments and site management plans for early hominin archaeological remains.

Contemporary hunter-gatherers, Table 1. Milestones in subsistence evolution ethnoarchaeology and human /KNGUVQPG behavioural ecology

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|RGT EGPVQHJWOCPRTGJKUVQT[ KGDGHQTGVJGCFXGPV *These milestones are not necessarily listed in chronological order. QHFQOGUVKECVGFHQQFU %QPVGORQTCT[JWPVGTU CPFICVJGTGTUCTGFGHKPGFJGTGCURQRWNCVKQPU VJCVICKPCNOQUVCNNQTCVNGCUVOQTGVJCPJCNH QHVJGKTUWDUKUVGPEGKPEQOGD[JWPVKPICPFICVJGTKPIYKNFTGUQWTEGU*WPVGTICVJGTGTUCTGHQWPFVJTQWIJQWVVJGYQTNFDWV EQORTKUGNGUUVJCP|RGTEGPVQHVJGVQVCNRQRWNCVKQPYQTNFYKFG UGG-GNN[.GGCPF&CKN[ab 6QFC[JWPVKPI CPFICVJGTKPIRQRWNCVKQPUCTGHQWPFVJTQWIJQWVUWD5CJCTCP#HTKECDWVPWODGTNGUUVJCPRGQRNG UGG6CDNG *KVEJEQEMa 

Geologist’s hand lens, close-up of the datable Tulu Bor Tuff volcanic ash glass. © David L. Brill

206 207 8 Approaches to the archaeological record Approaches to the archaeological record 8

Table 2. Contemporary or Ethnohistoric African Hunter-Gatherers (after Hitchcock 2000a). Hunter-gatherers and changing views of early hominins

)TQWR )GQITCRJKE.QECVKQP 4GHGTGPEG #PVJTQRQNQIKECNRGTEGRVKQPUQHJWPVGTICVJGTGTUUVTQPIN[KPHNWGPEGJQYUEJQNCTUXKGYVJGNKHGUV[NGCPFGXQNWVKQPQHGCTN[ JQOKPKPU#NVJQWIJVJGUGXKGYUJCXGEJCPIGFQXGTVKOGCPVJTQRQNQIKECNRGTEGRVKQPUQHJWPVGTICVJGTGTUCPFCTEJCGQNQIKECN KPHGTGPEGUQHRTGJKUVQTKECPFRTGOQFGTPHQTCIGTUQHVGPFGXGNQRGFKPVCPFGO#EEQTFKPIVQ$CTPCTF  VJGTGYCUPQ Bushmen (San, Basarwa) YGNNFGXGNQRGFEQPEGRVQHJWPVKPICPFICVJGTKPICUCNKHGUV[NGRTKQTVQVJGUGXGPVGGPVJEGPVWT[9KVJVJGEQNQPK\CVKQPQH ,WoJQCPUK -WPI 0CODKC *QYGNN.GG/CTUJCNN TGOQVGNCPFUFWTKPIVJGUGXGPVGGPVJCPFGKIJVGGPVJEGPVWTKGURGTEGRVKQPUQHJWPVGTUCPFICVJGTGTUYGTGUJCRGFKPRCTVKP CPCVVGORVVQLWUVKH[FQOKPKQPQXGTFKXGTUGKPFKIGPQWURQRWNCVKQPU*WPVGTICVJGTGTUYGTGQHVGPRQTVTC[GFCUPQDNGUCXCIGU )CPC 0QTVJGTP$QVUYCPC %CUJFCP GI$CTPCTF NKXKPIENQUGVQQTCURCTVQHPCVWTGDWVJCXKPInPCUV[DTWVKUJCPFUJQTVNKXGUo *QDDGU 5QOGQH ů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oU  YQTMYCURCTVKEWNCTN[KORQTVCPVDGECWUGKVTGEQIPK\GF &COC $QVUYCPC5QWVJ#HTKEC %CUJFCP.GD\GNVGT VJGNKPMDGVYGGPFKHHGTGPVGEQPQOKECPFUQEKQRQNKVKECNHGCVWTGUCPFVJGNQECNGEQNQI[*QYGXGTFGURKVGVJGCPVJTQRQNQIKECN -YCFK 5QWVJYGUVGTP#PIQNC %CUJFCP KPVGTGUVKPJWPVGTICVJGTGTUXGT[NKVVNGU[UVGOCVKEKPHQTOCVKQPQPJQYVJGUGRQRWNCVKQPUNKXGFCEVWCNN[GZKUVGF#VVJGUCOGVKOG GCTN[FKUEQXGTKGUKPRCNCGQCPVJTQRQNQI[UWEJCUVJG6CWPIEJKNFKFGPVKHKGFD[&CTV  NGCFUEJQNCTUVQEQPVGORNCVGJQY 6[WC $QVUYCPC

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2TQDCDN[VJGOQUVQHVGPTGRGCVGFETKVKSWGCICKPUVWUKPIOQFGNUDCUGFQPEQPVGORQTCT[JWPVGTICVJGTGTUHQEWUGUQPVJG 'VJPQCTEJCGQNQI[KUCOGVJQFQNQI[WUGFVQIGPGTCVGUKORNGCPCNQIKGUVQJGNRKPVGTRTGVVJGCTEJCGQNQIKECNTGEQTF$[FGHKPKVKQP CPCVQOKECNVGEJPQNQIKECNCPFKPHGTTGFDGJCXKQWTCNFKHHGTGPEGUVJCVUGRCTCVGOQFGTPJWOCPUHTQORTGOQFGTPJQOKPKPU KVKUVJGUVWF[QHEQPVGORQTCT[RGQRNGUHTQOCPCTEJCGQNQIKECNRGTURGEVKXG+VPGEGUUCTKN[KPXQNXGUVJGFKTGEVQDUGTXCVKQPQH #WUVTCNQRKVJGEKPGUNCEMGFOQFGTPFGPVCNCPFOCUVKECVQT[CTEJKVGEVWTGIWVOQTRJQNQI[CPFFKIGUVKXGMKPGVKEUCPFJCFCNKHG RGQRNGVQOCMGEQPPGEVKQPUDGVYGGPF[PCOKECEVKQPU QTDGJCXKQWTU CPFUVCVKERCVVGTPU OCVGTKCNTGOCKPU 'VJPQCTEJCGQNQI[ JKUVQT[VJCVYCUEQORCTCDNGVQCOQFGTPEJKORCP\GG Pan troglodytes  GI#KGNNQCPF9JGGNGT#KGNNQCPF-G[ HQWPFKORGVWUCUCPQWVITQYVJQHUQECNNGFnCEVKQPCTEJCGQNQI[oCURTCEVKUGFKPVJGUCPFU -NGKPFKGPUVCPF9CVUQP #KGNNQ1o%QPPGNNGVCN +PEQORCTKUQPYKVJOQFGTPJWOCPUGCTN[Homo H. habilisCPFH. rudolphensis JCF *GKFGT CPFDGECOGCHQTOCNHKGNFQHUVWF[KPVJGNCVGUCPFU/QUVQHVJGUGGCTN[CRRNKECVKQPU CUOCNNGTETCPKCNECRCEKV[YKVJRTGUWOCDN[FKHHGTGPVEQIPKVKXGCDKNKVKGUCUOCNNGTDQF[UK\GCPFWUGFXGT[UKORNGUVQPGVQQN HQEWUGFQPVGUVKPIEQOOQPCUUWORVKQPUWUGFD[CTEJCGQNQIKUVUVQKPVGTRTGVVJGOCVGTKCNTGEQTFCICKPUVGVJPQCTEJCGQNQIKECN VGEJPQNQI[ KG1NFQYCP /QTGOQFGTPRJ[UKQNQI[CPFCPCVQO[KPENWFKPIKPETGCUGFDQF[CPFDTCKPUK\GUJKHVUKPDQF[HCV QDUGTXCVKQPU UGG*GKFGT$KPHQTF1o%QPPGNN1o%QPPGNNGVCN5VKNGU 1PGQHVJGOQUV VQOWUENGTCVKQUCPFCVTGPFVQYCTFUCUNQYRCEGFNKHGJKUVQT[FQGUPQVGOGTIGWPVKNUQOGs|/C YKVJ Homo erectus. UKIPKHKECPVYQTMUECOGHTQO$KPHQTF  YJQWUGFGVJPQCTEJCGQNQIKECNQDUGTXCVKQPUQHOQFGTP0WPCOKWV'UMKOQU 6TWGCPCVQOKECNOQFGTPKV[KUPQVCEJKGXGFWPVKNHomo sapiens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|/CCPFTGEGPVRJ[NQIGPGVKETGEQPUVTWEVKQPUDCUGFQPOKVQEJQPFTKCN OV IGPQOGUFGOQPUVTCVGVJGGOGTIGPEGQHVYQ FKHHGTGPVNKPGCIGUCPFCVNGCUVHQWTUWDURGEKGUDGIKPPKPIUQOG|/C GI$LQTMGVCN 9JGVJGTQTPQVVJGQDUGTXCVKQPU Problems with ethnoarchaeology QHOQFGTPEJKORCP\GGUCTGTGRTGUGPVCVKXGQHCPEGUVTCNRQRWNCVKQPUVJCVNKXGFUQOG|/CTGOCKPUQRGPVQSWGUVKQP 6JG EGPVTCN YGCMPGUUGU CPF FKHHKEWNVKGU YKVJ GVJPQCTEJCGQNQIKECN UVWFKGU YGTG TGEQIPK\GF GCTN[ D[ TGUGCTEJGTU 'VJPQCTEJCGQNQIKECNCRRNKECVKQPUVQVJGCTEJCGQNQIKECNTGEQTFNCTIGN[EQPUVKVWVGFVJGWUGQHCPCNQIKGUCPFYGTGRNCIWGFD[VJG Implications for conservation UCOGRTQDNGOCUUQEKCVGFYKVJVJGWUGQHCP[CPCNQIWG 9[NKG #UUVCVGFD[9[NKG  CNNCPCNQIKGUTGICTFNGUU QHYJCVVJG[CTGDCUGFQPCTGCORNKCVKXGCPFD[VJGKTPCVWTGKORN[VJGGZKUVGPEGQHOQTGUKOKNCTKVKGUDGVYGGPECUGUVJCP &GURKVGCNNVJGECXGCVUFKUEWUUGFJGTGEQPVGORQTCT[JWPVGTICVJGTGTUUVKNNTGRTGUGPVVJGDGUVUQWTEGQHKPHQTOCVKQPTGUGCTEJGTU ECPDGGUVCDNKUJGFHTQOVJGRTGOKUGUCPFCTGCNYC[UNKCDNGVQGTTQT(WTVJGTOQTGOCP[GCTN[GVJPQCTEJCGQNQIKECNUVWFKGUQPN[ JCXGHQTWPFGTUVCPFKPICPFTGEQPUVTWEVKPIVJGRCUV%QPVGORQTCT[JWOCPUTGRTGUGPVVJGEWTTGPVGPFRQKPVQHQPIQKPICPF VGUVGF CPFWUWCNN[HCNUKHKGF FKHHGTGPVCTEJCGQNQIKECNCUUWORVKQPU UQECNNGFnECWVKQPCT[VCNGUo DWVTCTGN[RTQRQUGFCNVGTPCVG NQPIKVWFKPCNGXQNWVKQPCT[RTQEGUUGU4GUGCTEJGTUECPQPN[WPFGTUVCPFVJGEQORNGZVTCLGEVQT[QHVJQUGRTQEGUUGUD[TGHGTGPEG OQFGNUVJCVEQWNFTGRNCEGVJGFGDWPMGFEQPEGRV 5KOOU 6JKURWVGVJPQCTEJCGQNQIKECNUVWFKGUKPVJGTQNGQHFGDWPMKPI VQVJGGPFRQKPV6JGUGUVWFKGUPQVQPN[JCXGTGNGXCPEGHQTWPFGTUVCPFKPIJWOCPGXQNWVKQPDWVCNUQECPFKTGEVN[KPHQTO CUUWORVKQPUTCVJGTVJCPTGHKPKPICPFFGXGNQRKPIHWVWTGTGUGCTEJRQUUKDKNKVKGU$WVUQOGQHVJGOQUVUKIPKHKECPVYGCMPGUUGUVQ EQPUGTXCVKQPGHHQTVU VJGCRRTQCEJYGTGKFGPVKHKGFD[1o%QPPGNN  *GQDUGTXGFVJCVCNOQUVCNNGVJPQCTEJCGQNQIKECNUVWFKGUYGTGFGUETKRVKXG CPFDQWPFYKVJKPCURGEKHKEEWNVWTCNCPFVGORQTCNEQPVGZV9JKNGVJGUGUVWFKGUECPKFGPVKH[FGXKCVKQPUKPVJGCTEJCGQNQIKECN TGEQTFHTQOVJGKTQDUGTXCVKQPUVJG[YGTGWPCDNGVQRTGFKEVQTGZRNCKPXCTKCDKNKV[KPDGJCXKQWTCNRCVVGTPUGURGEKCNN[VJQUGHTQO 210 211 8 Approaches to the archaeological record Approaches to the archaeological record 8

TGOQVGVKOGRGTKQFU6QGUECRGVJKUFKNGOOCJG CNUQUGG$KTFCPF1o%QPPGNN CFXQECVGUGVJPQCTEJCGQNQIKECNTGUGCTEJ 1PCNCTIGTNCPFUECRGUECNGKPVGTUKVGEQORCTKUQPUQHCUUGODNCIGUCPFUKVGUECPUJGFNKIJVQPUWDUKUVGPEGGEQPQOKECPF IWKFGFD[OQFGNUFGTKXGFHTQO*$' CUFKUEWUUGFHWTVJGTDGNQY  VGEJPQNQIKECNQTICPK\CVKQP+P$KPHQTFoU  UGOKPCNGVJPQCTEJCGQNQIKECNUVWF[QHVJG0WPCOKWV'UMKOQJGHQEWUGF QPJWOCPUGVVNGOGPVCPFUWDUKUVGPEGRCVVGTPUCPFVJGFKHHGTGPVYC[UKPYJKEJRGQRNGQTICPK\GFUKVGUQPVJGNCPFUECRGVQ GZRNQKVFKHHGTGPVTGUQWTEGU*KUDCUKERQKPVYCUVJCVKPQTFGTVQWPFGTUVCPFVJGQTICPK\CVKQPQHUGVVNGOGPVCPFUWDUKUVGPEG Case examples in ethnoarchaeology and conservation implications U[UVGOUQHRTGJKUVQTKEJWPVGTICVJGTGTUCTEJCGQNQIKUVUPGGFGFVQICKPCDTQCFNCPFUECRGUECNGRGTURGEVKXGQPVJGNQECVKQP QHFKHHGTGPVMKPFUQHCTEJCGQNQIKECNUKVGU6JKURGTURGEVKXGIWKFGUVJGTCVKQPCNGDGJKPFNCTIGUECNGCPFU[UVGOCVKEUWTXG[CPF 'VJPQCTEJCGQNQIKECNUVWFKGUCTGWUGFCUCPCNQIKGUVQKPVGTRTGVCPFIKXGNKHGVQCTEJCGQNQIKECNTGOCKPUQPFKHHGTGPVUECNGUQH NCPFUECRGNGXGNCPCN[UGUQHUKVGU CPFUKVGCTGCU 4GEGPVGVJPQCTEJCGQNQIKECNTGUGCTEJEQODKPGFYKVJ)+5CPCN[UGUCPFTGOQVG CPCN[UGU*GTG+FGUETKDGLWUVCHGYECUGGZCORNGUQHTGEGPVGVJPQCTEJCGQNQIKECNUVWFKGUCPFJQYVJGKTHKPFKPIUOKIJVDG UGPUKPIKFGPVKH[HKPGITCKPGFCUUQEKCVKQPUDGVYGGPFKHHGTGPVGEQNQIKECNHGCVWTGUNCPFUECRGUCPFURGEKHKEUKVGUQTTGUQWTEGUVJCV TGNGXCPVVQEQPUGTXCVKQPGHHQTVU OKIJVJCXGDGGPWUGHWNKPVJGRCUV UGG&GXKPGCWGVCN 6JGUGFCVCKPVWTPCTGWUGFVQEQPUVTWEVOQFGNUVQRTGFKEV UKVGNQECVKQPTGNCVKXGVQTGUQWTEGFKUVTKDWVKQPKPVJGFKUVCPVRCUV#FFKVKQPCNGVJPQCTEJCGQNQIKECNTGUGCTEJUJQYUVJCVYKVJKP Toolmarks on large animal remains#TGEWTTKPIVJGOGKPGCTN[JQOKPKPUVWFKGUEQPEGTPUYJGPJCDKVWCNOGCVEQPUWORVKQP VJGNCTIGTQTICPK\CVKQPQHNCPFWUGUKVGUQTECORUYKVJCUJQTVRGTKQFQHWUG UWEJCUECORUCPFDWVEJGTKPIUKVGU CTGOQUV GOGTIGF/GCVGCVKPIKUQHVGPXKGYGFCUCECVCN[UVHQTVJGWUGQHJQOGDCUGUVTCPURQTVQHHQQFRTQXKUKQPKPICPFVJGUGZWCN NKMGN[VQTGXGCNCEEWTCVGKPHQTOCVKQPCDQWVTGUQWTEGWUG .WRQ .CTIGT CPFOQTGCTEJCGQNQIKECNN[XKUKDNG UKVGUYGTG FKXKUKQPQHNCDQWT +UCCE-CRNCPGVCN CPFKUKORNKECVGFKPVJGGXQNWVKQPQHCPCVQOKECNCPFRJ[UKQNQIKECNHGCVWTGU OQTGNKMGN[VQDGRCNKORUGUVUCPFNGUUNKMGN[VQ[KGNFENGCTRKEVWTGUQHJWOCPDGJCXKQWT CUUQEKCVGFYKVJGCTN[Homo #KGNNQCPF9JGGNGT/E*GPT[/KNVQP9QQFCPF%QNNCTF *QYGXGT KPHGTGPEGUEQPEGTPKPIJQYYJGPCPFYJ[GCTN[JQOKPKPUQDVCKPGFECTECUUGUsCPFD[KORNKECVKQPVJGSWCPVKV[SWCNKV[CPF %QPUGTXCVKQPOCPCIGTUECPOCMGWUGQHVJGUGUVWFKGUKPVJTGGFKHHGTGPVYC[U(KTUVVJGUGUVWFKGUIKXGOCPCIGTUCDCUKUHQT RTGFKEVCDKNKV[QHCPKOCNRTQVGKPKPVJGFKGVsTGOCKPJKIJN[EQPVTQXGTUKCN $KPHQTF$NWOGPUEJKPGCPF2QDKPGT GXCNWCVKPIVJGWPFGTN[KPIOGVJQFQNQI[WUGFVQGZECXCVGCUKVG$[WPFGTUVCPFKPIVJGNKOKVCVKQPUQHUVCPFCTFCTEJCGQNQIKECN &QOKPIWG\4QFTKIQab&QOKPIWG\4QFTKIQGVCN1o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o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|/C UGGFG*GKP\GNKPGVCN $QPGURGEKOGPUHTQOVJKUUKVGKPENWFGKPEKUKQPUFKURNC[GFQPCOCPFKDNGQH COGFKWOUK\GFCNEGNCRJKPGEWVUEJQRUCPFJCOOGTUVQPGOCTMUQPVJGVKDKCOKFUJCHVQHCNCTIGDQXKFCPFFKUOGODGTOGPV CPFHKNNGVOCTMUQPC*KRRCTKQP VJTGGVQGFJQTUG HGOWT FG*GKP\GNKPGVCN #V)QPCCUKVGEQORNGZFCVKPIHTQO VQ|/CVJGTGKUGXKFGPEGQHVQQNOCTMUQPJKIJHNGUJDGCTKPIRCTVUQHOGFKWOCPFNCTIGUK\GFCPKOCNU &QOÉPIWG\4QFTKIQ Human behaviour ecology: use of explanatory and predictive models in archaeology GVCN5GOCYGVCN /QTGTGEGPVN[VQQNOCTMGFDQPGUHTQOVJG5KFK*CMQOCOGODGTQHVJG*CFCT(QTOCVKQPKP &KMKMC 'VJKQRKC RTGFCVG|/CEQWNFRWUJVJGFCVGHQTVQQNWUGCPFOGCVGCVKPIDCEMQXGT[GCTU /E2JGTQPGV *WOCPDGJCXKQWTCNGEQNQI[KUCUV[NGQHGXQNWVKQPCT[VJQWIJVVJCVGZCOKPGUJQYGPXKTQPOGPVCNCPFGEQNQIKECNHCEVQTU CN 6JGEWVUETCRGCPFRGTEWUUKQPOCTMUQPDQXKFTGOCKPURWTRQTVGFN[TGRTGUGPVVJGGCTNKGUVVQQNOCTMGFDQPGUCPF KPHNWGPEGXCTKCDKNKV[KPJWOCPDGJCXKQWT -GNN[5OKVJGVCN9KPVGTJCNFGTCPF5OKVJ *$'DWKNFUQP CTGRWVCVKXGN[CUUQEKCVGFYKVJVJGTGOCKPUQHAustralopithecus afarenisis DWVUGG&QOKPIWG\4QFTKIQGVCN  EQPEGRVUFGTKXGFHTQOGXQNWVKQPCT[GEQNQI[YJKEJGZCOKPGUVJGKPVGTCEVKQPDGVYGGPGXQNWVKQPCT[HQTEGUCPFGEQNQIKECN XCTKCDNGUD[HQEWUKPIQPDGJCXKQWT $TQWIJVQPCPF1o%QPPGNN #PVJTQRQNQIKECNCPFCTEJCGQNQIKECNCRRNKECVKQPUQH %NGCTN[VJGFGDCVGUQXGTOGCVGCVKPICTGDCUGFQPOWNVKRNGNKPGUQHGXKFGPEGDWVUOCNNUECNGCPCNQIKGUUWEJCUVJG OQFGNUFGTKXGFHTQOJWOCPDGJCXKQWTCNGEQNQI[VQJWOCPRQRWNCVKQPUDGICPUQOGVJKTV[[GCTUCIQ $C[JCO*CYMGU KPVGTRTGVCVKQPQHEWVOCTMUCTGQHVGPCTGETWEKCNVQVJGQXGTCNNKPHGTGPEG%QPUGTXCVKQPOCPCIGTUECPHWTVJGTCUUGUUVJG CPF1o%QPPGNN,QEJKO1o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oU  KPVGTRTGVCVKQPUTGICTFKPIQDNKICVGUECXGPIKPI CFFTGUUCXCTKGV[QHFKHHGTGPVMKPFUQHDGJCXKQWTKVKUDGUVMPQYPHQTOQFGNUVJCVCFFTGUUVJGHQTCIKPIFGEKUKQPUQHCPQTICPKUO JQOKPKPUCTGCNUQDCUGFQPURGEKHKEMKPFUQHEWVOCTMUVJCVJGDGNKGXGFTGHNGEVGFVJGDWVEJGTKPIQHUVKHHCPFFGUKEECVGF (QTGZCORNGVJGFKGVDTGCFVJ QTRTG[EJQKEG OQFGNRTGFKEVUYJKEJTGUQWTEGUCPQTICPKUOUGNGEVKXGN[GZRNQKVUHTQOCURGEKHKE ECTECUUGU'XGPVJQWIJVJGUGFCVCYGTGNCVGTUJQYPVQDGCODKIWQWU GI.WRQ VJGGXKFGPEGCPFCUUQEKCVGFUKVG U  TCPIGQHTGUQWTEGUHTQOVJGGPXKTQPOGPV2CVEJEJQKEGOQFGNUGZCOKPGYJ[CPCPKOCNUGNGEVUURGEKHKETGUQWTEGRCVEJGUQXGT TGOCKPCUKORQTVCPVEQTPGTUVQPGUKPVJGJKUVQT[QHGXQNWVKQPCT[VJQWIJVQPGCTN[JQOKPKPU QVJGTUCPFRTGFKEVUYJGPCPCPKOCNUJQWNFNGCXGCRCVEJVQRWTUWGQVJGTQRRQTVWPKVKGU

Site and land-use patterns: 'CTN[GVJPQCTEJCGQNQIKECNUVWFKGUHQWPFVJCVCTVGHCEVWCNTGOCKPUKPJWOCPTGUKFGPVKCNECORU *$'OQFGNUQHVGPVCMGVJGHQTOQHQRVKOK\CVKQPOQFGNU#PQRVKOK\CVKQPOQFGNKUCSWCPVKVCVKXGVQQNWUGFVQCUUGUUVJGEQUVU YGTGQHVGPURCVKCNN[QTICPK\GFKPVQUQECNNGFCEVKXKV[CTGCU 1o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o%QPPGNN 6QKORTQXGTGEQIPKVKQPQHFKHHGTGPV EQORCTKPIRQVGPVKCNICKPUHTQOGZRNQKVKPICRCTVKEWNCTTGUQWTEGCICKPUVVJGNQUVQRRQTVWPKV[QHRWTUWKPICPCNVGTPCVGTGUQWTEG CEVKXKV[CTGCUOQTGTGEGPVGVJPQCTEJCGQNQIKECN KPEQPEGTVYKVJIGQGVJPQCTEJCGQNQIKECN UVWFKGUCTGWUKPIOKETQUEQRKECPF 5VGRJGPUCPF-TGDU %WTTGPE[TGHGTUVQVJGWPKVUWUGFVQOGCUWTGVJGEQUVUCPFDGPGHKVUQHFKHHGTGPVFGEKUKQPUCKOGFCV RGFQIGPKEGXKFGPEGVQKFGPVKH[YQTMCTGCUURGEKCNRWTRQUGECORUQTURGEKHKEHGCVWTGUKPUKVGUETGCVGFD[EQPVGORQTCT[JWPVGT HWNHKNNKPICHQTCIGToUIQCN#PQTICPKUOECPJCXGCXCTKGV[QHIQCNUWUWCNN[KPHQTCIKPIOQFGNUVJGIQCNKUVQOCZKOK\GGPGTIGVKE ICVJGTGTU/CNNQNGVCN  HQTGZCORNGWUGOKETQUEQRKEUGFKOGPVCT[HGCVWTGUVQEJCTCEVGTK\GFKHHGTGPVMKPFUQHJGCTVJU TGVWTP%QPUVTCKPVUKPENWFGKPVTKPUKECPFGZVTKPUKEHCEVQTUUWEJCURJ[UKQNQIKECNNKOKVCVKQPUCPFGPEQWPVGTTCVGUYKVJRTG[VJCV WUGFD[*CF\CJWPVGTICVJGTGTU-PWFUQPGVCN  HQWPFVJCVUJQTVCPFNQPIWUG;WRoKMHKUJKPIECORUECPDGCUUQEKCVGF OC[NKOKVVJGRC[QHHFGTKXGFHTQOCUVTCVGI[6JGUGEJCTCEVGTKUVKEUQHQRVKOK\CVKQPOQFGNUCTGKORQTVCPVDGECWUGFGXKCVKQPU YKVJEJGOKECNUQKNUKIPCVWTGUCPFVJCVURGEKCNCEVKXKV[CTGCUYKVJKPVJQUGECORUECPDGFKUVKPIWKUJGFD[FKHHGTGPVEJGOKECN DGVYGGPVJGRTGFKEVKQPUQHCP[OQFGNCPFVJGQDUGTXGFRCVVGTPKPXKVGCTGEQPUKFGTCVKQPQHVJGEWTTGPE[IQCNUCPFEQPUVTCKPVU EQORQUKVKQPU6JGUGPGYGTUVWFKGUCTGKORQTVCPVDGECWUGVJG[FGOQPUVTCVGVJGNGXGNQHCPCN[UGUVJCVKUTGSWKTGFVQKFGPVKH[ HKPGTITCKPGFRCVVGTPUQHCEVKXKVKGUYKVJKPUKVGU

212 213 8 Approaches to the archaeological record Approaches to the archaeological record 8

Case examples in HBE and their implications for conservation EWUVQOUVCMGUGXGTCNHQTOUHTQORTQJKDKVKPIJWPVGTUHTQODWVEJGTKPICPFGCVKPIOGCVHTQOVJGKTQYPMKNNVQTWNGUEQPEGTPKPI YJQTGEGKXGUURGEKHKEUJCTGUQHOGCVCPFUQEKGVCNPQTOUVJCVUWRRQTVVJGIGPGTQWUCPFYKFGURTGCFUJCTKPIQHOGCVHTQO #NVJQWIJOQFGNUFGTKXGFHTQO*$'CTGCRRNKGFVQCP[PWODGTQHRJGPQOGPC $KTFCPF1o%QPPGNN.WRQ EGTVCKPRTG[YKVJPQPHCOKN[OGODGTU *CYMGUGVCN.WRQCPF5EJOKVV9KGUUPGT *CF\CDKIICOG 9KPVGTJCNFGTCPF5OKVJ VJGUVTQPIGUVCRRNKECVKQPUCTGKPSWGUVKQPUCDQWVUWDUKUVGPEGQTGEQPQO[ JWPVGTUHQTGZCORNGQPCXGTCIGVCMGJQOGQPN[|RGTEGPV QTNGUU QHVJGOGCVVJG[CESWKTGCPFVJGKTUJCTGUCTGPQNCTIGT CPFQHVGPUOCNNGTVJCPVJQUGTGEGKXGFD[QVJGTU *CYMGU  Diet breadth models 2GTJCRUVJGOQFGNOQUVQHVGPWUGFKPCTEJCGQNQI[KUTCVKQPCNGFGTKXGFHTQOVJGFKGVDTGCFVJOQFGN6JG RTG[EJQKEGOQFGNCUUWOGUVJCVHQTCIGTUTCPMTGUQWTEGUCNQPICUKPINGUECNGQHRTQHKVCDKNKV[WUWCNN[MECNUQDVCKPGFRGTWPKVQH 1VJGTTGUGCTEJGTURTQRQUGVJCVJKIJTKUMQTEQUVN[JWPVKPIGPFGCXQWTUOC[YQTMCUCUKIPCNQHVJGJWPVGTo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

6JKUTCVKQPCNGECPDGCRRNKGFVQGXCNWCVGTGEGPVOQFGNUVJCVRQUKVUGXGTCNFKHHGTGPVJ[RQVJGVKECNEJCPIGUKPVJGFKGVQHGCTN[ /GT 6QTTGU5VTCKV 6WTVNGJWPVU 2QNKVKECNCDKNKVKGU $NGKIG$KTFGVCN  JQOKPKPU/QUVTGUGCTEJGTURQKPVVQOCLQTCPCVQOKECNCPFRJ[UKQNQIKECNHGCVWTGUKPNCVGTHomo H. ergasterCPFH. erectus  /GT 6QTTGU5VTCKV 5RGCTHKUJKPI #DKNKVKGU $NKGIG$KTFGVCN  VJCVKPFKECVGCPKPETGCUGFGPGTIGVKEFGOCPFCPFEQTTGURQPFVQCJKIJGTSWCNKV[FKGVUQOGs|/C #KGNNQCPF9GNNU #KGNNQCPF9JGGNGT.GQPCTFCPF4QDGTVUQP +HVJKUOQFGNKUEQTTGEVVJCPKVKORNKGUVJGFKGVYCUDGEQOKPI PCTTQY KGCPKPETGCUGKPJKIJTCPMGFTGUQWTEGU #UGEQPFJ[RQVJGUKUCTIWGUVJCVCPKPETGCUGFTGNKCPEGQPHCNNDCEMHQQFU GURGEKCNN[751U WPFGTITQWPFUVQTCIGQTICPUUWEJCUVWDGTUCPFEQTOU RTQXKFGFVJGKORGVWUHQTCFKGVCT[URNKVDGVYGGP 6JGTGEQIPKVKQPQHEQUVN[UKIPCNNKPIKPVJGCTEJCGQNQIKECNTGEQTFOKIJVJGNRVQGZRNCKPVJGCRRGCTCPEGQHFKHHGTGPVHQTOUQH #WUVTCNQRKVJGEKPGUCPFGCTN[Homo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o%QPPGNNCPFEQNNGCIWGU $KTFCPF1o%QPPGNN*CYMGU ECPICKPCITGCVGTWPFGTUVCPFKPIQHVJGGEQNQIKECNHCEVQTUVJCVKPHNWGPEGFJQOKPKPGXQNWVKQP(QTGZCORNGCDTQCFGPKPIQH GVCN 6JG[CTIWGVJCVHGOCNGHQTCIKPICPFHQQFUJCTKPIPQVOGCVRTQXKUKQPKPICPFCESWKUKVKQPFTKXGOCP[ VJGFKGVCV|/CCPFVJGRQUUKDNGKPENWUKQPQHHCNNDCEMHQQFUEQTTGURQPFUVQYGNNFQEWOGPVGFEJCPIGUKPVJGGPXKTQPOGPV QHVJGRJ[UKQNQIKECNCPFCPCVQOKECNEJCPIGUCUUQEKCVGFYKVJHomoURGEKGU#EEQTFKPIVQVJKUXKGYDKIICOGCESWKUKVKQPD[ -KODGNGVCN5Å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s|/CKPKVKCVGUCFKGVCT[UJKHVKPXQNXKPICEJCPIGKPHQTCIKPITCPIGCPFDTQCFGPKPIQHVJGFKGVYKVJCP VKOGKPVGTXCN GORJCUKUQPFKHHKEWNVVQCESWKTGDWVRTGFKEVCDNGCPFJKIJTGVWTPTGUQWTEGU6JGDTQCFGPKPIQHVJGFKGVKPETGCUGUVJGUGCTEJ EQUVUHQTTGUQWTEGUCPFVGEJPQNQIKECNKPPQXCVKQPUVJCVTGFWEGVJGEQUVQHRTQEGUUKPIGOGTIG+PVJKUOQFGNCFWNVHGOCNGU /QTGTGEGPVN[UQOGTGUGCTEJGTUJCXGRQKPVGFQWVVJCVVJGNQPIKVWFKPCNRCVVGTPQHJWOCPFKGVCT[EJCPIG KPENWFKPIVJG RTQXKUKQPVJGKTQHHURTKPID[EQNNGEVKPIVWDGTU 751Us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o%QPPGNNGVCN  DWVECPD[LWUVKHKGFKPUKVGUVJCVTGHNGEVVJGQXGTCNNRTQEGUUQHUWDUKUVGPEGGXQNWVKQP 4GUWNVUQH%56UVWFKGUECPGPJCPEGEQPUGTXCVKQPGHHQTVUD[TGFGHKPKPIVJGCRRGCTCPEGQHURGEKHKECTVGHCEVUQTCUUGODNCIG Costly signalling theory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omo. CPFTGFKUVTKDWVKQPQHVGPNKOKVVJGECNQTKETGYCTFUVJCVJWPVGTUCPFVJGKTHCOKNKGUECPICTPGTHTQOVJGUGQRRQTVWPKVKGU6JGUG 214 215 8 Approaches to the archaeological record Approaches to the archaeological record 8

Central place foraging models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o%QPPGNNGVCN  Niche management and environmental interaction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oUWYGVo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oUHQTCIKPIGHHKEKGPE[CPFOKIJVCVVTCEV Future and emerging questions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,QPGU-CPF/CFUGP&%CNEWNCVKPIVJGEQUVQHTGUQWTEGVTCPURQTVCVKQPC)TGCV$CUKPGZCORNGCurrent Anthropology, .GYKU,(QTGUVJWPVGTICVJGTGTUCPFVJGKTYQTNFCUVWF[QHVJG/DGPFLGNG;CMC2[IOKGUQH%QPIQ$TC\\CXKNNGCPFVJGKT 8QN|0Q|RR|s UGEWNCTCPFTGNKIKQWUCEVKXKVKGUCPFTGRTGUGPVCVKQPU2J&VJGUKU7PKXGTUKV[QH.QPFQP

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222 223 8 Approaches to the archaeological record Approaches to the archaeological record 8

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224 225 8 Approaches to the archaeological record

5VGRJGPU&|9CPF-TGDU,|4Foraging Theory.2TKPEGVQP0,2TKPEGVQP7PKXGTUKV[2TGUU

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9KGUUPGT2*WPVKPIJGCNKPICPFJZCTQGZEJCPIGCNQPIVGTORGTURGEVKXGQP-WPI ,WoJQCPUK NCTIGICOGJWPVKPI Evolution and Human Behavior8QN|RR|s

9KNOUGP'|0Land Filled with Flies: A Political Economy of the Kalahari%JKECIQ+NN7PKXGTUKV[QH%JKECIQ2TGUU

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9QDUV*|/6JGCTEJCGQGVJPQNQI[QHJWPVGTICVJGTGTUQTVJGV[TCPP[QHVJGGVJPQITCRJKETGEQTFKPCTEJCGQNQI[ American Antiquity8QN|0Q|RR|s

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9TCPIJCO4%JGPG[&5G[HCTVJ4CPF5CTOKGPVQ'5JCNNQYYCVGTJCDKVCVUCUUQWTEGUQHHCNNDCEMHQQFUHQT JQOKPKPUAmerican Journal of Physical Anthropology8QN|RR|s

9[NKG/|##PCNQI[D[CP[QVJGTPCOGKULWUVCUCPCNQIKECNCEQOOGPVCT[QPVJG)QWNF9CVUQPFKCNQIWGJournal of Anthropological Archaeology8QN|0Q|RR|s

9[NKG/|#6JGTGCEVKQPCICKPUVCPCNQI[+P/|$5EJKHHGT GF Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory. 1TNCPFQ(NC#ECFGOKE2TGUURR|s

;GNNGP,Archaeological Approaches to the Present: Models for Reconstructing the Past. 0GY;QTM#ECFGOKE2TGUU

226 227 9 Conclusion and way forward Conclusion and way forward 9

Africa: the origins of humankind. 6JGYQTMQHVJGTGUGCTEJGTUYJQRCTVKEKRCVGFKPVJG#FFKU#DCDCOGGVKPIKP(GDTWCT[JCUUQWIJVNKCKUQPUDGVYGGP URGEKCNKVKGUCPFDGVYGGPVJGVGEJPKECNCPFRTQHGUUKQPCNGZRGTKGPEGQHVJGKTVGCOUTGUWNVKPIKPCPGPQTOQWUCOQWPVQHHQUUKN Towards a better representation of human evolution GXKFGPEGCPFUVWFKGUQPHQTOCVKQPFGHQTOCVKQPVJGYC[KPYJKEJDQPGUCPFVGGVJITGYCPFFKGVUVJCPMUVQKUQVQRKECPCN[UKU COQPIQVJGTU&GXGNQROGPVUKPIGPGVKETGUGCTEJCPFVJGXGT[RTQNKHGTCVKQPQHCTEJCGQNQIKECNOCVGTKCNHTQOCTQWPF/C in the framework of the World Heritage Convention CIQKP'CUV#HTKECOGCPVJCVVJGTGKUPQNCEMQHGXKFGPEGHQTVJGUGFKUEKRNKPGUVQDGCDNGVQFGXGNQRCUCYJQNGCPFVJGTGHQTG VQTGPGYVJGURKTKVQHGPSWKT[KPVJKUTGUGCTEJCTGC5VWFKGURTGUGPVGFJGTGGZRNQTGYC[UQHUVWF[KPIDGJCXKQWTRCVVGTPUVJG Nuria Sanz HKTUVGXKFGPEGTGNCVKPIVQU[ODQNKEDGJCXKQWT-CCIQVJGTCRRTQEJGOGPVQHFKUEKRNKPGUVQFKUVCPEGQTFKUETKOKPCVGDGVYGGP General Coordinator of the HEADS Thematic World Heritage Programme – Chief of the Latin America and Caribbean Unit DGJCXKQWTCNEWUVQOUCOQPIUVEJKORCP\GGUCPFHomoUVWFKGUQPDKRGFCNKUO CHWPFCOGPVCNVTCKVYJKEJUGRCTCVGUWUHTQO – World Heritage Centre, UNESCO QWTENQUGUVNKXKPITGNCVKXGU CPFCNNQVJGTFGXGNQROGPVUKPDKQNQIKECNGXQNWVKQPITQWRJWPVKPICPFRTQFWEVKQPCPFWUGQHNKVJKE VQQNU9KVJCNNQHVJKURQQNUQHMPQYNGFIGECPDGICVJGTGFQPJQYPCVWTCNUGNGEVKQPJCUQRGTCVGFCVFKHHGTGPVOQOGPVUQH JWOCPGXQNWVKQP6JKUKUYJ[YGPGGFHQUUKNTGEQTFUVJCVRTQXKFGGXKFGPEGQHCFCRVCVKQPUCPFXCTKCVKQPUDWVCNUQVJGEQPVGZVKP YJKEJVJG[YGTGFKUEQXGTGF1PN[YKVJVJKUU[PGTI[QHEQPVGPVCPFUVTWEVWTGECPYGWPFGTUVCPFJQYYGDGECOGJWOCPCPF In 1871 Darwin published ‘The Descent of Man’, in which he stated that we come from primate ancestry and that the DQVJEQORQPGPVUCTGGUUGPVKCNVQDGCDNGVQFGHKPGCnUKVGoTGNCVGFVQJWOCPGXQNWVKQPKPVJGEQPVGZVQHVJGKORNGOGPVCVKQP original coordinates of this evolutionary process had to be placed in Africa (earning him the caricature of an ape in ‘The QHVJG9QTNF*GTKVCIG%QPXGPVKQP Hornet’, a satirical journal). Both of these assertions clashed completely with the Victorian spirit. Many decades were to pass before the necessary evidence about the processes of adaptation to the environment could be obtained and 9GFQPQVMPQYVJGPCVWTGQHQWTNCUVEQOOQPCPEGUVQTYKVJEJKORCP\GGUPQTFQYGMPQYCVYJCVRQKPVVJG[FKXGTIGF analysed, especially evidence concerning the relationship between organisms, the origin and extinction of species, and 9GFQPQVMPQYGZCEVN[YJGTGJQYCPFYJGPVJGHKTUVOGODGTUQHVJGHomoIGPWUGXQNXGFCNVJQWIJWPFQWDVGFN[KVYCU the domino effect of these fluctuations in terms of biological diversity. Since this time, the evidence discovered has KP#HTKECOQTGVJCP/CCIQ9GRQUUGUUUECPVCPFUECVVGTGFGXKFGPEGKP#HTKECQHCRGUDGVYGGPCPF/CCIQCPFKVKU become undisputed proof about evolution, although the charting of Neanderthal remains and was of some FKHHKEWNVVQEQPPGEVGXKFGPEGHQWPFKP'CUV#HTKECQXGTVJGRCUVHGY[GCTUGKVJGTYKVJVJGHKTUVCRGHQUUKNUQTYKVJVJGOQUVTGEGPV consolation to those who believed that Europe was the cradle of humanity. During the early decades of the twentieth JQOKPKFU1PN[CHVGT/CKUVJGTGCP[GXKFGPEGQHDKRGFCNNQEQOQVKQP6JGHKTUVURGEKGUQHVJGIGPWUHomoCRRGCT/CCIQ century the Piltdown skull somewhat reassured a Europe that was unwilling to accept that the Australopithecus africanus 6JGHKTUVJQOKPKFUYGTGCDNGVQKPJCDKVGZVTGOGN[XCTKGFGPXKTQPOGPVUCNVJQWIJGXKFGPEGKUUVKNNXGT[HTCIKNGCPFVJG[YGTG discovered in 1920 could have anything to do with our evolutionary descent. Eurasia and Africa started gathering CDNGVQEQRGYKVJXGT[FKHHGTGPVJCDKVCVUYKVJKPUJQTVFKUVCPEGUUWEJCUKPVJG#HCT&GRTGUUKQP'VJKQRKCQTKP.CGVQNK6CP\CPKC evidence from then on. Humankind’s ancestor, the Zinjanthropus boisei, was a discovery made in Olvudai, Tanzania, in #NVJQWIJVJGTGCTGOCP[SWGUVKQPUNGHVQRGPYGECPDGTGCUQPCDN[UWTGVJCVVJGCPUYGTUCTGUVKNNVQDGHQWPFKP#HTKEC 1959. We still do not know how to position it in our genealogical tree, but from that moment on Africa undoubtedly became the epicentre of every investigation. And since then, the African continent has remained a destination for #HTKECJCUVJGDKIIGUVCTEJCGQNQIKECNUGSWGPEGQPVJGRNCPGVVJGTGD[EQPUVKVWVKPIVJGYJQNGEQPVKPGPVYKVJ1WVUVCPFKPI international archaeologists and paleontologists to analyse the origin of our cultures, which has continued to evolve in 7PKXGTUCN8CNWG 178 (QTGXGT[JWOCPDGKPI#HTKECUKIPKHKGUCLQWTPG[DCEMVJTQWIJQWTQYPJKUVQT[CPFCTGEQPUVTWEVKQP its own way and to radiate from there in successive waves throughout the other continents. Africa is the ancestral home QHVJGKVKPGTCT[1WTHQUUKNJGTKVCIGKUVJGOQUVEQOOQPJGTKVCIGQHCNNJWOCPMKPFCPFVJGUGRCIGUKPXQMGCURKTKVQH of the evolutionary history of hominids over the past 7 Ma, and of the history of its cultural evidence for 2.6 Ma. Africa TGEQPPGEVKQP6JGGCTNKGUVGXKFGPEGQHUQEKCNDGJCXKQWTQHVJGQTKIKPUQHQWTEQGZKUVGPEGJCDKVUQHNCPIWCIGCPFU[ODQNKE incontrovertibly became the most prized seat of all the developments in biological and cultural change in our history. VJQWIJVCTGCNNHQWPFVJGTG

Africa registers the longest sequence of human occupation of any continent, which confers it with a distinctive value. To compare it with the rest of the sequences throughout the world is also crucial. This exceptional sequence represents an unparalleled and unprecedented opportunity to understand our history as a species, first as members of the hominid line and later of the genus Homo, and to interpret in depth our appearance and behaviour as modern humans. Africa is home to our first ascription of meaning to things.

The contributions presented here allow an unequivocal coordination of evidence on a large scale and provide an explanation of some of the mechanisms of change. Ecological pressures and technological responses, anatomical changes and cognitive abilities are all explored through this study on morphology and on behaviour patterns, not to mention the analysis of the social transfer of learning.

Man and the chimpanzee share 98.8% of their genetic heritage; 8 Ma ago their genetic patterns began to diverge. New technologies and original myths attempt to respond to a universal curiosity that looks for an explanation of our earliest moments, whether from a biological or a cultural standpoint. Over the past 20 years, 6 new fossil descendants of the human family have been found, and palynological, ethnographical and genetic knowledge has continually grown with regards to the analysis of evolutionary events and the changing environments of . From the HEADS meeting in Burgos in March 2009, Professor Toshisada Nishida’s contributions to our analysis included the importance of factoring the 250 species of primates that live on Earth today into our sequence of study, and of reminding us that primates and humans have bigger brains than the rest of the mammals. This is fundamental for developing forms of social interaction and learning, manipulating raw materials, acquiring learnt behaviours and forethought, and cultivating community-family dependence. Our primate heritage explains a great deal about our place in the natural world (Potts, 2010). Bearing this in mind, it is vital to preserve their habitats in Africa today, just as Professor Nishida argued. We remember him in these pages as we reiterate our appreciation for his consistency in petitioning the international community to take a more integral approach in our analysis. We are deeply sorry for his loss.

Sibudu Rock Shelter, South Africa. © University of Tübingen 228 229 9 Conclusion and way forward Conclusion and way forward 9

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230 231 9 Conclusion and way forward Conclusion and way forward 9

Why do we need an interdisciplinary approach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n4GUKNKGPEGCPF#FCRVCVKQPoCPFVJGn0CVWTGQH6TCPUHQTOCVKQPoKPTGNCVKQPVQDWKNVCTEJCGQNQIKECNCPFPCVWTCN VTCPUHQTOCVKQPQHRGTEGRVKQPQHVJGDWKNVCTEJCGQNQIKECNCPFPCVWTCNJGTKVCIGGPXKTQPOGPV 70'5%1  JGTKVCIGVQGPECRUWNCVGEQOOQPCNKVKGUKPOCVGTKCNEWNVWTGCPFGPXKTQPOGPV+PENWFGFKPVJKUEQWNFDGVJGFGXGNQROGPVQH TGURQPUGUVQEWTTGPVCPFRTGFKEVGFENKOCVGEJCPIGCVCJKIJURCVKCNTGUQNWVKQP The heritage environment has undergone repeated transformational pressures, the survivors of the past demonstrating resilience against many cycles of changing natural environments, cultural preference, economic conditions and 2TKQTKVKGUEQWNFKPENWFG conservation practice. The heritage environment will be subject to substantial transformational drivers over the coming decades - by economic, governance and sustainability pressures, linked to climate change impacts as well as mitigation Q #RTQITCOOGVQGUVCDNKUJVJGHQWPFCVKQPUQHJGTKVCIGTGUQWTEGUCVUKVGU6JG[ECPDGWUGFKPVJGRTKQTKVK\CVKQPQH and adaptation across a range of scales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o YGNNDGKPI+VUGHHGEVKXGOCPCIGOGPVCNUQRNC[UCUKIPKHKECPVTQNGKPVJGFTKXGVQYCTFUUWUVCKPCDKNKV[KPENWFKPIVJGPGGFHQT KPETGCUGFEQPUGTXCVKQPQHTGUQWTEGU6JGTGKUCEQORNGZKPVGTCEVKQPJGTGDGVYGGPUQEKCNCURGEVUCPFOCVGTKCNWPFGTUVCPFKPI VJCVKPXQNXGUCYKFGTCPIGQHUVCMGJQNFGTUHTQOKPFKXKFWCNEKVK\GPUEQPEGTPGFCDQWVVJGKTEWNVWTCNTGHGTGPEGVQIQXGTPOGPV VJCVOCMGUFGEKUKQPUQPOCPCIGOGPVCPFEQPUGTXCVKQPCECFGOKEUCPFKPFWUVT[UWRRN[KPIUGTXKEGUYQTMKPIFKTGEVN[KP EQPUGTXCVKQP

What is interdisciplinarity?

The interdisciplinary approach is of the utmost importance in the identification, study, management and evaluation of the sites. In Africa, any scientific and conservation project must be balanced in a way to involve many disciplines across the Excavations at the natural and social sciences (broadly defined) but whose list doesn’t need to be constrained. Beyond such multidisciplinary MSA shell of considerations, the discussion among the thematic group was more focused on the actual interdisciplinary dialogue and Hoedjiespunt 1, South Africa. synergies (UNESCO, 2011). © University of Tübingen +PEQPUKFGTCVKQPQHVJGEQPENWUKQPUQHVJG$WTIQUOGGVKPICPFYKVJURGEKCNTGHGTGPEGVQ#HTKECPUKVGUVJGRCTVKEKRCPVUUVTGUUGF VJCVRTKQTVQCP[UVWF[QTPQOKPCVKQPHKNGURGEKHKEGORJCUKUOWUVDGCVVTKDWVGFVQU[UVGOCVKECPCN[UKUCETQUUVJGHWNNTCPIGQH GZKUVKPICPFRQVGPVKCNUVCMGJQNFGTU.GICNCPFEWNVWTCNFKOGPUKQPUKPRCTVKEWNCTCTGKPVGITCNVQCPKPVGTFKUEKRNKPCT[CRRTQCEJ

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232 233 9 Conclusion and way forward Conclusion and way forward 9

Applying World Heritage criteria to human evolution sites Geographies of cooperation

Table 1. +YQWNFNKMGVQGORJCUK\GMG[KUUWGUVJCVJCXGDGGPTCKUGFKPVJGEQPVTKDWVKQPUQPUKVGUKP'VJKQRKCCPFKPVJG/CIJTGDCTGC 'VJKQRKCFGCNUYKVJUKVGUYJGTGTGUGCTEJJKUVQT[JCUGXQNXGFOQTGCPFOQTGTCRKFN[UKPEGVJGKPUETKRVKQPQHUKVGUQPVJG9QTNF *GTKVCIG.KUVCPFPGYGXKFGPEGDTKPIUCDQWVVJGPGGFVQCFLWUVHQTOUQHOCPCIGOGPVCPFEQPUGTXCVKQPCVVJGUCOGVKOGCU      CFLWUVKPIRTQVGEVKQPNKOKVUVQKPENWFGTGUGCTEJoUNCVGUVHKPFKPIU0QTVJ#HTKECKPVWTPKUVQDGKPENWFGFKPVJGEQPVKPGPVCNCTGC          UQVJCVRTQEGUUGUVJCVJCXGVCMGPRNCEGKPKVUGPXKTQPOGPVFQPQVQXGTVWTPVJGHTCOGYQTMQHKPVGTRTGVCVKQPQH/GFKVGTTCPGCP             UGSWGPEGU+PCFFKVKQPVQJKUEQPVTKDWVKQP2TQH-WRGTRQKPVUWUVQCPQVJGTETKVKECNUVGRKPVJGCFCRVKPIJKUVQT[QHVJG#HTKECP & EQPVKPGPVPQOCFKERCUVQTCNKUOKPVJG5CJCTC

% The case of Ethiopia $

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" FKUEQXGTKGUQHn&KMMKCoAustralopithecusFCVGFVQ/CCIQKPVJG.QYGT#YCUJ8CNNG[(WTVJGTOQTGCPGYUKVGECNNGF(GLGL JCUDGGPWPEQXGTGFYJKEJFCVGUVQ/CCIQ#NVJQWIJKVKUPQVYKVJKPVJGNKOKVUQHVJGKPUETKDGFUKVG.QYGT8CNNG[QHVJG ! #YCUJVJGDQWPFCTKGUQHVJGUKVGEQWNFDGGZVGPFGFVQKPENWFGKVVQUVTGPIVJGPVJGUKVGoU1780GYGXKFGPEGQDNKIGUWUVQ CFCRVUVTWEVWTGUQHRTQVGEVKQPCPFEQPUGTXCVKQP 

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NARRATIVE STATE PARTY / SITE REGION

1. Palaeontology, biology and Chad Sahara physical anthropology: East Africa Djourab – primate and hominid fossils, fauna. Narratives 1, 2. hominids among primates and South Africa genetic studies Ennedi/Ounanga – geological and environmental values. Narrative 1.

Ethiopia Chorola 10 myr early hominoid/ape fossils. Still need to close gap between 10 mya and 6 mya in Ethiopia. Narrative 1. Afar: boundary extension for a palaeonthropological site that extends 250 km from Dubti in the north of the main Afar rift to Kessem-Kebena in the south. Serial nomination: Omo WHS on the east side Fejej LSA to Miocene with hominids at 4 and 2 mya, continuous sequence of stone tools. Narratives 1, 2. Melka Kunture, Goda-Mota and Lake Zwai as a serial nomination: already fenced. A buffer zone needs to be identified. The two sites complement each other and would be managed by the same office and under the same budget. Narratives 1, 2, 3. Konso Gardula: Stands alone. More pertinent danger in terms of conservation and population encroachment. Narratives 1, 2, 3.

236 Sibudu Rock Shelter, South Africa. © University of Tübingen 237 9 Conclusion and way forward Conclusion and way forward 9

NARRATIVE STATE PARTY / SITE REGION NARRATIVE STATE PARTY / SITE REGION

Porc Epic and surroundings – MSA-LSA sequence in cave sites, fauna – H. Libya sapiens - rock paintings. Narratives 2, 3. Haua Fteah Cave: long Palaeolithic sequence Dabban – Neolithic – fauna – human behavioural change through time. Narrative 3. South Africa Site of A. sediba needs to be added to the already listed site on Gladysvale. Egypt Narrative 1. Nabta /Bir Kiseiba: complete Holocene climatic sequence with early 2. Fossil traces of cognitive Morocco North Africa – cattle believed to be there at 9000 BC, presence confirmed steps: cognitive changes - East Africa at 6000 BC. Narratives 3, 5. Atlantic coastline cave sites: Casablanca sequence from 5 cave sites – human biological and cultural East Africa Acheulean at 1 mya to 100,000 – threatened by urban development with Sodmein Cave, Eastern Desert: Middle Palaeolithic sequence and early evolution early Hominids. Narratives 2, 3. domestication with earliest sheep/goats with pottery at 6200 BC. Narratives 3, 5. Djebel Irhoud: archaic H. sapiens – open site – Middle Palaeolithic Mousterian – 130,000. Narratives 2, 3. Wadi Sura: cave site with unusual rock art – landscape with archaeological chronology from hunter-gatherers to pastoralism. Narratives 3, 5. : Upper Palaeolithic burial site 22,000 H. sapiens. Narratives 2, 3. Nazlet-Ikhate: Upper Palaeolithic stone technology with mining – raw Salè, near Rabat – earliest H. sapiens in North Africa. Narratives 2, 3. material exploitation and transportation – 130,000. Narrative 3.

Ethiopia Djibouti Afar: boundary extension for a palaeonthropological site that extends 250km Baroghli – 1 mya Early Stone Age Elephas butchering site. Narrative 3. from Dubti in the north of the main Afar rift to Kessem-Kebena in the south. Narratives 1, 2, 3. Ethiopia Melka Kunture, Goda-Mota and Lake Zwai as serial nomination: already Porc Epic and surroundings – MSA-LSA sequence in cave sites, fauna – H. fenced. A buffer zone needs to be identified. Narratives 1, 2, 3. sapiens - rock paintings. Narratives 2, 3. Konso Gardula: stands alone. More pertinent danger in terms of conservation and population encroachment. Narratives 1, 2, 3. Kenya Olorgesailie – open air Acheulean site with artefacts, fauna and homind Eritrea remains. Already open to the public. Narratives 2, 3. Buia – H. erectus – Acheulian tools 1 mya. Narratives 2, 3. South Africa Kenya Wonderwerk Cave – long sequence from Acheulean to Later Stone Age – Kapthurin: hominid site. Narratives 1, 2, 3. mobiliary art, fauna, possible early traces of fire. Narratives 2, 3. East and West Turkana should be joined and included together. Narratives Various Middle Stone Age sites with a variety of examples of complex 1, 2, 3. symbolism and coastal adaptations. (a) With fossils and already on the Tentative List: Klasies Tugen Hills: oldest hominid sites. Narratives 1, 2, 3. River, Border Cave. (b) Without human fossils and not yet on the Tentative List: Tanzania Blombos, Diepkloof, Sibudu. Peninj – Acheulean and hominid mandible. Narratives 1, 2, 3. Narratives 2, 3, 5. Lake Eyasi – an early hominid site. Narratives 2, 3. Coastal environments – expansion in new riches. Narrative 4. Mumba Cave – MSA-LSA sequence, human remains, fauna. Narratives 2, 3. Namibia 3. Fossil traces of technological Mauretania North Africa and subsistence innovation Horn of Africa Apollo 11 Cave – Middle Stone Age with mobile art. Narrative 3. Adrar Bous – Open air sites – sequence Acheulian to Neolithic – fauna. - Economic and cultural East Africa Narrative 3. 4. Colonization of new No sites suggested. Although there is evidence for climatic change and adaptation to changing Southern Africa environments – records of people adapting to it, for example, in the Sahara, there is little evidence of environments Tunisia expansion in new niches people migrating into new niches.

Sidi Zin site: Late Acheulean - Mousterian open site less than 200,000 mya – 5. Dispersals and migrations Libya North Africa fauna. Narrative 3. Messak: open sites with rock art in the desert showing major climatic change Algeria during the Holocene. Narratives 2, 5. Ain Hanech – Oldowan to Acheulean and late Palaeolithic, including Ain Boucherin. Narratives 2, 3. Tighenif (Ternifine): 3 mandibles, parietals and isolated teeth. Legally protected but surrounded by the town. 700,000 mya. Earliest H. ergaster/ Narratives that focus on Africa and its contribution to human evolution erectus in North Africa. Narratives 2, 3. Afalou-Taza Cave Complex over a distance of about 30 km: modern human  2CNCGQPVQNQI[DKQNQI[CPFRJ[UKECNCPVJTQRQNQI[JQOKPKFUCOQPIRTKOCVGUCPFIGPGVKEUVWFKGU burial. Sequence from Middle Palaeolithic to 10,000 – North African modern  (QUUKNVTCEGUQHEQIPKVKXGUVGRUEQIPKVKXGEJCPIGUJWOCPDKQNQIKECNCPFEWNVWTCNGXQNWVKQP humans. Baked clay figurines 15-11,000. Narratives 2, 3, 5.  (QUUKNVTCEGUQHVGEJPQNQIKECNCPFUWDUKUVGPEGKPPQXCVKQPUGEQPQOKECPFEWNVWTCNCFCRVCVKQPVQEJCPIKPI GPXKTQPOGPVU Libya/Sudan/Egypt  %QNQPK\CVKQPQHPGYGPXKTQPOGPVUsTGEQTFUQHGZRCPUKQPKPPGYPKEJGU Jebel Ouenat Transboundary site: Libya-Egypt-Sudan – significance ranges  &KURGTUCNUCPFOKITCVKQPU from geology to art and early pastoralism: an island in the desert. Narratives 2, 3, 5. 238 239 9 Conclusion and way forward Conclusion and way forward 9

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8CP5EJCKM%2CPF2TCFJCO)4#OQFGNHQTVQQNWUGVTCFKVKQPUKPRTKOCVGUKORNKECVKQPUHQTVJGEQGXQNWVKQPQH Managing Tourism at World Heritage Sites: World Heritage manuals EWNVWTGCPFEQIPKVKQPJournal of Human Evolution8QNRR a Practical Manual for World Heritage Site Managers Gestión del turismo en sitios del Patrimonio Mundial:

8CPJCGTGP/Fo'TTKEQ(5VTKPIGT%,COGU5.6QFF,#CPF/KGPKU*-/KFFNG2CNGQNKVJKEUJGNNDGCFUKP+UTCGN Manual práctico para administradores de sitios del Patrimonio Mundial (In English) November 2002; (In Spanish) May 2005 CPF#NIGTKCScience8QNRR

8KEGPU#6KGTEGNKP,,CPF$WEJGV)0GY1NKIQEGPGGCTN[/KQEGPGOKETQHNQTCHTQOVJGUQWVJYGUVGTP6WTMCPC$CUKP Investing in World Heritage: Past Achievements, Future Ambitions World Heritage papers RCNCGQGPXKTQPOGPVCNKORNKECVKQPUKPVJGPQTVJGTP-GP[C4KHVPalaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology8QN 2 (In English) December 2002 RR

9JKVG6&#UHCY$$G[GPG;;QPCU*CKNG5GNCUUKG%.QXGLQ[15WYC)CPF9QNFG)CDTKGN)#TFKRKVJGEWU Periodic Report Africa TCOKFWUCPFVJGRCNGQDKQNQI[QHGCTN[JQOKPKFUScience8QN+UURR World Heritage papers3 Rapport périodique pour l’Afrique (In English and French) April 2003 9JKVG6&#UHCY$&G)WUVC&)KNDGTV*4KEJCTFU)&5WYC)CPF%NCTM*QYGNN(2NGKUVQEGPGHomo sapiens HTQO/KFFNG#YCUJ'VJKQRKCNature .QPFQP0GY;QTM6QM[Q 8QNRR Proceedings of the World Heritage Marine Biodiversity Workshop, World Heritage papers4 Hanoi, Viet Nam. February 25–March 1, 2002 9KNNQWIJD[24The evolution of modern humans in Africa: a comprehensive guide.CPJCO/&#NVCOKTC2TGUU (In English) May 2003

9QTMKPI)TQWRQH+PFKIGPQWU/KPQTKVKGUKP5QWVJGTP#HTKEC 9+/5# &GRCTVOGPVTGXKGY9QTMKPI)TQWRQH+PFKIGPQWU /KPQTKVKGUKP5QWVJGTP#HTKECBefore Farming=RTKPVXGTUKQP?8QNRR Identification and Documentation of Modern Heritage World Heritage papers 5 (In English with two papers in French) June 2003 9QQF$*QOKPKFTGXGNCVKQPUHTQO%JCFNature .QPFQP0GY;QTM6QM[Q 8QNRR

9QQFDTWP,#HTKECPJWPVGTICVJGTGTUQEKCNQTICPK\CVKQPKUKVDGUVWPFGTUVQQFCUCRTQFWEVQHGPECRUWNCVKQP!+P6 World Heritage Cultural Landscapes 1992-2002 World Heritage papers +PIQNF&4KEJGUCPF,9QQFDTWP GFU Hunters and gatherers 1: history, evolution and social change1ZHQTF$GTI2WDNKUJGTU 6 (In English) July 2004 RR Cultural Landscapes: the Challenges of Conservation

Mobilizing Young People for World Heritage World Heritage papers8 Proceedings from the Treviso workshop, November 2002 Mobiliser les jeunes pour le patrimoine mondial Rapport de l’atelier de Trévise, novembre 2002 (In English and French) September 2003

Partnerships for World Heritage Cities – Culture as a Vector for Sustainable World Heritage papers9 Urban Development. Proceedings from the Urbino workshop, November 2002 (In English and French) August 2004

250 251 Published within the World Heritage Series Published within the World Heritage Series

Monitoring World Heritage Periodic Report and Action Plan – Europe 2005-2006 World Heritage papers10 roceedings from the Vicenza workshop, November 2002 World Heritage papers20 Rapport périodique et plan d’action – Europe 2005-2006 (In English) September 2004 (In English and French) January 2007

Periodic Report and Regional Programme – Arab States 2000–2003 World Heritage Forests World Heritage papers11 Rapports périodiques et programme régional – Etats Arabes 2000–2003 World Heritage papers21 Leveraging Conservation at the Landscape Level (In English) September 2004 (In English) May 2007

The State of World Heritage in the Asia-Pacific Region 2003 Climate Change and World Heritage World Heritage papers12 L’état du patrimoine mondial dans la région Asie-Pacifique 2003 World Heritage papers22 Report on predicting and managing the impacts of climate change on World (In English) October 2004; (In French) July 2005 Heritage and Strategy to assist States Parties to implement appropriate management responses Linking Universal and Local Values: Changement climatique et patrimoine mondial Rapport sur la prévision et la gestion des effets du changement climatique sur le World Heritage papers13 Managing a Sustainable Future for World Heritage L’union des valeurs universelles et locales : patrimoine mondial et Stratégie pour aider les États parties à mettre en oeuvre La gestion d’un avenir durable pour le patrimoine mondial des réactions de gestion adaptées (In English with the introduction, four papers and the conclusions and recommendations in French) (In English and French) May 2007 October 2004 Enhancing our Heritage Toolkit Archéologie de la Caraïbe et Convention du patrimoine mondial World Heritage papers23 Assessing management effectiveness of natural World Heritage sites (In English) May 2008 World Heritage papers14 Caribbean Archaeology and World Heritage Convention Arqueología del Caribe y Convención del Patrimonio Mundial (In French, English and Spanish) July 2005 L’art rupestre dans les Caraïbes World Heritage papers24 Vers une inscription transnationale en série sur la Liste du patrimoine mondial Caribbean Wooden Treasures de l’UNESCO Rock Art in the Caribbean World Heritage papers15 Proceedings of the Thematic Expert Meeting on Wooden Urban Heritage in the Caribbean Region Towards a serial transnational nomination to the UNESCO World Heritage List 4–7 February 2003, Georgetown – Guyana Arte Rupestre en el Caribe (In English) October 2005 Hacia una nominación transnacional seriada a la Lista del Patrimonio Mundial de la UNESCO (In French, English and Spanish) June 2008 World Heritage at the Vth IUCN World Parks Congress World Heritage papers16 Durban (South Africa), 8–17 September 2003 (In English) December 2005 World Heritage and Buffer Zones World Heritage papers25 Patrimoine mondial et zones tampons (In English and French) April 2009 Promouvoir et préserver le patrimoine congolais World Heritage papers17 Lier diversité biologique et culturelle Promoting and Preserving Congolese Heritage World Heritage Cultural Landscapes Linking biological and cultural diversity World Heritage papers26 A Handbook for Conservation and Management (In French and English) December 2005 (In English) December 2009

Periodic Report 2004 – Latin America and the Caribbean Managing Historic Cities World Heritage papers Gérer les villes historiques World Heritage papers18 Rapport périodique 2004 – Amérique Latine et les Caraïbes 27 Informe Periodico 2004 – América Latina y el Caribe (In English) December 2009 (In English, French and Spanish) March 2006 Navigating the Future of Marine World Heritage Fortificaciones Americanas y la Convención del Patrimonio Mundial World Heritage papers28 Results from the first World Heritage Marine Site Managers Meeting Honolulu, , 1–3 December 2010 World Heritage papers19 American Fortifications and the World Heritage Convention (In Spanish with the foreword, editorial, programme, opening ceremony and seven papers in English) Navegando el Futuro del Patrimonio Mundial Marino December 2006 Resultados de la primera reunión de administradores de sitios marinos del Patrimonio Mundial, Honolulu (Hawai), 1–3 de diciembre de 2010 Cap sur le futur du patrimoine mondial marin Résultats de la première réunion des gestionnaires des sites marins du patrimoine mondial, Honolulu (Hawaii), 1er–3 décembre 2010 (In English) May 2011; (In Spanish) December 2011; (In French) March 2012

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Human Evolution: Adaptations, Dispersals and Social Developments (HEADS) World Heritage papers29 World Heritage Thematic Programme Evolución Humana: Adaptaciones, Migraciones y Desarrollos Sociales Programa Temático de Patrimonio Mundial (In English and Spanish) June 2011

Adapting to Change World Heritage papers30 The State of Conservation of World Heritage Forests in 2011 (In English) October 2011

Community development through World Heritage World Heritage papers 31 (In English) May 2012

Assessing Marine World Heritage from an Ecosystem Perspective: World Heritage papers32 the Western Indian Ocean In English (June 2012)

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