CENSUS OF INDIA SERIES I LANGUAGE\ MONOGRAPH
MONOGRAPH NO.3
FOREWORD R.B.CHARI . OFTHE INDIAN ADMINISTRA..,lYE SERVICE REGISTRAR GENERAL AND CENSUS COMMISSIONER, INDIA. - SURVEY OF KONKANI GENERAL SUPERVISION· • ~ AND GUIDANCE IN B.P. MAHApATRA KARNATAKA, GOA NOTE . B, P. MAHAPATRA AND MAHARASHTRA I!(VEST/GATtON AND REPORT LANGUAGE DIVISION J. RAJATHI OFFICE 'OF THE REGISTRAR A. KULSnRESHTHA GENERAL, INDIA FOREWORD Konkani·is spoken in Kerala, Karnataka, Goa and Maha rashtra. ' The survey project on Konkani started in 1965. The first survey report on Konkani in KeraUl was published in 1976. This is the second part consisting of reports on Karnataka and Goa by K umari J. Rajathi arid on Maharashtra by Dr. A. Kulshreshtha. The main feature of the survey is the thorough investigation of linguistic and' soCiological factors which bring to the fore the problems of Konkani as a language. , K onkani seems to be in need of unification towards developing a norm. Developing linguistic communication channels ~between various geographical regions has been stressed· This might help Konkani in establishing itself as a, homogeneous language. I take this opportunity of placing on record my appreciation of the efforts put in by Kumari Rajathi and Dr' Kulashreshtha and the' guidance given by Sbri R.C. Nigam and Dr. B.P. Mahapatra.
New Delhi R. B. CHAR.I 23rd December, 1977 Registrar General, India. CON TlNTS
fORlwORD-'Shri R. B. Chari
NOTE ON KONItAJ'lI-Dr. B. P. Mahapatra . i-iv
PAlI.T I Introduction to the survey of Konkani 1-47 -Miss. J. Rajathi Pat II Konkani in Karnataka 48-65 -:-Miss. J. Rajathi
PAllT III Konkani in Goa . \ 66·-86 -Miss. 1. Rajathi
PAllT IV Konkani in Maharashtra 87-181 -Dr. A. Kulshreshtha NOTE ON KONKANI With 1,522,684 speakers, as per 1971 census, Konkani occupies the twenty-second place among the mother-tongues of India, area of its major concentration beihg Karnataka (572,828), Goa (556,223), Maharashtra (272,970) and Kerala (73,24S)~ The main contribution of the reports lies in exposing what actually is.the problem of Konkani. Varieties of Konkani .or its regional differentiations are not as alarming as it was supposed. Had it had a centre to start with, varieties would have been accepted as something natural. It is the lack of this centre which is responsible for focussing one's attention .on the varieties. . The reality of the situation is forcibly brought home when investigators are to be sent to remote rural areas, face the actual speakers, collect language data and submit reports which have practical worth in solving the common man's prQblemoflanguage. The linguist is reminded 'at every step· that, his theories are only tools to produce a practical solution. The reliability of his tools is his own problem, it is the applicability which gains paramount importance. The solution that a linguist offers, however reasonable it may be, is going to be accepted if, and only if, the language situation is thoroughly understood by the linguist in terms of feasibility. But feasibility cannot be a criterion for deciding standar disation. StandardiSation will have to be done in a productive manner so that once the codification is over, the process of elaboration is automatic. In the case of Konani, codification as w-ell as elaboration is necessary. The main points 01 which standardisation hinges are (i) the universal use of a particular script, (ii) the type cf standardisation, (iii) the structural frame work of the standard variety, (iv) sources of borrowing, (v) linguistic communication between zones. The criteria for standardisation are to be strictly linguistic so that change of extra-linguistic factors does not adversily affect standardi~ation. .. Wben we talk about what Konkani is today 'we are going to delimit our'enquily strictly to the lingUIstic ,facts available to us. This excludes the literary contribLltioliS avai13ble In Konkani. That part will have to corr,e from the ,speakers and tbeir representatives 'Who take up Konkani seriously. / ( ii )
Konkani is written in four different scripts-in. Malayalam script in Kerala, in Kanada script in the southern parts of Karnataka, in Devanagari in the northern 'palt of Karnataka and by the Goan' Hindu" and in Roman script by the Goan Christians. But textbooks fot Goan students are in Deva nagari. Spoken Konkani can be broadly divided into Hindu Konkani and Christian "Konkani. Both have regional variations. The main centres of Christian Konkani are Mangalore' \n Soo.th Kanara district and Belgaum of' Karnataka and Mapuca and Margao in Goa. The Hindu variety has wider disll·jbu-tioJ). with centres in Corhin and Kasargod in Kerala, MangalOle, Karwar and Belgaum in Karnataka and Panaji and its suburbs in Goa .. These centres are linguistically relevant in· the sense ~itelary contributions also come out from the speakers settl~d In these places. Of th.ese centres, Mangalore and Goa stand. foremost in volume of literary outpuL The Christians use Konkani more for writing while Hindus . use Konkani more for informal inter-communication. Communication between the various centres is patchy and irregular. All the speakers are bi-and tri-linguals. Mutual intelligibility between regions is not hundred per. cent; geographically contiguous places have. nb cummunication barrier owing to lack of intelligibility., Mutual intelligibility, or the lack of it, to be precise~ is the main problem facing Konkani ~peakers today and it needs' urgent solution. The mutuahntelhglbihty zones are-(i) Cochin belt, (ii) Kasargod and South Kanara, (iii) Nortti Kanara., Belgaum and Goa. The factors affecting mutual intelligibility are lack of continuous communication and .code switching to some other language if comr,nuuic" tion in Konkani is not smooth. In a way this is due to a lack of consciousness on the p(irt of ,he speakers as regards the necessity to communicate. in Konkam. , . . Coming to the lingui$tic side of the question, Cnristian Konkani differs from Hindu Konkani on two points. In; ChIistian Konkani, the.second perwn singular is grammatically marked in finite verbs, in !:ill tenses and th¢ usage of Portuguese borrowings is rather profuse. Noticeably in Salcet~ area of Goa, the Christian Korikani of the Brahmin Christians who use Portuguese for comml,mic'lti6n between them~dves abounds in POltugue~'e borrowings. In Mapuca and Salccte areas, there is a three-way contrast of word endings as-vowel ending, consonant ending and vowel; release-;rall three phonemic2111y. contrasting. In Hindu ·Konkani, the second person singular ( iii)
bas no such special significance'; and word endings have on1Y a two way contrast-vowel ending and consonant ending. The regional differences found in Konkani in terms of the mutual intelligibility zones can be summarised as follows 1. Retention of final vowels in words as against their loss. 2. Rhonological differences in the case of the' following ph~ nemes - / t, :>, 0 I and / c, j, ts, dz, Z, ph, f / -zones con trasting in terms of occurrence or non-occurrence of particul?r phonemes and the combinations, 3. :Nasalisation playing a significant grammatical role as against the lack of it. 4., Frequency difference in the occurrence of geminated con sonants. 5. Canonical form of vocables. 6. Vocabulary differences-two types--use of different native vocables-borrowings from different zonal languages. 7. Use of participial constructions as against relative clause usage. 8. ,Use or non-use of relative particles. The interplay of the above features is different in different zones and overlapping is found in geographically contiguous zones, giving rise to a dialect continuum. ' Language planning f(!)r Konkani will have to take into account the following factors as a preliminary st~p towards standardisation. . ! 1. Decision as regards the script~nly one script can be used in place of four-for the-standardised variety. 2. The particular spoken vat iety which is least complex for the other speech groups is to be selected as a frame of reference. , 3. The standard structure of Konkani to be formulated in 'accordance with its most predominant structuf realise what amount of continuous effort goes into the nroject from the government's side. The part to be played by the linguist will have to be spelt out. In Indian conditipns; most of the languages are in need . of standaFdisation so that teaching in the mother-tongue is made feasible. Though details of standardisation differ from lanugage to language, the problems are more or less universal. PiQneering efforts in the sphere of standardisation never go waste as guidelines are formed only on experimentation.· . Finally, I want to express my deep gratitude to Dr. Miss. J. Rajathi, and Sbri Madhu Sudan Ghosh, for the assistance they rendered in the preparation and printing of this report respectively. We also note the assistance given by S/Shri Amitava Ray, F anjit Kumar Chakravorty and Smt. Mira Rani Roy of the Office of the Deputy Registrar General (Languages) in typing the press copy. Language Division, B. P. MAHAPATRA, Calcutta-14, Deputy Registrar General l3rd December, 1982. . (Language~). PART I INTRODUCTION TO THE SURVEY OF KONKANI Whether Konkani is an independent language akin to Marathi or it is only a dialectofMarathiisa question as old as records keep track ofit. There have been two streams of opinion-one maintaining that Konkani is Marathi and the other maintaining that Konkani is not Marathi. To the first stream belong John B~ames (1867) Rudolf Hoernle (1880), LSIand Dr. A.M. Chatag~. To the latter belong William Carey (1816), Sir Erskine Perry (1853), John Wilson (1874), R.N. Cust (1878), Jerson Da Cunha (1881), Dr. S.M. Katre and lately the Sahitya Akademi. Side by side, it is to be stated that the study of Indo-Aryan languages ha s been done in two ways: one way has been to treat the Indo-Aryan languages as a group and treat independent langua ges a s a part of the whole and the other way has been to take upindividual Indo-ArY2.n languages and try to link them up with other Indo-Aryan Languages. To those who took up the classi· fication oflndo-Aryan languages as a group, the relative position of particular languages therein had only been a side issue and the position assigned to indivi dual languages by these well-known authors has been often arbitrary. It so happened that the classification of the group became more important than the status of individual languages. Authors dealing with the classification were well respected and well-known. Their views, whether arbitaary or otherwise, whether accurate or not, were and are still respected and in most of the cases held as final too. Beames and Hoernle who dealt With the classificatioin of Indo-Aryan lan guagesstated that Konkaniis a dialectofMarathi and WlIiamCareyandJerlOn Da Cunha, (the latter published a monograph on 'Konkani language and literature') felt that Konkani is not a dialect of Marathi. The LSI decided 10 stick to Beames' classification. It is to be remembered that LSI was mostly an attempt at identification oflanguage names. A perusal of the LSI volumes reveals the editor's per plexity at every stage whether it is a question of Bengali-A ssamese or Konkani M1.rathi or Himachal Pradesh area or Bihari-Hindi or Rajasthani. The editor has in many places outright changed his criteria for deciding a language/ dialect issue. In the case of Konkiani, lack of literature was considered to be the reaSon for treating it as a dialect of Marathi. The treatment of Konkani by LSI has been piecemeal and misleading. Grierson's Skeleton Grammar of Konkani is based upon the Christian dialect of Konkani, (which has many peculiarities), the grammar of which was written by foreign, Christian missionaries. The relevant area from which the samples are given is the border-line area ofKonkani-Marathi speech where Marathi was predominantly spoken. Only One sample the Chitrapur SaraS'Wat sample from North Kanara is a Konkani sample. All the other samples are from the mixed variety of Konkani-Marathi from a Marathi speaking area. Dr. A. M. Ghatage has stated that 'by Konkani is meant a grou p of Marathi dialects 2 and has accepted the LSI classification as final. 1. L. S. I. Vol. VII Reprint 1968 P : 164. Z. Ghata&c A. M.-Konkani of South J(anara, Introduction-OpeniilB lines. 1963. As far as the Konkani-Marathi question is concerned, Konkani has an addeddisadvantageof nothavinganyliterature.as old as Marathi literature D. nd preserved for scrutiny. All the work a vailable on and in Konkani has been piecemeal and has somehow failed to convince that Konkani is indepen dent of Mar2,thi. The main reason is that Konkani is spoken over a wide tract of four States-Kerala, K:unataka, part of Mah;uashtra and Goa, where four different predominant languages-Malayalam, Kannada, Marathi and Portu guese-are mainly spoken. Secondly, a standard variety of Konkani under stood and also used by all the Konkani speakers themselves is yet to evolve. Thirdly, Konkani has not been the only language spoken by any appreciable majority. Every Konkani speaker is at least a bi-lingual if illiterate and tri lingual if litcr:::te. Fourthly, Konk2.ni is not used exclusively in any sphere of activity where a non-Konkani speaker would be forced to hear it conti uLlously. So, the problem of Konkani has always been whether it is Marathi or not. That Konkani a s such has many problems independent of Marathi and t~at Konkani needs be looked at not from the point of Marathi but from the POIDt ofKonkani its elf has been overlooked. To look at Konkani as such, a survey ofKonkani spoken from Trivandrum in the South to Bardesh in the North is the only way. Such a Survey has now been completed by the Language Division over a period of eleven years from 1965 to 1976. For the sake of convenience the survey is divided Statewise and the results of the survey are published in two parts. The first pext, 'Survey of Konkani in Kerala' has come out. The second part has three sections: (i) Karnat2,ka ~ii) Goa (iii) Maharashtra. The first part had been a very easy task of collection of data and its analysis, Konkani is 10c<,.1ised in Kerala communitywise as well as areawise. Thers. are two main pockets of the m?jor community- Gowd Saraswat Brahmine one centred in the Cochin-Ernrkul.?m belt extending southwards through Alleppey, Quilon and nearby places ",nd another pocket centred in Kasargod extending northwards through both the Kanaras of Karnataka. The only other community which speaks Konkani is 'Kudumbi' locally known as • miippammar' or 'kuQumbi' or 'pappaQaccetti', as per the local customs?f the place in which they are found. The main concentreations are Oruvattl ~6tt~ near Trivandrum, Alleppey ?nd Varapula near N. Parur, Ernakulam dlstnct. A descriptive study of the Cochin Gowd Saraswat (CGS) dialect together with an isogloss study of all the other speech varieties in comparison .w.ith CGS solved the problem of Kcrala Konkani. Malayalam being a DravidIan language, its influence upon CGS h<"s been proved to be very meagre and o~ surface. Contrary to historical obserw,tions One often met with, that Konkanl is Marathi but for these profuse borrowings from Malayalam, the study has proved th?t the structure ofKonhni is least 8.£fected by Malayglamand the percentage of total number of borrowed lexical items is less than 11 per cent (185 word s out of 1,6SS words) and the Malayalam borrowings are less than 6 per cent(lOO words out of 1,685 words). Structuntlly, the influence of Malayalam is prgctically little. Except in very ftow Mglayalam vocables (20 Words) which have not been ad::>.pted to the gender system of Konkani the only other influences are phonologically, addition of two phonemeslJ t I ~lveolar voiceless stop, / 11 retroflex frictionless lateml, occurrence of both IS rare ~hough one hears them very often in recurring patterns; gramm?ticcJly, paltlcle pak~~ 'but' and a few compound verb formations which con- 2 tain Malayalam components. As regards its relation to Marathi, the sutdy shows that at every point structurally, Kerala Konkani differs from Marathi ( ch. x) Konkani has for long been averred to be a heterogeneous bunchof dialects and that inroads into it are "ery easy to make and ha ve" been made. The second part of the Survey has therefore been to deal with every variety of Konkani spoken in Karnataka, Maharashtra and Goa. As regards,Maha rashtra, the a.uthor states that the speakers in Maharashtra are mostly from Mangalore andGoa settled in Greater Bombay and from Kudalpetta and found in R'-l..tn1.~iri di3~rict, Malvan and Vengurht. The survey is final in Karnataka and Mlhara5htra and the preliminary survey of Hindu Konkani in Goa in the area panaji and suburbs is completed. From the survey, the following points come to the fore: 1. Konkani is structurally the same from Trivandrum to Bardesh, with due conc~ssionq to regional vflxiations. 2. Konkani in conta.ct with Modern Marathi in the N. Kanara-Belgaum Dharwar belt in Karnataka and the Hindu dialects of Goa show in fluence of M 4. The influence of Malayalam, Tutu, KanM_ca, Ma.rathi and Portuguese upon Konb,ni is mea,gre and surfacial. 5. The non-contiguous speech areR of a single non-literary language does not materially affect its structure any more than it coes that of a literary language. 6. That a non-literary language permC1,nently spoken r.miclst prominent l?ngu?,ges loses its identity <:l.nd converges in structure with the respective prominent Iv.lltrclage of the are,"" of speech is not true in the Cfl.se of Konb.ni. 7. P~rm"_nent bi-lingudisffi/tri-lingualism dot'S not affect the structure of Konkani. "Th~ tota1 Indi?_n Popul::Jion of Konk?ni spca,krrs accord.ing to the 1971 c~nsus is 1,522,684, of which the St::,tes and ue?s of mc.jor concentmtion are Karnataka (572,828), Goa (556,223), M?hr,rr.sh1n~. (272,970) ud Ken:la (73,245). Popu1(l,tion wise, Konkani occupied the twenty-second plr.ce in 1971 am')ng the mothcr-tcngues of In{~.ia·'.l ------1 Note P : vii. Survey of Kortkani in Kerala Lan~uage Division, Office of the Registrar General In::lia, 1976. 3 As regards the relation between Marathi and Konkani, it is found that Konkani is an independent language related to Marathi and is not a dialect of Marathi. Only those isoglosses which are commonly shared by a majority of the Konkani speech varieties are taken here for consideration. The iso glosses are in the phonological, morphological and le:xicallevels. For Kon kani, the data are mine and for Marathi are taken frqm S.G. Tulpule.ln the following H g"", unless otherwise specified, by Konkani is meant the cumulaiive whole of the speech varieties spoken from Trivandrum to Bardesh. Examples are provided from various areas/speech varieties specific reference avoided for the sake of clarity. Phonological I. Phonemes ,I () / and / a I In Konkani, length is phonemic for poth the phonemes and there are fcu~ phonemes / ;) / / ;): /, / a / ! a: ! In Marathi, length is phonemic for I ., I but .1ot for! a I and as a result there are only three phonemes I ., / I .,: / and I a I Ex: Kon. k.,rta: 'does' m.,rta: 'dies' kadta: 'takes' marta: 'beats' k., :ri 'do' m., :r., 'die' . ka:di 'take' ma:n 'beat' Mar. g.,Ja 'throat' p.,tr;) 'letter' gaJa 'long room' p.,tr,,: 'letters' p., tra 'thin metal plate' 2. Phoneme Ii; 2 It is a marginal phoneme occurring in a few speech varieties of Konkani· It is a full phoneine in Marathi. Ex: Kon. m:1:triba:si 'mother-tongue' la :mbi . 'long' sakka :di 'all' k.,tta:ti '(they) do' Mar. rita 'empty' rica 'verse in Rigved' ruci 'taste' r.,ca 'make a heap' 3. Phonemes (l).h I and I rh I Not found in Konkani Found in Marathi Ex: k.,:t:th 'groan' p.,rhya ·streamlet' 4. Nasali~ation /-/ is phonemic in Konkani. Its status is uncertain in Marathi Kon. ayb (he) came' ayl5 '1 (m) came' k.,rta: (he) does' k.,rHi: '(1) do' pa:!., 'wave' pa:!a 'waves' ayle 'came (m.pI.) aylg 'came (n.sg.)' ayli 'came (f.sg.)' ayli 'came Cn.pl.)' 1 Census ofIndia 1971, Series I Language Monograph Grammatical Sketches of Indian anguages \\>ith comparative vocabulary abd Texts (Pt. 1.) pp : 131-161, 1975. 2. In those speach varides where the final vowel in words is lOst ttl occurs as a marginal phoneme for purposes of euphony, it is restricted to the karnata~a area in general Christrian dialects, some kudumbi dialects, som:: Hindu dialects with thea ~ion of Brahmin dialicts. 4 Mar. kolhyani - kolhyana instrumental (kolha 'jackal') kolhyana-Rolhyana dative. Morphological 5. Ma3culine sg. nouns. Those of the mas. sg. nouns which end in I ~! in Konkani correspond to those which end in / a / in Marathi. Ex: Kon. Mar. manta:r::> mhatara old man d::>:b dola eye g::l :i::> g::l!a neck k::>mb::> kombc;la cock gh::l :<;b ghoc;la horse 6. Nouns (except monosyllabic ones) ending in i Konkani nouns ending in i correspond to Marathi nouns ending in i : Ex: Kon. Mar. manta:ri mhatari: old woman cha :ti chati: chest mi:si misi: mustache p::lk~i p;,ksi: bird 7. Datille suffix In Konkani-k" / -lea: corresponds to -Sj -Ia I -na in Mmathi. Ex: Kon. Mar. makka: m::lla to me tukka : tula to you p;)k~iya:k;) p"ksyana to birds takka: tyala to him 8. Genitive case Sfx. This has 1 two sets of suffixes - (i) -1 +GNP markers for human nouns and (ii) -c + GNP markers for other noum in Konkani corresponding to-c+ GNP milrkers in Marathi Ex: Kon. Mar. tagge:b tyaca his pimpta:ts::> tu:ku v::Ic;lacajhac;l banyan tree 9. I person pronoun This has a nominative and an agentive case form in Konkani corresponding to the nominative form in Marathi. Ex: Kon. Mar. ha:~ mi: I ha:ve: mi: I (agentive case) a:vf: tailge:lceliya.:k mi: tyan~ya muli: na bhe~Io dikki:lY:l I (agent) to their I (nom.) to their daughters met daughters met it :va dhara :ri v"tta: mi: I~vk::lr jat ahe I (nom.)go eady ____o __ .!._(nom.) am g<:?i_~~ early 1. In Christian speceh varieties and in Goa, only ... _c+GNP markars in available 5 10. The Neuter marker Tho5c nOJllS , v.:rb_; which hav.: -e as th~ ncuter GNP marker in Konkani Gorrespond to those having -;),'e in Marathi. Ex: Kon Mar. ks :lE: kel;) plantain b;)siE: b;)sl~1 besle sat 11. Present finite "erb form There is no gender distinction in the present finite verb form in Konkani corrcsp ..)tlding to the pre,em:e of gender distinction in Marathi. Ex: Kon Mar. etta: 'comes' b;)sto sits (m) baste sits (f) bast;)jb;)ste sits (n) 12. The paradigm of finite verbs ill present tense In Konkani, in singular it is a two-term system of person - I person - non-I person with no gender distinction; in plural a single form occurs. In Marathi, in both sg. and pI. it is a three-term system of person I, II and III and gender. mas. fern. and nr. Ex: Kon. Mar. ettii: I come (b;):s to sit) per. gen. sg. pI. etta: you!he/she!it I m b;)sto b;)sto comes f b;)ste basto n b;)sto basto etta: +p1. PT , We!you (pl.)! II m b;)stos b;)sta They come f b;)stes basta n b;)stos b;)sta (YJ: to c\Hne) III m basta b"stat f b;)ste bastat n b"st,,/ b"stat b"ste 13. Predicate as ttansithe verb in past ten!:>e In Konkani, when the predicatei:; transitive verb in past tense the ccn cordance in gender-number is always between prE'dicate and object even if 6 the object is not in nomin3tive casco In Marathi, "If no NP ir the sentence is in nominati ve th~ VP does not agrre ""ith any NP, but may take third person neuter Jingul?r suffixes of tense :lnd mode". Ex: K(Jn. Mar. ta :l)e: am b::> kLelb kathi: kut:li: g hetli : he ate mang(; who took the ftick? a:ve: tange : 1 celiya :k;) kathya kUl)i: ghetlya dikki :ly::> who took the stick~ ? I met their daughters mi: tyancya muli :na bhetlo te be:<}.a:n;) kasava:k p:ll:lyb I met their daughters The hunter saw the tcrtoisc d:lttu :ni v:ls:lntas marl:l Dattu hit vasanta sipayani: coras p:lk<}.l:l tbe police c<,ught tbe thief 14. Verb substantiw as- to be In Konkani the same root is used in all the three tenses past, present and future in finite verb formations. In 'Marathi. two types of forms are available. Ex: Kon. Mar. aSS:l is :l:s to be assi :Ie: was irregular regular ast:l:le: will be ahe is :lsto pre hoto was :lslo pa~t :lsen fut. 15. The future finite lterb. Konkani and Marathi differ in their use. Ex: Kon. Mar. y::>: 'come b:l:s sit per. gen. sg. pI. sg. I M ett::>: 15 ett:l :le I b:lsen t·:lSU: F ett:l :li ett:l :li II b:lssi.:l ... b:lsal II M ett::> :b ett:l :le III b:lsel b:lstl :1 F etta :li ett:l :li III M ett:):b etta :le F ett:l :Ii ett:l :Iy::> N ett:l :Ie: ett~ :li 16. Infinitive suffix In Konkani k:l ! -ca:k:l. In Marathi it is -V:l or is a periphrastic construction. Ex: Kon. Mar. khavca:k:l to eat thambav:l to stop· dh::> :rii :k:l to catch marl)yasathi : in order to beat p::>l::>vca :k:l to see to do k:lrpa:k:l to do 7 Lexical:) As the lexical items have been elaborately dealt with in Part I ofthe Survey (Ch. iX) only a few are given here. Ex:: Kon. Mar. hii:vg mi: I Rasle: I kite: kay what h:> :da motha big ba:yl mani:~i bayko woman masli masa fish su :1).e: kutra dog matte: I takli <;loka head c:):y I pals p~ha see udda:ka) pat;li: water phatt:):ru d.,gaQ/ dho1J.qa stone udzdw vist"v / ag fire g:>bb;:,:ru rakh ashes hu :n~ u :l?l}a hot Se :1" / tha1).<;l;, th;,t;I<;li: cold These are the features in which Konkani (in all its speech varieties) differs from Marathi. It is, howerver to be understood that these are not the only poilats of difference. There are many more points which were not considered for want of commonness of occurrence in all the speech varieties ,?f Konkiani. The next pertinent question is - if Konkani is not Marathi, what IS Konkani and what its structure is like 1 The structure of Konkani is the same throughout the Konkani speaking area. The structure of Cochin Gowd Saraswat (CaS) dialect of Konkani is treated as the standard speech variety of Konkani as it is the most typical dialect preserving all the Konkani features. Wherever significant differences are found in other areas, they are given in appropriate places. As far as possible, cumbersome details, however relevant are avoided. The structure of CGS is given first, followed by discussion of differences in other areas from south to north-So Kanara, N. Kal1ara, Belgaum, Goa. Structure of CGS. (This is the synopsis of the descriptive portion of part I of the Survey) Pheaemic Inve.tory : This dialect consists of 52 phonemes of which 50 are se¥mental and 2 ~uprasrgmentaL Of the 50 segmental phonemes 7 are vowel phonemes and 43 consonants. The suprasegmental phonemes occur with the vowel phonemes. PlioMmes : Vowels: u e Q e :> a Supras.gmental : / - I nasaJisation I : I length 8 Consonants: ! p t it t c k ph th th 2ch kh b d d j g bh dh CODlOo8ntli •• ! t I alveolar voiceless stop and I 1 / retroflex frictionless lateral are borro wings from Maiayal2ID ; Iff is a borrowing from English. In the nasal series, dentals nave uniformly swept the 81veolar series. Stops except / ! I are voiced as well as aspirated. Long consonants are treated as gemination of single consonants. All consonants except I ch, th, fl, iI, ~, J, t and / 1 / occur initially. The cccurrence of aspirated conSGnant~ is very limited, They are fewer in number and are restricted in distribution. They occur initially, and medially as the second member of tbe cluster where the first member is a homorganic unaspirated consonant. Consonants de not generally occur in the final position. Clu3ters.-There are no vowel clusters. Consonant clusters : Taken within word boundary, con50nant clusters occur initially and medially and rarely finally. lnitial consonant cluster consists of 2 consonants while in the medial cluster the number may go up to 3. Only non-identical clusters occur initially. 1 Phonemes borrowed from MalayaJam. 2 occurrence very rare. 3 influence of Malayalam. 4 Borrowed, occurrence rare. 9 Syllabic structure .' The number of syllables is the same as the number of vowels present in a Waf? Words are mono-;,yllabic, di-syllabic and tri-syllabic, of which di syllabIc are the most frequent. The most frequent type of di-syllabic words has the canonical form cv : cv or cvccv, ex: a:nu 'elder brother' ka:nu 'ear' bh::l!tu 'priest'. Syllable type,' Syllable system is of peak type, and the peak is always a vowel. In addition to peak type, thet;e are onset-peak type and onset-peak-coda type. When there 3.!e more than one syllable in a word, interludes are present and they 'Vary from one to three. Ex: u: 'louse'; gu: 'excrement' ; "i:s '20' Onsets are simple or complex. Simple onset contains a single consonant and complex two. Ex: 'come' pra:yu 'old age' Peak is always simple. The vowel may be short or long, oral or nasalised. Ex: ass;} 'is', pi: 'drink', tii : 'you', 'plantain' Codas are rare, rarer sti1J are complex codas. There is only one instance. of a complex coda. A complex coda contains two consonants. Ex: c:):y 'see', te:bJ 'table' Interludes vary from one to three. Ex: a:bu 'grand-father', ajj::l 'grand father' s:nikm 'pebble' c;}ytru 'name of a month' M orphophonemics : Morphophonemic rules are divided into two types: General and Specific. The specific rules are applicable to specific category of words, in specified; morphological environment8, liz. Nouns before the plural or case suffixes verb roots before tense suffixes etc. These specific rules have been stated in the appropriate places. Most of the genera:l rules are optional and irregular too. There are a few regular alternations which are non-automatic. Regular alternation: When the polysyllabic words ending in long vowels occur in the sentence initial or medial position, the length of the final vowel is lost. Ex: makka tU: ditta: 'you give me (roakka:) tukka vaccu :k;, k;, :lna: 'you don't know to read' Noum.-Nouns belong to one of the three genders masculine, fe'l1inine and neuter. Mcst of the nouns end in vowels, generally short vowels. The final vowel gives a due to the gender of the particular noun. It is the distribu tion of a specific plural aUomorph ::>ftcr these singular nouns, which determines the gender, in cases where the same final vowel Gccurs in two genders "iz. /~I 10 ending words, may be either neuter o~ fc~injne ba :yl~ :won:an (f)gh~:ra 'he use (11)'. These together are taken as ClltCfJI.' fer the classificatIOn of nOlln' . into different genders. (i) lina,l vowel of the singular noun. Oi) distribution of the plural allomorph. . With tbe exception of 50 nouns, the noun:> may be claSSIfied as fellows Gender final vowel of the singular plural allomorph noun. masculine (i) u a ii) 0 e. feminine (i) i yo (ii) aja:/y 0 neuter (i) a Q (ii) e: Number Tb-::re are two numbers: singular and plural, the former denoting one, and the latter more than one. Examples: ha:tu 'hand' ha:ta di:su 'day' di:sa do:]:) 'eye' do :le eel!"::> 'boy' celIe manta:ri 'oldwoman' manta:ryo hetti 'female dog' heW:Yo ba·:·yl~ 'woman' bayb ma:la: 'garland' ma:b ac;luia:Y pickle' ac;lu·ga:Yo to:1).Qa 'face' tOl}.Q~ matts: 'head' matti Formation of plural: All the three classes of nouns ending in vowels lese the final vowel before the plural suffix. In addition to the loss of final vowel, the noun bases undergo morphophonemic alterations before the plural mffix. Oblique Forms: The nouns where inflected for case, do not occur in their not form* before the case suffixe~. The bases tog~ther with the new suffixes are the oblique bases and the suffix is the oblique suffix. The case suffixes occur after the oblique suffix. Oblique Suffix: . . These are of two types (i) Singular (ii) Plural. These are added after SIngular root forms devoid of the fim.t vowel. The addition of nasalisation tc the singular allomorph of tbe cbliquc suffix gives the pIma!. ------*l'he form used in singular is taken as the root form. 11 Formation of Oblique Forms .' Oblique form:> are obtained by adding the obtique suffix to the singular noun root devoid of the final vowel. The form of noun used before the oblique suffix can be called the base. In addition to the morphophonemic alterations of the base before the plural suffix, the bases undergo further alteration;, before the oblique suffix. Those bases which did not have any chan!,'e before the plural suffix undergo changes befere the oblique suffixes. The same ba3e is used before the singular as well as plural cblique suffixes. Numerals: All numerals belong to Noun-Adjective class. Excepting 'coe, 'half' and • one-and-half which show gender distinction when used either as nouns or as adjectives, other numerals belong to neuter gender. Formation of Fractions: 'l,alf' has many allomcrphs ordho, sa:Q_i: ,-o:qo and sa:rdo. Except with six where the morpheme for 1;2 is pre-posed, in other cases the order of mor phemes is numeral + half. The formation of numentls from eleven to ninety-nine resembles the forma tion in other IA languages. Formation of Ordinals: From one to four altogether different allomorphs of suppletive nature of the cardinal numbers are used before the ordinal suffiX;, from five onwards the form used before the orninal sufH~ resembles the cardinal numbers with slight modific?.tions. The ordinal number for 'first' is a borrowing from Malayalam. The ordinal numbers show gender distinction when they occur as adjectives. Only the neuter form gives the ordinal number suffix. CaBe Suffi'X : Cases Suffix 1. Agentive case no - ni 2. Instrumental no 3. Dative k., 4. Genitive! 1-:) - l-i -I-e: - l-e. -I-yo -1-1 Genitive 2 c-:) - c-i - c-e: - C-e. - c-yo - c-I 5. Locati'Ve! ri - ce :ri 'upon, in, on' Locativc2 ; -; - ;tU! -/ntu/among, in, within 6. Vocative 1>-do-nu Agentive Caole : fn., - nit unlike other cases, where the same case suffix is used after the singular as well as plural oblique suffixes, in agensti'Ve casel no! is used after singular oblique stem and / ni / is used after plural oblique. Ex: pok~i:no the bird (agen.) pok~iya :ni the birds (agen.) Geniti}e case : Gen'l is used with human nouns and gen., with non-human things. In these suffixes o~ gen,), a~d gen' l ! 1 / ~en?tes human beings and! CI denotes non-human thmgs. /O-l-e:-s.-YO-I; In both the suffixes denote gender and number. I:) ,m.sg.; iii f.sg. ; le/n.sg.; ! s./ID.pl.; I yo If.pI ; Ii In.pI. 12 In fast speech I J ! in gen.t is retained and the gender number part is dropp~d ; in gen' 2 suffix, whole of the suffix is dropped thereby only the! oblique form gives the genitive meaning. Locative Case : There are two different sds of locative suffixes with meaning difference, Joc. t gives the meaning 'in, upon, on' while loc' 2 gives the meaning 'among in, within~. Examples: /ri - ce :ri I occur in free variation mostly with human nounS. celli 'girl' celiye:ri - celiye:ce:ri 'in the girl' I ri I occurs mostly with non-human beings: ha:di 'way' haddi:ri 'on the way' loc' 2 I - I - / ntii I - I tii I ga:vii 'village' ga:va:tii 'in the village' ha:tu 'hand' hatta:ntii 'in the hand' I - I used in fast sp:!ech replacing the suffixes 1tii - ntii! by nasalisation upon the final vowel of the oblique form. ga :va 'in the village' Parad.igsn of case iIOrms : Examples: (1) agentive : I n::)-ni I sg. pI mha:ra:n~ mha:ra:ni mha:ru 'harijan' su:!).aya:n~ su:!).aya:ni su:!).£: 'dog' (2) Instrumental I n~ ! hatta:n~ hatta:n::) 'hand' b:lq.iye :n;) b~q.iya:n;) 'stick' (3) Dative ,k., I p.,k~e:k., p.,k~iya:k., p.,k!1i 'bird' rakq.a:k., rakq.a:k., rakku:q.3 ~fire'Wood ' (4) Genitive 0)/ b-li-ie-ie-iyo-ll I putta :10 bu :ku 'son's book' pu : tu 'son' putta :li k.,mbi 'son's telegram' putta:Je ka:g.,:t., 'son's letter' p~ltta:le bu:b 'son's books' pH tta :ly:> duvo 'son's daughters' pCltta:li kagt:} 'son's letters' (2) ! co-ci-ce-ce-cyo-cI! rukka:(co) khand::> 'branch of the tree' b:>kdi:( ci) let:ldi 'excrement of the goat' gh.,:ra:(ce) kaVv;):q., 'door ofthe house· gh., :ra (ce.) daddu :Ie 'male members ofthe house· gh.,:ra:(cy::» bayb 'female members of the house' gh3 :ra:(cl) cer<;Hi.:v:} 'children members Qfthe hQuse' 13 (5) Locative: (1) ! ri-ce : ri f 'in, upon, on' rukka:ri rukka:ri ru:ku 'tree' hatta : ri hatta : ri ha : tu 'hand' udka :ri -udka: ce :ri 'on the water' udda :ka 'water' (2) I - I - / ntl1- tl1 I 'within, among, in, inside' haUa: - hatta: ntii 'inside the hand ha :tu ranna: -ranna: ntu 'intheforest' ra:na ce.1ya :tu 'among the boys' CelIe 'boys' The distribution of suffixes obI. Nominal form Case form. Q.ukra : - 'pig' Q.ukb:r m::Jni~a: - 'man' mani:~u me.ni~a:le gen·l · ceJya: - 'boy' celb ceIya:ce:ri lOC'1 udka: 'water' udda:ka udka :ntu loc' 2 celya: 'b:)ys' celle (are) ceJya :n:) voc. Post-positions upra:nte after b~ge:k~ for gUl).i for thakun from laggi near ponda:k., under ufica:ri upon, above mukka:ri in front of maglaya :n;J b:)hind bhitt;) :ri iU5id-~ bha:ym outside p;)si than p~Jta:ntu b~si{le ;J!ta:ntu beside ma1t~ like p:l;':;\e :n~ - v~re :n~ up (to) DilStribution ofpost-positions : All the post-positions except b~ge :k~ 'for' and thakun 'from' are used after the oblique form. b~ge:k::J is used after genitive sfx. and thr.kun ?fter sociative sfx. /lya: / ProooUQs Person Singular Plural I ha:VQ ammi n tii: tummi (sometimes h- of ha :v5 is dropped in speech) XU (Remote) M t:J : te: F ti: tY:J: N te: tI: (Proximate)! yh(): yhe: yhi: yh(): yhe:: yhl: (in fast speech yh is de-aspirated) Third person pronouns are also used as demonstrative ajectives, while they are so used, the pronouns lose the length of the final vowel. Demonstrative adjectivts : These Singular Plural Oblique M b te F ti ty:J te N te: t1 Interrogative pronouns 'who, 'which', what' are the interrog:>tive pronouns. kJ:n~ 'who ?' it te: 'what 1" kh:}flct 'which ?' (6 forms) Of the ?bove p:'o lOUm 'wn'" talc ~s ?JI c~se suffixes, while others t?ke one or two case suffix(s. Pronoun oblique c?se b:1j;) b:l)'" : b:!fe :.gen. b :1)3 :r;;) b:1f?:n;) imt. b:1)<,-:k:} dat. b:1)2.:1- gen' l b:1)?:cc:ri loc' l 15 DeclensioD of pronoDs : Pronouns Cases T ha.:v~ ndllli. ha.:Ve agen. mijja:na inst. mijlya: soc.* mijje laggi makka: migge:l mijje:ri We ammi ammi amca:'I1a amce laggi - amcelya: amka: amge:l- arnce:ri You sg. tii: tii:v€: tujja :na tujje laggi-tujlya: tukka: tugge:l- tujje :ri You. pI. tummi tummi tumca:na - tunca :na tumcelaggi - tumcelya: tunka: -tumka: tunge:l- -tumge:l tunce :ri ~ tumce :ri he! it (Remote) t~:ftf,: ta:ne tajja:n:J tajje laggi - tajlya: takk2.: tagge:l- tajje:ri tantii (for te: - additional) ----._---_..... ------_._--- '" The sociative case occurs only with the human nouns and pronouns. It gives the mean in~ 'along with, with' ex: ramma:laggi '" ramma:lya: 'along with, or with Rruna'. 16 she (remote) ti: ti:~e tijja:n:;l tije laggi - tijlya : tikka: tigge:l- tijje:ri They ts :/ty:>: It!: tanni taiica:n~ taiice laggi tanka tange: 1- taiice:ri The p,'oximatc pronouns I yh:'l : . etc. have similar paradigms as the remote ones; t::l: ;' etc. We get the paradigm by deleting t- in the above forms. starting from agen. case. Exc~pt ill tlv llomin1.tive same form is used for m ! n. sg. in other cases. til the case of 3rd p;!rson plurals gender distinction is found only in the nomina tive case. Adjectives : Adjectives are divided into two categories: Declinablcs and lndeclinables D~clinables are those which are declined for gender and number. The gender and number of the adjective is in concordance with that of the following noun. Declillables : The declinables are distinguished for three genders masculine, feminilie and neuter and for two numbers singular and plural, thus giving rise to a six way differentiation. Sometimes they may not have a plural form at all. in which case there is only gender distincition. These adjectives contain two parts: Adjective root + gender (number) suffix. Ex: Adjective root + gender - number suffix th:>g~b 'a little' (m. sg.) th:>gq.i f. sg. th:>g(,ie n. sg. th:>gQe m. pI. th:>gQ.Y se:Ju 'cool' (m sg.) sc:H f. sg. se:ll n. sg. The gender - number suffixes gender sg. pI. mas. -u '3 -:> ·s fern. -i ·yo I -i (sometimes-i is used instead of -~) neut. 17 l RGI/SO There is a correspondence between these suffixes viz. if m. sg. is U f:l the n. sg. is ., ; e. consistently. It is easy to find out other two forms given either masculine or neuter form. Indeclinables : Gender-number distinction is not to be found in these adjectives. The same form is used for all genders and all numbers. Ex: b:Q.u 'bitter' la:oo 'smooth' Indec1inables are very few when compared to the declinables. In the declinables too adjectives showing six way differentiation are numerous. Verb Morphology: Roots are divided into simple and compound roots. Simple verbs are formed from simple roots and compound ones are formed from compound roots. S ilnple roots : A simple root is one which contains a monomorphemic root with or without an added suffix. A monomorphemic root without any suffix is called a basic root. Derivative roots are formed by the addition of a derivative suffix to the basic roots. Basic as well as derivative roots ale called simple roots, as they contain only one root. Buic roots: These are monomorphemic. They may be transitive, intransitive cr transitive-intransitive. Morphologically, transitive and the intransitive 1001 s are differentiated by their respective past tense forms. Syntactically a tnmsi tive verb takes an object, direct or indirect \\-hile an intransitive verb does not take any ojbect. A transitive-intransitive root is one which is tra.nsitive or intranstive simultaneously i.e. it behaves as a transitive or an intransitive by the addition of a transitive or an intransitive suffix, when verbs are formed. A transitive-intransitive root is further differentiat{d from the transitive or an ,intransitive root in that the former in fomtation of a finite verb does not take a stern-formative suffix while the transitive and the intransitive roots must ha ve a stern-formative suffix before the tense ~uffix. Ex : transitive roots: ma:ri 'beat' dha.:pi 'shut' intransitive roots: [::I:q::l 'weep' ha:s::I 'laugh' transitive-intransi- tive roots la:si 'burn ( tr./intr. ) bhe:ti 'break ( tr./intr. ) Derivative roots I There are two types (1) transitive (2) causative. Transitive root is formed by the addition of transitive sufi x and so on. Transitive root; This is formed by the addition of a transitive sufix to a basic intransitive root. The differeIl(,e between the basic transitive root, and a derivative root is that, tbat the former takes a stem-formative sufix before tense suffix while the latter does not; further, a basic transitive root undergoes much morphophonemic changes. Syntactically, there is no difference between a basic ad a derivative transitive root. 18 There are two types of transitive SllffixeS{i :}and {~:y} {i: }is added to a transitive -intransitive basic root, while { ;) :y}iS added to a.n intransitive basic root. The addition Of{ i: }to the root results in a stem. Ex : ra:b;) 'stand' rabb;):y 'stop' In addition, roots of the form CIVIC2C,,~:y ~.re also treated as derivative roots, because of their pattern of behaviour though corresponding intr. basic roots are not available in the data. Causative root: This is formed by the addition of causative suffix to any basic root. In some cases, a drivative root formed of a basic intransitive root may either be a transitive or a causative root. Morphologically it is not possible to asceltain in such cases, as to whether the resultant root is causative or transitive, as the transitive as well as causative suffix are homophonous morphemes. They are ascertained syntactically. Causative suffixes are of two types : (1) Causative (2) Double causative Causative a :y 'cause to ...... ' kha: 'eat' kha:v;):y 'feed' 'cause to eat' Double causative;) :v;):y 'cause to .... (through a third person) kha:v~ :v;}:y 'cause to eat (through a third person) Formation of Verbs: having the verb root as base, two types of formation!: are found in the language :viz. (1) Finite verb (ii) Mood Finite Verb : A finite verb is a complete verb and shows the complete action done, in which process, it indicates tense and person-gender-number. Syntactically it is in concordance in gender-person and number with the subject in all the tenses except in past. In past tense, the intransitive verb is in concordance in gender-number-person with the subject while all the other verbs are in con cordance in gender-number with the object direct or indirect when only one object is present, and with the direct object if both the objects are present. If no object is overtly present, then the verb is in neuter singular. A finite verb contains three components. Verb stem + tense suffix + PT (Pronominal Termination) i.e. person-gender -number sfx.) in that order. Verb stem -: This consists of one or two constituents. Verb root ( ± ) stem formative suffix depending upon the nature of the root as to whether it is a basic root or a derivative one. The first constituent is a must whatever the nature of the root, while the stem formative suffix is found only with the basic roots, excluding the tr.-intr. roots. The stem-formative suffix used with the finite verb-stem is different from the suffix used with the modal stem. The phone mic shape of the suffix depends upon the syllabic pattern, final vowel and the penultimate consonant of the verb root. In the case of a transitive-intransiti'Ye root, the stem-formative suffix is the transitive or the intransitive suffix. 19 This suffix has three different allomorphs before the past, present and future tense suffixes respectively. Those roots which do not take formative suffix (either stem-formative or tr.-illtr. suffix) for the formation of finite verb stem undergo certain morpho phonemic alterations before the tense suffix. The roots which take the stem formative suffix undergo morphophonemic changes before the stem-formative suffix. Exceptions are present. Tense Suffix : Tense suffix is the second constituent in a finite verb. There are six types of tense suffixes used in a Konkani fillite verb. They are: simple past, past continuous, past perfect, present, present continuous or perfect and future. These are morphological constructions. There are many more types of tense c~mstructions such as present perfect, past irrealis etc. which are periphras tlC constructions treated u oder syntax. Sin1ple past past continuou~ 'was ...... lng' pa~t perfect present present continuous or perfect Mostly simple present form is used for present continuous. T1Jis pm tieu]"r tense con:,tructiolJ is availabJe in the case [If a few verbs. The same constrlJC tion is used for present perfect tense also. future: P.T. : PT, the third and the final constituent of a finite verb indicates, the person gender-number or the person-number or gender-number. Tl1is part of the verb indicates the person-gender-number of the subject which docs the action or the gender-nulUber of the object taken by the verb. Hence there i:, alway!> concordance in constructions. The transitive roots (which take an object) 5how tIle gender-number concond<'.t1ce with the object in past and past perfect tense, while intr. roots concord with the gendel'-number-person of the subject. A tra11sitive and an intram;itive verb, dijf~x in the use of a. particul,~r PT. PT consists of three parts: person-gender and number. Person: of the three persons, ht. 2nd and 3rd, only 1st person (singular number) is overtly indicated by a supr<,.scg- mental mOlpheme f ~.} This suffIX occurs in a.ll tenses, in the case of all verbs, l· with the exception oftnc pa::.( and pa:>l pcrfed fO[1n of a tn'llsitivc verb, with m. sg. and f. sg. suffixes. Gender and number : There are three genders, masculine, feminine and neuter and two numbers singular and plural. Except in present tense where no gender distinction is 20 found, in all the nther tenses g.:ndcr and number are inseparable. These a.re llsed in all tensc~ except present :~lld present perfect or c(.)ntiwlO11s. (i) { ?} m. sg. { e} m. pI. { I} f. sg. {y~ } f. pI. { £} o. sg. { i } n.p]. (ii) present tense: fa'\ pI. l 'J sg. {a:y } present continuous : {a:} m. sg. {ye:y } m. pI. {y~} f . s.'g f\, y e..y.- '\.r n.pI. The PT can be tabulated a>; f0tlO\\S : PT gender number person a,'a+-; fn sg. I e- m pI. all persons iIi -}-~/ f sg. I y';J r pI. III :> m sg. II,IlI i f sg. H,Ur E- II sg. III I n pI. lIT Sample paradigm. Simple past imr. ra:b" 'stand' sg. pI. r M rabbi :15 rHbbi :le. F rabbi :li rabbi :1I II M rabbi:b rabbi :le. F rabbi:li rabbi:H JIJ M rabbi:b rabbi:le. F rabhi :ji rabbi:ly~ N rabbi J~ rabbi:ll Past cor.tif/UOUS : I M rabta :13 ra.bta:1e F rabta:H rabta:iI II M rabta:b rabta:le. F rabu: :li rabta:I1 II{ M raht":b Ia.bt~ :Ie F rabl~::li rabta:lY~ N rabta:le rabta:li Past perfect I M ra;bib:15 rabbile :1" F n1,bbile :It mbblle :It ~f M rabbib:b rabb\le:k F nbbile :Ji rabbile:lI fIT M rabbiJ~:b rabbiJe:le. F .abbile:}i ;'abbile :ly~ N rabbile:le f(1 bbi}e:1I Present" J M,F. rabb,da: rabb~:ta:y II, HJ all genders rabb., :ta rabb;,:ta:y 21 Present continuous I M rabbi:la: lablye.:y F rabbi:lya: rablye.:y II M rabbi:la: rablye.:y F rabbi:lya: rablye.:y III M rabbi:la: rablye.:y F rabbi:lya: @ N @ rablye.:y Future I M rabt:> :15 rabta:le. F rabta:li rabta:l1 II M rabt:>:k rabta :le. F rabta:li rabb:1l HI M rabt:>:b rabta:k F rabta:li rabta:ly N rabta:le: rabt,dI tr. di: 'give' Simple past M dill:> dille. F dilli dilY:J N dille dilH Past Perfect! M dilb:b dille :Ie. F dille :Ii dille:ly:> N dille :le dille :1I All the other tenses same as intransitive tr.-intr. bhe:ti 'break' Tr. bhe:ti behaves like di: 'give' and intr. bhe:ti behaves like ra:ba 'stand' The difference in forms is in the use of differing stem-formative suffixes viz. tr. bhetti:--bheti·and intr. bhetta:--bheta- The verb substantive as- to . be has only two forms in present tense ass::! 'is' and assa:y 'are' used in all persons and genders. Tn certain syntactie constructions the root as- has an allomorph t(}. It is dealt with under syntax. Irregular verbs : There are three verb forms kalta : 'know' and 'ja::t;l::!' know and ja:y 'want'. These three verbs do not have any tense gender number person distinction. These are used in present tense. Syntactically, ja:y and k::!lta: occur after a dative form and ja:t].a after a nominative form. Compound verbs : Compound verbs consist of two constituents. The second constituent is one among the verbs k;):ri 'do', ma:ri 'beat' di: 'give' v;:c~ 'go' gha:li 'put', ja:y 'happ;;m' and *la:g·'hit'. The first constituent may be a noun, a verb, an adverb, or an adjective. Ofthe 31 compound verbs available in the data, 14 verbs have Malayalam words as their first constituents and @ Forms not available *la:s- 'to hit' in root fo~ is used only in tl1e 90Plpound bhu:k la:,'to be h\Ulgry.' 22 I verb English word. Of the remaining compound verbs, one verb has an adjective as the first constituent; four verbs have adverbs as the first constituent. Ex: t:lrn~ b :ri 'to opcn' Ma. turrakka 'to open' ca: k;;):ri 'to repair' ca:ng~ 'good' :)<;l<;la:n ull~:y 'to shout' :)<;l<;la :n~ 'loudly' utt~ :r~ di 'to answer' utt~ :r~ 'answer' The finite verb formation of these compound verbs is that of the second c;)mp::m~nt, th'! auxiliary wrb. The first constituent remains unchanged. Moods: This is the second type of formation with a verb root as basis. This form lotion is diff~rentiated from the finite verb form'ltion, by (i) the formative suffix taken by the modal stem, (ii) further morphophonemic changes. Further, an the moods do not indicate tense, gender, person and number, though a few show person-number distinction, a few indicate tense and a few indicate just the number. A mood may be finite or non-finite. There are eleven types of moods available in the data. They are (1) H'Ynorific imperative (2) Negative imperative (3) Optative, (4) Conditional (5) G~nll1d (6) Verbal participial (7) Infinitive of purpose (8) Potential (9) Adverb of concomitant action (10) Gerundive and (11) Indefinite-future. Of these, conditional, verbal participial, infinitive of purpose and adverb of concomitant action are non-finite moods. The remaining are finite moods, which can occur in isolation and give a complete sense. FOrlU'ltion of moods : A mood consists of two constitutents verb stem + modal suffix Verb stem This consists of a verb root, simple or compound and a stem formative suffix. This suffix differs in phonemic shape from the one occurring before the tense suffix. The occurrence of a particular suffix depends upon the syllabic pattern, p3nuitimate consonant, and the final vowel of the verb root. The verb root loses the final vowd before the formative suffix. Modal suffixes : (i) Honorific imperative sfx. or plural imperative Sfx.{ a:y } (ii) non-hon/hon. imp. sfx. fre: Xl gJ: Xl ge: Xlga:/ -ire: Xlg:) :/non-hon. imp. (affectionate) / re: J m.sg.: f g:>: ! f.sg. These are used with all words when the person addressed is one's equal or intimate or inferiors. / ge:Xlga: / hon. sg. imp. sfx. / ge: I f.hon. sg. / ga: ! m.hon. sg. 23 These suffixes are used with all types of words when a person is addressed and the matter is conveyed in person. These suffixes are tlsed after pI. indicators too. 2. Negative imperative 3. Optative: optative has four types of suffixes. (i) { ii}I per sg. and exc!. pI. optative (ii) {a:}I per incl. pl. (iii) { 0 }IU per. sg [c:Y} III pI. 4. Conditional sfx. { ys:ri} 'if' S. Gerund { o:~ } . ing' 6. Verbal participial . {nu} 'having. 7. Infinitive of purpose : {k~} 'to' 8. Potential 'may' 9. Adverb of concomitant action (i) continuous {t.,: } ing continuouslY' (ii) ! t.,:na:! 'while . . ing' (iii) ! ni:k~ I "when 10. Gerundive {ka: } 'must' Sample paradigm: sa:l1g~ 'say' 1. (i) Hon. lmp. sanga:y (ii) non.hon./hon. sa:ilg~ re::ogn::oge.::oga: 2. Negative Imp. ~ailgo :si - sanga :sibi 3. Optative : (i) sailgii (ii) sanguya: (iii) sang:'> (iv) sang:'> :y 4. Conditional sang-ilye. :ri 5. Gerund sanga:pa 6. Verbal participjaI satigu :nu 7. Infinitive of pllrpo sailgu:ka 8. Potential sangu:yat 9. Adverb of concomitant action (i) sailgta: (ii) sailgta : na: (iii) sailgu :ni :ka 10. Gerundive sailguka: II. Indefinite futurt sailga :na Ne'gatives : Though Ncrntives ar: verbs and are also inflected for gender and number, tlley are treated under ~t ~eparate head, due to their non-conformity with the other v~rbs. A" regards tense, the negative word is added to either finite verbs in a particular tense or to a particular verb stem which occurs only belor\;; the negative v 2rb. Negative mood has been treated under Verb Morph0logy. However, the negative is not inflected for tense. There are two types of negatives. (i) Negation of existence. (ii) Negation of identity (i) Negation of existence: na: 'no' Having Ina: ! as basis many formations are found. These formations may be divided into two parts viz. (i) / na: ! with or without inflection for gender and number used as a finite verb, (ii) various types of negative forms. (i) Ina: ! used as a finite verb: This may either be used in isolation or with an affirmative finite verb or verb stem. In both the cases, it is inflected for number and in plural for gender. In plural too, the gender differc:nc0 is neuter vs. non-neuter. When it is used in isolation it gives the m:3.ni ng • no', while used with fini te verb or verb stem it gives the meaning In past tense{ na: lis used after the past finite verb. Sometimes in fast speech the PT of the finite verb is dropped before the negative. They are~ however, retained in slO'w speech. Sometimes the past form O'f the verb used before the negative slightly differs fram that used as an affirmative past finite verb. In present and future, the negative is stem+na: The stems are different in the two tenses and further in future, nO' persO'n-gender-liUmber difference is found. Ex: t::l: I ti: i t~: anga na: he/she/it is not here te.: ! tY::I: / aIiga na:y They (mif) are not here tI: anga na:y They (n) are not here ti: ayl(i) na: She did not come te.: ge.lle.na:y They did not go ammi aylE: na:y We(f) did not come t,,:! ti: ftE:: e:na: He/she/it does nat come te.: / tY::l: I e :na:y They (m/f) do nat come tI: e:na:y They (11) do not come saJigunna: will not tell emna: will not come In future the subject is in agentive case. (ii) Various types of negative forms: These are formed from the verb { na: } The resultant forms may either be treated as separate words or as a combinatic.n tf / na' I and some other sufth. Xn those cases where dissection serves nO' purpose they are treated a'i separate w..Jrds, otherwise the suffixes arc treated separately. Separate words : (i) najj;, 'should! must not' (prohibitive) (ii) nakka: 'need not; must not' (iii) pa :I:la: 'cannot' (iv) jamna: 'not possible' These words are added to the verb stems used before the adverb of concomitant action mood rti:k;:l. B)fore nakka: the gerundive form of any "~rb can also o;;cur, without any meaning difference. Ex: ko:ru najj;:l 'must not do' sansu: nakka: 'need not say' VJcca: pa:l)a: 'Callot go' b:ru: jamna: 'is not possible to dO" before nakka: the forms Ulay also be k::l:rka: sanguka: v:>ccuka: etc. 26 Further nakka:, najj:l, and jamna: can be used in isolation. nakka: not wanted; not necessary najj~ don't jamna: not possible Suffixes used with na; (i) Negative conditional-(i) negative stem + conditional suffix ye.:ri added with the stem na :l-na:lye.:ri 'if not' (ii) added with the stem nattil- nattilye. :ri if not; if not available' ja:vka: jalye:ri ra:b~ na:lye:ri v~:C{) 'if (you) want stay if not go' te: nattilye :ri ye: ka :<,li lfnot that, take this or if that is not available take this. me :lnattilYe :ri 'if not available' saiJ.g~ nattilye :ri 'if not said' (2) Negative contingent : nassi :1)a: without ...... illg' Ex: k~rnassi:I}.a: without doing emnassi:1)a: without coming sang~nassi :1)a: without telling 2. Negation of Identity : n~:y 'not so and so' 'not such and such' This is an indeclinable-does not show gender-number-person-tense dis tinction Y": ra:mu n.,:y 'he is not Ramu' ti: gu<,l4i n., :y 'she is not short' it :v~ rabbunn~:y ass., I am not standing' t,,: aiJ.gan~:y ass., 'he is not here' (thang ass;) (is there) Irregular verb: Corresponding to the irregular verb ja:1):l 'know' the negative verb is ne :Q~ 'don't know'. This is an indeclinable and is used in isolation. lndeclinables: Adverbs, particles and certain other suffixes come under this category. Adverbs: Adverbs are indeclinables morphologically and modifiers of verbs syntac tically. They sometimes occur as postpositions too. Adverbs are divisible int0 various categories-viz. adverbs of place, manner and time. In each category there are ordinary as well as interrogative adverbs. (1) Adverbs of place anga: 'here' tnanga: 'there' kn~nt:l:Y 'where ?' bhitt~:ri 'in' bha:yr., 'out' laggi 'near' dhu:r., 'distant' ;lta:ntu 'this side' pelta:ntu 'that side' mukka:ri 'in front of' maglaya:n., 'in the back' p~nda:k; 'under' uiica:ri 'up' 27 (2) Adverbs of manner (iii) Concessive particle : { Yi} 'even ...... , .... ·· .. · .. This particl~ is added only with the conditional form of lnc;: verb. The final vo\\'el of the form is lengthened. 28 Examples; gel)'e. :ri :yi cven if gone' dilye. :ri :yi 'evcn if given' (iv) Afllrmative particle: This is only added to interrogative words to give an affirmative meaning The final vowel of the word is lengthened before the suffix. . b :1) This is used with nUI11.;:rdl~ and with olle noun to givc the moaning ·,tll Ex II II/pIes d;):ni '[\\'0' d;)nni:y 'both' ti:ni '1Iuec' tinni:y 'all the threc' ~;)gg;l :!J 'a!l' SJgg;)~;l:y 'all together' Third type P~trljclcs belonging to this type are po~tposed to various words. Not all p,d'riclcs art,; cap 2. FroPll'erbs There are two types of forms available from every single verb, the one is the past finite verb stem plus the gender-number suffix and the other is got by adding derivative suffix to the verb stern. I type sa:J.ig:l 'say' saligi :li 'she about whom was said' saligi :b 'he about whom was said' saJigi :I&: i'that about which was said' 31 Six forms are available by adding the gender-number suffixes to the past ~tem of the verb, one at a time. c· ' [{type: These are got by adding -C;), ·~i, -Ce, '~8, cy", -cI to the'" verb stem Examples: sa:lig~ 'say' saligu:c;') 'he about whom it is said' saJigu :ci 'she' about whom it is said' sangu:ce 'that about which it is said' The special characteristic of these verbal adjectivals derived from the verbs is that, they show the tense distinction past vs. non-past or present. Adiectivals derived from adverbs do not show such distinction. However, sYlitactically there is no difference between adjectivaJs and verbal adjectivals. Certain words in the data are verbs as well as nouns-either they are homo phonous or differ as regards the final vowel. Nouns are taken to be basic forms from which the verbal forms arc taken to be derived. Derivative sujj"ix : -:I, cp, -j Examples . b:pu 'anger' b:p~ 'to scold' kha:ki 'cough' khii:ki 'to cough' mu:t~ 'urine' mu:ti 'to urinate' Formation 01 Diminuth'cs : Derhatil'e Suffix: -u :I~oo -u:!i Examples: gil).c;li 'a vessel with a gi1).<;lu:l~ 'a 'lmall vesse I snout' with a snout' amb;) 'mango' ambu:li 'tender mango' Syntax: A sentence in KOilkani is a u ni t oecurri ng in absolu Ie isolation, and which gives a complete sense by itself. The intonational characteristics are not described. The consti lllents of a sentence are described on the basts of thClr IC structure .. Konkani sentcnces are of two types: Major and minor. A Major type of sentence is a predicative type. A predicate has verb as llucJells. PredicatiYe type : This again is divided into three sub-types : (i) AffirmatiVe (ii) Negative, (iii) Interrogative . • non-Past stems-.C-;T;o;h-e-s-:-te-ms-=--occuring before these' ~ suffixes are different from those occuring befote tense or mood suffixes. No detailed analysis Was made. 32 (i) AffirmatiVe.-This type has a finite verb or a verb phrase, a finite mood or the verb t~, as predicate. Oi) Negative. - This type has a negative verb na:, or the indeclinable nega tive verb n;):y or other negative formations as predicate. (iii) InterrogatiVe.-In this type nf sentences, interrogative particIe vel -Ve is postposed to the previous two types of sentences, or interrogative ,words of adverbial nature precede the predicate. Examples: b: angetta: 'he comes here' t:l:atiga na: 'he is not here' tii: att~ ettaVe 'are you coming no\\?' tii: kh;)nt;):y v;)tta: 'where are you going?' Minor type: Any sentence which is not a member of the predicative type is said to be a member of the minor type. A minor type of sentence can be any ofthe following : (1) Nominal, (2) Interrogative (3) Interjectional. 1. Nominal.-A nominal sentence is one which has a noun or noun phrase as nucleus in the place of the predicate. Tt is invariably of an interrogative nature, interrogation in the form of interrogative suffix affixed to the noun nucleus or an interrogative word in the nature of an adjective occurring in the sentence. The final noun component of such 0 sentence is taken as the noun nucleus, as, the preceding components also h?ppen to be either a noun or a noun phrase in soms cases. 2. Interrogative.-These have an interrogative word of a nominal nature as the nucleus. After a few interrogatIves of adjecttval type, the particle ki 'interrogative' is added. 3. lnterjections.-Single word or word sequence utterances giving the interjectional sense belong to this category. Examples: t,,: tugge: I bappave '(Is) he your father? b:b:1);) 'who (is) he ?' v;)YVe 'is it? ~lit. yes ?) Conversational bits are not taken for consideration under Syntax, In th~ following pages, a sentence is meant to be only a Major type of sentence. Noum, pronouns, adjectives, adverl)s and verbs are dealt VI'ith as reg?.rds their :-.yntactic function. Nouns Nouns of all types (basic, derivative) and pronouT'ns Adverbs Those that modify the predicate of the sentence viz. an adverb, a verbal participial form, locative, instru mental or sociative form of nouns. Adjectives Those that occur as attributes to nouns and syntt',ctic adjectives. viz. Adjectives of all types, genitive form of a noun or a pronoun. 33 1 RGIj80 Simple ,lad comp(HI nd v;:rbs and syntactic compOlI no verbs. Ad jectivals Al> specified in Morphology. Phras~ A phrase is a larger construc1ion in which there is a head-word. Dep,.:!uding upon the morphological category of the head :word. the natme or the type of the phrase i, decided. The con<;titutcnts preceding the head-word decide tbe sub-type of sllch 3. phrl'.se. There are five types of phrases made use of in Konkani. They are. noun phra<;e, adj.::ctive phrase, adj(~ctival phm~c. adverb phrafc ;tnd vt'rb p]Jmsc. Noun phrase : This is of three type!' : (i) Attributive (ii) Co-ordinate (iii) Appositional. (i) Attributhe : This type consists of two constitutents ol1e the head and the preceding one attributive to the head. The attribute may be an adject iw, an a.djective phrase, an adjectivaJ, or an adjectival phrase or a nOlIn. An adjective phrase has an adjective *loS head preceded by an adjective or an adjectival. An adjectivaJ phrase is a phrase substitut:lble for an adjectival, and bas an adjectival a!l head and adjectiws or adjectiv3.ls as Example.;: : e :ku mIla :ru ·on~ harii,lfl' e:k Sana: ra: na 'one very small forest' sikva:J). nattllb mha:ru 'illiterate hu.rijan' t':ktl sikva :t:la Ifattilb mba :ru 'one illiterate harijan' (ii) Co-ordinate.-This consists of two or more nouns or nounphrases co-ordinate in nature. The nouns are co-ordina.ted either by (a) the use of the conjunctive particle ani 'and' (b) u.dditilc ~t!ffix V:y ("here V is the tim}} vowel of the noun) or is (c) an echo word construcTion. Of fhese (b) is the most fj"equent in constructiom. E.l( amp/es : kaYI~ ani tagge:l ku :Huka:r5 '(the) crow and his friends' kaylo:y ka:s~:vu:y '(the) crow and (the) tortoise g~:ra bi:ra house, etc.' (iii) Appositional.-A phrase in which two or more nouns, noun phrases, adj.;ctivals or adjectival phrases stand in apposition to each othtr. Examples: tange:} sailga:Li e:tu vllldu:ru 'thdr rri~~nd, one rat' putta:li kambi dusse:ri 'son's telegram, second' 34 Ad nr'b pbrue : This ha~ an adverb ai head and adverb(s) or adverbial phralic, an adjc,tiv( or a noun as sttributf. Examples: V!lggi ~ggi 'very fast' ca: ma:ro:g 'very costly' SO) vQiya : la8gi 'near the sparrows' Verb phrase : This has a finite verb, a negative verb, a finite mood or a compound verb as head, preceded by nOll-finite mood construction, which in turn has a non finite mood as head. This head is either in verbal participial Of infinitive of purpose mood. When the nead is in prohibitive mood, the attribute may (be in obligatory mood. Examples : bessu:n jevta: 'havinr sit, tats' emca: sa:Iigo 'ask to come' Compound verb : A compound verb consists of two constituents. The ':first constituent is a (non)-finite verb/mood form followed by an auxiliary verb formation. the verb bases being anyone of the following : V;, :C;, 'to go'; ja:y 'to happen'; ja: 'to be possible'; pu :r:>'to be enough and as 'to be'. The meaning is idiomatic. All periphrastic tense constructions are treated as compound verbs, as the stcond constituent is an auxiliary verb formation of the verb phrase as-'to be'. (l) Jnfiniti'i-e form of any verb + finile verb formation d the verb ';0 :C;, 'to ge' 'about to ...... (was) going to' E-.,;omples: kl:ru: "0)':<1.: '(he) is abont tc do; gdng to do' ma:ru:gelb '(he) was ab(.utto beat; wa.:lgoing to beat' (2) Tnfinitive form of any verb + jamna: 'won't be possible to ...... Example~ : ko:ru: jamna: 'won't be possible to do' m" : ru : jamna: '.von't be possible to beat' , (3) Infinitive form of a verb + jatt.di\: . 'will be possible to...... ' Examples: k:) :ru: jatt;,:lc 'will be possible to do' ma:ru: jatb:k 'will be possible to beat' (4) Infiniti~e form of;) \erb + pu:r:l 'might or may ...... ' Examples: b:ru: pu:r" 'might or may do' rna :ru: pu :r:l 'might or may beat' (5) Habi[ual prc1',\:nt [(me gerund form of a verb + ass;) 'be in the habit of .... ing' EXCifnpio : k~ :1;):P (;;!] (::s~;;; '!sjate in the habit of doing' ma :r" :p(o) ass" 'Is/are in the habit of beating' 3S (6) Habitual past tense : gerund form of a verb -+ past form of the root as 'to be' E"Camples : ka :ra:p (a) assi :le: 'used to do' e :Va :pa assi :le: 'I (m) used to come' (7) Habitual present nagative: gerund form of a verb -+ na: 'be not in the habit of .. ing' E-campie.s : ka :ra :pa na: 'Is/are not in the habit of doing' ma:ra:pa na: 'Is/are not in the habit of beating' (8) Habitual past negative-This is formed by adding na: 'no' in between the two constituent of the habitual past, thus Gerund form of a verb + na: + assi :1- Ecampie.v : ka :ra :pa na: assi:le: 'was not in the habit of doing' VaCCa :pa na: assi:b 'he wa<; not in the habit of going' Concordance iD phrases : In the ca~e of n;)un phraqe'l (exc~pt the co-ordinate type), adjective phrase and adjectival phrase, there is concordance in gender and number between all the constituents present. Simple Sentence: Depending upon the nature and complexity of the constituents other than the predicate, Major Type of sentences are divided into two sections : Basic and Expanded constructions. A simple sentence is of the basic construction type, and has only one predicate. A simple sentence in Konkani ha<; six constituents. Subject, Direct Object Indirect Object, Complement, Attribu te and Predicate. Of these, excepting the Predicate (with the exception of t~ or ne:y as a predic[lte) aU the others mayor may not occur. When t~ or na:y is the predicate two more cons tituents, subject and the attribute must also occm. Subject.-This can be filled by a noun or a noun phrase or an adjectival Dir. Object.-This may be a noun or a noun phrase or an adjectival. lndir. Object.-A noun or a noun phrase in dative case serves as Indir, Object. Complement.-This modifies the predicate. There can be more than one complement. A complement may be an adverb or an adverb phrase. Attribute.-This occurs in sentences of equational type, where the predi C'lte t~ or n):y function" as a connecting link between the subject and the attribute. The main difference between an attribute and a complement is that, the former is an obligatory constituent whenever the predica.te is t~ or Da:y while the latter is an optional one. An attribute ma.y be a noun or a noun phrase, an adjective, an adjectivc.l, an ad verb or an 2.d verb phrase. Predicate.-This being the nucleus of the sentence construction is aJwayS a verb or a verb phrase. Word Order.-The predicate is the closing constituent of the sentence, and it is mostly found in the final position. All the other constituents precede. the predicate and are intel'changeable as reg2.rds their mutual placement .. In, general it m8.y be said that tht: order is subject, Indir. Object, Dir. Object Complement(s) and Predicate. 36 Concordance between the constituents: Depending upon the nature of the predicate (i.e. the category of the verb) there is or is not concordance between the constituents in gender-number (person). There are altogether five types of Concordance: Type 1 Concordance in gender-number (person) between subject and predicate. Type 2 Concordance in gender-number between IndirectfDirect objcet and predicate. Type 3-4 : No concordance as regards gender-number (person). Type 3 The predicate is in obligatory mood. Type 4 The predicate is tQ or is in indefinite future mood. Type 5 The predicate is a negative finite verb tin some cases their is con cordance and in other cases not). til: v;)tta 'You are going' Explanation : Type 1 (b:g ja :l}Q v;)Ua :y 'two persons are going' Type 2 tanni dikki: b y:J v:Jr:> :vu 'they saW (m. sg.) this rice (m. sg.) ti :m: takka bmbi vaccu:n 'she read (f. sg.) him the a'ybyli telegram (f. sg.)' ta :ne: makka dikki :li 'he saw (f. sg.) me (r. sg.)' ta :t)El: ts s;)vl}iya: laggi s(l,ngi :le: 'he said to the sparrows' In type 2 the predicate is a transitive verb in past tense. The subject is in the agentive case. The concordance in gender-number is between. (i) Dir. object and predicate, if both Dir. and Indir. objects are present or only the Dir. obj. is found. (ii) Indirect object and predicate if only the Indir. obj. is present. The predicate is in neuter singular if both the objects are absent. Type 3 : tummi makka:y ka :c;lka : 'you should take me too. ammi s;)gta :ni ubbuka: 'we should all fly' No concordance between any of the constituents-subject is in agentive case. Type 4 migge:l dhu:v;) th::lDti tQ 'my daughter (f.sg.) is lam~ (f. sg.)' a:v5 tEl:: pha:y k;)ri:n~ 'I shall do it tomorrow' No concordance between constitutentS. subject is in nominative cas Type 5 t::l: aylna: 'he did not come' majra:nte:: aykilna: 'The cat did not hear that' t:J: ra:mu n::>:y 'he is not Ramu' When the predicate is a present negative verb or a past negative intransi tive verb, the subject is in nominative case and tbere is concordance in gender- 37 number between the subject and the predicate. When the pred.icate is n~:y subject is in nominative case, and there is no concordance between predicate and other constitutentS. In other cases, the subject is in agentive case and there is no concordance between predicate and other constitutents. £;cpalJded ConstructiolJs Complex and Compound sentences are treated as expanded constructions. Complex Sentence : This contains two or more clauses where 0 ne is a main clause and the other( s) isiare subordinate clause (s). While the main clause is independent, the subor dinate clause(s) isfare dependent upon the main clause. A clause isa part of the main sentence ,and which hasa predicate of its own. A subordinate clause may be 1. Noun clause 2. Adverbial clause. 1. Noun clause.-This is substitutable for a noun and acts as the object/sub ject of the predicate of the main clause depending upon whether the predicate is a transitive/intransitive verb or verb phrase. Occurrence : (a) It is generally followed by the subordinating particles mUQ 'that', si : 'that', V:y and (where-V is the final vowel of the constituent with which it occurs.) (b) lf 110 such particle is to be found, then, this clause is interspersed within the main clause. (c) Juxtaposed to the main clause, if the subordinate cIa.use happens to be the utterance of the subject of the main clause, and is in direct speech or is a quotation. Explanation.- mha:ra:n a:plOyls: tagge:l 'The harijan thought that pu:tu khalpal].e:n ~rayk his son wrote obediently' mUQ. mukka :ri bessalle kaYlaya:n 'The crow saW the pigeons parve ubbu:n vatta:y dikki :1e. flying away' teo kay!aya:n taiicila: sailgi :ne. makka:ytunge: 1ku :nukka: ri Ja:vnu ka:dka: 'The crow said to them "(you) should take me too as your friend" . 2. Adverb;Clause.-Substitutable for an adverb, this occurs asa complement to the predicate oftbe main clause. This is of three types, d0pending UPOIl the type of the p:lrticle used. (a) Contitional, (b) purposive, (c) modal. (a) The particle jalye.:ri 'if' occurs after the adverb clause. (b) The particle dikku:n 'because' occurs after the adverb clau~e. (c) Connectors such as k::lssi ...... jalye.: tassi "how .... thus' : b:I)!l: .. jalys: ta :lJ.6: 'who ...... he' are used to connect the ad verb clause of modal type with the main clause. E"planation. tukkaja:vkajalYI>:ri tii: y:): 'If you want, you come tii:ve: so:ville: dikku:n mak b: payb 'Because you colded, I became angry' k:>ssi ka :Q.getti :lg jaly& :tassi 'How (you) got thus (you) di:mka: SbOl.lld give (ba ck)' 38 Compound Sentence .- . This contains more than one main clause, the clauses being conneeted by connectors. Depending upon the nature of the connector, compound ~~ntences are divided into three sub-types: (i) Conjunctive, (iO Alternative, (iii) Adversati\'e. (i) A conjunctive particle ani 'and' or ani:ka 'some more' is used as the connector. (ii) Particle ki 'or' is used. (iii) Purticies nant;! :na: 'except', jalys: ri 'but' art used. Explanation .- tanDi t:> pu :lu dusse :ri assilka4e d:>vv:) :rnu marl:> ani tit mank~4a: t>.d;) k.llibi: tl13.k!ln b:lJ ~He: 'They, having kept the wedge where it was earlier struck it and released the tail of the monkey from the gal" t:>:etta: ki v:Jtta: '(Does) he come or go T lJ: pa:iicma:s tnurth:J:m 'Five months back he was bu44~:s jalb:b t~ jalys:ri almost drowned but some~ k.:>:lJki: uiica:ri ka:gs:>H:> body rescued him'. Classification of Ronkani dialects With the help of isoglosses the following is the classifi~.tion of Konkain into Group of Dialects and Major Dialects of t~e respective Groups. K:onkani Language ! i Southern Group *Central Group Northern Group Arcawise .--- Soulh.:rn Group is spoken in Kemla a.nd Ka.r~2.taka. Central Group in Maharashtra and Northern Group in Goa. The main isogosses separating the Southern Group from the Northern Group are ~lS follows: Northern Group -_._------_._---_.------_._------Southern Goup 1. Total Retention of final 1. Haphazard retention of vowels in nouns. final vowels. Explnation.-- cl'..11o 'boy' t50lb phatb:ru 'stone· fatOlr rann.,:ni 'oven' ra:nOl :0 ba :y1:> . 'wife' ba:yl . p£:r" "guava' pI'.. :r n:>nc £: . pickle' bf,lcE: ha':tu 'hand' ha:t va:t" 'way' va:t phu:l" 'flower· fu:i ---- . ------_._------'"not discussed. 39 2. Only!'J! is phonemic out 2. Both! :) I and I 0 (are of the phones ( 0 ) and ( :) ) phonemes amb~ 'mango' a :IU:) ujj'J 'fire' UZ;) V~ :qi 'to pull' o:d V'J :Iik., 'to vomit' 5:k 'to vomit' v'J:Iiki 'vomit (N)' 6:k 'vomit (N)' V'J:1) ~u 'lip' koli 'vixen' koyt:) sickle' ;) :th 'lip' po:r 'child' p~:r 'young of anim~tl' 3. Occurrence of homorganic clusters, 3, Simplified to the nasal in the same words. NC in words tandu :tu "rice' t", :nu:! amb:> 'mango' a:m:) bikk.,nd" 'nut' bik.,n bikku:ndu 'bed bug' bikun ma:ndi' 'to tie' ba:n' ambu:li 'tender mango' a:mli iIiga :!:) 'charcoal' iii):) 'ember' mig:> :t:) 'thumb' ~t :iit:) undi 'morsel' uni khand:> 'branch' klia:ni 4. Occurrence of! ph ! 4, Occurrence of ! f I Phatt:) :ru 'stone' fat.,r pha:ti 'back fa:t ph~:d 'hood ofa f.,qa: . serpant' phu:b 'flower' fu:1 ph., :1., 'fruit' f., :1 phugg., :y 'to soak' fug phu :di 'pudendem fu:d muliebre' Ph.,I}.f.!" 'seasoning' f.,t).l).a *ph:> :vu 'beaten rice' **f~ :v ph:) :1)4u 'pit' fo:1). s. Occurrence of f dz { 5. Occurrence of ! z { dz.,:la:r 'mosquiro' Z.,la :r madzdz.,:r., 'cat' ma:Z~:r radzdzu 'rope (for ra:zzu drawing water)' udzdz;) 'fire' UZ;) dza :Iig., 'thigh' za:il In addition some of the salient features of the Northern Group which are not shared by the Southern Group are as follows: [. Th~ fricl.tive (groove) series have such members,'z, zh, Z ! * Singular form - **Plural form 40 Explanation.- . zu :n'becomemature' zhii:j 'war' zu:n 'month of june' 2. Neuter personal endings a.reusedinist,2nd and3rd personto indicate feminine gender. Explanation.- ha:vaylil: 'I came (f) tii: aylE: 'you came (f) til:: ayle 'she came (0 3. Only -c- type gentitive is found (as against -c- and 1- type genitive in S. Group). 4. Various deril'atit Examples: jenna: tuje: visi:n cinta: tenna: ...... ; ...... 'when J think about you then ...... jenna: ...... tenna: ta:ka: meHa: ti: sa:nti 'When ...... then, the peace that he gets' tii: za:l).a: a 6. Relative pronouns are used. Examples: saima:c citr je:: 'that, picture of the scenery' ...... a:sa: je: s"g)ya:k a:plek,,ge 0 :gu:n gheta: ' ...... that which is, draws all towards it (self)' 7. Internal change as a process for pluralisation of some 110U/1S. Examples,' do:r 'rope' d:J:r 'ropes' khe:} 'play' khd 'plays' 8. Vocables borrowedfrom portuguese. Examples,' fo:rr., 'ceiling' f.,ka:l).a: 'hoax' friyo:s 'irritation' kesta:v 'fight' zhii ;j 'war' Southern Group I I I I . Southern Dialect Central Dialect Northern DIalect Southern Dialect coyers the area Trivandrum to Calicut. Central Dialect, Calicut to Coondapur and Northern Dialect Bhatkal to 41 K.arwar. Saliellt features of Southern Dialect. 1. In the dentO'-palatal region, only palatal affricates (treated as 3tO'PS) Ie! jch/ Ijl dh/ arc fQund Examples: a:ca:ri 'Hindu Seer a:ji 'to' day' camma:ru 'cobbler' ca:bOl 'bite' cOl:r., 'to crawl' ci:nc., 'tamari nd' c:):y 'see' ja:ilg~ 'thigh' j:>rb 'cockrO'ach' call:> 'boy' vacch., 'naml~ of a jh;, :du 'storm' gotr:.~. , 2. Honori1il: sg. imperativ~ pI. '-ilffh :{ Y } Examples: etta:y 'they come' eyya:y 'ple~iSC come!' voltta:y 'they go' c~yy&:y 'plc;t'ic St>,~' 3. Gerund suffix: { ; :p; } Examples: ~:r,,:p;) 'doing' 'laking' sang" :p; 'tclli ng' 4. Some of the v(lcabk~ unsharcd by oth'~r Dialects, Examples: balla:v" 'bad' purte 'all' thang,,; 'there' khalla:k; 'below' maglaya:n" 'ill the back' dlll.ra :ri murth,,:m;l 'previously' e;:>:v v;)rJ :vu 'rice' mllll1bu : r" CL'llfral dialect .' I, fn the dento-palata) region the following affricates arc found: it:.;·, ,dz" /dzh" :C!, j . Example" : cdb 'boy' .)1 :vu ':,(lUI' dza:ng~ 'thigh' dzh:l:r "a :r, 'strom' tsanni:J;1G. 'moon light' gh:>n(':) 'buI1cll' gh:>ftCfi 'bunches' ca :ri 'follr' dzh31h 'fish' radzdzu 'ropc' cj:p~ 'wooden ladle' udzdz:> 'fire' tsa :ligQ 'good' 42 2. Honorific imp sg./pl. suffix : {Ci } Example$ : etta:ci 'they come' eyya:ci 'please come v~tta:ci 'they go' Yaca:ci 'please go l' 3. Gerund Suffix : {c~ } Examples: ~rce: 'doing' ; 'seeing' '(';oming' 4. Some of the vocables ul1'>harcd b:y other Dialects. Examples: t~ggu 'down' dimbi 'knee' gadd:l 'fieJd' ~i:la: 'rock' gUc,igU:c,ill 'thunder' NorthcY1l dialect: 1. Occurrence of the margina I phnnem,: * it high central unrounded yow,,! as the euphonic compcHlI;nt. Examples : gh~:ri 'housc' e :1i 'one' bayJe:ki 'to the wife' kh" :lJi 'dig' 2, Occurrence of /ph, as well as ,f. . Examples: phUg3:Y 'bloat' ph:ll).1) a 'seasoning' pho:QQ 'ditch' fo:d 'boil' :l:fi :~ 'office' f:lf,,'k 'difference' 3. Occurrence of rdz!a& well as ,Z . Examples: puj 'zero' dza:le:l' 'musquito' a:dz 'today' maZ:l:r 'cat' ka:zu:! 'car wax' 4. Honorific sg. IPI. sllffix : i {t } Examples: eta:t 'they come' v"ta:t 'they go' eya:! . please come!' k"ra:t 'please do!' S. Some vocable, " I,hared by thc Oiller Dialects. EXQmple.., : s:lI:tQa:s 'lavatory' khatsp>ln 'betel leaf' Iha:np~Q 'childhood' kulu:p 'leek' h"rk"t 'Gbjections' The Konkani dialect situation is of a 'dialect continuum' type and a lot of overlapping is found between Major Dialect aroas. 43 The phono~o~ical and morphological features are very m.uch mixed up In Karnataka area. The Southern dialect area is very sharply distinguished from all other Konkani speaking areas in their preservation of many conservative features such as (i)! - / having much grammatical significance (ii) final vowel in nouns being retained through O:.1t (iii) wvrds in general having long~r canonical forms etc. But then the Central Dialect shares these features with the Southern Di2..lect and there is a dichotomy of the Southern-Central Dialects against the Northern Dialect in the above features. But in the case of features like having its! !dzj distinguished from jC( ;jf and the gerund sl'ffix being /ce! the dichotomy is Southern against Central-Northern dialects. In the case ofloss of final vowel again, some of the rural speech varieties in the Central Dialect area share the Northern Dialect area feature of loss of final vowel and occurrence of */+/. Influence of Modern Mar~.thi in the Karwar-Dharwar-Belgaum- Panaji area is seen in the features (i) loss of final vowel other than -:> (ii) occurrence of relative pronouns and reflexive pronouns and (iii) preference of clames over relative participial constructions. While the loss of final vowel necessitated the innovation of a marginal ph oneme *;+1 in Karwar area no change is found in Belgaum area and the inter nal change as a process of pluralisation occurs in Goa area. The occurrence of this one feature - retention against loss of final vowel cuts very deep into the structure of Konkani language as its results are varied in varied areas. As an illustration, /:>/ has two allophones [0] and [:>], the higher variety, occurring before high vowels and the lower variety occurring before non high vowels in the Southern Dialect. The same is the case with the Central Dialect. But in the Marathi influenced area the two allophones [0] and [:>] have attained phonemic status due to the loss of final vowel· in nouns, the final vowels being Ii;, jU/ and /aj. In Goa area a further development takes place where the remnants Co :C- and C:>:C-allowing internal changes for pluralisation or derivation as follows : Examples: po:r 'child' p:l :r 'young of animals, pt':r 'guava fruit" pe:r 'guava tree' do:r 'rope' do:r 'ropes' etc. Further in Goa, i:lj is the m.sg. ending while 10'/ is the f. pI. ending as follows. a:mya:ts:> pa:ro 'the harvest time of mango' ta:jo tsatyo 'her descents' ta:z:> a:m:> 'fresh mango' This is only to illustrate that how one single feature has giVen rise to various changes differing within themselves from area to area. SO' unless we take up feature by feature and observe it in the continuous stratum from south to' north, the pictlfre is likely to be bizarre rather than uniform. The whole of Konkani area can be divided into areas on the basis of some twenty o ~wenty five features giving rise to various degrees of changes in various 'e glOns. 44 Three factors which complicate the dialect situation are the dichotomy of Christian Dialect as against the Hindu Dialect everywhere except in Kerala and predominantly in Mangalore and Goa area. The most important fea tures which distinguish the Christian Dialect from the Hindu Dialect are as follows: (i) Phonologically occurrence of *ti: in Mangalore area (a) Central Dialect area) and the vowel release of words in Salcete area. Examples: m'l.:triba:~i 'mother tongue (0' me:zi 'table (n)' m.,sti 'many (indeclinable), and ta :ilki 'tank (P), ta:nk 'financial tapacity' va:vra: a:mi piya:ta:v we drink tu: piya:ta:y you (s.g.) drink tumi!te piya:ta:t you(pl.)/they drink b/ti/te piya:ta: he·she.,it drinks in other tenses gender difference is addition['Jly indicated in all the persons. Even in a Plst construction with a transitive verb as predicate, second person is indicated. aye a:mb:J khab I ate mango tuye a:mb:J khaby You ate mango teIJe a:mb:J khab he ate ill'l.ngo Other feltures such as occurrence of only one set of genitive case suffixes and occurrence of [f; and Zi are features occurzing in Christian Dialect, irre~pective of the area in which it is spoken. The ?bove two features are shared by Hi ndu as well gS Christian Dialects of Goa. In Belga1Jm area, tJl~ influence of modern Mamthi on the Hindu Di8.lect was mentioned earlier. In Christian Dialect, the Cil,i;ti:l.l1 a') w..:ll a, M :rathi features are to b~ found-loss of final vowel and as a com-::quence, o~currence of conSOll?nt ending word" / - / losing its signiilcance, and being replaced by full nas:?.ls, second singular distinguished from o~h-::r p~rsons. Examples: h1:t 'hand (M)' kc:5 'hair (N)' bl:yl 'wife (f)' tue:n 'you (agentive)' ha:yn 'I (agentive)' ttl: me: lte :10:5' 'you will meet (m)' tu: me:!te:le:y 'you will meet(f)' 45 There are stilI more distinction~ mai nly in Bclgaum area Christian Dia lect such as, forms such as1>.'1yly5 'women (f. pl.)'; ROlkh5 'nails (n, pl.)': bo:la: 'fingers (n. pl.)'; Q.olaya:lso asko:!'eye brow(m. sg.)'; Q.olaya:ntso askolo 'eye brows (m. pl.)'; which complicate the systemic presentation of gender. Second factor is the continuing influence of Modern Marathi in Karwar Belgaum-Goa belt. Third factor is the continuous borrowi ng of element~ from various lan guages in various areas-from MalayalaJ1l in KeraJa, from Kannada in Kasargod (Kerala) areas, from Kannada and Tulu in Mangalore a.rca. from Marathi in Karwar-Dharwar-Belgaum area and from portuguese in Goa area. English borrowings are found everywhere. The situation of Konkani is ! h.; compo<;ite result of inherent regional feat tures mentioned above together with the influence of various historical and contact features which are different in different regions. So, unless Konkani is looked at as a whole without splitting it intO' parts depending upon the foreign influences and elaborating it, the true compact nature of Konkani as a uniform homogeneolls language is very easily missed and one reaches at conclusions which are at variance with the facts. Marathi being a sister language, its influence upon Konkani is noticeable due to the sphere of influence being phonemic. The most important influence is the loss of final vowel and the occurrence of certain p?'rticle~. It does not affect the morphological structure of Konkani. In this area too, Konkani maintains its main differences from Marathi. Nothing much need be stated in this regard as the influence is predictable and minor. 'There are a bunch of dialects, nearly fifteen in number, which are spoken in pockets, isolated from each other, in the southern parts of S. Kanara and mainly in the northern parts of N. Kanara. Bet ween themselves they do not claim any ethnic relationship. They arc karaQi (S. K .), ku 46 Taking Konkani a~ a whole, the influence of every other language always centres lIpon the vocabulary, Invariably these borrowed vocables, whatever their source are always adapted to the gender system of Konkani everywhere, They have become part and parcel of Konkani and what all remains is to link them up by way of constant communication between various areas, The main difficulty with the treatment of Konkani has been the non-avail ability of data on Konkani as a whole and the elaborate piecemeal treatment of a particular speechvariety or speechvarietics of Konkani by various people, A non-literary language like Konkani with lack of resources for communication due to historical reasons, with a powerful literary neighbour like Mamthi being unfairly clubbed with it again due to mere historical rea sons, is really paying a very heavy price of being called a heterogeneous group of dialects. This survey has been more in the nature of fact finding than it is thorough. Methodology for data collection had to be changed as circumstances warranted. History of Konkani peDl'le is ali important as the study of their varities at present. Until 1962, parts of Konkani speaking areas were just pockets and only now one is able to reach the Konkani speaking area in one stretch. For the amount of disturbances faced by the Konkani speakers, for the amount of foreign influences knocking them constantly at various points, one is amazed at the basic strength of Konkani language structure which is very little impaired by such influences. After working upon Konkani for tlle past twelve years, I am aware how little has been done on Konkani and how much remains to be done. Un til the whole of Konk(1,ni speaking area came under my purview. T wac 'Uf prised by the variety that I came across "nd the more variety I met witli the more clear the picture begDn to emerge. For the first time Konkani has been looked at as a whole, concentration being centred upon the links rather than the factors disrupting them. This is only a humble beginning and the gigantic task of building up a Konkani ' from a particular centre remains. Much depends upon the enthusiasm of the speakers. A tot of linguistic work remains to be done. Konkani needs be looked at as (] whole and not in parts. 47 PART-II THE SURVEY OF KONKAN{ : KARNATAKA The Survey of Konkani in Karnataka was undertaken between July 1969 and May 1970 for the specific p~lrpose of identifying the Konkani speakers and their speech. As per 1961 Census the total Konkani p;)pulation in Karna taka was returned under four mother tongue names-Daldi, Goanese, Konkani and Nawait. Under mother tongue Konkani was returned 49],535 speakers, out of 492,339 speakers covering all the four mother tongues. Of th~ total P)P lL1.~ion l1~arly 86 p3r cent wa'l found cernc::ntrated in the two Kan3.ra districts, South and North Kanara. lnvestigations were conducted in the following eight districts where Konk2.ni speakers were above 5000. l. South Kamtra 258,676 2. No;th Kanara 162.661 3. Shimoga 16,446 4. Chikmagalur 11,927 5. Dharwar 10,800 6. Belgaum 9,277 7. Bangalore 7,220 8. Coorg 6,236 Hassan (2,035) and Mysore (l, 715) were visited. Prior to the reorganisation of St2.tes in 1956, the Konh'.ni are2. came under the following political units--Sovth Kanan~ ['.nd Coorg under the M2.drr ~ Presidency, North Kanara, Dharwar and Bclgaum under Bombay State and the rem3.ining under the princely state of Mysore. A<; reg'.rds any prior work done upon Konkani in this area, LSI had cJvered N. K'l.nara and B~lg'l.um and one book "Ko'nkani of South Kanara' by Dr. A.M. Ghatage as a p3.rt of Survey of M"trathi dialects. A'> bJth these works treat Konhni as a dic.l~ct of M:1.rat hi, they were of v~ry limited use. Emphasis being upon Marathi, the samples presented in vn w!re found inadeq'I~.te for providing tangible inform(l.tion regardieg Konkani as such. Krynb.ni b!ing a nJn-literary h!1guagc tile o'nly way Wi',) to ,,-pp;-oach the Sp31.k0rs. Th~ sp !abrs h ... d to b) id,~ ,1 'ified through tll'~ir C:'.stc ?pp 31li'.tio ns. The G,)wd S"xa5w2.ts are usuilJly referred to ;:>.<; Konb.nis by oiher Lnguc.f,e sp~akers a'> well as other Konbni speak,c:{s and only th'~ g"z~tt(ers of Bombay State and Thurs'on's volum:, could p;i,"_ 2. d(,3crip t ion of v?,riolls c?',tcs and tribes sp~aking Konhni. On the b".'iis of the gazetteer information and local informltion avc.iLthle through th:: Karl12t2.ka C-cn:ms Direc or, Deputy Commissiamrs of di,trict, and tah,ild?fs the investi~ntions were conducted. In South Kr.nar?, samples were m?.in!y col1f!cted from M?,Pp;n.1orc, Udipi and Coondap~lr. All the taluks were visited. In North K~';:n2.ra samples w.:re mCl,inly collected from Bh:ltbJ, Honn:;.var, Kumtr., Sir~,i, Ankolr. ?nd Karwar. The S:.lrvey aim~d m3,inly at finding out the structuraJ links between the various speech vctrieties of Konkani aVi'.ilable in K2.rnat:::.k?; the s2.mples, majority of them, anyhClw, w~re of necessity small. The op;imum sample 48 contained hundred sentences in which the hundred items of the ba"ic vocabu· lary were embedded. As the ba~ic vocabulary items belonging to the tbir. teen semantic groups were very easily understood by all the informants, elicita. tion was easy and the time taken was reduced to the minimum. This was a natural selection as the investigation proceeded. When informants .were co-operative and knowledgeable, the sample was enlarged with verb paradIgms, running text and an enlarged vocabulary. In South Kanara where the Konkani population is dense and the area is contiguous, same speechvariety was found spread over large areas. Ty.-o major criteria followed for sample collection were-(i) density of the populabon (ii) the variety due to the caste appellation. In the case of minorities, whatever their number, sample was collected. In every place, the major community speech was collected so that the samples would be representative of the larger percentage of the Population. In North Kanam the Konkani p:.lpulation is sparse, the area non-contiguous due to the hilly nature and the varieties are more and isolated, more samples were collected. Majority being illiterate, sample elicitation was difficult and time consuming and as a result small. Running text was altogether abandoned. On the basis of the linguistic data available, the following are some of the preliminary findings which are essential to understand the linguistic situ.· tion of Konkani in Karnataka. Structurally Konkani of Karnataka is the same as the Cochin speech which is treated as Standard Konkani. Main characteristics shared by all the speech varieties are as follows: 1. Nouns belonging to three genders masculine, feminine and neut.t and two numbers singular and plural. 2. Dative case suffix :-k~ 3. Genitive case suffix: two sets (i)-l·set tii)-c-set. 4. Agentive case has two suflixes-n~ in singular and-ni in plural. S. Masculine Sg. nouns (corresponding a nouns in Marathi) end in-o 6. 1st person Sg. pronoun ha:v~ and having an agentive case form M:ve: 7. No gender distinction is found in the present finite verbs. 8. The concordance in gender and number is always between object and predicate if the predicate is a transitive verb in past tense. 9. The verb substantive as-'to be' has the same base as-in all the three tenses present, past and future (as against Marathi as-and ho) There are many facets to the Karnataka Konkani situation which need a brief mention here : 1. Geographical! The Konkani spread in Karnataka is fan shaped Kanaras forming the core and the remaining six districts circumscribing the Kanaras, the periphery. The Core Area contains many varieties while the periphery contains specific speech groups. The samples collected from Bangalore, Shimoga, Dharwar and Belgaum corraborate the first hand in formation available about the speakers from the field. The periphery has mostly urban settlers. Bangalore and Shimoga contain Gowd SaraSWats as a major group from S. Kanara ; Shimoga population has settlers from N. Kanara too. In Dharwar, Saraswats and Christians from Goa are found and 49 1: RGI/SO 4 in BeJgaum Christians and Sonan form the bulk. Though Christians, Sara swats and Gowd Saraswats are found everywhere in urban centres, emphasis is laid upon only the major group. Except Balgaunl, all the other five peri pheral districts need no specific discussion as the speakers are only from the Core Area. Belgaum will be discussed elsewhere in the chapter. Tbe Core Area has more than 11,500 sq. km. (S. Kanara 5200 sq. km. N. Kanara 6,344 sq. km.). Number of speakers and density of population is more in S. Kanara. N. Kanara has more rural areas compared to S. Kanaras Linguistically however, Gowd Saraswats (a.nd Sarasw Karnataka Konkani 1 I Care Area Periphery A I S. Kanara, N. Kanant Coorg, Chikmagalur. BangalO're, r I Shimoga, Dharwar. Belg?llm. MangaJore Karwar V Manga)ore [Norm of KarnaUtka KonkaniJ (Gowd Saraswats) 50 2. Vertical.-No attempt was made to find out the ethnicity of the speech groups speaking Konkani . However. information regarding the ancestors was collected so that some s.ort of an extra-linguistic link connecting the groups could be obtained. The linguistic data invariably corraborates the informa tion available from the field. Majority of the speech groups are localised in a particular p~ace in. the Core Area. The concentration of the minor speech groups is mainly in the southern part of S. Kanara and the northern part of N. Kanara. Between the speech groups there mayor may not be linguistic contact. In t~ rural areas, every speech group sticks to its own speech variety when there is contact. Each speech group understands the speech variety of tbe other group(s). . However, there are nearly fifteen speech groups localised in various places of the Core Area which differs from their neighbouring speech groups and not understood by them. As a Group these fifteen differ fro111 all the other speech groups. Between themselves the fifteen have not even tbe knowledge of the existence of each other except where they are in the same place. These speech varieties do not share the main structural characteristics of all the other Konkani speech varieties. As a group their structure is midway between Konkani and Marathi and each has a few salient features of its own unshared by any other member even inside the Group. Extra linguisti cally, the group excepting the Muslims severally claim to have connection with Maharashtra. The Muslims do not claim any relation with non-Muslims. The speciality ofthis Group lies in the fact that they retain residues in various degrees in its various members. They are all uniform in their structure being midway between Konkani and Marathi. They are heterogeneous due to the difference in the degree of residue by way of salient features of each member. They also show the geographical characteristics sllch as borrowings commonly shared with other Konkani speech varieties. As the Survey is mainly concerned with the Konkani speech varieties, the Group of fifteen is discussed only fro111 their structural view point. KUQal deshasth (Kud. de) speech is taken as the Norm of this Group. Thi$ Group will be referred to as Transitional Group (Tr.) as against the Pure Group (P) to which all the other speech varieties belong. Observations are made with reference to the Norms. The salient features of karMi (Kar.) Rajapuri (raj.) Nawayti (naw.) Christian Siddhi (Chr. sid. Bha~Qari (bhan.) and GabU (gab.) are discussed with regard to some of the features. P n 1. -:l ending m. sg. nouns and t. -0 ending m. sg. nouns and adjectives. adje-ctives. E~amples :- Examples :- cslb 'boY' darb 'man' dzhilgo 'boy qa:dy:, d~:!:) 'eye' glJ(.ic,b 'short' 'man'da:ncb 'stick' ka:}o 'black' th'Orb 'bif{dakbj'small" 51 I 2. Short final- i in nouns. 2. Short final-i in nouns. Examples :- Examples :- belli 'girl' manta:ri pa : Q.i 'water' a: mi 'we' 'old woman' pha:ti 'bacI 4. Number difference 10 I 4. No number difference in I person, person -number sfx. person -number sfx. Examples :- Examples -:- hi : v~ etta : 'I comet mi:/ami bo : lto 'I /we speak ammi etta: ci 'we come' mi :/ami dza: t5 'I/we go' hi: v~ vatta: 'I go' mi:jami kha: to 'I/we eat' ammi Vatta: ci 'we go' S. Dative suffix: ka-ka : 5. Dative suffix :-le-s~ Examples :- Examples :- makka :'to me~ male - rna: Ie 'to me' tukka: 'to you' tule 'to you' amka: 'to us' tele 'to him/her/it' J kaYlaya:ka 'to the crow tuma:s~ 'to you (pl.)' pak~iya :k; 'to the birds' ama:s~ 'to us' matya :ka 'to the head' Phakra: s~ 'to the birds' ga:yb 'to the cow' rna :te :s~ 'to the head' ga: ys~ 'to the cow' 6. Genitive suffix: two sets 6. Genitive Suffix : I set -I-set and-c~ set c-Set only. Bxamples :- Examples :- tagge:b 'his' ma:dze 'my' tange:b 'their amtsa: 'our' amge:b 'our' phula:u(%) 'of the flower ramma:b 'ram's' ruilka: cl 'of the tree' rukka:c& 'of the tree' ghara:c& 'of the house' th~nce 'of that place' 52 7. Past stein as-of verb substan 7. Past stem ho-of the verb tive as-'to be' substantive as-'to be' Examples : Examples :- a~5ilIe: '~as (n. sg.) hotte 'was (n, sg,)' a~~ib 'was ( m. sg.) hotto 'was (m. sg.)' a~~iIyo :ci 'were' (f. pI) hotti 'was (f. sg,), hottI 'were (n. pl.)' 8. Infinitive suffix -k:l/-ca : k:l 8. Infinitive sfx : -ve Examples :- Examples :- evca :k::l 'to come' kha:ve 'to eat' leo: ru: k:l 'to do' dharve 'to catch' pe : ve 'to swim' 9. Agentive case has two suffixes 9. A!entive case one suffix-m -n:l singular-ni plural -ni Examples :- Examples :- kayJaya:n:l 'tocrow'(agent') kavIs:ni 'the crow (agent) parvaya:ni 'the birds' (agent) pa:rve:ni 'the pigeons' (agent) ra:ya:ni 'the king (agent) ciccundre:ni 'the mouse (agent) 10. I person pronoun hii :va 'I' and 10 r person pronoun mi: 'I ha an agentive case from and has no agentive cue M :ve: 'I' form. Examples :- Examples :- hi :\'a v:ltti: 'I go' mi :sa :ngaUall€ '(that M :ve: sangI€: 'I said' which J said' mi:bo:!to -I speaJg' I 11. Construction consistently 11. The construction is passive/ passive when the predicate is a active when the pr edicate i a transitive verb in past tense ; transitive verb in pas tense, the concordance in gender no consistence in concordance number always between the pre between predicate and object and dicate and the object and the the subject is either in nominative subject is in agentive case. or in agentive case. Ex.' kayJs :na te:: paJeyle: Ex: ma:jiji:b mi: tsa:vli 'The crow saw it' 'I bit my tongue (passive) !anni vh5 tandu:Ju palay15 to kutr:> ma:le tsa:vlo They saw the rice' 'The dog bit me (activo) be :Qa:na ba :le ghal1e te: pa:rve:ni b~g~tle:n 'The hunter put the net' 'The pigeons saw' tanni ts kaYlaya :ka:y to be:Qa:ntso b~g~tla: tange:l ottu ghstle 'The hunter saw' 'They took'the crow too ra:ya:ni sa:ngatli: along with them' 'The king said' ciccundre:ni b~te k~tt~risu:n pa :rVe :si bha :yr soQIi : 'having cut the net, the mouse let the pigeons out' 53 12.' Vocabulary difference. 12. Vocabulary difference. Ex : ha:v~ '1' Ex: mi; '1' dhu:vQ 'daughter' le:nkj. celli 'daughter' 'girl' ce:Qii 'girl' c~lb 'boy' dzhilg:, 'boy' bayl maw :~i 'woman' ba:y~ 'woman' pilk~i 'bird' pha:krii 'bird' SU:l).E: 'dog' kutr:) 'dog' tll()H~ 'egg' khava:l).H 'egg' gil:J~ 'neck' ma:tH- uddlttkil 'neck' 'water' pa:!}.i 'water' phatf:):ru 'stone' dho :1)Q.o IJdtdZ::l 'stone' 'fire' , a:gj '.fire' di:g" 'long la:mb fu, :Q.;l 'long' 'big' t~rb 'big' sa:n" 'sma.lI' nha:N 'small' uU,,:y 'speak' bo:t v,,:c:> 'speak' 'go' dza: 'go' , ts;)m.k~ 'walk' ts;) :lj . gha:1i 'waIf 'tolay egg the:v 'to lay egg' Ja:~ 'to burn' pe:~o:v 'to burn' hanga: 'here' itte 'here' dza:vka: 'wanted' have 'is wanted' bslil: 'what' lca:y 'what' itlE: 'this much' itke 'this much' p;)rne 'old' dztlln: 'old' Each feature is discussed with reference to six more of the Tr. speech varieties: ka.r ; r(\j. ; naw ; chr. sid.: bhan.; and gab. Together with the. norm kud.de., three are selected from S. Kanam 1,iz. kud.de : kar .. and raj. and four are selected from N. Kanara. Varticallv naw. is Muslim. Chr. sid is Christian and all the others Hindu. . (i) The ~tructura/ characteristics: L -:1/ -0 ending m.sg. nouns and adjectives. AU the speech varieties are uniform in sharing this feature. Ex : do :J~ 'eye' h:>!h 'big' (kar.) d~:b 'eye' th:)rb 'big' (raj.) bska 'boy' dhakb 'small' (naw.) ceQo 'boy' giQQ~ 'short' (chr. sid.) to:~:) 'stick' hodb 'big' (bhan.) a:mbo 'man~o' ta:dZ:1 'fre~h' (gab.) 2. Short final -i in n'ouns All the speech varietities are uniform in sharing this feature. Ex: boQ.i 'stick'; ce:<;I.i 'girl' (kat.) Jcha:ti 'stick'; . masH 'fish' (raj.) toskl 'girl'; badi 'stick' (naw \ h:ti stick': ma:sli 'fish' (chr. sid.) Ba.:mbdi 'skin'; masii 'fish' (bban.) ka=1i' '''tick'; nodi 'river' (gab.) 3. Gender difference in present finite verb. There is no gender difference in the speech varieties. But in bhan., gab. the forms used in r and II person diff~r from the forms used in III person, In chr. sid. H person sg. forms differ from other two person forms. In kar. the forms are totally different from other speech varieties, The speech varieties are diverse as regards this feature. Ex : a:~ ulle:ra: 'I speak' pakki ubbare 'bird fiies' mukka kadra: 'r know (lit: to me known)' mukka kajma~a e:r~ 'r know kannada' (lit. to me kannada comes) t;,: amb;, kha:r;, 'he eats mango' t:J:/ti: hangaca: e:r~ 'he/she comes here' tii: hangaca: e :r;) 'you come here' ha:v teiica: e :ra '[ come there' raj kombdi kavta: thevta: 'the hen lays eggs' ma:dz~ ma:te pugta: 'my head aches' mi: "1 ? pa:~ipiyatta: '(/we drink water' ami J te:/t:>: pa:t;li pivta: 'itjhe drinks water' ami dza:nta: 'we go' (The 1-/ upon -a: indicates 1 person) IlOW to: paVta: 'he swims' ami nava:yti za:pta:v 'we speak Nawayti' to: za:pta: 'he speaks' me: p:llta: 'I see' tsa:nni: camakta: 'the star twinkles' me: teka: vollja:ta: 'I remember him' hi: ma:ka: vollja:ta: 'you remember me' chr. sid. t;): nidzta: 'he lies (down)' ha:v sangta: tu: aykte 'Do you hear what I say r tuka: ingli:~ eta: 'Do you know English .,. (Lit. to-you English comes 1) a:mi ma:s kha:ta:t 'we eat meat' komgi kavta: ghalta: 'The hen lays eggs' phakra: uc.Iu:n dza:ta:t 'The birds go flying' maje takle usC' :lta: 'my head aches' a :gi :n ka :g;)t dZ:llta: 'The paper bums by fire' tu: kanna: ctc: 'when do you come l' tumi kha:yam kh:>y rahta:t 'where do you stay permanently l' 5S Man ta:t:l dukta: 'throat aches' su:rypurve:k: udya:ta: 'sun rises in the east' a:g petta: 'the fire burns' mi: dza:te '1 go (ro/f)' ami dza:ta:t 'we go' s;,v1)1 huQ.t;, :ts 'birds fly' kutri bhogt;, :ts 'the bitch barks' ami ma:s kha:t;,:t ,we eat meat' kom<;li kav!a: ghalta: 'the hen lays eggs' da:t dukt3:t 'the teeth ache' tu : .-tii: kh3:Y b"gte 'where do you see (m/f) ?' iii: ayka:t€ 'you hear (ro(f)' tu: .-tii: k;,se ete 'how do you come (m/f) l' gab. mi: dza:t3:y 'I go' tii: dza :t3 :y 'you go' ami: dza:t;,:v 'we go' t:>: dza:ta: 'he goes' ti: dza:ta: 'she goes' te: dza :t;,:t 'they (ro) go' tii: ma :sli kha :t3 :y do you eat fish ?' pa:kra: uc;it;,:t 'birds fly' kUh,:) bhokta: 'the dog barks (m.sg.)' komc;ii kavta: ghalta: 'the hen lays eggs' ma:ji pha:! dukta: 'my back aches (f. sg.)' p:>:tdukta: 'belly (n. sg.) aches' 4. No number difference in 1 per .. person-number suffix. Except in r .aj there is number difference in all the other speech varieties. . kar. ha: ~ teiica: e :r() 'I come there' ammi teiica: e:rI 'we come there' raj. mi :rami pa :I}.i piyatta: '1/ we drink water' mi: pe:vtii: '1 swim' ami dza:ntii: 'we go' naw me: pa:ni pita: '1 drink water' ami pa:ni pita:v 'we drink water' me:jevti: '1 take meals' amijevta:v 'we take meals' Chr. Jid. ha:~ sangta: 'J say' ami ma:s kha:ta:t 'we eat meat' bhan. mi: gh;,ra: dza:te 'J go home' ami gh3ra: dza :ta:t 'we go home' gab. mi: gh;,ra :ka<;Ie dza :t3 :y 'I go home' ami gh;,ra:ka<;ie dza:t3:V 'we go home' S. Dative suffix: ·le--si S6 Except raj. which has -le--si ali the other speech varietirs have-ka: -k" kar. mukka: 'to me' pakkiya.:k; 'to the birds' takka: 'to him' kaylaya :k;} 'to the crow' tukka: 'to you' kavQ.aya :k; 'to the pigeons' raj. ma:le 'tome' ama:sj. 'to us' tule 'to you' go:rva:si 'to the cattle' pha:kra.:si 'to the birds' naw. -ka:-1C:a:ki- -k ma1ca:-ma:ka:'to me' tuka: - tuka:k 'to you' -ma:ka:k ci4iya:ki 'to the bird(s)' amka:-amka:k 'to us' ja:nvara:k 'to the animal(s)' mansa:k 'to the human being(s)'· The -k in the dative forms of pronouns is a redundancy, analogically formed. chr. sid. maka: 'to me' tuka: 'to you' teka: - teka:k 'to him/ her' ga:yki 'to the cow' dika:k 'to the direction' bhan. ma:ka: 'to me' tuka: 'to you' teb: 'to him/her/it' dzha:\la:k to the tree' g::lruva.:k 'to the animal(s)' seVJ;lya:k 'to the bird(s)' gab. s"glYa.:k 'to ~ll' amka.: 'to us' temka: 'to them' tuka.: 'to you' teta: 'to him' <.bkya:k 'to the head' ma:ka: 'fome' kapc;lya:k 'to the clothes' 6. genitive sum- only one set -c- set. In kar. two sets are available, but the forms are different from all the other speech varieties In chr. sid. two sets are used in free variation. In all the other speech varieties only -c- set is used. kar. mathab - mathli - mathaJii: 'my' tadza: 'his' madzo 'my' me:lu:sa:ca: 'of the woman' matta 'my' teiica: 'their' raj. amci 'our' gho :Q.e :ci 'of the horse' ma:dzo-ma: 'my' pimpla:nts~ ru:k 'the bunyaJ"l three' ji-ma:dze (lit. tree of the bunyan) pa:rve:nts~ 'of pigeons' naw. amce-amci/arnts; 'our' mozo - moji';" 'my' moje zha:Q.a:ci 'ofthe tree' tsa:ma:ci 'of leather' 57 cltr. sid. anlge:le-amce 'our' tegele - teee 'his' mage:le-maje 'my' dzha:(la:ci 'of the trec' gho:Q_a:ci 'ofthe horse' hlum. rnaji ,- rna :dz;} 'my' amci~ambia: 'our' g;,rva:ts 'of tIle animals' gho:Q_aya:ci 'of the horse' gab. tcba: 'his' temce 'their' tice 'her' dza :ti :ce 'of the community' fula:d 'of the flower' 7. Past stem flo- of the verb substantive as - 'to be' (n kar. and bnan.as forms arc available. Tn all the other speech varieties (except in chr. sid. where no data are available) ho- form" are fOll nd. (n kar. t he forms are ace- instead of ass. kar. acciJa:-acciJo 'was' accili 'were' raj. honte- honto 'was' hond 'were' naw. hOlO 'was(J. m. sg.r hotve L f. sg. hoto '3. m. sg: hotr 1. f. sg. heta:" T. pI. bote 2.3. pl. Man. asilla: , gab. hO:Y::I hot~ 'would have been 11ecessary' tii :il;,h;}:v 'you have come' t::l:ib:ha: 'he has come' ti:ilih;:,: 'she has come' mi :il~h;,:v 'r have come' te :i1eh., :t' 'They have come' tumi ila:ha:s 'You have come' tii: il~:y 'you came' tumi ila:s 'you came' [I am not q~lite sure of the root form. It may even be the depletive of a:he and a:he:t ; however, this is pre~ented to show the Transitional nature of the speech variety). S8 8. Infinitive suffix : -ve Except raj. -k. in all the other speech varieties it is -le. kar. dharya:kOl 'to catch' kha:ya:k;, 'to eat' raj. dharle 'to catch' kha:vle 'to eat' naw ayku:k 'to hear' payk 'to swim' ta:ilgaylr 'to withstand' rayk 'to stay' pi:vk 'to drink' chr. sid. kOlru:k 'to do sangu:k 'to say' bhan k"fU:k 'to do' evk 'to come' pova:k 'to swim' gab. , dza:vk 'to go pe:vk 'to swim' evk 'to come k~rii :k 'to do' These are more or less similar to the norm in the remaining features and hence not discussed. This being the area where Konkani and Marathi meet it wa" necessary to go into the structuf8.1 characteristics. This transitional group can as well be treated as Marathi as the sN!lkers seem to have emotional links with Maharashtra. rather than with the Konkani speech groups. Majority of the samples of the LS{ under Konkan Standard and Konkani fall under the Tran,itional group and Ghatage's "Konkani of South Kanara" is a descrirtive ~tudy of a Konkani speech group which has absolutely nothing to do with MJ.rathi. Konkalll a, a lan.guage retains all the structural characteristic, in all its speech varieties, major or minor, rural or urban whether the speech group is isolated or spread over large areas. Vertical differences are not discussed. Konkani has the most important task of standardisation facting it. The survey results are pruned to serve that specific purpose by the way of enlarging the horizon to include the whole speech area into one whole. All other details however relevant in a fact finding survey are avoided. Of the three centres 59 Manga1ore, Karwar and Belgaum, Mangalore offers the best scope for develop ing the norm. The following discussion aims at bringing the areas closer by way of comparing the specific features giving rise to differences. The main problem of Konkani of Karnataka is the disruption of intelligi bility between the speech varieties and the (Cochin) Standard on the one hand and the Goa standard on the other. There are a handful of features which are mainly responsible for the general lack of mutual intelligibility. Once these features are sorted out and comparative material built up, the process of standardisation of Konkiani will be quickened. The features can be listed as follows : 1. I - I nasalisation. This has varied grammatical functions to perform in the Standard-In nouns, pronouns and adjectives it is the only feature distinguishing genders and or numbers when phonemic differences are not found ; likewise in verbs too, the person-gender-number differences are mainly distinguished solely with the help of 1 - I. When there are phonemic differences too, the presence of nasalisation on the final vowel is always grammatically signi~cant in that in nouns, pronouns and adjectives the presence of 1 _ 1indIcates neuter gender. In verbs, it indicates either first person singular or neuter gender as the case may be. Example Standard (S) dvi:p~ 'island (n.sg.l matti 'soil (f.sg.), dvi:p~ 'islands (n.pl)' matd 'heads (n.pl.), matts: 60 Mangalore It is similar to the standard. Karwar-Belgaum (K.-B.) I - I has lost its significance. Its usage is haphazard. Sometimes it is used and mostly it is not used. Karwar Example ha:v tya: dalya:k velk;):ta: '1 recognise that man' pha :ti khu:p corga: marta :li 'Previously many children used to die' he: vastu mha:r lo:k k.,rta:t 'These things the harijans prepare: tange:1 ghara: 'Their houses' te:ts t;):1). 'The same grass (n.sg.)' pora: - pora: 'Children (n.p!.)' te: - tt;: 'that' hanci 10 :ki 'People of this place (lit. here-of people)' ka:kna: 'bangles' ha:v 'ayla: - ha:v ayla: '1 came (m/f)' Belgaum nakta,: 'nails (n.pl.)' ba:lSe 'child (n.sg.)' ma:t~ 'head (n.sg.)' ma: ti 'heads (n.p!.)' nisti 'fish (n.pl.)P assi:lt; 'was (n.sg.)' ka:le 'black (n.sg.)' b;)re 'good (n.sg.)' 2. Various phonemic permutations and combinations. In the standard and Mangalore area the various consonant clusters are preserved whereas in Karwar-Belgaum area assimilation of medial conso nants or reduction of nasal-homorganic stop or cluster into single consonant takes place. The process is only partial in Karwar-Belgaum area but has become complete in Goa area. Karwar kotik1).i - kokt.1i 'Konkani (btib :1).i 'Standard)' (kmika1).i 'Manglore') melta: 'is available' (melta: -S.M) meita:le 'was available. (melta:k ~S.M) un;' 'was (ur - 'to be') dalb 'man (darb S.M.) hanci 'of -. here' (hanga:ci S.M.) pa:J!a: 'keeps' 'va:<;lta:t 'grow (They)' dhagta: 'sends' happu<;ln 'having touched' a:va<;l.ta:t 'like (we)' hatulIt; 'mattress (hantu :1).;)-8)' kUkum 'vermillion (kunku :m;)-S) naku:t 'nail (nanku:!;l-S.M.), kulli . 'crab (kurb-S.M.)' dz;)lb 'cockroach (dz;)rb-M.)' bik;)n 'bed bug (bikku :1).<;Iu-8.)' na:l' 'coconut (na:r1u~S.M.)' Jllh~t.1ta ; 'says' (mh:)l).ta:-S.M.)' 61 Be/gal/Ill kuJli 'crab' tenna: 'then' (tedna:~S) uHa:le 'were tIying' k:lnn 'having done (ko:rnu-S.M.)' dh~nn~ 'having caught (dh:l:rnu-S.M.)' mha:ta:r::> 'oldman (manta:r:l-S.M.)' na:k 'nose (na:(lka-S.M.)' co:tsyo beaks (ts~ficy::>-M)' ra<;lta: 'cries' m:!ta:lo 'will meet' 3. The general canonical forms of words. In SLandard, nouns are l()ng~r even in plural formation. In Mangalare plLlral forms are shorter than singular nouns. Otherwise both in Standard and Mangalore the general syllable type IS VCe-and the final syllable is-CV, whatever the grammatical form of the word. In Karwar-Belgaum area, words are in-general shorter, the initial ~yl1able is V (:) C-final syllable-C. Standard-Mang%~~re (S) (M) EXample :- celli :v::> 'girls (cely::>-M») dldd-l:b 'min (darb-M) niQ,<;l., :ja 'foreheads (niQ,!~-M)j <;lukk.,:rQ 'pigs' (QukrQ-M) matts: 'head' (S) (M) khatta: 'eats' (S) (M) celli 'girl' (S) (M) rukka:ri 'on the tree' (S) (M) 1a :Jaya:ntii 'in the tank' (S) (M) karwar ts~li 'girl' ts;)lyo 'girls' ma:te 'head' kha:ta: 'eats' dza:ta: 'happens (dzatta: -M) eta:t '(theo come' (etta:ci-M) d~v;)rta:t '(they) keep' (d;)vv;)rta:ci-M) Brdgaum be:bo 'frog' (be.bbo--S.M.) re:do 'male buffalo (ra<;I<;Io-M) div;<;l 'snake' (divvo:4u-S : divo:<;Iu-M) eta:t 'come' ra:ba:t 'please stay (rabba:ci-M) 62 4. The loss of final Yowl!! in nouns. In Standard and Mimgalore all the nouns cnd in vowels. The final vowel preserves a systematic gender-number system of nouns as follows: Sg. PI. -u -;l m -;, -t m -I -y;, f -;l -;, C -~ -~ n - F: -i n The loss offinal vowels -u, -;l, -i and! - ! in the Karwa.r-Belgaum area com pletely disrupts the system of nouns and thereby gives rise to confusion in gender-number system-concordance in gender-number between thes various components of the sentence gets affected and the number of syllable in words becomes less in the process. Sf andard-Mangalore Example : ha:tu 'hand' hD :1a 'hands' ba:yla 'wife' bayb 'wives' lY.l :!;l 'finger' b;,tt~ 'fingers' te SU:Q@: 'that dog' ti pak~i 'that bird' tI su :lJr 'those dogs' ty:> p;lk~y:> 'those birds' karwar ha:t 'hand(s)' (m.sg.pl.) p:>:t 'belly (n.s;'. I' va:l 'creeper' (I:sg.) tc: ambe ·the~e mangoes (m.p1.)' te: ka:m :that work (n.sg.)' corda: marta:Ii 'children used to die' v;lnti maHa:ce:urta: 'The walls are of mud' s;lgele pak~i 'all birds' (f. pl.)' te p:lk~i 'those birds (f. pl.)' khup po:r 'many children (n.p!.)' unts dzha:Qa:ci mu :!a: 'The roots oftaH trees' Belgaum ba:yl 'woman (f.sg.)' a:Jig 'body (n.sg.)' ha:t 'hand (m.sg.)' te: sappaQt;l:le 'they will get caught' ('they' refer to pok~yo)' thoQt;li pok~yo 'many birds' te kavlaya:n pal;lyJe 'the crow saw that' ~ika :ri:H yukti 'the trick of the hunter' te p()k~yo 'those birds' te ge1na: 'They did not go' ta:Qe h;lr;)J~a:k dza:le:t assi:lc pal;lyle . 'he saw the deer int he net (b~rQt;l.) msg. 63 5. In sentence construction usage of participials and adverbs is predominant n Standard-Mangalore area as against various clause constructions in Karwar- Belgaum area. Example :- 1.. voro:vu khamca: e:na:phUl;le bolya: 'when they come to eat the rice, they p;<;1t; :II will fall in the net' (S)' pek~yo tandu :lu khavca:k ayItav; :1i 'when the birds come to eat the rice, b;Is.:ntii pe<;1ta:ci they fall in the net (M)' jennie te: mha:ta:r dzata:t tenna: 'when they become old, then their tatige:l ke :sie pikta:t hair become grey (K)' te jenna: khavca:k ayle tenna: 'when they come to eat, then they dza :le:t sappa<;1t; :Ie will fall in the net (B)' 2. a:v itle: coylys. :ri mak k5amijjamca: 'However much I try J am Dot able ja:yna: to be patient (S)' ha:v kitl pr;yetn ks.lls. :ri :yi mak Do. (M) sarna: dha:ne:ri a~ca:k; dza:yna: dz;ri s;mudr; la:gi uIlo t;ri uda:k 'Even though the sea is near, (then go:<;1 urta: too) the water is sweet (K)' kitl ha:v pr;ytn kerta: ha:v sarna: 'How much I try, I am not able to dha:n dza:vt:na be patient (B)' 6. In the lexical level, usage of different adjectives, adverbs and particles in different areas makes intelligibility suffer. Example: jhayte 'many' (S) m;st; 'many' (M) khu:p 'many' (K) tho1.l1.li- pu~kal- 'many' (B) khu:p sa:n; 'small' (S,M) lha:n 'small' (K,B) ca:tig; 'good' (S) tsa:tig; 'good' (M) b;re 'good' (K,B) ba:ri:k 'slim' (K,B) s;pu:r; 'slim' (S) th;:y 'there' (M) thatiga: 'there' (S) th; :y - thi tiga : 'there' (K) th;:y 'there' (B) p;si 'than' (S.M) pek~a:n 'than' (K,B) s;k;l 'down' (M) khaIIa:k; 'down' (S) bi: 'also' (K.B) 7. Borrowings. This is one feature where the predominant language of the area plays a slignificant part as a source for borrowings. In Standard area the predominant language is Malayalam, in Mangalore it is Tulu in rural areas and Kannada in Urban areas and Marathi in Karwar and Belgaum areas. Standard ang; :di 'shop' mukka:I '3/4' a:!ca: 'week' idbe:t~. . 'thunder' tetta 'mistake' ta:!Ca 'deptb,' 64 Mangalore dimbl 'knee' gadd:> 'field' gUQ":> 'hill' ne.:la 'ground' guQgu:Qu 'thunder' ka:manbillu 'rainbow' bavh 'bat (animal)' ba:gi:l;) 'door' guqs:):le 'but' gurbanji 'sparrow' Karwar kimmat 'price' g:lrdi 'crowd' nira:) 'different' farak 'difference' va:f:lr 'use' duka:ni 'shop' P'lQI- 'but' kholi 'room' bahute:k 'mostly' ka:yam 'permanent' phakat-phakt 'only' dzno:PQi 'hut' n:lvr:> 'bridegroom' darva:dzo 'threshold' Be/gam cba:ti 'chest' ka:li:dz 'heart' vada:l 'storm' kh:ld:lp 'rock' ra:mba:Q 'rainbow' della 'door' kbo:pu:! 'hut' khcQi 'villages' Borrowings are not always uniform-Konkani vocables are in USe in some area for the borrowings in some other area. Voccabulary difference is also there .. 65 1 ROt/SO 5 Part tIl rIlE SURVEY OF KONKANI : GOA The preliminary survey of Konkani in GJa was undertaken during March May 1973 with the specific purpose of obtaining data of the major speech group. The two major speech groups in Goa are Hindu and Christian. As per 1971 census the Goa Konkani speaking population is 556,2231 • Goa forms the core of Konkani speaking area. Goa, as per legends is the original place of settlement of Konkani speakers. As it had been under portuguese control for more than four centuries, virtually cut off from other Kankiani areas, it was felt that the descriptive sketch of the major speech groups of Goa was essential to complete the Survey of Konkani. 2 Hindus form more than twice the size oftne Christian population • Panaji, the capital of Goa was selected for data collection. The most numerous speech-group, the Kshatriya-Bhandari was then selected. This particular speech variety is said to be spoken aU over Goa by this major speech group, with the exception of border taluks-Cancon, Pednem and Satari. This speech variety is for the purposes of our Survey treated as Goa Hindu Standard Colloquial-GHSC. Suffbent mlterial was collected for a descriptive study of GHSC. For the sake of uniformity, only one informant, an educated lady belonging to the speech group was selected as informant. The grammatical sketch of G HSC GHSC consists of 53 phonemes of which 51 are segmental and 2 supraseg mental. Of the 51 segmental phonemes 9 are vowels and 42 are consonants Of the 9 vowels, 8 are full phonemes and 1 is a marginal phoneme. Of the 42 consonants 40 are full phonemes and 2 are marginal phonemes. The suprasegmental phonemes occur with vowels. Vowt>ls.-Phonemic inventory I u· e o a 1. Note P:vii Census ofIndia, 1971, Langnage Monograph. No.4, Survey of kon'kaR in Kerala. 2. P :114, Goa, Dlmlln Diu. A protrait of Population Cen~us of India, 1971. 66 Suprasegmental : : I length I-I nasalis at ion Consonants. bi.lab. lab. dent. alv. retro. pal. vel. glot. den. p t t c r. th ih ch kh b d d J g bh dh 4h gh m V n 1). (n) Ii. mh nh f s S h v z (t) vh zh ts r, I lh Y Y Vowels contrast in terms of tongue-height and position. There are fiVe degrees of tongue-height, viz. high, higher-mid, mean-mid, lower-mid and low and three positions-front, central and back. Three are front vowels, two are central and four are back vowels. The high, higher-mid and lower-mid vowels have the position contrast-front, back; the mean-mid is central; and the low vowels-central, back. The back vowels are rounded and the front and central ones Unfounded. Marginal phoneJne.-This occurs in the corpus only in 7 borrowings from English, viz; k'o<,i, k-ole;j, kolbe.l, r6b<,l, b:obkQt, blll, lllk6t. It occurs only medially. But it contra<;ts with I Q, ~:, a, a: I in that position. As it is a productive phoneme likely to occur in many more English borrowings, it is set up as a marginal phoneme. This phoneme is not discussed elsewhere. Vowels are short, long, short nasalised and long nasalised. Nasalisation does not occur with short vowels I a, :l, e r and there is only one instance of / ~: ! in the corpus. All the long vowels except I a:1 are slightly higher than the corresponding short vowels. D'r;tributioll of l'owels.-AH the short vowels occur initially and medially. I 0, a I do not occur finally, I e I occurs finally in one portuguese borrowin& kurre 'post', All the long vowels except Ii: I occur in all the three positions initially, medially and finally; medial occurrences are by far the most in number; initial occurrences exceed final occurrences. Most of the final occurrences are in monosyllabic words, , i: , does not occur initially. Nasalised short vowels do not occur initially. Their final occurrences by far exceed their medial occurrences. The most frequenst ones are! i, E, 5/. EXcepting I a: I, nasalised long vowels dO' not occur finally except in mono~ylla bic words. On the basis of distribution, vowels may be grouped as follows: Group I Occurrence-initial, medial and final Ii, u, U:, ii:, e, 0:, e, 6:, ;), <>, <>:, a:, a: I Group II Occurrence-initaI and medial 10,o:,5:,al Group III Occurrence-medial and fina.l Ii:, I:, e:, e: I 67 Group IV Occurrence-medial / ij, C., ;"l:,~: I Group V Occurrence-final 11,0,e,5,/ As regards frequency of occurrence, at a glance, the most frequent vowels are / ;}, a: I ; the least frequent are long nasalised vowels except j a: I Description of vowels: Ii j has two allophones [il high, central, unrounded short vowel and [i] high, front, unrounded sho:t vowel. I i I occurs medially in five sanskrit borrowings as I ri I in the place of sanskrit vowel phoneme I r /. Ex : (kritika: 1 [kritika : I name of a star [kri~l}a :] / krisl}a: I a proper name (m) [kri~l);} p;}k~;}l ! krislJ;} p~k~;} I waning fortnight Ivris;}bh] J vris;)bh) Taurus [vriscik] I vriscik I Scorpion [i] occurs elsewhere. I ikra: I 'eleven' ! ifirme:r I 'nurse' I u1).i I 'morsel' leI and Ie: ( occur finally in onel instance each viz. (kurre f 'post' (ude:, '(sun) rise' / e:! occurs m03tly medially. / e, e: I occur in all positions. In general, I e, e: I occur before high vowels I i, u I and I 10, s: I occur before other vowels. But ( e, e: ( can alRO occur before low vowels; I e, e: I contrast before consonants, Ie: I , ! 10: I contrast are more in number compared to minimal occurrences of ! el and I e {. Examples,' j ekli I one woman I ekku:ts I only one I eka:v;}n / 51 ( kevQ.:> / a kind of vegetable j kurre ! post I te :ra: I 13 I ke :l}i I a surname / ke:ndr;) / centre f ekle I one girl I E,kb I one man f pe:r I guava tree 1 pe:r f guava fruit I khe:! I play I khe:l/ plays , ke:s , hair / kg:s, hair (pI.) The above statements regarding the occurrence restrictions hold good for / 0,0: / and j :>, :>: / Example: I holli I great woman / goru / cattle r h:lU:>! great man / koyb / sickl~ Ibm:> j! cock j komi, hen I po:r I child I p:l:r f young of animal Consonants.-The consonants contrast in terms of posit>ions-Iabial, labio~dental, dental, alveolar, retroflex, palatal, velar and glottal and manners stop, nasal, fricative, affricate, liquid and semivowel. 68 All stops con'rast in terms of voice and aspimtion giving rise to voiceless unaspirated, voiceless aspirated, voiced ull?spimted and voiced a.spirated stops, and have five position contrasts--Iabi:ol, dental, retroflex, *pal8.tal and velar. There are gaps in two places-bilabial voiceless aspir?Jed and the palatal voiced aspirated. There are eighteen stops. Nasals contrast in terms of aspiration and ha.ve six position contrasts bilabia.1, labia-dental, dent aI, retroflex, palatal and velar. Only in the bilabial and dental position there is contra<;t between aspirated <'.nd unacpirHtcd nus(lJs ; in all other positions only una<;piratcd n;'.~als occur. The palatal na<;al (n) is a marignal phoneme. [il] occurs in two environ ments-(i) preceding a homorganic stop, (ii) intervocal. [ill is in comple mentation with some of the na5als in the nasal-homorganic stop environment but contra5ts with all the nasals in the intervocal position in the portuguese loans. Though such loans are not many in the corpus, it is a likely productive phoneme. Hence [n] in the intervocal position is given marginal phonemic status as (n) and [il] in the nasal-homorganic stop environment is treated as allophone of In! . Examples : [ts~iici] J ts~nci , money bag [sino:r] / sino:r ! Mr .. Sir Including (n) there are eight nasals. The fricatives contrast for voice and a~piration. The voiceless, voiced unaspirated and voiced aspirated are the three series and the fricatives have four position contra<;ts-Iabio-dental, alveolar, paI9.t2.l and glott",!. There is only one fricative in the glottal series. In the palatal series (z) palatal voiced fricative is a marginal phoneme occurring in the portuguese borrowings. Examples: zu:n June Including (z) there are nine fricatives. There is one affricate-dental, voiceless. There are four liquids-one alveolar trill, one retroflex lateral and two alveolar laterals-one unaspiratcd, one aspirated. There are two semivowels-in palatal position - one nasalised and one non-nasalised. The a~pirated phonemes are treated as unit phonemes. Long consonants are treated as gemination of single consonants. Distribution of consonants.-All the consoml.llts occur initially. All the consonants occur singly in all th~ three positions-initial, medi?l. fin?.l. A<;pirated consonants have limited distribution, they occur mostly initi?.lly and m ~ Ii ,11 yin '\ f~w c'\)~) and fin1.lly instill fewer C'1.ses. They always occur sin~ly, th(}ugh instances of a5pirated stops preceded by homorganic unaspiratcd stops in the m~dial position are found. Geminated consonants are fewer in number compared to the non-identica clusters. On the b'l<;is of distribution, consonants are grouped 9.0, follows: GrOclp I: O::currence-initial, m~di~l, and fin~,l ! 1c, kh, g, ts, j, t. fh d.l)., t, th, d, dh, n, p, b, bh. m, v, r, 1, f, V, 5, Z, s, h! Group H Oxurrenc~-initj:"J and medi"J ! gh, c, ch I Group H] Occurrence-m,'dial and finec! ! n. v, 1. y; . Group vr Occurrence-initial f c.lh, nh. mho lh, vh, zh! '" Pho:1ctically affricqtes-treate:i as stops for the sake of ne'lt'1ess of 1):1 tterTl , Description of consonan ts.-/4i retroflex, voiced, unaspirated stop has two allophones [rJ the retro-flex flap occurring in V-V positio-n, word-final position and as a second member of a consonant cluster where the first m( mber is not /IJ/. Ex.: [ath~vp] !athdvQ:l! week [~ri :zJ I ;,c).i :z/ 21 [a:v~r] /a:v:JQ/ to lIke [(1] retroflex, voiced unaspirated stop occurs eleswhere. Ex. : Q.ukb 'A surname' dc,lQ.e: 'female breast' a:c).na:v Surname a:qpd:qd lie do-wn a :c).ve: across thdll.<;li cold There are a f~w dhtributional restrictions between f C I the palatal, voiceless . unaspirated affricate· and I ts I the dental voiceless a:ffricate. Its I does not occu r before front vowels I i, e, B I and / cl does not occur in word final position (English borrowings excepted). In other positions Its / contrasts with / c ! ! V! labio-dental, voiced, unaspirated fricative has two allophones [w] bilabial semi-vowel occuring before fa, a:j and Iv] labio-dental voiced friction less continuant occuring elsewhere. Es : [wa:r] /va:cJl increase [wa!ku :lg] Ivatku:!g/ round Iv:>:t/ sunshine Itsa :vij key /ma:vl scar /5/ palatal voiceless fricative has two allophones [$] retroflex voiceless fricative occurring as the first member of a cluster where the second member is a retroflex phoneme. [5) occurs elsewhere. [kri~I:la: ] IkrisI:la : ! a proper name Iso: I show Iva :S6/ cocoa-palm reeds /na:ge:s I a name for Lord Shiva Clusters. : There are nine vowel clusters in the corpus. They do not reveal any pattern. They are I ie, ia:, Ie:, ue:, U£, ua:, ue:, ue:, u;)! Example: I opinien I opinion I aycJia: I idea / sIe :ns r science I gr€ :jue:1 I graduate / ZUe I small island ! zua:ri 1 RiverZuari I due:s I disease /due:t / sick person / zu:> ! large island Consonant clusters.-Clusters found within the word boundary ~.re considered here. A word is a minimum free from bounded by successive plYmts at which pausing is possible. Pau$es may be potential or actual. . Clusters occur initially, medially and finally in words. They can be two consonantal, three consonantal and four consonantal.. There are aJtogether 375 clusters ava.ilable in the data of which 342 are two con'onantal, 31 are three consonantal and 2 are four consonantal. InitiaIIy, 21 two consonantal and 1 three consonantal clusters occur. Finally, 45 two consonantal and 1 three consonantal clusters occur. All other clusters occur medially. The number of clusters occurring in the data is very large and phenomenal in its variety. The two consonantal clusters belong to six major groups on the basis of the occurrence of the first member in combination with various consonants, the first members being stop, nasal, fricative, affricate, liquid and semivowel respectively. ~ 70 Medial clusters. : The 276 two consonantal clusters can be divided as follows: stop + == 120, nasal + == 56, Fricative + == 45, Affricate + == 3, liquid + = 48 and semivowel + = 20. The following are a few observations regarding the general nature of the clusters. 1. Geminates always occur medially. 2. A voiced stop never precedes a voiceless stop of the same series. 3. Excepting I g, Q., d ! no voiced stop follows a voiceless stop. 4. No two aspirates occur conjuctly. 5. In clusters with aspirates-voiceless aspirates follow voiceless non-aspirates while voiced aspirates follow voiced non-aspirates. 6. All unaspirated nasals except / v, Ii / follow unaspirated stc,ps. 7. AU unaspirated fricatives except / z / occur after stops of different series. The most frequent fricatives are / s, s /. 8. Almost all stops precede a trill. 9. All stops (mostly unaspirated) except the palatal series precede /1/;/1/ is preceded only by velar stops / k, g /. 10. Only / y / occurs after aU the stops.! y ! does not occur. 11. No aspirated nasal occurs in the clusters. 12. All sta,ps occur after all the unaspirated nasals. 13. All the fricatives except / h / occur as first member ofa cluster. Occurrence of I h f as second member is also rare. 14. Occurrence of I 1, 1 / before stops far exceeds its occurrence before other series. Initial cluster~. Of the 21 initial two consonantal clusters 11 have stop as the first member foI1owed by a liquid or a semivowel; 6 have fricative as the first member followed by trill or a semivowel. Final clusters. Of the 45 two consonantal clusters 8 are nasal ~ homor ganic stop clusters; 5 are fricative + stop clusters. 8 are liquid + stop and 5 are liquid + fricative. Remaining are scattered. Three consonantal clusters. Of the 31 three consonantal clusters 13 have nasal + homorganic stop as the first twO' members and others are scattered. Syllables,' Structure and type,' WDrds are divisible intO' syllables. Three are as many syllables as there are vowels in a word. Vowels form the peak of the syllable. The words may be monosyllabic, di-syllabic, tri-sylIabic, quadri-syUabic, five-syllabic or six syllabic. Five and six syllabic words are quite rare. Quadri-syl1abic words are comparatively very few. Out of 2000 words taken, more than 50 per cent are di-dyllabic, 30 per cent are monosyllabic, 16 per cent are tri-syllabic and 2 per cent are quadrisyllabic. 71 As in the case of clusters the syllables are of varied canenical forms. The major type of mOM-sylla bic words are of the following ;)anonical forms 5 CV:. eYe. ey:e, eYee, cv:ee. of wihch ev:e are the most numerous. The vowels m'ly also be nasalised. Ex : CV kha : eat tto: : that ev:c ka:p cut ka:m job thii:k to spit cve kud to limp kul dynasty pi! pill cvec kumb 800 standard measures of paddy pavs name of a month CV:CC t;):ilk pointed edge da:vl ladle Dt-syllabic. There are more than 80 types of di-syllabic words of which th'e major types h::we the following canonical forms-VCV:C vecv:c VCCV,CVCV, evcvc, Cyev:c. cvccv. CV:CV, CVCCVC, CVCCV:C. In some cases the vowels are also nasalised. Ex : VCV:C af;):y 'to call' ~ja:p 'surprise' VCCV:C ayd~:n 'vessel' apsi:ts 'by self' VCCV ars;) 'mirror' aky;) 'to hear' CVCV kh~li 'drain' kh;)rto: 'true' CVCVC k~thin 'difficult' k~vit 'poem' CVCV:C pi~:l 'banyan tree' pitu:l 'brass' CVCCV dadb 'man' daklto: 'small' CY:CV ma:mi 'maternal uncle's wife' ma:\i 'storey' CVCCVC biskit 'biscuit' b"(lbk~t 'bobcut' CVCCV:C kh::lbre:l 'coconut oil' ve.dda:t 'name of a deity' majority ofth:: words come under CVCCV, CVCV:C, CVCV. CV:CV' cvccv:e types. Tri-syllabic words.-There are altogether 325 trisyllabic words which fall nto more than 80 syllabic types and not a single type has more than 10, words to its cred:t. The m'ljor types are reduced CVC(C)VCV pattern. Ex : ath~vd;) 'Week' a:'r;)dra: 'name of a star' ::lji :rI}::l 'indigestion' treya: )lsi '83' 72 Quadri-syllabic.-Quadri-syllabic words are not many in number. A few are given as examples. Ex : dhu:vota:r:l 'polestar' kirista:vi:Q 'Christian woman' opinien 'opinion' kUQQep Oblique forms : The oblique forms are obtained by adding the oblique suffix to the noun bases. The noun bases undergo morphophonemic changes before the oblique suffix. !Jblique suffix : The phonemic shape of the oblique suffix shows variations. The most general occurrences are taken here for discussion. All the allomorphs are phonologically conditioned. / ya: - e: / ".., a: - ~ - / i: - e: / / ya:-e: I occurs after vowel ending nouns, the vowels not being .j I -u. /a:-~/ occur after consonant ending nouns. ! i:-e: / occur after -i ending nouns or those nouns having -i:- in the final syllable or consonant ending feminine nouns. The plural oblique suffix is yii:-ii:. Sometimes / - / is also dropped. Example: Sg. PI. rast:) 'road' raste :- rastya:- burge 'child' burgya:- burgya :. a:m:) 'mango' a:mya:- zha:q 'tree' zha:qa:- zha:qa:- ga:y 'cow' ga:y- z~mi:n 'floor' z;)mni:- ts;:,li 'girl' ts;)]i :- ts;)lya :- Case su(fix~s : agentive n - TIl Instrumental n dative k genitive ts:)-ci-ce:-ce.-co- cl obI. ca: loc' l ! - ! - n - nt loc.: r 75 In agentive case In! occurs after singular and /ni,! occurs after pI. Case forms Examples .. Pe:r 'guava tree' pe:ra:n Agen. Sg. pc:ra:ni Agen. pI. bhay 'fear' bhaya:n instr. ba:pa:y 'father' ba:pa:yk dat. pe:r 'guava' pe:rii :ts sg. gen. na:1 'cocoanut' nalla:ci f.sg. g~:y 'Goa' g:lycl n.sg. na:1 'cocoanut' naIIa:ce. m.pl. q:l :Iiar 'mountain' Q:lngra:co f.pl. nalla:cl n.pl. obI.: rast:l 'road~ rastya:ca: pa:vs 'rain' pavsa: loc, 'in rain' ka:li:z 'heart' lca:lza:n- 'in heart' ka:iza:nt z;mi:n 'floor' z;mni:r loc. 'on the floor' Ptm positions .. k;c,ie. 'near' la:gi 'near' m;rya:n 'near' p;su:n 'from (away)' baro:b;r 'along with' v!:gqa: 'along with' kha:ti:r 'foc' legi :t 'evett' velya:n 'from; from visl: -visi:n 'about' up' m;dJ 'among' mulCha:r 'in front of' sa:vn 'from' n;nt; :r 'after' p;r;»s 'than' a:4ve: 'across (decl.)~ upra:nt 'after' §iva:y 'except' bag;»r 'without' ma:gi:r 'later' p;»yll 'first' mhQnu:n 'so, because' mh;»fya:r 'if, that' bhit~ :r 'inside' 'outside (decl.)' paYS 'far' bhayh: Pronouns .. Persons Sg PI r ha:v ami-a:mi II tii : tumi In m. b: te: prox. h:l: be: f. ti: tyo hi: byo n. te:: t~ hl: hI: obI. tya:-te hya:-he Third person feminine usage is very limited. Neuter is used to indicate unmarried girls. . The third person pronoun without the final vowel length are used as demonstrative adjectives. In oblique, the same form is used for all ~enders 76 and numbers. The same case suffixes are used after pronouns too. In the case of accusative different forms are used and so the paradigm is given. RelatNe pronoun : Sg. PI. m. Z:l : 'which' je: f. ji: jyo n. je:: jf: obI. jya:-je ja:ce: 'whose' Retle~ive pronoun : a:ple: obI. a:ple Interrogative pronouns : kO:Q 'who?' k:l:ne.- Agen. kite: 'what?' kha'nce: 'which?' (ko:l)l:n inst. ko:Qa:k dative sg. kO:Qa:k dative pI. b:l)a:tso etc. gen. k:l:l)2 :ce:r loc.) (khancya: - oblique) [ ha:v nomi. ave: Agent. maja:n instru. ma:ka:-ma:ka: dative maj kade. sociative mal:), 'maji, m;je:, maje, majyo, majl genitive moza obi. maja:-maje. maje:r 1oc. We: ami ami amca:n amici: arne bqe. amtso, amci, amce:, ames, amcyo, amcI obi. amea: amce:r You (Sg.) ttl: tuve: tuja:n tuka:-tuka: tuj bQe. tUl:), tuji, tuje:, tuje., tujyo, tujI obI. tuje.-tuja:-tujya: tuje:r You (Pl.) tumi tumi tumca:n tumka: tunc kaQe. tumtEO, tumci, tumee:, tUDlCt, tumeyo, tumci obI. tumca: tunce:r 77 He/it t6: j tt: ta:I;lE'. - tatn: -tana taja:n ta:ka: -ta:ka: taj hde. taz:) , taji, taje:, taja, tajyo, taji (-c- is also used in the place of -j-) obI. : taje. - taj - ta :je taje:r She ti: ti :1,1E: - tiIJe: ~ tilJe. tija:n tika: tij k;:,c,ie. tiz:), tiji, tije, tije., tijyo, tijI (~c- is also used in the place of -j- ) tlJe:r They ta: ! tyo / ti: taI;li-ta:lJi tanca :ni tii:kii: tanc k;:,c,ie. tants:), tanci, tance, tancE:, tancyo, tand obI. tancE: - tance tance:r (for proximate forms t- is sllb,titutt'd with h- ) Adjectives : Declinable adjectives arc declined for three genders and two numbers. Indeclinable adjectives have the same form before nouns of all genders and numbers. E'(ample : dr :v:) ha:t 'left hand (m.sg.) ; da:ve. ha:t (m.pI.) da:vi va:t 'the left (side) (f.sg.), ; da:vyo va:to' (f.pl.)' way da:ve gha:r 'left (side) house (n.sg.)' da:vI ghara: '(n.p!.)' oblique: da:ve-da:vya: (In feminine mostly singular adjective is used for both singular and plural viz. hyo baylo - hi bayla: 'these women') s;:,sle: 'whole (used with objects of definable shape)' akhe 'all' h:)ne: 'big' 'small; a little' m:):te: 'fat' bani 'good' ma:tse: 'a little' da:vkhure 'left handed' jite: 'living (person)' ta:mc,ie: 'red' pa :tsvE'. ,'green' haJc,iuve 'yellow' Indec1inables : la:n-Iha:n 'small' ii:ts 'tall, high' la:m 'tall' kho:l 'deep' vordinar 'worthless' ts;) :<;1 'much' th;:,t}Q. 'cold' 78 Verb Morphology: Two types of formations are available (1) Finite verb, (2) Mood formation. Finite ~'erb : This consists of three components-verb stem, tense suffix, (person) gender-number suffix. Verb stem is formed from the verb root. The verb root may be transitive, intransitive or causative. The causative is formed by adding { ;l:Y } to the intransitive or transitive root. Example y:l: \:o111e' (irtr.); kha: eat (tr); tha:m;l:y 'stop' (caus.); kha :v;):y 'feed' (tr. caus.) Thei r signi'iieance is syntactic. Tense : Simple past, present, future. past perfect, p~st continuous and present perfect are the simple morphologicl! constructions. Past irrealis and various types of negative formations are periphrastic COl1structions. Tense suffixes : Simple past ! 1 ! Present J t ! Future /tl-(;)I! Past perfect J II ! Past continuous J ta:l ! The present p~rfeet though a morphological construction is distinguished from the past only in the person-gender-number suffix used in e~tch case. Person-gender-number sliffix " (Pronominal Termination : PT) I person is indicated by ! - . Other two person forms are the same The gender-number sv'iIix used in present and present perfect are different from that used in past and future. In present tense no gender difference is found. Pre~ent PT : a: sg. a:t PI. I - I I p~rson Present perfect /a:/.m. /ya:! f. I - ! I person In past and future sg. pI. m -~ -e. f -1 -vo ; n -e -1 I -! I person 79 Example: yet come past sg. pl. I m. ayl5 aylB eyl5 f. aylg aylI II, 111 m. ayl:> aylB f. ayli aylyo n. aylE: ayll present 1 da:t II, III Bta:t future I m. Btl5 Btla f. Btlg Btll II, 111 m. Btb dlB f. Btli Btlyo n. BtlE: Btll past perfect I m. ay1l5 aylIB f. ayIJe: ayUi II, III m. ayB;') ayllB f. aylli ayllyo n. aylIE: aylli past continuous I m. Bta:15 Bta:1B f. Bta:le: Bta:ll 11, III m. Bta:l~ Bta:le f. Bta:li Bta:lyo n. Bta:le: Bta:U present perfect I m· ayla: f. aylya: 11,111 m. ayla: f. aylya: Mood formations : Moods are either finite or non·finite. Some of the finite moods show person differences and Some show number differences. Finite mood 1. Imperative: Imperative shows number difference. In sg. only the root form is used and in pI. I a:t I is added to the root. 2. habitual : I pi I this gives the meaning 'one who ...... 3. Gerund (1) I ~:p I (2) I ce: I (3) I pa:ce: I 4. Potential: I t I meaning 'may...... ' S. Optative / u / I person sg./ ya: / I person pl. / u:diJIII person. 6. Indefinite future I na /. 80 non-finite moods 7. Conditional : / ya:r / 8. Verbal participial / u:n/ 9. Irlfinitive : / u:k-pa:k / 10. Continuous / t;, / 11. Adverbial: I bki:t I 12. Adverbial of concomitant action I t::lna: I examples: 1. Imperative ya:t 'come (pl.)' 2. Habitual: evpi 'one who comes habitually' 3. Gerund: e:v;,:p (1) 'coming' eVCE; (2) evpa:cE; (3) (There is slight meaning difference between the three) 4. Potential : e:t 'may come' 5. Optative : kafu (used in I per. sg. used as a benediction too) k;,fya : I pI. 'let us do' bru:di 'let him do' 6. Inddinite future 'shall come (sometimes)' Non-finite : 7. Conditional 'if done' 8. Verbal participial karu:n 'having done' 9. Infinitive : 10. Continuous k;,rt::l ' doing' 11. Adverbial : palayt::lki:t 'on seeing' 12. Adverb of concomitant tsalt::lna: 'while walking' action: Periphrastic c~nstructibns : These have two components. The first component is the mood and the second is anyone of the auxiliary verbs: y::>: come; uQ::I:y 'throw'; za:y 'wanted'; sod 'to seek'; as-'to be'; sak 'to be able to'! za: to happen' ; pale 'see'. Various formations are used for subtle meaning 81 1 ROJ/80 6 differences. Nag1.tivcs also come under the p~riphra,tic constructions. All the pcriphra<;tic comtructions arc treated a" verb phrases under syntax. Example: ma:ka: e:v za:y I want to come ha:v evna: I did not come ha:v evkuts na: I did not at all come ha:v evpa :tS;) na: 1 was not to have come (m) ha:v st13 asl3 I thought of coming (m) ha:v evts;)-evpa:ts;) na:sl5 I wOllld not have come (m) til: ev na:k1i: YOll don't came tuja:n evnQZ;J yOlt should not came maja:n evk za:ta: r can come ma:ka: evk meltU: I can come tuja:n e:v eta:" yOll can come t:>: evk sotta:1:> he want ed to come a:mi evk sodi na:t We do not I will not come ha:v evk sodi na:sle: I did not want to come (f) ts:: ka:m kQrii:k sa:ngilJe:: (1) had told to do the work ta:l).e hUt: za:tle: he might have done ta:l)e kelya:r za:ta: he can do it tu :ve: :t5 kQru:k za:y you (yourself) must do it ti rye kelya:r pur, It is cnough if she docs it tu\-e: te:: k.,rpa:k za:y you mllst do it ha:v tir: k.,ru:n eta: f sh(1.II do it and come ts:: bru:n uQovpa:ce: do it and finish it t~: k.,ru:n p.,iovce: try to do it t:>: evts:> asa:' he is to coll1~ t,: evpa:ts;J a:sb hI? w:tS La come ha:v p.,!ovk s;)k., na: ! cannot (11.::ar 10) see it Indeclin!:bles : AdVtrbs, particles and some suffixes. 1. Adverbs of place : ha:na: here th;,:y there kh;):y where? .2. ofJl1anner :>se: like this .,sb this type k;)se: how? 3. of time a:Ui: now po:rli: day b~f ore yesterday enna: by now ka:1 yesterday a:i to day fa:lya: to morrow kenna: wh~11 ? 82 Parficles: ,ts'cmphatic. This can be added to any word. tu :t, vou vourself y" :ts (you') must come za :yts is wanted (certai nly) evku:ts must come ko :nu :ts no one kgnna:ts never ma:ka:ts to me (myself) th~yi :ts there itself , y! additive particle bha :vu:y brother too hi! :vil:y Itoo daga:y both ti :y she too bh:lYl!i:y sister too tu:y you too some of the particles are used as adverbs: gh:lqiye: 'perhaps' pur" 'enough' s:ldii :t5 'always' upra:t 'after' f:ltu:f:lt 'just behind' pUl)i 'at least' t:lri 'at lea'it' gka:dr" 'perhaps' so 'likely' D('ri~'atit'es : Adjectivals- which are used as nouns as well as adjectives, derived from verbs are the only category treated here. From verbal nouns and from verb roots adjectivals are formed by adding the adjectival suffix, ! ts",~ m.sg. i Cg, m. pJ. ci i f.sg. , cyo , f.pJ. / CE: ,I n.sg. and! d r n.pI. Ex. : evts:>~evpa:ts" '(he) who comes' By adding the suffixes ':b / m.sg.{]g·m.pl. !li,T.sg.'lyo,'f.pl.,'l€::n.sg., min.pl. to some adverbs gives rise to adjectivals. Ex: bhit:lr 'inside' bhitalb 'insider' bha:yr 'outside' bhayk 'outsider' Syntax: Sentences are divided into major type and minor type. The major type of sentence has a verb in the predicate slot. In the minor type, a'olIoun, an adjective can also form the predicate. Minor type: t:>: ko:n 'who is he ? tir: bhayl~ 'she is an outsider' hE:: m;)j€: gh~:r 'this is my house' ti b:lqi la:m 'that stick is long' tuje: n8.:v kite: What is your name 1 h,,: e:k vh~:q m:lni:5 'he is a bigshot' Major type: A major type of sentence can be simple complex or com pound. A simple sentence has the following constituents-subject, predicatc.", object, complement. Predica1c is the finDI component in a sentence. It can be a simple verb or a verb phrase. Tn a sentence there is person-gender number concordance between the predicate and the subject or the object depending upon the nature of the verb. The concordance is between 83 object and predicate, if the predicate is a transitive verb in past tense; in such a sentence the subject is in agentive case. In all other cases the concor dance is between subject and predicate, complements are adverbs or adverb phrases modifying the predicate. Subject and object slots can be filled with nouns or noun phrases. Examples: 1. ekb haila: eta: one comes here subject complement predicate noun adverb verb 2. khub th;):5' gele many men wcnt there dadle. subject complement predicate noun adverb verb phrase 3. a:z th:)delo:k e :t today some people may complement subject predicate come adverb noun verb phrase 4. ha:v kh;jre :t "tI5 as15 I would have come subject complement predicate certainly noun verb phrase 5. ta:f.le t:)s::> viea:r keb he thought so subject ' objective predicate (tr. (lit. he did such thought) noun noun verb in phrase past tense) 6. avs: ta:ka: ka:m bnl ;k; 1 had told him sa :ilgillE: to do work subject indirect direct predicate noun obj. obj. 7. t;jsls: ka:m ha:v kenna:ts k»rpi 11i I am never in the object subject complement predicate habit of doing noun verb such work. phrase phrase In the case of predicate which is a verb phrase the concordance in gender number between the components is absent excepting that depending upon the kind of verb phrase the subject is either in agentive or instrumental case. The object is inferred but not present. Examples: 8. ta:ne: ke.la: za:tls: he might have done it . sub. pred. agentive verb phrase case 9. tuja:n koru eta you can do it sub. pred. instru. verb. phrase 10. til :IJe keJya:r za:ta: he can do it sub. pred. (i.e. it is o.k. if he does it) agent verb phrase 84 When the predicate is a tran<;itive verb in pa<;t tense the gender-number suffix of the predicate varies as per the p~rson of 1he subject even though the construction is passive and the subject is in ag'~nl.ive case as follows: 11. aVE: sa :ilglE: 1 said 12. tuv§: saIlgHi : yOU! he said ta :1)E: } 13. tu:ve: ma:ka: tuja:mo:ga:n ba:du:n dh~IIa: You tied me with sub. olJj. com pIe predicate xour love agcnt adv. phrase verb phrase (lit: you having tied caught me with your love) Concordance in phrases: Concordance in gender -number is present between constituents of the noun phrase when the head is in nominative case. If the head is inflected for case, all the preceding constituents are in oblique case. Ex. : g:)yts:> itiha:s history of Goa s;)g!E. m;)ni:s all people s;)g!ya: m;)l1sa:k to all people ta:jo ts;)tyo his ascents hanca: p;)rm;)Ja:n with their smell tuz:) mo:g your love m;)ja: ka:!z(l.:n in my heart tuja: sund;:,rka:ye:n with your beauty tuja: burgya: visi:n about your children tujE. ta:rnqE. ma:tyE. v;)lya:n oVer your red soil hi: m;)ji bsli pise:p;)f,l;) what a madness of mine is this t tuz:) itb me:g so much of your love Complex sentences: CO'mplex sentences contain tWQ" or more clauses, one of them the main clause is independent and the othcr clause (s) is/are dependent upon the main clause. The subordinate clause can be a noun clause or an adverbial clause. The clauses preceded by particles such as mhul). 'that'; se: - so 'that' or jE.nna: ...... tE.nna: 'when ...... then'; za:lya:r 'if; dekun 'because'; ;)s§:-;)Z() 'that' are the adverbial clauses modifying the predicate of the main clause. Examples: 14. tuve::ts k;)ru:k za:y mhuf,l na : It is not necessary that you yourself should do it. 15. ha:v (€:) ta:ka: tE.nl1a:ts sa:ilgle: ha:v e.:lla: mllUI} I told him then itself that I won't come 16. have:jE.nna: ta:ka: sa:Iigle: tE.nna: ta:ka: tir: kh;lre: disk when I said (it) to him, he thought it true 17. t:>: kE.nna: db so dista: tuka: when will he come do you think? 18. tllka: za:y za:lya:r y:): If you want, (you) come. 19. ;)rbi s;)mudr;) ta:ka: ga:vn nid;)yta: dekun g:>yka:r burgya: ca: ka:lza:cE. za:!ya: 85 Because the Arabian sea puts them to sleep Goans arc like children The clauses juxtaposed without the particles or preceded by the partIcle ki 'that' are nounc]auses occurring as subject or object of the predicate of the main clause. 20. g:>ya: e.vpa:ce: m~ja: il1;)na: nu:sille: I did not want to come to Goa. 21. tii: p:lyli:ts za:l).a asille: ki ha:v ha:na: e.tls you knew (it) already that I shall come bere. Compoulld Sentence: This consists of more than one main clausc connccted by ani 'and' pUl). 'but'; 22. ta:lJi ma:ka: sa:ilgu:n p:l!e.le: pUl). ha:ve: aykile: na: They tried to tell me but I did not hear 23. e.ka: va:te:n ma:ka: khusi bhogta:Ji ani dusre. va:te:n vu:yt dista:le:. On one hand Xwas feeling happy and on the other hand 1 felt bad. 86 PART IV ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS During the scrutiny of me>ther-tongues and classification of languages of India. in Census oflndia 1961, it was observed that Konkani has a vast speaking area in the western littoral begi nning from Maharashtra in the north and ending in Kerala in the south, having eontacts with different other languages. A scientific study of this language was visualized by this organisatic·n and a project to this effect was taken up by Language unit of the Census Organiza tion. The Konkani survey in Maharashtra was entrusted to this investigator. This study is done on purposive sample bases for which 300 samples are collected from diff.3rent parts of Maharashtra state representing a sizeable population of Konkani speakers. They are drawn from all the strata of society. Here it is my first duty to thank all of my informants. It is due to their help I could bring out this report. I would not forget to show my gratitude to Shri n.v. R'lngnekar, the Deputy Superintendent of Census Operations of Maharashtra, who had taken a kieen interest in this report. He has helped this investigator in collecting the samples; arranged and guided me in con tacting diff~rent informants not only in Bombay but also outside Bombay. I thank S'uvashri N.Y. Gore, A.W. Mahatme, R. N. Pongurlekar, S. Gandhi, S. S. Dandekar, Abhyankar and others for their coopeJ ation during my investigations. I would like to thank Shri G. S. Gohrn who had helped me very much bdore and after my leaving the census organization. Mr. R. C. Nigam, the architect of this project, ha'i directed this work by giving valuable suggestions from time to time. I thank my colleagues Dr. M. R. Ranganatha, Mr. R.A. Singh and Mrs. K. Chaudhuri with whom I have discussed my problems, whenever required and got full cooperations from them. My thanks to Mr. S. P. D_ltta who has helped me in collection of dat:l on shorter schedules from Bombay and Poona. 87 INTRODUCTION Konkaui is a language of the Southern-group of the outer sub-branch of Indo-Aryan family with a total of 1,352,363 :;peakcrs, according to the Census of India 1961, having main concentration in south of Maharashtra, Mysore, Goa, Kerala and a part of Madras. In 1961 Census If names of mother-tongues hayc been grouped under Konkani. They arc as follows :- Konkani: Bhatkal 2 Chcttibhasha Konkani 1,346 Daldi 31 Firangi 5 Goanese 4,320 Gaudasciraswata 29 Gaudapra Krutha . 23 Kargoni 6 Karwari 286 Khokili 13 Konkani 1,337,134 Korlani 108 Kudubi 7,840 Kumki 2 Moopan 473 Nawait 749 Originally Konkani was the language of Goa and, Konkan (the western littora!). In early days some of its speakers moved out from Goa toward North and South in pursuit of their employment, trade and commerce and got themselves settled wherever they could earn their bread. This movement was for the sake of earning the bread. Muslim conquest was also effective in causing the emigration of Konkani speakersl • But this emigration was more extensive and eff~ctive when Portuguese captured Goa and started the inquisition there, which was followed by the royal proclam3.tion of 1684, forbidding the use of Konkani among the native-s 2 • The reign of terror let loese by the Portuguese drove out 8 large number of people from Goa. 3 The people settled in the neighbouring territories and acquainted themselves with the language of the settling place. The language of settling place was adopted by them for the literary and official use preserving Konkani within their home. Apparently, Portuguese destroyed all early records and literature that were available in Konkani4 • Even in the absence of a script but being the speech of a well organised group of people it has survived to this day as a living language of domestic use of more than one million of speakers most of whom are billingual or triIIinguaP. Having a wide spread from Maharashtra to Kerala, the language shows possible dialectal varations which go hand in hand with social and religious stratification of the ,ociety. These vadous dialects of this language would be described at a later stage. Grierson, G. A.-Linguistic Survey of India., Vol. VIT, pagc 163 "The Original seat of the Language was Gomantak or Goa" 1. The Chitrapur Sara<;wata, 1956 Census Report and Directory Compiled by the Census Working Committee of the Kanan.a Saraswata Associtaion (Regd.) Bombay. 2. Ibid 3. Katre, S. M.-The Formation of Konkani, page 174. 4. Grierson, G. A.-LinguistiC Survey of Il1dia-Vol. VB. page-166. 5. Katrc, S. M.-Thc Form1tion of Konkani, page 174. 88 Grierson in his Linguistic Survey of India treated Konkani as a dialect of Marathi. But subsequent work<; like Dr. S.M. Katre's research on "Porm?.tion of Konkani" have tried to show that KOl1kani can be treated as a separate language and not a dialect of Marathi. Before Census of India 1961 also K ')'nkani was regarded as a separate language. In Census of lndiaf 1891, Konkani was treated as an independent language, its total number 0 speakers 1,565,391 were shown separately 6. But during his classification Grierson grouped this language as a dialect of marathi and stated ...... "The dialectic difference within Marathi area are comparatively small and there is one dialect that is Konkani" 7. Again in Census of India 1931. it was given a status of separate language. In this connection the remark of J. H. Hutton on o.~mus ofrndia 1931 Vol. r Part I report may be quoted ...... "a few alterations of minor importance have been made in the classification of the languages ali compared with that of 1921 ...... of one to the southern group of Indo-Aryan Branch Ko'nkani be treated as a separate language and not as a dialect of Marathi" 8. His remark is based on the report of Sorley on Census of India 1931., Bombay Vol. VIII, Part I where" he mentions as follows ...... ; ..... " KO'nkani is properly the language spokien in Goa and in parts of the western littoral. It is cO'nsidered by scholars to be derived not fmm Marathi but separately and earlier from another Prakrit" 8. Dr. Katre also favours it. Since then it was again taken as a separate ·language in subsequent Censuses of India reports. History of Konkani language It would bi~ interesting at this stage to 10'0](; into the history of Konkani Konkani and Marathi were the offshoO'ts of a common Prak!rit, from which they branched off in early days. Reg3.rding this GriersO'n states ...... "KO'nkani is a Marathi dialect having branched off frO'm common Prakrit , at a relatively early period" 9. Since then both the languages were in use. Marathi was the language of Maharashtra and Konkani was the language of Konkan, i.e. Goa and the region between W3stern Ghat and Arabian seaTO. Maharashtra was the empire of Maratha Kings therefore they acquired the native language. Being accepted as a favoured speech by Maratha kings and also by the local p~ople, it was given all possible chances and protections to develop its own literature. It adopted Devanagri script for its use. But on the other hand Konkani was altogether neglected. With the capture of Goa, Portuguese became the rulers of that state. Therefore it was natural for them to- enforce their speech ali much as possible. So it was not given any protection and was not allowed to develop its script. All its o-ld literature was destroyedll and no new literature in this language was allowed to develop. But being used persistently by its speakers it could remain alive to this day as the spoken medium ofthe people in their home as well as in the market etc. Though it could not develop any written literat1.!re, it has a vast Widely popular indegenO'us folk literatme, it was attested in the Linguistic Survey of Indiau also. Some scholars like Raibahadur Talmaki have tried to colle ct and compile - 6. Grierson, G. A.-Linguistic Survey of India-Vol. VII, page-165. 7. Hutton, 1. H.-Census of India 1931, Vol. I Pt·I report. 8. Hutton, J. H.-Census ofIndia 1931', Vol. I Pt.-I rePort, page 350. 9. Grierson, G.A.-Linguistic survey of India - Vol. VII page 164. 10. Ibid-'Konkani means the language of konkan i.e. the strip of country between the ghats and sea'. p. 163. ,11. Katre, S.M. - The formaton of konkan; - page 174. 12. Grierson, G.A.-Ling'Jistic survey of India, Vol. VlI, page 167 89 1 RGl/SO 7 them. This investigator himself has collected some folk songs and proverbs which would be given along with the text Poems and songs, idioms and phrases comprising a rich vocabulary are well in use in this language. Many infNmants whom the investigator contacted, are of the opinion that prior to the Portuguese invasion this speech was having Devanagri script. Linp;uistic Survey of India also agrees to ijl3. But after the conquest of Goa no further use of Devanagri was allowed, so a Roman character was adopted and in other states the speakers switched over to the provincial scripts. The earliest available record of Konkani is "Sprachmeister" the selection of Lord's prayer in a comparative form in Indian languages by Johann Friedrich, published in 1748, where Konkani is recorded in Nagri script14. In "symphona symphona' of Iwaris Abel which was published in the yerin 1782 Konkani was taken for the comparative study of the vocabulary of Indian language including "parts of body, Heaven, Sun, Certain animals, water, trees the personal pronouns the numerals and so on 15". In the year 1816 William Carry had an inquirY "bout Indian bllSluagos. He collected 34 speech specimens of 33 languages of India. Konkani -was one of themlS • Later in the year 1853 Sir Eerskine 'Parry, the then chief justice of Bombay High. Court pnhlished a paper on 'Geographical distribu tion of principal languages of India', where he included Konkani as one of the principal language,,17. Next comes the Census of India 1891 where Konkani was returned with a total of 18,OIl,948 speakers. Since tnen it is being returned in all the following censuses. It is thus clear that through out in history Konkani hac:; had individual recognition as an important form of speech spoken by a consider~hlv large number of speak;()l's. During his classification Grierson grouped Konkani as a dialect of Marathi. But from 1931 Census it was again taken as a separate language. In the year 1942 Dr. Katre in his 'The formation of Konkani' gave a detailed account of the historical development of this speech. Recently Dr. A. M. Ghatage under the scheme 'A survey of Marathi dialects' has published, books on this speech like, Konkani of South Kanara and Konkani of Kudali. These works are the descriptive study of this speech and are more recent. Regarding these works Dr. Katre's opinion, in the preface to the second edition of his book-The Formation of Konkani is more significant, which is as follows "~ great deal of descriptive work remains to be done with regards to the dIalects of Konkani ; a beginning has been made by Dr. A. M. Ghatage but there are certain inherent defects in the information elicited and much 13. Grierson, G.A.-Linguistic survey of India, Vo1.VII, page 167 14. Ibid-Vol. I, pt, pages 4 & 5. "We may anticipate chronological order by mentioning las} attempt at compar ing languages solely by collecting versions of Lord's prayer. This was the sprac hmeister of Johann Friedrich Fritz .... it contains 172 pages of various alphabets including many coming from India. 56 pages of tables showing the first ten num erals and 128 pages with numerous p1a.tes of versions of Lord's prayer. The Indian alphabets explained are Bengali, Tamil,Burmese,Grantha,Telgu,Singhalese an~ Nagari. Indian versions are Latin (in Nagari character) Sanskrit Hindostani, GUJarati,Marathi.Konkani Singhalese, Malay in Bengali character". 15 Ibid-page 9. 16 Grierson, G. A.-Linguistic Scrvey of Iudia, Vol. 1, Pt-l, P : 12 17 Parry, Sir Eersldne - Geographical distribution of principal language India- - 1953. 90 more needs to be done in the field of dialectology". It seems Dr. Ghatage agre.eing with Grierson took for granted that this speech is the dialect of Marathi18• That is probably why he has not mentioned anything about its geneological relationship anywhere, in his works and started his work taking for granted Konkani as a dialect of Marathi. Here it would be worthwhile to note that Grierson got much of his informations on Konkani from Christian Missionaries of Mangalore and Goa. For this he acknowledges them as "The missionaries of Goa and Mangalore to whom we are largely indebted for our knowledge of Knokani are of similar opinion and contend that Konkani is not a dialect of Marathi." 19. Native writers of that time Were also oi the same opinion as of the missionaries of Goa and Mangalore. But considering the absence of literature, Grierson grouped this language in Marathi. But it is a fact, whether language or dialect, both the speeches are quite old and are being spoken by a large number of people. Geographical .spread As already stated the main spread of this language is in Goa, Maharashtra KeraIa and a part of Madras. This wide spread of the speech experiences different language contacts. In north it in comes in contact with Maratbi in south it is in contact with Malayalam and in centre it is in contact with Kannada. This contact has also its share in producing dialectal variations in the speech. According to the Census oflndia 1961, the number of speakers of this speech in each state is as follows :- Goa, Daman & Diu 556,557 Mysore 492,339 Maharashtra 214,686 Kerala 77,594 Field study of Konkani Mahuashtra state Our present study is the iield study of Konkani language as spoken on Maharasntra state whicb has been undertaken from the following points of vWW'. (i) Descriptive study (ii) Study of dialects distinguished in respect of topological difference and lOocio religious ratification of the speakers. 18. Ghatage, Dr. A. M. - A Survey of Marathi dialects - 1. Konkani of SoUfib Kanara-page 111. Introduction:" By name Kclnkani is meant A number of Marathi dialects spoken ato.ng the west co~t of Maharastra, Goa and apart of M)'Sote with small pockets reaChing the west of Kerala ". 19. Linguistic survey of India, vol. v11. page 164. 91 Geographical area; As per Census of India 1961, 214,686 speakers of Konkani have been returned from Maharashtra state with the follo.wing numbers in each district District No. of speakers .Greater' Bombay 192,773 Poona 6,170 Ratnagiri . 3,834 Thana 3,786 Kolhapur. 641 Nasik 587 Kolaba 456 . Sholapuf 390 Sangli 377 Ahmadnagar 375 Satara 419 Nagpur 509 Amarawati 124 Jalgaun 125 Aurangabad 85 Wardha 43 Yeotmal 31 Akola 21 Osmanabad 20 Bhandara. 13 NandDe. . 13 Chanda 11 Parbhani 6 It shows that most of the Konkani speaking population . in Maharashtra is concentrated in Greater Bombay (91.4 %), Poona (2.7%) and in southern ta]ukas of Ratnagiri districts. It was also found on the examination ofIan guagetables that out of 214,686 speakers in Maharashtra 4,164 speakers are returned from rural areas and the remaining population of Konkani speakers are spread in ~rban areas. It was decided that a complete survey of Konkani area in ~aharashtra including urban and rural areas, should be done, which should also cover variations of sp.eech dueto social-stratification of the speakers. This would present the dialect situation of Kankarii in Maharastta state Speakers of Konkani Konkani is not the language of a single homogenous community but of different heterogenous social and religious groups including mainly Brahmins and Christians and others. Branmins-As already mentioned, prior to Portuguese conquest Goa was the main centre of Brahmins, praticularly of Saraswati-the goddess of learning and believe that their remote ancestors had their home in Kashmir from where they travelled to south and settled themselves on the bank of river Saraswati. Afterwards from here they have travelled to south and east. In Goa the immigration of Brahmins took place in two stages. At one stage the Brahmins came directly from Kashmir and in other stage they came via Gaud Pradesh (Bengal). The earlier were Chitrapur Saraswate. They are mostly vegetarian. Later immigrants came via Gaud Pradesh and are called a Gaud-Saraswatas, they are mostly non-vegetarians. Both of them follow vedic religion and subscribe to Aswalyana system of Grihyasutras 20 which lay down household rituals for Brahmins from birth to death • They built their temples there. As population increased they came out of Goa in pursuit of the employment and trade and moved towards south and north. This movement was more rapid after the conquest of Goa by Portuguese. Brahmins fled away from Goa and settled in the neighbouring territorks. Most of them came to Maharashtra. These saraswatas still have certain fa.mily deity in Goa, which is linked with Gotra oftheir family. The following family deities were recorded from our informants during the investigation. They are, Mangesh, Shanta Durga, Nava Durga, Mahalaxmi, Mahalasa, Nagesh, Ganpata. Still these people whenever they get chance, go to worship tbeir deity in Goa. They perform the ceremonies like the practice of the family "Devakarya". It is a ceremony celebrated at their home in honour of their family deity on certain prescribed days. The ceremony includes the worship of the family deity followed by a feast to which a few ladies and gentlemen of neighbourhood are invited. It is held thrice in a year on special days, in the month ofShravan, Asbvin and Magh. Names and surnames are linked with the family God and he original village. Hindu cummunities other than Brahmins-Some communities other tban. Brahmins like Sonars, Shrigars etc. also have Konkani as their mother tongue. But their number is small. . Christians-Christian community constitutes a major part zrnong the Konkani speakers. They are mostly converted christians. As already mentioned earlier that original seat ofKonkani was Goa, its original speakers were Hindus. But soon after capturing Goa, Portugue~e started Holy institution of Goa, resulting the emigration of Goan people towards the neighbouring territories. Those who remained were forced to convert themselves to Christianity. Brahmins were also affected. Some of them also got converted to Christinity. Some of the Goan christians call themselves as Brahmin-Christian. Dialects of Konkani in Maharashtra, basis for distinction According to the folk-history and informations supplied by our informants, the persons who have returned their mother-tongue as Konka.ni in Maharashtra 20. Based on the book "The chitrapur saraswata-I956 Census report and Directory-Chapter-!" 93 state have come and settled in this state from Goa in different stages such as ! 0) At the time of occupation of Goa by Portuguese. (Ii) After the occupation of Goa by Pcrtuguese. (i) At the time of occupation of Goa by Portuguese-As Portuguese invaded Goa the people went out of Goa towards North and South Kanara and Maharashtra. They moved out of Goa to save their religion as Portuguese were compelling them to be converted into Christianity. These people were Brahmins, mainly of Gaud and Chitrapur Saraswata communities. Besides these Sonars also came with them. Those Who came to Maharashtra adopted the local dialect known as Kudali dialect. The others who went to South and North Kanara adopted Kanada language for their official use and Konkani as the means of communication at home enriching itself by Kanarese words. After sometime these people again migrated to Maharashtra for earning their bread. Therefore this first migration in Maharashtra was also done in two stages (i) directly from Goa, (ii) indirect viz. via Mysore, giving definite variations in the speech. The. people directly migrated to Maharashtra settled in Ratnagiri district and their language is named after the place-the Kudalpaeta as Kudali Konkani. The speech of people who migrated to Maharashtra via Mysore is having K ",narese words and other local language effects like euphonisation etc, These people were mostly Brahmins. A few other communities like Sonars h,we also came with them, but there speech is not having much differences with that of Brahmins therefore this type of speech is termed henceforth as Brahmin dialect. After the occupation of Goa by Portuguese the major population of Goa was. converted into Christianity. After sometime these people also moved out to Kanaras a.nd Maharashtra for their bread. Many of the Christians who came to Kanara again migrated to Maharashtra. As now there are two groups of Christians speaking Konkani in Maharashtra State as Goan Christian and Manglorian Christians having variations in the speech. Thi'S traditional belief seems to be supported by the linguistic peculiarities and characteristics of each group. A brief sketch of the individual peCUliarities of each of the dialects is given below :- Brahmin dialect This dialect contains more Kanarese words. For example : Brahmin dialect Other dialect kanari: arso 'mirror' arbi . dhabdhaba 'waterfall' gursila jh5pari: 'hut' kh~ri: dari: 'valley' bigatu cabi: 'key' Generally the words ending in consonants in other dialects are euphonised [made to end in vowel J by adding the vowels [ a J [ u J and [ i ] For example: Brahmin aialect Other dialect [hatu] [hat) hand [ b:)ta ] [ b:>t 1 finger [ cari J [car ) four [kapusu] [kapusJ cotton 94 Affricates [ C], [ch], [ j], [jh], are more frequently used in this dialect. [ w ] bilabial semi-vowel is met in this dialect. Specially after [ s ]. [ sw;rg; ] Heaven [ sw;t;h ] self [ sw;cch ] clear [ sw.,pn., ] dream Gender Feminine suffix-ika and itri : is only met in this dialect in the following words. [ lekhika ] authoress [ k.,viitri ] poetess [ siksika ] tutoress Case-suffix [ gel; 1, [geli], [gele], [I; 1, [Ii], [Ie], [lj;], [ geljo ] the possessive case suffix are found in this dialect- [ ramal., gh;r; ] Ram's hcrse [ rampli gaj ] Ram's cow [ m.,gel., jhilg:> ] my son [ tumgeli dhuvo ] your daughter [ tigeli pust.,b ] her book [ yam ale ghore J Ram's fJOrses Numerals- Phonemic differentiation as mentioned above is noted in Numerals which can be observed from the comparative chart of numerals given in the foIIowing pages. Verbs [ Ci: ] suffix is added to the verb root to make its infinite form. For example :- V;CUCE: to go k;rcE: to do dhaucE: torun marce: to beat This Brahmin dialect is mainly spoken by Gaud-Saraswata and Chritapur Saraswata communities. Considering these different communities it was presumed that there may be dialectal variations on the basis of these speech communities. But on the analysis of the data from both of these communities no notable linguistic peculiarity has been observed to keep Chitrapur-Saraswata and Gaud Saraswata speeches as the separate dialects except a few words in use. For Example : Gaud Saraf.wafa Chitrapur Saraswata ame: kas;v tortoise mas;li j.,l;ki fish ing;l; bl;sOl charcoal j::>ti hi:li flame p;rv.,t guq,q.; mountain 95 Christian dialect Words end in both consonants and voweIs- The frequency of occurrence of [ ;) J is relatively greater in these dialects than the other dialects. [;) J in christian dialect sometimes corresponds to [ ;) J, [~], [a] of oth.:r dialects. Other dialect Christian dialEct m~ntri : m~ntri minister g;)r;)j g;)f;)Z reason j;)min z.,min land majha m:lz;) my e is more open in these dialects and sound like [e;)] [~J o~ [ghe;)] take p'll 11'0'111'<::, w:~h 1 try:i) d ~n~al frintive [fJ U;)btJ only [b;)r;)f] tie [f;)l] fruit The pal jjh/ is it palatal voiced aspirated stop jjh;:!ndal flag jjha ruj broomstick Lateral retroftex II! looses its retroflection and pronounced as III dental lateral. Is;:!rall - IS'Jr'Jlj straight /goli/ - Igoli/ bullet 98 Retroflex nasal /1)./ also looses its retl'offection and pronounced as /nl the dental nasal. /kar'Jl)./ /kar~n/ reason c:>, d, cc, cb are possessive case I'.uffixes. Sentence structure is the same as of the other dialects, It is thus clear from the above mentioned comparisons that the Konkani spoken in Maharashtra state can be distinguished into four dialects extra linguis tic factors as expalined earlier also lend support to their dialectal divisions. Method of Sample collection As already mentioned this study has been done to prsent the dialeet situation of Konkani in Maharashtra state. For this, investigations were done in two stages. In the first stage, the data was collected from the filed to have a preliminary id~a of the structural system of the speech with its possible variations. Therefore Greater Bombay, the area of maximum concentration of Konkani speakers in M,l.harashtra state was selected as the first study area. In course of study it was noticed that in Greater Bombay, those, who returned, their mother tongue as Konkani, are either frem Goa, South or North Kanara or Ratnagiri district. Most of them belong to Sara swata community or Catholic community. Few of them belong to other communities of Hindus. It was also noted that the dialectal variations are mainly due to caste. So some data was collected from Saraswata Brahmin informant and Goan Christian informants on the basis of a bigger schedule as contained in the field word book of Language Division consisting of 1100 words 574 sentences. and some connected text. It was also leatnt that there is another type of dialect known as Kudali Konkani spoken in kudal pet a of Ratnagiri district. Therefore, data for this dialect was collected from an informant from Sawantwadi of Ratnagiri district. After the collection of the data from the field the material was examined and short of schedule comprising of 300 words and 88 sentences covering all important patterns of speech and also dialectal variations was prepared. This schedule was ready to be applied at the village level to give a complete picture of dialectal situation of Konkani in Maharashtra state. This was to be done in the second spell of investigation. After giving due consideration to the problem of method of selecting a suitable sample list of informants. Basis of the selection ofinformants On the examination of language tables of Maharshtra state, it was found that in 1961 census maximum number of speakers of Konkani were returned from Greater Bombay. Further leaving Greater Bombzy there were 26 talukas in 13 districts which had 100 or more speakers of Konkani. Therefore, it was decided to cover all these 26 talukas for preparing the list of informants. It was also decided to keep 300 speech specimens of Konkani as the maximum target for this study. As greater Bombay had the maximum speakers (91.7 per cent), 200 samples was kept target from this place, Rest 100 samples were kept to be taken from other talukas. Efforts w~rc also made to include in the sample adequate number of informants representing caste economic and areal differences. 99 Accordingly a statement showing the number of specimens of samples to ,be collected from each t:'.luka, during survey was prep,l.red which is as follows: Sample for stlrl'ey oj KOJ1kani Language Centre Konkani Sample District ----- speakers No. of Rural Urban persons Greater Bombay 200 192,773 200 Thana Bassein 31 682 IS Kalyan 4[ 738 Dombi- va Ii 1 ~ 15 103 Ambar- I nath 21 43.2 Thana 3) 1,133 Kolaba Panvel 2 109 2 Ratnagiri Kan~a- I Chiplun 11 101 2'5 V<'.Ji 21 Ratna- I 324 Maiwan 21 giri 2 ~ 324 Kudal 4)- 18 Malwan 3[ 7 413 Vengurla 5 I Vengurla 1) 98 Swant- I wadi 5J Nasik Nasik 2, III 6 Deolali I Ca.nt. 2f 6 236 Igatpuri 2) 110 Jalgaon Bhuswal 2 95 2 Ahmadnagar Newasa .2 Ahmad- nagar 2 144 4 Poona Poona ") City ll[ 2,605 25 Kirkee I Cant. 1 r 25 217 Poona I Cant. 13J 2,823 Satara Panch- gani 2 116 .2 SangIi Miraj 2 Miraj 2 113 4 Sbolapur Shola- pur 2 32<3 2 Kolhapur Ajra 2") Kolha- 4 pur 2 243 6 Chandga 2) Amaravati Amara- vati~ 2 99 2 Nagpur Nagpur .2 411 2 Total 26 271 297 100 After d-~ciding th(~ mmlbcr of sampks to b3 collected from each district ort;..1ub., th' q'lc;~il)11 ofsclcc:ion of informant came up. As far a~ Greater Bombay was concerned 200 informants were tc be selected from different strata of the society. After a careflll exam.ination of different social strata of Konkani sp-;akers it was decided to have samples in the following manner: Goan Christians 75 Gauda Saraswat 20 Chitrapur Saraswat 20 Goan Hindu 30 Vaishya Vani (Ratnagiri District) 10 Others 45 Total- 200 In the office ofthe S.C.O. of Maharashtra the detailed lists of Konkani families from different christian and non-christian organizations of Greater Bombay were collected for this purpose. In the urban areas of other districts from where 100 or more speakers were found, the municipal authorities were requested to do the same. Aftel collecting these informations the second spell of work was sta.rted. The collection was done here on the basis of short schedule as was referred to earlier. But the progress was slow as it took long time, and the informant was not willing to spare So much time. Then after a comp1.rative study of a few samples, it was found that his schedule could further be shortened without loss of quantity in data. Therefore another smaller schedule consisting of 150 words and 30 sentences was pr,epared and was applied speedily to finish. 347 speech specimens were collected from different types of informants from different places. The details of survey are as follows : Greater Bombay 230 (all urban) Goan Christian 75 Manglorian Christian 25 Gaud Saraswata 30 Chitrapur Saraswata 20 Kudali 25 Maiwani 25 Others 30 Thana district 10 (all urban) Vascind Kudali 1 Malwani 2 Kalyam Goan Christian 2 Kudali 2 Bassein Gaud Saraswata 3 Kolaba district 4 Panvel Gaud Saraswata 2 Others 2 101 Poona district 28 (all urban) Gaud Saraswata 6 Chitrapur Saraswata 3 Christian 13 Others 6 Nasik 12 (all urban) Deolali Christian 2 Kudali 1 Others 1 Goan Christian 4 Igatpuri Goan Christian 4 Jalgaon 2 (all urban) Bhusawal Christian 2 Sangli 4 (2-urban, 2-rural) Miraj 2 Malwani (urban) 2 Malwani (rural) Sholapur district S (all urban) Christian 2 Kudali 1 Others 2 Kolahpur district 10 (4-urban, 6- rural) Kolhapur Malwani 2 Others 2 Ajra Christian 2 Kudali 1 rural Chandgarh Christian 2 all rural Kudali Amarawati district 4 (all urban) Christian 4 102 Nagpur district 3 (all urban) Christian 3 Ratnagiri district 35 Sawantwadi Kudali 4 (2-urban, 2-rural) Kanakavile Goan Christian 2 (all rural) Malwani 3 Malwan Malwani 4 (3-urban, I-rural) Goan Christian 3 (I-urban, 2-rural) Vengurla Malwani 3 urban Christian 4- (I-urban, 3-rural) Kudali 2 rural Kudal Kudali 4 rural Ratnagiri Goan Christian 4 urban Chiplu Christian 2 rural PHONOLOGY On the basis of the analytic study of various speech specimens of Konkani from different places in Maharashtra state, the overall patt6rn of the phonemic system of this speech is cRarted below Front Ce.ntral Back Nasalization VOWELS Close i : u u: /-/ Half Close e [c] 0 Half open e. [Q] Open a " CONSONANTS Bilabial Labio-dental Dental Retrofl~x Palatal Velar GloW.. 1 Stop p b t d t d k g ph bh th dh " kh gh Affricate [cl [j] c j [jh] ch jh Nasal m n 1). mh nh fi Lateral 1 lh Rolled r rh Flap [r] [fh1 Fricative [fJ s[z] [zh] [8] v [vh] b Semi-vowel [w] y 103 On the basi~ of analytic study of various speech specimen.s *of Konkani from different places in Maharashtra state, Konkani speech may be divided. into 4 m2'.ior dialects. Out of these four di,lects two ale b;lscd on castes and two ale h~sed. on geographical di<;tribution. The dialects which are distin§!:uish ed or the basis of castes a1 e Saraswata or Brahmin diakct (including speech of Gaud Saraswata and Chitrapur S"raswata) and Christ::tD di?Jects which includes Goanese christian and Manglorian chri,tian speech. The other dialects which are based on geographical distribution are kudn.1i di::lect which is the "'peech of Ratnagiri district and the other dialect as Northern speech which is spoken in Nasik, BhusawaI, Amalawati and N?gpur. A compara tive Phonological study of these dialects has been presented below :- 10 Vowels and 32 consonants including two semi-vowels phonemes are found in overall phonemic system of konkani speech of Mahara:-htra. Vowels; Vowels 2,re distinguished as short and long vowels. There are two long vowels and 8 short vowels. The vowels show a three-fold contra.~t in position ?,g to front, central and back vowels. Front and Back vowels show a three-fold contrast in height as to high, mid and low. The central vowels show only two-fold contrast :;>,s to mid and low. Phonetically the low front and low back vowels fe.J and [::l] are higher than the low central vowel [a). Mid central vowel [;l] is phoneticallY lower than the other two mid vowels. Frequency of ocurrences of the long vowels is relatively less than that of short vowels in general. N2,salization of vowels is quite prevalent. Euphoniz3tion of the final consonant by [i] [ul [;:,J, of the words ending in conson2.nts is the peculiarity of the Brahmin or Saraswata dialects. Vowel f::l] has more functional lo?.d in Christian dialects and is also substituted for [;:,] and [a] of other dialects in initi?.l and medi(l.1 positions. The vowels are described in detail in the follwoing lines- [i] a high, front, unrounded short vowel occuring the all the positions. Some words occuring with a final consor,:J,nt in other dialects are euphonised in Brahmin dialects by the addition of [i] in the final position. Brahmin Christian Kudali NJrthern dialect dialect dialect speech /iccha/ /iccha/ /iccha/ /iccha/ wish /mi : sit /mi : si/ jmi : sij /mi : si/ moustache /gi)ecfl /gill)al (gil!)a( (gi1nal to swalloW /caril /car/ Icarl /car/ four /c;:,ci( /c5c/ Ic5cj /c5cl beak fha ';ij /::lhrj /::lhr/ Ihar/ bring -----,, *300 Samples were coJlected on the basis of short Questionnaire, Details of th~ s?mpJes given in the Introduction. 104 li:1 a high front unrounded long vowel occuring all the positions. Brahmin Ch.rission Kudali No.rthern dialect dia/eo dialect speech /i : sW:lr/ Ii : su/ !i : sw~r! Ii : sW;Jr! God Ii : t:ll Ii : tl Ii : t/ Ii : t/ fertilizer Ivi : t:l/ /vi : t! jvi : t! /vi : tl brick /moti/ !moti! jmotil /motil pearl Ie] Phor.eme Ie! hrs two allophones [e] and [e] [e] is;;1 half long mid front unrounded vowel occuring in words having two syllables-C VI V 2 where C is any consonant V 2 is a vowel or a euphonic vowel in Brahmin dialect then VI will be [6]. It is met in Brahmin dialect only. Examples.- Braamin dialect Ike' sui hair Ive' ji/ covering sheet Ide' su/ country [eJ is a front unroundeJ. sho['~ vowel oceming in all the positiol's other than tha: of [e] environment in Brahmin dialect and ir all the positions in other dia;ects. Examples . Brahmin Chri"tian Kudali Nortl1ern dialect dialect dialect Speech /ekvi:s/ /ekvi:sl je;"vi:s! lekvi :si twenty one /setbri/ IsetkamptJ! Isetk:lfl/ /setbri :/ farmer /dev:ll:l/ /dev:ll, /dev:lll /dev:ll! temple /ghorel /ghore( /ghorel /ghore( horses [E] is a low front unrounded long vowel occuring in all the dialects and in an the positions. Brahmin-dialect Crlristian Kudali Northern dialect dialect speech /etninaSlk/ letlhas~ ;,;( /etlhasik/ /etihasik/ histodeal !ei~bcij /eki:lcij jddocij /eklocil alone Ikedna/ lkE-dna/ Ikednal /kednaj when /all£:! /311£:1 laUE: I allE:! ginger [a] Phoneme!:l/ has got two allophones /;J/ and !g/ [Q] is a half long low central unrounded vowel occuring in the pemutimate syliable when the final syllable has an euphoni c vowel in Brahmin dialect. 105 1 RGT/SO 9 Examples.- Itt ~·I')."I grass /k~·~t3/ trouble [~] is a low central unrounded short vowel occuring in all the positions except with environment of [.,.] of Brahmin dialect and in christian dialects it is articulated as [;,] in the initial position. Examp},es.- Brahmin Christian K/Jda/i Northern dialect dialect dialect speech j.mas;/ /;,masj /;,mas/ i~mav3sj new moon j3bjas;/ /;,bjasj /3bjasj j.,bhjasj habit /:,s3'kt;,j j3s~kt/ /as;,ktj j;;,sakt/ weak /knt~1 /ka§ti jka~t/ /b~tl trouble fa/ is a low central unrounded long vowel occuring in all the position. Examples.- Brahmin Christian Kudali Northern dialect dialect dialect speech /a13si :/ falsi :/ /al:lsi :/ /al"si/ lazy j3bjasaj jabjas;,j j.,bjasj /;)bjhasj habit /maf).us/ /maf).us/ jmaJfus/ /mat}.us/ man jsolal Isolal Isola/ /sola/ sixteen /ul is a high back rounded short vowel in all the positions. Some words occuring with a final consonant in other dialects are euphonis ed in Brahmin dialect by the addition of[ul in the final position. Brahmin Christian Kudali Northern dialect dialect dialect speech judd.,ka/ /uddak/ /udd3k- paJfi/ jpaf).i-udduk/ Water /t1jja/ jujj.,j jujja/ /ujj )-agJ fire /utt~ra/ /uu.,rl /uttar/ lutt~rl north Ikapusu/ Ikapusj /kapusl Ikapusl cotton ju:/ is a back rounded long vowel occuring in all the positions in all the dialects. Examples .- Brahmin Christian Kudoli Northern dialect dialect dialect speech /bhau :/ /bhau:/ Ibhau:1 jbhau :j brother /u:n;,/ ju:n/ /u:n/ fu:nf heat jdu:dhj Jdu :dhj Jdu :dhf Idu:dhJ milk fpu:t/ Ivu :tl Ipu:t/ /pu- :tl son 106 /0/ is a mid back rounded short vowel occuring in all the dialects. Brahmin Christian Kudali Northern dialect 'fialeet dialect speech !okece.j tokQa! /okQ.aj !okQa/ vomit /loQi:/ /loQ.i/ /lor,.ij jlof).i/ buLter Ighof1:/ !ghofij jghofi/ jgllofi/ mare /JI is a low back rounded short vowel occuring in all the positions. [J] has more function load in Christian dialect. It frequent1y occurs in place of [:l1 in Christian dIalect In the initial and meuial position. Examples .- Bhahmin Chrisliun KUclali Northern dialect dialect dialect speec;, /os:ldh:l/ i-;)s:ldh, l:ls:ldhl /as:ldJt! medicine /:ldj:lgik/ /-;)dj::>gi1(/ /:ldj:lgik/ /:ldj:lgik/ industrial /g.lOfa! /glJop/ jghOf:l1 /ghOf:lj horse Iph:lketal /f:HJt/ fphakt/ /pnakt/ only /garaja/ /gJr::>jj jgarajj /g:lTajf reason Nasalization.- Nasalization as a significant feature occurs with ail the vow~ls. Nasaliza tion in the mediaL position of the word causes the emergence of hOmoiganic nasai of the followmg consonant whIch may phonem1eal.y be shown as follows: jag:l' lang:lj part of the body /ag:ll).~/ /iing:lI).:J/ courtyard /iglis/ /IngJis/ english luel lunc! tall lu :t/ /u :I).f:)/ camel /m:)ntri/ /m:)ntrij minister /kobri:/ jk;)moori/ hen Consonants .- There are in all 32 consonantal pnonemes in the overall pattern of Konkani of Maharashtra. On the basi:. of the' manner of articulation these consonants may be distinguished as :- (a) Aspirated and Unaspi;:ated (b) Vojced and Voiceless (c) Stops, AffrIcates, Nasals, Laterals, Trill, Fricative etc. These consonants may further be grouped as Velars, Glottals, Palatals, R.etroflex, Dentals, Labio-dentals and Bilabials. Almost all the consonants except [I). and n occur in all the environments in aU the dialects. [I). and H never occur in the initial position. Bilal>ial aspirated consonant [Ph) alternates with labio-dental fricatvie [fJ in Christian dialects. 107 [r and rhJ occur in phonologica.lIy conditioned: environin~i1ts with [QJ in Kudali Brahmin and NOI tnern s P~CGh and ca'o;'Y a Vo,oy lnw fll!1ctiolnl load. But in Christian dialects these have negligible OCCUI fence, and are artic~lated as [ Examples . Brahmin Christian Kudali Northern dialect dialect dialect speech /pap:J/ /papl Ipap/ Ipap. sin /pu:t:J/ /pu:t/ /pu:t/ (pu:tl son /kapusu/ /kapus/ /kapus/ /kapus/ cotton /pi/ /pi:1 /pi:/ Ip!:/ drink !ph; The phoneme Iph! has got two allophones [fJ and [ph]. The allopho nic occurrences presents one of the distinguishing facjor of Christian dialects from Non-Christian dialects. [fJ is a labio-dental fricative. Occuring in christian dialect in all the positions. [ph] is a bi'labial voiceless aspirated stop occuring in all the positions, found in all the dialects except in Christian dialects. Ex;amples.- Brahmin Christian Kudali Northern dialect dialect dialect speech IPh:J!:J' Ib!/ ;ph 108 /b/ is a bilabial vioccd unaspirated stop, resembling phoneme (bl of other Indic languages occuring in all the dialects and in all the positions. Examples .- Brahmin Christian Kudali Northern dialect dialect dialect speech ;bet~/ jb~t/ ;b~t/ /b;ltl finger fbi :( Ibi:; fbi :/ fbi :/ seed fcabi :/ /cabi :( jcabi/ /cabi/ key fgulab/ /gulab! /gulab( !gulab/ rose /bh/ is a bilabial voiced aspirated stop resembling that of phoneme Ibh.' of other lndic languages occuring in the dialects and in all the positions. Examples.- Bhahmili Christian Kudali Northern dialect dIalect dialect speech ! bhau:/ /bhau:; Ibhau:/ /bhau:/ brother jbhu:/k;J /bhu:k! /bhu:k! !bhu:k/ hunger /loks;l bhaj /loks::>bha; /loksabha; Iloksabha/ parliament fgarbha( /garbh/ /g;:)rbh! ;garbh/ pregnency /t/ is a voiceless unaspirated dental stop resembling that of phoneme It; of other lndic languages occuring in the dialects and in all the positions. Examples.- Brahmin Christian Kudali Norther dialect dialect dialect speech Itari :kh::>/ /tari :kh/ !tari:kh; /tarikh; date ftuka/ Itukaf ftuka l /tukal to you iprant::>/ /pr:mtl Iprant; {prant/ state or province icha:ti:f /chati:/ fchati :; fchati :/ chest (th/ is a voiceless aspirated dental stop resembling Ith/ phoneme of other lndic languages, occuring in all the dialects and in all the positions. Examples. - Brdthmin Christian Kudali Northern dialect dialect dialect speech /thof€:/ /tho 109 Examples .- Brahmin Christiall Kudali Northern dialect dialect dialect speech /doni/ Idon' /doni, /don( two /s~bd~, js;}bd; (s:Jbd; /sJdb' word fudd:Jk;)' /udd:Jk: (uddJk: !uddGk! water !p;:)ris~d~l' !p~ris;}d: lpGrisGd,r :parisGdr committee /dh, is a voiced aspirated dental stop resembling jdhj phoneme of other lndic languages occuring in all the dialects and in all the positions. Examples . Brahmin Christian Kuaali horthern dialect aia/cet dialect speech IdhUVG ' ,db:j /dhu:v/ /dh'Jv/ daughter /adharGj Jadharj /adhar,' Jadhar/ base /pradhanG/ /pradhanj 'prGdhan! 'prJdhan/ chief of prime ; t/ is a lInaspirated voic::less retroflex stop resembling It! phoneme 0 f other Indic languages occuring in all the dialects and in all the positions. Examples .- Brahmin Chri!>tian Kudllli Northern dialect dialect aialect speech Itopi:; /topi:! [topi :; ;topi :! cap Itebri :/ /tekri:; !tekri :/ !tekri :l hill (khot;:)! (khot;)! Ikho!Gj IkhotG,' wrong jvai!;)! (vait! Ivai!! ,Ivait, " bad /th/ is a voiceless aspirated retroflex stop resembling with jthj phoneme of other lndic languages occuring in all the dialects and in all the position<;. Examples.~ Brahmin Christian Kudali North('rn dialect dialect dialect speNh IthakuTG/ Ithakurj !thakur/ Ithakur; deity /pathaj /pa!h! Ipathl /paW lesson /mii:th;)' /miith/ ;mii:th; /mii:th/ fist /uthacg; !utbGl)a/ /uthGl)a/ !u!hGl)a/ to get up N/ phoneme NI has got two allophones N/ and 'r' occuring in Phonolo gical conditionally environments. iQj is an unaspirated voiced retroflex stop. OcclIring in initial position and in consonantal clusters. ir! is voiced unaspirated retroflex flap. Phone If! carries a very low funtionalload in Christian dialects and is substituted by phone MI. 110 Examples.- Brahmin Christian Kudali Northern dialect dialect dialect speech NO](}j lQ.o!(}[ 14011 !4o!(}! eye Iph(}l)qa; ;fCll)qa,' ,'ph(}l)qa! ,'ph(}l)q:l, name of the mountain /voql;)/ Ivoq!;)j t'vod];)! .,' Iva?];),' big /ghor:l/ /ghOf(}/ /ghop/ ,'ghor(}/ horse /jhar(}/ jha<;i: jjhar! jhar! Nh! Phoneme!qhj has got two allophones [4h] and [rh] occuring in phono logically conditioned environments. [<;lh] is an aspirated voiced retroflex stop occuring in initial position and in consonantal clus ters. [rh] occurs elsewhere. Phone [rh] carries a very low func tional load in Christian dialect and sub,tituted by phone [<;ih]. Examples .-- Brahmin ChristiCtI1 Kudali Northern dialect dialect dialect speech Nhol;)/ I <;lhol! 14hol/ f<;lho!/ drum //<;lh(}kal)a 14h(}kl)a/ f<;lh;) kl)a; j<;lh(}kl)aj cover J:lrchica/ /;)4hi :c/ /(}rhi:c/ /(}rhi :c/ two and half rhic/ /4arhi :/ f<;la<;lhi/ /<;la[hi' Narhij beard Ikarh:lj jka<;lh/ jkarhj jkarh/ bring out. /kl is a velar unaspirated voiceless stop. Occuring in all tile dialects and in all positions. It li!sembles pnoneme jro! of other Tndic languages. Examples .- Braflmin Christian Kudali Northern dialect dialect dialect speech Ikan;>/ /kanj /kanj jkan/ ear /kap;>[u/ ,Ikap;>rj Ikap;>rl Ikap;>fl clothe judd;>b/ /udd;>k/ judd;>k/ juddakl water /ph;>bt;>/ Ifabtl /phaktj jph;)ktj only /kh/ is a voiceless aspirated velar stop resembling the phoneme /kh/ of other lndic languages, occuring in all the dialects and in all the positions. E~amples .- Brahmin Christian Kudali Northern dialect dialect dialect speech /kh;>b;>r;>j jkh;>barj jkhabarj jkh;)barj news jdukh;>/ Jdukht jdukh/ Idukhl sorrow Ikhurci:/ jkhurCi:/ /knurci:1 '/khur~i:/ chair /gj lS a VOIced unaspirated velar stop resembling the ph0neme /g! of other lndic languages, occurin~ in all tne dialects "nd in all the positions. 111 Examples ,- Brahmin Christian Ku da Ii Northern dialect dialect dialect speech Igh;,r;,1 Igh;,rl Igh;,r/ /gh;,r/ house Ighor;,/ Ighof;,/ Ighor;,1 /ghora/ horse /vaghuj /vagh/ Ivagh/ /vaghj tiger Icl pho~eme / c/ has got two allophones oc~uring in Phonologically con~htlOned e~vlronments. [c] IS a vOIceless unaspirated dental affnc~te occunng bef.ore baek vowels. [cJ is a unaspirated VOIceless dental affncate occunng before front vowels. Before central vowels and in final posltions I cl and I c/ both occur alternates freely. [c] n'ls got mOl e fUl1ctional load in Christian dialect and Nor thern speech and generallY occur in aU the positions., Examples .- Brahmin Christian Kudali Northern dialect dialect dialect speech /coriJ leori:! /cori:/ /coIi:! theft /bhacc;,/ jbhacc;,/ jbhacc;;l/ Ibhacc:Jj . nephew /cu:k;}j /cu :k/ jcu :k/ /cu:k/ fault ci :t;,/ /ci :tj /ci:t/ /ci:t/ letter /C;,U;'/l Icer;,! ( /C;,Il:J/l Ic;)l};}j son fC;,U;,/ j 1/c;,ll;,/ j frucif Imci/ IrueiJ JruciJ taste /cimti :/ /cimti:! /cimti:! /cimti :/ long /c;,rc;) - c;,rc;,/ /c;,rc;,/ /c;,rc~ - c;'fc;)1 Ic;)rc;) i church lunc;, - fmc;, I luncl lunc - unc/ /uncl tall /pac;, - panc/ Ipflnc/ /pac pac/ Ipanc/ five Ich/ is a palatal voiceless aspirated affricate. It is more less frequent in Kudali and Brahmin dialects. Examples .- Brahmin Christian Kudali Northern dialect dialect dialect speech /chati :/ /chati :/ Ichati :/ /chati :/ chest ,Ch;,PP;,f;,/ /ch;,pp;,r/ /ch;,pp;'fj /chapP:Jr/ roof /icchaj /iccha/ /iccha/ /icchaj wisn /s;)trp;,ti/ /ch;,tr;,p;,ti/ / ch;)tr:Jpa ti I /ch;,trap~ti/ a title Ijl Phoneme h/ has got three allophones [j] [j1 and [z] [z1 is unaspirated voiced dental fricative. occuring in christian and alternates freely with [jJ. [j] is unaspirated voiced dental affricate it occurs before back vowels in dialects other than Christian and Northern speech. [j] is unaspirated voiced palatal affricate occuring before front vowels occuring in all the dialect; more frequent in Northern speech. 112 Before central vowels Ijl alternates freely with /j/ Brall111in Christian KUdali Northern dialect dialect dialect speech I.jor~! , (zor! /jor/ /ior! force /g'Jr:Jj:J/ (g!Jf:n/ 1g!Jr!Jj/ Ig~r'Jjl reason l.i;)min~1 !z~mi :n/ i_i;)mi:n/ /j;)mi :11/ land /jang!J/ (jang/ /jang/ /jajilg! /je.v'JIJ.:>/ fje.V;)IJ.1 /je.V;)lJ./ !je.V;)l)./ meal liele/ /jell /jelJ )jel) prison /ji:val Iji :v/ fji:v I Iji :vl life (jal:>! /za\/ /jalj jjal/ net jmaj;)f:>/ / maZ;)f/ jmaj;)rj /maj;)rj cat /ujj:)/ /uzz:)/ /ujjaj jujj;)/ fire (jh( phoneme /jh/ has got three allophones Ijh! /jh/ and Izh/ (zh! is aspirateed voiced dental fricative occuring mainly in Christian dialect alternating freely with ljh!. (jh/ is aspirated voiced dental affricate, occming before back vowels in the dialects other than Christian and Northern speech. /jh/ is aSpirat~d vOiced palatal affricate occuring before front vowels occuring in all the dialects more frequent in N:0rth~rn Speech, and the a~pirateu voiced p:1Jata[ affricate occurtng before front vowels oecming in all the dialects al1d more frequent in Northern speech. Before central vowels /y/ /y/ are met in free alternation E)"amples .- Brahmin Christian Kl/dali Northern dialect dialect dialect ,~peech nh5pri/ jzhOpri/ /jh5pri Jj5Prij hut jjhilgo/ Iburge/ /jhilge! jporga/ boy jjh:)l)gaj jjh;}l!c;laj /jh;)lJ.Qa/ /jh;)l).gaJ flag jjhogra ") pjh;)graj~ ~ /jh::lgra( /jh:)gra/ quarrel /jhJgra(j lfjh:>g\ufJ 1m! is an unaspirated b:labiaI nasal occurillg in all the positions and ill aU the dialects resembling phoneme Im/ of other lndic languages. Examples.- Brahmin Christian Kudafi Northern dialect dialect dialect speech /mofu/ (morl /mor( /mor/ peacock /moti/ /moti/ /moti/ /moti/ pearl /k::lm::llJ/ jk::lmJ!/ /komQ!/ /kom::llj lotus /mama/ jmama/ /mamaj /mamaJ maternal un.cle Ikam';)! /kam/ Ikam! Ikam! work jj:mm;J / /j,mm! /j'Jllm/ fj::lnm/ birth 113 1 RGlj8() 10 Imh/ is <:n aspirated bilabial nasal. It has a low functional load. Examples.- Brahmin Christian Kudali Northern dialect dialect dialect sp?ech /mh::lsi :1 /mh~sl /mh::lsl /mh::lsl she buffalo /simhaf jsivhiJj jsimhuj Isihj lion Imh::ljin::l/ Imh;}jen::l/ Imh::ljino/ /mh;}jinol month Inl phoneme Inl has got three allophones In/ Inl and jnh/. jnl and jn/ occur in phonologicallY conditioned environment and jnhl in free variation with Inj. 1M is a velar nasal occLiring before velar stops. /nl is a dental unaspirated nasal occuring in all the position except before velar stops. jnhl is a dental aspirate-d nasal occuring freely alternating with In/ Examples.~ Brahmin ~ Christian Kudali Northern dialect dialect dialect speech Inaku/ /nakl /nakf /nak( mose jsonaruj jsonarj jsonar/ Isonarj goldsmith /pr::lj::ltml I /pr::lj::lth/ /pr:m~tn/ /pr;}j~tn/ attempt /m~ilg~l::ll /m~ilgal/ /mMg;}l/ /mailgQI/ tuesday /s~ilkh()/ /s()ilkh/ /sailkh/ /satikha! conch /'Jilgoli :1 I I lang::l!i :/ bath /n'Jhal)./ -/nhaJ)./ jnhal). - n;}hal)./ /nhal)/ - /nehal)./ Inehal)/ (1)/ is an unaspirated retroflex nasal oecllring in all the positions except in the initial position. Genel'ally retroflexion it looses its retro flexion in Northern speech and articulated as dental nasal. Examples: Brahmin Christian Kudali Northern dialect dialect dialect speech /raT).i:/ /raT).i :/ /ral).i :/ /ral).i/ quetn ItraJ).~/ /tr::lT)./ /tr~f)/ Itr~n/ grass ImaJ).us/ /mal).as/ /mal).llsi /m'Jnusj man IloJ).i/ /loJ).i:/ /loJ).i/ Ilani :/ butter /vaJ).~/ /vaT).1 /vafJ-1 /van-vafJ-1 arrow 11/ phoneme /11 has got two allophones Il! and Jlhj freely alternating each other. III is an unaspirated dental lateral oeeuring in all the posi tions in all the dialects resembling phoneme (1/ of other ludic languages. 114 /lh( is an aspirated dental lateral occuring in free alternation with [IJ. It ha5 a very low frequency of occurrence. Exa1l1pfes.- Brahmin Christian Kudali Northern dialect dialect dialect speech IJoDi:/ /loDi :/ /lOI;li :/ jloniJ butter /lobhi :/ /lobhi:/ /lobhi :/ /lobhi :/ greedy Igal~j jgall Igall Igalj cheak lale! late) (a18/ (ale) ginger /jilha-jila/ /jilha - jilaj fjilhal /jilal district /1/ is a retroflex lateral occuring in all the positions except in the initial position. It loses its retroflexion in the Northern dialect and is articulated as dental lateral. E."wmples.- Brahmin Christian Kudali Northern dialect dialect dialect speech Ive!~1 Ive!1 Ivel/ delay !go!i :1 Igo!i:/ /go!i:! (golil bullet Ih~!~di :/ I<)h!di/ /h<)!dil /h~!di :1 turmefic Is~r~!~1 Is~r~!! Is~r~!/ Is~r~11 straight easy Here it would be interesting O'r rather useful to' show contrast between f! !, I I / and I r ( Contrast in ( ! ( and! r ! !goll! bullet !ghori/ mare (veU delay Iderl one and a half Contrast in! ! I and I I ! Ika!i :1 black Ikali'l yesterdary Iball child Iba!j hair /ku!bl dwarf Ikull~! buttock Ir! phoneme /rl has twO' allphones [r] and [rh] freely alternating each other. /r/ is unaspirated trill occuring in all the positions This resembles the phoneme (TI of O'ther Indic languages. !rhl is aspirated trill freely alternating with [1']. Examples.- Brahmin Christian Kudali Northern dialect dialect dialect speech Ifuci/ /ruci / I fuci j Irucil taste Irati! Irati! Irati IratI night tmonll Imor! Imor/ lroor! peacock Ikurar/ (kuracJ - kurhacJ! Ikurarl Ikurar! axe 115 Is/ phoneme ('-.1 has got two allophones r~) and [$) oeeuring in phono !\)glcally conditioned environments. [,] is voiceless retroflex fricative accuring before retroflex stops. [S] is voiceless retroflex fricative oecuring before retroflex stops. [~] is voiceless d:mta\ fricative occuring in all the positions except before retroflex stops. Examplcs- Brahm ill Christian Kudali Northel'/l dialect dialect dialect speech /s;,rpu/ /5;}rp/ /s;,rpl I,ap/ snake /ls;)s;)1 /s;Js:J/ IS:J S:J I js;,s:J1 hare Ibi:s;}1 Ibi:sl (bi:sl Ibi:sl twenty [k~~t~J [k;)?tJ [b~tJ rk;)~tJ trouble [mu~~i] [mu~!i] [mu~!i] [1J1u$!i] fist /sl is a voiceless palatal frica1 ive oecuri ng i 11 all the positions and in all the dialects. ~ Examples- Brahm ill Christiall Kudali Northern ({ialect dialect dialcct speech l~ivaj;)1 ISivajl (SivajI I Sj vaj I only IS;)nka/ IS::Jukal (s:)llkal IS::Jftka/ doubt Ip;)scim/ IpJscim( /p;),ciml /1);)sciml we5t Idesu / Ides( /d~i( (d:s( ccmlltr.v (h/ is a glottal fricative occuri ng in all the position in all the dialects except in Christian dialect where /h/ is dropped in tie initial position instead the following consonants is aspirated. Examples Brahmin Christian Kudafi Northem dialect dialect dialcci speech /hathi:/ (:Jhthi:/ /h2.thi/ Ihathil elephant /hatu/ l::lhtu/ fhat( (hatj hand / aharu ( lahar / : aharI laharl food fj Brahmin Christian Kudali Northern dia/fer dialect dialect speech tY:J/ ;YJ/ /YJ/ /Y;) / eome sivaYJ! I sivay/ !sivay/ I~ivay/ only /PfJY:ltll:J! ipr:lY:ltn,' ,pr;)YJtn/ /pr:Jy;)tn/ attempt !mukhp' 'mukhy' imukhy/ imukhyi important Phonemic Correspondences : Abbrel'iatiolls.- Kudali Dialect K Gaud Saraswata Gs Chitrapur Saraswa(a CS Monglorian Christians Mc Goancse Christians Gc Northern Speech N,S. (speech of Nasik. Amarawate, Bhusawal. Nagpur) Vocalic Correspondences: K Os C, Mc Oc N.S. i i i i i i i Euphol1isatioll of final C0I1S0/10/1t by [i] +[i] Hi] e e e e e c Euphonisation of final CO/ISO/lOllt by [;;,] In the initial and medial position +[;;,] [;:1 ] a a a a-[;:1] a- [;)1 a In medial Xn initial and position medial position K Os Cs Mc Oc N.S. H U U U U U Euphonisation of final consonant by [uJ +[u] +[u] u: u: u: u: u: u: 0 0 0 0 o 0 ;) ;) " " " ;) 117 Consonantal correspondence K Gs Cs /1,{c Gc lv.S. P P P P P P b b b b b b ph ph ph f f p-f bh bh bh bh bh bh t t t t t t t11 tn th th th th d d d d d d h T h d dh d \ dh d dh t t t t t t th ih 1h ih th ih d-·r (I-r d-r 4 1 (I-r dh _: rh dh 'rh £;ih rh dh <,lit clh 'rh k . k . k k k k . kh kh kh kh kh kh g g g g g g gh gh gh gh gh gh C-c c-c C-c c c C~C ch ch eh eh eh .i-j j-j j -j i-z j-z j jh-jh jh-jh jh-jll zh-jh zh-jh jh m m m m m m mh mh mh mh mh mh-m n-nh n-nh n-nh n_nll n-nll n-nh 1). 1) 1) 1). 1). 1). I-1h 1-lh I-Ih I-1h I-1h i-lh r-rh r-rh r-rh r-rh r-Th r-rh v v v v- vh v-vh v-vh s s s s. S S S S S S h h h h h h MORPHOLOGY According to the present analytic study of various samples* collected from different parts of Maharashtra State, two types of morphemes occur in all its dialects., which are a'> follows :- (i) Free morpheme The morpheme which has. a distinct meaning of its own when used atone. (ii) Bound morpheme The morpheme whiCh has a distinct meaning only when used wIth other morpheme or morphemes. For the indication of Gender. Number, Caste, Tense etc. these types of mOfl)hem~s are affixed to the other morpheme or morphemes. • 300 samples Were collected on the basis of short questionnaire, details given in Introduction. 118 The construction of both tbe types of mozphemes is done eithor bY' Oll~ or by more than one morphemes. According to the morphological or grammatical or syntactic functional values, these morphemes may be grouped in tne following categories. 1. Nouns 2. Pronouns 3. Adjectives 4. Verbs 5. Adverbs 6. Conjunctions 7. Particles 8. Interjections. The first four are dec1inables I.e. for the indication 0{ gender, number, case, tense etc. they are capable of being inflected. Tne last four are indeclin abIes i.e. They are incapable of being inflected. In the foHowing pages the morphological study of each category is dealt with. Nouns: Nouns occur with a termination in vowel or consonant in all the dialects except in Brahmin dialects. In Brahmin dialects the nouns do not occur with a final consonant. The nouns which are oceuring with a final consonant in . other dialects are made a vocalic termination by euphonizing the final con sonant with [;)] and [u]. The nouns which are ending [;)] are made ending in [ :)] in Christian dialects. On the basis of termi.nation, nouns can be grouped in two groups as follows :- Group-I includes the nouns which are ending in vowel~, for example ending in [1] and [i:] Brahmin Cnristian Kuuali Northern dialect dialect Jialect "peeclt mi : si mi : si mi: si mi : Sl mustaco.e IDi:ri mi : ri mi : ri mi : ri wrinkles b"kri : b:>kri: b:>kri: b.,kri: goat bmri: bmbri : bmbti : bmbri: hen lopi: topi: topi: topi: cap moli: moti: moti: moti: pearl c:>li coli coli coli b;)rci: b.,rch b;)rci b;)rchi: spear muddi: muddi: muddi: muddi: ring sari: sari: sari: sari: sari bhuvi: bhui bhui bhui eyebrow ending in [a] [J]., ghap ghar., ghop ghora bas:> bas:> bas::! bas~ bhacc;) bhacc:> bhaccJ bhaccJ nephew C.,ll~ cep c;)lb cerJ boy porg;) jhilgJ rer;) rer:) rep rep k;)mp he buifallow kJmbp bmbrJ kombr:J cock mala m::>!:) mala mala mama mJmJ mama mama 119 NOLin end.ing in [uJ and [u:] hhau: bhau: bhau: hhau: ho"pusu hapu bapu bap- bapn ii: ii: ii: ii: tii : til : tii : til : Euphonization of final consonant in some words is the peculiarity of Brahmin dialect. Brahmin Christian Kudali Northern dialect dialect dialect speech [hatu] oht hat hat [c~ndru] condro c;)ndr c~ndr;) Nouns ending in [e] [eJ [e:] . [h~rdel ohrde: hO)rde. hr~de: [bn) bn: [k:m.} bre: ghore ghore ghore ghore t~le: t~le: t~re: t:lle: Grotlp-JI. Includes the nouns ending in consonants in all dialects Other than Brahmin dialects: In Brahmin dialects the final consonant is euphonised by [iJ or [uJ or (0)]. Brahmin Christian Kudali Northern pialeet dialect dialect speech bop bot bot bot-unli p:* pot PJ~ pot di:su di :5 di:s di:s dantu dont dant dant ji:b~ ji:b ji:b ji:b gulabd gubb gulab gulab hatu Jht hat hat kap~[t1 kap;)[ kapJ[ kapJf r;lg;lh khu:n r;lg;)t [;)kt gal;) gal gal gal kesu kes kes kes kanu kan kan kan Konkani nouns are inflected for gender number and case. Gender After tne careful analysis of tile data collected for the present study, from the field it was found that the Konkani has got two genders Masculine and feminine in usage. In the case of living beings the nouns that denote a male is said to belong to the msculine gender and the other indicating female is said to belong to the feminine gender. Regarding inanimates the distinc tion in gender is ambiguous and is mostly determined by popular usage. Gender of Konkani substantives often seems to be irregular yet they follow some principles as regards to their terminations. These principles are 120 121 generally uniform in all the dialects of Konkani of Maharashtra. These principles may be described as follows :- For Mascqlin!)--The masculine gender generally includes the nouns ending with the following types of t~nninations. Type I Nouns terminating in [a] and [:l] Brahmin Christian Kudali Northern dialect dialect dialect speech ghoro ghoro ghoro gharo - ghora arso orso arso arsa mama momo mama mama nllvh;ro n;vh~ro nllv;r:> n;v.,ra rajo rajo rajo rajo-raja Type II Nouns terminating in Tar loharu lohor lohar lohar sonaru sonor sonar sonar Feminine Gener-The feminine nouns includes the nouns with the follow . ing types of terminations. Type I Nouns terminating in [i] and [i:] ghori : ghori: ghori : ghori: buddhi buddhi buddhi buddhi :r;aI).i: rani: rani: rani: n;vh;ri: novhori : n;vhllri: n;vhllri: knirki khipki: khirllki khir;ki Type II Nouns terminating in [In] and [i :n] Brahmin Christian Kudali Northern dialect dialelCt dialect Speech vaghi:t;l v~ghi:l}. vagi:t;l vaghi:t;l dhobi:t;l dhobi:t;l dhobi:t;l dhobi:t;l Generally the rules mentioned above p.re followed by Konkani 'nouns for genders. But there are some exceptions in these rules, therefore ge nder can only be decided by the popular usage. A few examples of these exceptions are given below. . mali, dhobi, bvi etc. terminating in [i:] ar~ masculine in gender where as lekhika., sun:>nda terminating in [aJ are feminine in gender. In such case the factor for significance in popular usage is taken into considerations, 1 RGI}80 11 122 According to which "the names of all males, Alloys, materials, months, days, heavenly bodies and the inanimates representing firmness, strength, energy, sublimity ,md violence belcng to masculine gender and the names for females, rivers, luner days and the inanimates denoting be".uty, we".kncss and gentle ness etc. belong to feminine gender. Masculine nouns can be changed to the feminine nouns by affixing a bound morpheme to it. This type of alternation is uniform in all the dialects. The rules for which are given below. Rule I The masculine noun ending in fa; or /:>/ can be alternated in its feminine form by the sub,titution of [a] or [~] by [i:] in the final position. This rule is uniform in all the dialects. Example: Masculine form Feminine form Brahmin Christian Northern- Kudali , dir;tiect . dialect dialect speech ghop ghori: ghori: ghori : ghori : ajj~ ajji ajji ajji: ajji: mama mami: m:>mi: mama: mami: n:;>v:;>ro n()v:;>ri: n:>vh:>ri: nevh:;>ri: n()v()ri: bhacc:> bhacci bhacci: bhacci bhacci lx>kr:> b:>kri b::>ri se!i: b::>kli: Exception In Brahmin dialect ebhincta gives its feminine form by substitution of final [+a] by [+ri] Ma,;culine Feminine ::>bhineta ::>bliinetri: Rule II The masculine nouns ending in [iJ [u] or [i:J can be alternated by subs titution of final vowel by [il)] or [i:l)] in its feminine form. This rule is uni form in all the dialects. Masculine Noun Feminine Noun Brahmin Christian KudaH Northern dialect dialect dialect speech dhobi: dhabi!). dhobi!). dhobi!). dhobin mali: mali :1) maJj:1) m?1i :1) malin sihfi sihi:!). sihi :1) sihi :1) sihi :1) dhoni 9honi:IJ dh:>ni:Q dhoni:IJ dhoni:!). 123 Exception In Brahmin dialect kovi has got its feminine form got by substituting final vowel by otri. Masculine Feminine k;wjtri poetess Rule III Nouns ending in consonants except those which denotes profession can be alternated to its feminine form by adding [i:1 in the final position. This rule is uniform in all the dialects of Konkani. Masculine form Feminine form' Brahmin Christian Kudali Northern dialect dialect dialect speech dey devi: devi: devi: devi: rajkumar rajkumari: rajkumari: rajkumari: rajkrmari: hQriI}. horiI}.i: horiQ.i: h~riI}.i : horil).i: Rule IV Masculine Nouns denoting profession ending in consonant may be alternated in its feminine form by suffixing [iI}.], [i:n], [ari] or [ika] in the final ternated in its feminine form by suffixing [iI}.], [i :n], [ari] or [ika1 in the final position. This rule is uniform in all the dialects. Masculine form Feminine form r------.'-----..A.------~ Brahmin Christian Kuaali Northern dialect dialect dialect speech lohar lohariI}. lohori:I}. lohariI}. lohariI}. m;'Qv~1 m~<;lvoli:n mo<;lvoli:I}. m::}Qv"ji:n mOQv;,li:n mast"r mastori:n mostori :1). mastorin mastgrin oorojI}.al borojnari: borojnari: borojnari: bor;,jnari: siksok siksika siksika siksika lekhok lekhika lekhika lekhika Rule V Few masculine nouns can be alternated by prefixing [bail] - + to them getting their feminine form. This rule is followed by all the dialect. manus bail mal).us:, baiImo1).us bailmaI}.us bailma1).us koBo bailkolb bail kolle bail kolIo bail koBo pOP'll bail pop;,! bail popgl bail POpg! 'bail pop,,! 124 Some masculine nouns cannot be alternated by any affix for their feminine form but they have another form as feminine. Example: mh:>si mh~s mhsi mh:>s gaj gaj gaj gaj kolge bailsune kutri kutri As already noted that the rules of alternation in gende.r is more or less uniform in all the dialects of Konkani of Maharashtra which can be given in the fonn of a chart as below : Ma8C'Uline termination Affix Terminating in [a], [::>] . +[i:l+[ri] Terminating in [i :1, [i] . +[in]+[i:J.1] Nouns except those + [::>tri] Which denoted profession' Terminating in consonant -t(i :] Nouns denoting +[iJ.1]+[i:J.1] profession ending + [ika] in consonant Free form • [bail] + One type of free form anot1;ler type of free f Singular number- The nouns denoting one person, object, idea etc. belong to Singular number. . Plural numlrer- The nouns denoting more than one person, object, idea, etc. belong to Plural number. The nouns having singular number can be alternated in the plural number by affixation of a bound morpheme. The rules of alternation of singUlar inl0 plural is given in the following lines. These rules are the same in all the dialects of Konkani. Rule I Singular nuons ending in [::>] [0] can be alternated into plural number by substituting the final vowel by Ce]. . Singular Plural ~---~--~---~-~~----~-~ Brahmin Christloll Kudali Northern dialect dialect dialect speech ghop ghdre ghore ghore ghore ambo ambe ambe ambe ambe lvap<>p kap<>re bp::lre kap::lre kap<>re mheino mhoine mh<>jne mh;:>ine mh<>ine 125 Rule-II Singular nouns ending in [i]and [i:] can be alternated in its plural form by by addi~g J I rn the final P;)Srtion. There become a morphophonemic change gIvmg abound morpheme as j. Singular Plural Brahmin Christian Kuaa{i Northern aialect dialect dialect speech khurci lilhurcj khurcj k!hurcj khurcj suri surjo surjo surjo surjo wrhari kurharjo lilurhrjo li!urarjo . kurarjo Rule-III Singular nouns ending in [e:] can be alternated in its plural form by substi tuting I g/ by + (i). sunI: suni: sun{ : t~ii : t~li : t~!i : Rule-IV Sinuglar nouns ending in Ii :] + consonant can be alternated in their plural form by suffixing + o. tari:k tarkho tarkho tarkho tarkho bail bailo baito bailo baila Rule-V Singular nouns ending in consonants can be alternated in their Plural forms by adding 4- I a and bound morphemes in the final positions : gaj gaji: gaji : gaji: gaji: bah;)!}. b;)be.Q.i : bo~!}.i : b;)he.J;li: b;)he.ni : pakh pakha p:>kha pakha pakh~ ghor ghora ghora ghora ghora jhar jhara jhara jhara jhara -maJ;lus maQsa maQsa maQsa maQsa _Rule-VI Some singular nouns can be alternated in their plural forms by adding Zero morpheme i.e. they retain the slime form in both the numbers. This is followed by all the dialects of Konkani. Examples Singular Plural Brahmin Christian Kudali Northern dialect dialect dialect speech mama mama mama mama mama mali : mali : mali: mali: mali : dev devu dev dev S:ltru S;)tru S:ltru s\)tru S;)tru undir undira ondir nndir unddr .<) 126 In a few christian dialects + s is also suffixed in the final position for altering a singular noun in plural nouns. buk bull!s As already noted that the _alteration rules are the same in all the dialects of Konkani these can be charted as follows :~ Singular Nouns ending in Can be alterated in plural . [:)], [0] by substituting final vowel by + [e] [i] [i:] adding finally (0) change - U:) U:] substituting [e] .by [I] , 1 -+ consonant by adding [0] in final P9sition consonant by adding finally +[i:] +[a] [~] Case Konkani nouns have seven distinguishable case form. The case form can be acquired by the affixation of different inflections to a lloun base. The following' cases occur in a noun. 1. Nominative Case 2. O:,jective...... Accusative or Dative Case 3. Imtrum~ntal Case 4. Ablative Case. 5. Possessive Case 6. Locative Casel 7. Vocative Case Vocative case is used only for animates. Nominative, Possessive, Accu· sative/Detive are more frequent in use, while others are less frequent. . Formation of Noun case form The noun case form are formed by affixing the case inflection to a noun base, in the following manner. Nominative Case ...... In this case form the noun is used as a grammatical subject of a sentence. There is no separate cas~ suffix for it therefore zero can be said as the case inflection for this form of case'. Here noun base is used as the functional nominative case form. This case inflection·o zerp~ Barahmin Christian . Kudali . Northern dialect dialect dialect speech ram dhayta ram dhavta ram dhavta r~m dhavta [Ram runs celIe cere cille celle sik~at siktat siktat siktat mulge Siktat 127 Objective Case-This case form denotes object of the verb and includes accusative i.e. direct object and the dative the indirect object, of the verb. The case inflection is the same in all the dialects of Konkani of Mahal' ashtra and are + (ak) for singular and + (ani) for plural ExamplesJ Accusative Case setbri b;)ilak bandhta setkompti setkari setbri The farmer bandhta belak belak ties the boilakJ bandhta bandhta bullock setkeri b;)ilani bandhta setkampte setk;)ri setk;)ri The farmer bandhta belani beJani ties the b:>ilani bandhta bandhta bullocks Dative c;)lljak amb::>di cerjak porgak c;)l1jak give the di amb::> amb::> di ambo di mango to the boy C;)lljani arob::> di cerjani porgani c::>lljani give the di amb::> ambo di ambo di mango to the boys. Instrumental case form The noun case form denoting the agency means through or by which the action has been performed. Its inflections case suffixes. Tan an + (en) for singular + [ani] for plural sikS;)k m::>st::>r sikS;)k sikfuk The teacher writes penan . b::>r::>jta pe.nan penan with the pen: oor;)jta penan b;)r;)jta b;)f;)jta- lihita ram ram ram ram Ram cuts the mango surjan cakuan surjan surjan with the knife amb::> katorta amb:> amb:> kapta ambo kapta katorta manus brta manus manus The man works with kattani badl::> hattani hattani the hands. kam :lhattani kam kam k?rta karn k;)rta k;)rta Sometimes postpositions + [b;)rob;)r] [pasi] and [lagi] are also ueds as Instrumental ease suffixes. 128 A.blative Case The case form denoting the source of an act or occurrence comes under this case. The inflectional suffix is the same in all the dialects. The case in flection is + [un] + [hun] ami amhi ami ami We will start from tuggel nigh~v goorun gh~run your house gh~rahun gh~run nigh~t~v nigh~t~v nigh~t~v The post positions -+ [posun], [pelda], [lagi] [brsu :n] [kore.] can also function as case suffix for this case form . .Possessive Case form The noun case form ~enoting possession comes in this category. The] following case suffixes are suffixed to noun base for getting this case form in a particular dialect. Brahmin dialect + [g~b] [g~li] [gelg] [Ie] [1j~] + [b] + [Ii] t-l[le] Christian dialect + [z:)], [zi] [ze] [ze] (zjo] [zi] ~udali dialect [~] [ci] [ce] [ce] [cj] Cci] Brahmin Christian Kudali Northern dialect dialect ,! dialect Speech h"ramab ~hl'am:w horamaro horamaro This is Ram's horse gb.or~ ghr~ ghop ghop hi ramali jh: ramazi hi ramaci hi:ramaci This is' Ram's cow gaj gaj gaj gaj he tamale etamale he raDlaCo heramace These ate Rama's bouse gh~r gltlr gh:>r ghor Locative Case The case form which denotes the location or place in, from or to which the actiOil takes place. Its inflection are generally the same in all tlie dialect ofkonkani. The case inflections are.-+(i:] + [Hi] + (a] tal hav gh:>rii ohvv~ita hiv ghorii ha\l gh~rii I go home v:)tta ghorti v~ita v"it~ .§.ihii :f.)nnat sihil. r3.uta sihii r:>nant sihiL r~nant A lion lives in the r~vl\ta ra,nant r1\.vta, r1\.vta, fotest, 129 Vocative Case This case form is used for direct address to an animate, oblique form of a singular noun base functions in vocative case. But in plural + [nn] suffix is added to its plural oblique form. ram'~n:lka ram di: ramm:lka ramm:lka Ram gives me the pust:lk di m:lbbuk pusbk di pustak di book Case sUffix table of Konkani No. Case Singular Plural 1. Nominative Zero Zero 2. Objective + {ak] +lani] 3. Instrumental +{an], {en] +lanil 4. Ablative +(un] + [hun] [hun] [un] 5. Possessive [gel:>1 [b1 [g~li] [Ii] [gele] [Ie] [gelelllel [gelj:>l {lj::ll {ze] (zjn} [zo] [zi] [ze] Ice] [cp1 [ro1 [ci] Ice] 6. Locative [11 [t51 [mt~lla] [lllt~l [nt~1 [ii] 7. Vocative Oblique form lu1 Dialectal peculiarities are notable-in the possessive case inflections. Viz •..- Brah~in dialect have [galn1 (1:>] [gnlellle] as possessive [ga Ii] [gele] {gelj"] case suffix Christian dialect have [Z::l1 [ze] as possessive [zi} [zja] case suffixes Kudali dialect have [C::l] Ice] ,as possessive lei] [cjo] case suffixes Northern speech have [e,,} [celt as possessive [ei} [cj" ] case sutfu..es Pronouns Five distinguishable categories of pronouns are in function in all the dialects of Konkani, which are as follows :- . 1.• Personal pronouns 2. Demonstrative pronouns 3. Relative oronouns 4. Interrogative pronouns 5. Reflexive pronouns. 1 RGI/80 12 130 Like Nouns, Pronouns are also affected by number gender and case· vocative case is absent in all the pronouns. Personal Pronouns A Pronoun functional to indicate or. refer to speaker ot' speaket's, pet'son or person addressed and the person or persons spoken or referred to comes in personal pronoun category. The personal pronouns may further by divid ed in three categories, as per person referred, spoken, addressed or indicated. These may be as follows:~ First PersOII-Personal pronouns used to indicate sll'aker or speakers are categorized in this category. Pronominal forms put forward the dialec ta peculiarities ofKm1.k.ani, examples. Brahmin Christian Kudali Nortllern dialect dialect dialect speech hay ::>lw mi mi hiiv m~ka lllQka m~ka m~ka ami ::lOOi amhi ami Second Person~Personal pro.ouns used or referred to the person or persons adcilllessed are grouped in Olis category. tu: tu: tii : tii ti tumi , tumi tumi tumi Third persoll-Personal pronouns u::.ed to indicate the person or persons spoken of are grouped in this category. tb to tJ(l) ta ti: ti: ti: ti: Gender Number and case inffections modify a personal pronoun gi vi-I1g diff(.'rent forms which are givt"n below in the' form of tables. Gender does not affect first and second personal pronoun i.e. it can be said to have zero morphemes. Firs t person-Gender does not affect the first personal pronoun. The same form is used in both the genders. S'ingulqr Case lIrahmin Christian Kudoli Northern malecl dialect dialeCf speech Nominative hay :lhv mi mi Objecti\e m:>ka m;)ka Instrumental m"ka m:>ka hav :>hv mi mi-::>h-v Ablative m~ge.lhun m:lzehu:n majdiun Possessive majhahun m Plural Brahmin Christian Kudali Northern dialect dialect dialect speech Nomil'?the ami: ohmi: amhi: atllhi Objective amkia omhka amhka amhka Instrumental ami: ohmi: amhi: ambi: Ablative amahu:n ohmehun amahum amahu:n Possessive amgeb ohmzo ahmhco ambc:> amgel obmzi amhci amhci rungel :->hmze. amhe. amhce Locative am Jjant omjjant amcjant amcjant Second person-Gender has no affect on second personal pronoun. S;ngular Case Brahmin ChriMian Kuda/i Norther., dialect dialect dialect speech Nominative tii: til: til : hi: tu: Objective tuka tuka ruka tuka Instrumental tii: ttl: tii : tii-tu Ablative tugdhu:n tuzehu:n tujahu:n tujahun Possessive tuggel:> tUl.:) tuja-o tujna tuggBli tuzi tuji tujhe tUg!ele tuze tuje tujha Locative .uggeljant tuzant tujant tujhant Plural Nominative tumi: tumi: tumi: tumi: .Objective tumka tumka tumka tumka Instrumental tumi tumi tumi: tumi: Ablative tumgelhun tumzohu:n tumcju:n tumcjaun Possessive tumge!::> tumzo tumen tumc;) tumgcli tumzi tumci tumci tumgele tumze tumc~ tumee Third person singular number: Case Brahmin Dialect Christian Dialect r----A-----~r-~--A----~ Ma~culine Feminine Masculine 'Feminine Nominative to ti to ti: Objective tgkia tika toka tika Instrumental (anne tinn€. tonne tinne. Ablative tahu:n tjahun tohu:n tobu:n . takore tikore tolagi: tilagi: Possessive t;)gge.i tigs};) tno tize bggeli tigge-li 1,)zi tizo t~le tiggt.lo t:;,z¢ tize LocatiVe t.:liagi tilagi t:)zelaii tizeiaai 132 Kudali Dialect ~orthern Speech r------A..-----, ,------"-----, Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine Nominative to ti: to ti: Objective: t;)ka tika t~ka tika [; Instrumental tanna tinna tanna tinna Ablative tahu:n tjahu:n tahu:n tjahu:n Possessive tac:> tyce tac:> tic:> taci tyco taci tici tace tyce tace tice Locative t.,nt tyant tant tyant Third person Plural number Case Brahmin Dialect Chri~tiart Dialect r---_..A..----"""" , ____ ---..A.. ____.~ Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine Nominative ts ty:> ts tyo-tIt Objective tl)yka t<)yk t<)yk t<)yka Instrumental t<)nm: t<)nni: t~nni: t<)nni: Ablative Possessive tangsl:> talial:> tanZ::l tiinz:> tailgsli: tailgali tanzi tanzi taligsle tailgate tanze tataze :t..ocative tiilagi: tiitagi: talagi: talagi: Case Kudali Dialect Northern Dialect r------.A..-----., ,-----A.------a Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine Nominative tlO tj::l te tj:> Objective: tonka tonka tonka tonka Instrumental tonm: tanni: tanni: tanni: Ablative Possessive tanc:) tanc:) tane:) tanco tanci tanci tanci tanci tance tance tance tance Locative talagi: talagi: tlUagi: Hilagi: 133 Demonstrathe Rronouns- Demonstrative pronoun is a pronoun referrs to one or more specific persons objects etc. The different forms of demonstrative pronouns as regards to gender number and case are tabularized below Singular Number Case Brahmin Dialect Christian Dialect r------"-----~ r----~ """:\ Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine' Nominative ho hi ho hi Objective h~ka hika hoka bib Instrumental hjne hine hjcns hine: Ablative hisun bisu:n Possessive mgeb hiz:> hozo hiz::> hogeli hizi bozi hizi h:>gele hize hoze hize Locative 'lagi' is mostly used for Locative Kudali Dialect Northern speech r------.A.. r----.A. Masculine Feminine ~ • Masculine Feminine Nominative ho hi ho hi 9bjective h::>ka hika h6ka' hika Instrumental hjane hine: hjana hine: Ablative hisu:n hisu:n Possessive hoc:) hieo hoc::> hieo boci hiei hoco hoei hoze hiee hoci hice Plural Number Brahmin Dialect Christian Dialect Case ,-~--A----J~---~__ ~ Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine Nominative' he hi: hyo he hi: hy::> Objective hoka hika heka hI:ka hjoka hj:>~a Instrumental hene hjani hene: hjani Ablative hesun hIsun hesu:n hisu:n Possessive hegelo higeb hezo bizo hegeli higeli hezi hizi hegele: higele: heze hize Locative 'lagi' is used as Locative case suffix. U4 Kudali Dialect Northern Speech Case , __--A. , Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine Nominative he hI hj:> he hi: hj:> Objective heta hIka huka hi:ka hpka hjQka Insturmental hene hjani: hem: hjani: Abla'ive hesu:n hisun hesun hisun Possessive hero hpc:> hee:> hpci heei hj:)c:> hQci hj:)ce heze hpc:> hece hj:)c:> .. _----- Relative Pronouru Relative pronouns are the pronouns which refer to the relation with ano ther pronoun. Gender and number do not effect this type of pronoun. The following are the Relative Pronouns occurred in our Konkani data. Bra"",in Christian Kudali Northern diake, diaiect dialect speech jOQQ ZOo jQt;l Pl}.-j:>t;l who j:> j:> j:) jo which jcvha jevha jehii jevhii when j.the jethe jethe jthe where Interrogative Pronouns. - Pronouns expressing direct questions are included in this category. Brahmin Christian Kuda/i Northern dialect dialect dialect speech kQsi bsi bsi k:lsi how k;:,sl€ bsle kQsk ~sle what Ke.dna ke.dna kadna ke.dna when I kbQf: lehuf: lehaI: khai: where] UQJJci: khunzi: khanci: k}t)nci which. .! ko.!);) b:Q k>:Q k:)1}. who k:makQ k'Jt;lak bt;laka kJnak whose Kitjak IHtjak kitjak kitjak why 1 Reflexive Pronoun. Pronouns indicating that the object of action is indentical with agent comes in this category. [aPQl}.l and [sWQbh} are two form occur in Konkani, swtoh is more frequent in BrahlIlin diJleQt and apol). is more frequent iu other dialCGtl, 135 4djectil es. KO'nkani adjecti ves can be grouped in twO' grO'ups. These adjectives dO' nO't show any pecliliar difference of dialectal formatiO'n. GROUP-] Adjectives whicn terminate in vowels are grouped in this group. Brahmin Christian Kudali Northern dialect dialect dialect speech Kal::> kal::> kal::> kaf:, black canl::> canl::> canl::> canl::> good adhari: ::>ndh::>ri: . andh:>ri: andh::>ri: blind mh(ltara p::>rn::> mhatar:> puran::> old sagl::> s::>gf:, sag!::> sagJ::, whO'le ke.pp:> ke.pp::> ke.pp:> ke.pp::> g::>r::> g::>r::> g::>r::> gO'r::> fair (cO'IO'ur)' thor::> th::>p thor::> thO'r::> small The adjectives are alternable in their other forms, by receiving or substitut ing inflexiO'nal affixes O'f gender, number and case. This alternation takes place in the following manner. . Generally the adjective ending in [a] anc:i [::>] are masculine forms and ending in [i] are faminine forms. Rule-l Adjectives ending in ra] or [::>J can be alternated in its feminine form by substituting final vowel by [iJ . ",This rule is followed by all the dialects. Ordinals Brahmin Christian Kudali Northern dialect dialect dialect speech ka]::> kali: kali: kali: kafi: goro gcri: gO'ri: g'O'ri: gO'ri: mhatar:> mh;)tari: pjrni: mhatar::> purani: du:sro du:sri: du:sri du:sri: du:sri: Rule-II Adjectives terminating in [:1] and [a] can be alternated in its feminine plural fO'rm by substituting the final vo" el by [j::> 1. Brahmin Christian Kudali Northern dialect dialect dialect speech kaU::> kaU::> kaJj::> kaU::> blaek ~pl.) paIJdhrj::> .paIJ drj::> PaJJdhrj::> pandrj::> while (pl.) Rule-Ill Adjectives terminating in [a] O'r [::>] can bd alternated in their masculine singular objecti"e case by substituting the fimd vO'wel by +- [eJ Brahmin Christian Klldali Northern dialect dialect dialect speech kale kale kale kla!e ior~ gore gore ~ore 136 Noun or pronoun in possessiv$! case syntactically acts as adjectives. They follow the same rules as regards to number and gender, as given earlier while dealing with nouns and pronouns. Brahmin Christian Kudali Northern dialect dialect dialect speech arngeh arnb" anz" amb:) arnc:) arnb:') amc:') ambo our mango tumgeli C;}l1i tumzi eeru tum dhu:v tumci dhuv your daughter tege.b gh:>r tiz gror tiz" gh:>r tic:> ghar ber house ramali: gay rarnazi gay ramaci gay ramaci gay Ram's cow All ordinals sysntactieal1y act as adjectives, no dialectal difference is obse rved in ordinals [{Y.)iI::>] [dusr:>] [tisr:>] [cauth:>] are masculine. [poili:] dusri:] [tisri:] [~uthiJ are femin~ne ordinals for first to four numbers respectively. For rest [v:>] or [vi] inflecti(}n is suffixed to the numerals giving masculine and feminine ordinals to the respective numerals. Ordinals Brahmin Ordinals Christian dialect dialect p"ib p"ili: pJib p"ili: dusr:> dusri: dusr" dusri: tisr" tisri: tisr:) tisri : c:luth c~uthi: c:>th:) c:>thi: pancav:> pacavi: p5cv:> p5c"i: sa":> sa'\'i: s:)v:) so'Vj: satav" satovi: s:>tv:) s:)tvi: ath:wo athavi: :)thv:> othvi: D:>V:> n"vi: n:)vo U:>'\ii: dha'\':> dha'Vi: dh:)v:) dh:>vi: Kudali Northern dialect speech pJib pnili : p"ib pnili: first dusr:> dusri: dusr:> dusri: second tisr:> tisri: tisr:) tisri: third) CJuth" c;)utbi: c:)th:> c:)thi: fourth pancv:> pancvi: pac"" panci: fifth) sav:> s;)vi: S;}v:) SJ\-i: sixth satv:) sahi: sah:) satvi: seventh a!hv.) ath\fi: a!h\f:> athvi: eighth n:)v:> n:wi: n:)v:> n:>vi: ninth dh:wi: dhav;> dba-vj: tenth dh"v~u 137 Group-IT The other type of adjectives found in Konkani are those which are ending in conSOllarts. These adjecti'Ves usually do not receive any inflection due to gender number and case. They remain the same in a11 the environments. Brahmin Christian Kudali Northern dwlcct dialect dialect specch kus;)I~ kllS;)1 kUs;}l kus~l expert husar~ uhSar husar husar clever g:)fJ g:)[ g::l[ g::l[ sweet cikk* cikkgt cik~t cikkgt sticky sund~rg sundgr sundgr sundgr beautiful Khol~ khol khol khol deep unc:) unc unc unc high -tgrul).~ t:)rul). t::lrul). t::lrul) young ggri :b~ g:)ri :b g;)ri:b g::lri:b poor Iamb;) lamb lamb lamb k;ng u:n;} u:n u:n u~n hot pusk;)1 jast m;}st pusk~l much All tEe numerals fall under this group. The comparative list of numeralli ha, been given in appendix. VERBS Konkani verbs generally occur freely in their infinite form which are made by adding + [cs} in Brahmin, + [l]aJ in other dialects, in final position of the verb roots. Some of these infinite forms are given below. Brahmin Christ~an Kudali Northern dialect dialect dialect speech j~guCe jogl]a jagl]a jagl] a to awake mi!~ce: milrya mi!l)a milrya to meet K<)[:')ce K::lrl) a K<)rqa K::lrl) a to do b:lis<)cr" boisl).a b<)isry.a ooiSl) a to sit jec2: jCl).a jery_a jena to come maruCE: m::lrl) a marry. a marna to beat dhoruce: dh::lfqa dh<)frya dhorrya to catch buruce: burna burqa bUfl)a to sink P:)}:)j<)cr po}Jj I] a po};}jl]a JXlI~jl}a to see dhauc2: dhoUl} a dhaurya dhaUl) a to catch Verb root Verb root is that element of a verb which remains after the removal of all fiexional endings or bound morphemes. Konkani verb roots may be divided into groups as per their termination 1 RaJ/80 13 138 Group I The verb roots terminating in vowels, for example Brahmin Christian Kudali Northern dialect dialect dialect speech urki: urki : urki : urki : jump JX)ii p.Jii p:)ii p:)u leak dhaii dh:lU dhaii dhaii run zai z:>i zab zai want meil:> meil:> meil:> meil::> die nha nha nha-o!ioji: nha: bath ghe. ghe. ghe. ghe. lake kha kha kha kha eat di: di: di di: give pi: pi: pi: pi: . drink ·Group II Includes the verb roots which ends in consonants in all the dialects other than Bl'ahmin dialects where the final vowel is euphonized by vowels [:)] [u] [i). Brahmin Christian Kudali Northern dialect dialect dialect speech gil:> giJ gil gil swailow san~ san sali san tell aloC;)n:) aloc:)n aloC;)n aloC;)n think hils:> :>hs has has ltmgh PrFtn:> pr:>j:>tn pr:)jetn prnjtn try vis:)ra visar visar viS{}r forget kara k:)r kar kor do sIva slv slv slv sew These Konkani verb roots in their syntactic use receives different inflec- tions giving different vetbal paradigms. Konkani verbs dill be classified as fonows: 1. Transitive verbs-The verbs which require direct object are transitive verbs, as rama amoo ram kh:>tta ram amoo ram amb:> Ram eats khatta amb:l khatta khatta mango to dudha to ditta to du:dh to du:dh He gives 2. bltransitive verbs~are the verbs which do not require any direct object. to dhauta to dhavta to dhauta to dhauta he runs ram l}.astasa ram :)hstasa ram h:ls;)tasa ram h:lstasa ram laughs herejdhautajandjh:ls:ltasajdoes not require any object, therefore, these are termed as intransitive verbs. 3. Auxilary verbs~A verb which is used to help the other verb to express tense etc. are known as auxiliary verbs for example. jasaj is /hof}.aj to be By adding different inflections to the root of the verb, the verbal forms in different tense and mood etc. are obtained, which are given below . in the form of paradigm. Sample Paradigm Present Tense Bahmin Dialect Christian Dialect Singular Plural Singular Plural 1M & F 'v:ltta v:lttati v:lita v:litati II M & F . V:ltta v:lttati v:lita v:litati III M & F VQtta v:lttati v:ljta voitati Kudali Dialect Northern Speech jatta jatati jatta jattai jatta jattati jatta jattati jatta jatati jatta jattati Past Tense Brahmin Dialect Christian Dialect IM&F gel!:> gelle guib- gelIo guile- gelle II M&F gel!:> gelle guib-geJIo gUjle gub M 'gelb geUe guilo-gelb gelle F gelli gelljo gelli gellj:l Kudali Dialect Northern Speech gelb gelle' gelb gelle gelb gello gellc gelb gelb gelle gello gelle gelli gelljo gelli gelljo 140 Future Tense Brahmjn Dialect Christian Dialect 1M vatt;)t;;>b V::ltt;;>t;)le vCliptlb vJitotale F vatt.}}.) vattale VJitt::lb v::>ittole 11M V;)tt::lt::lb vattat;)le vait::ltob v::>itotole F v;}tt::lb vatt;)le voitt::lb v::litble M V;){tataia1. vatt:lt:lle voitJtob \. v::litotale ·-V::lttab f vatt;)ie voittob J v::littole F vattataii1. vat tat;)l jo L vClitotoli \. voitatdlj~ -vattali f vattaljo . f vClitt::>li f vaitbljo Future Tense Kudali Dialect Nothern Speech Singular Plural Singular Plural 1M yatata}:) yat~tdle jatatab jatatale F yatt:llo yatt::>le jatt:lb jatt::lle lIM yatatab yat:lt:lle jatl)tQto jat:lt:lle F yattab yatat:lle jatta!::> jatt:lle M yatatab} yatatab1. jat::ltabl._ jat:ltale yattab yattale} jattab { jatt::lle yatatali\._ yat::ltalj jatatQli jatat::lij;) yattali f yaW,lj::> jattGli f jttQij::> Habitual Present Brahmin Dialect Christian Dialect 1M V:lttasa vattasat v;)itasa v::>itasat F v~asa .v;}casat voicasa v::>ltasat II V:lttasa vattasat v;)itasa voitasat vacasa v;}casat v;)icasa voic(lsat M vattasa v;}ttasat voitasa vJitasat v;}casa vacasat vJicasa v;)icasat III vattasi : vattasj:J vJitasi : vJitajo F vacasi: vacasjo vJicasi: vJicajo Kuda[i Dialect Northern Speech yattasa yattasat jattasa jattasat yacasa yacasat jacasa jacasat yattasa yattasat jattasa jattasat yacasa yacasat jacasa jacasat yattasa yattasat jattasa jattasat yacasa yacasat jacasal jacasat yattasi: yattasatj:> jattasl': jattastjo ~yattasat jattasat yacasi: yacasat- jacasi:] jacasi: yacasatjo jacastjo 141 Habitual Past Brahmin Dialect Christian Dialect 1M Vdttasild - v()ttasile- v()itasiIeo voitsaile & F v;')cab v()cale v()cab vocale lIM & v:)ttasile:> - v~ttasile- v()ttasii:>- voitasile F v()calo v;')cale vocal:> v:>cale IIIM & v;)ttasib v()ttasib voitasilo - voitasile voicali voicale v:)cab. j v()cab F v;)ttasili- v;')ttasjo- voitasili voitasiljo - v()cali v()calj:> voicali: v:>icalj:> Kudali Dialect Northern speech Singular . Plural Singular Plural 1M and jattasib jattasile jattasil;> jattasile MF jacib jacile jacib jacile II M and jattasib jattasile jattasib jattasile F jacib jacile jacib jacile III M jattasib jattasile jattasib jattasile jacilo jacale jacib jacile F jattasili : jattasilj jattasili jattasili: jacili : jacilj:> jacili : jacili : Perfect-The same as in past tense. Plue Perfect Brahmin Dialect Christian Dialect 1 M andF gellelo gellele goilele goiIele II M and F gelleb gellele g::>ileb gellelo goilele gellel III M gelleb gellele goileb goilele F' gelleli : gel1eIj::> goileli : g()UeIijo Kudali Dialect Northern Speech I gclleb gellele gelleb gellele gellelo gellele gellelo gellele gelleb . gellele gellel:> gellele gelleli: gelleljo gelle Ii gelleljo Brahmin Christian Kudali Northern Imperative VGC:;) VOC' ja ja Negative v;')cna v;')c'na - v;')cn()ko janako janako Infinitive VGttGCg V()ciik jaI)a jaI)a V;')ces: . v;')cQa veciik Subjunctive V()ccs: VQCl) a ja1)a ja1)a VQciik 142 Paradigm for verb root kha=to eat Present tense Brahmin Dialect Christian Dialect Singular Plural Singular' Plural I MandF khata khattati kh:>to kh:>ttati II M and F khat a khattati - kh:>to kh:>ttati 111 M and F khata khattati kh:>b kh.)ttati Kudali Dialect Northern Speech khatta khattati khatta khattati khatta khattati khatta khattati khatta khattati khatta khattati Past tense Brahmin Dialect Christian Dialect I&IIM and F kha11:> khalle k!holb rkhalle III M khalb kha11:) khalb] r ~kha11e . F khalli : khallj:> khalb) khalljo mudali Dialect Northern Speech khal1:> khalle khal!:> khalle khalb khalle khalb khalle· khalb khall_:> khalb khalj:> Futul'e tense Brahmin Dialect Christian Dialect I&IIMand F khatt::lb khatt:>le khatt:>b khottole III M khattdo khatble khattob kh:>ttcie F khatt:>li: khatt:>ljo khatt:>li : . khatt:>ljo Kudali Dialect Northern Speech khatt:>b khatble khattob khat~le khatt:>b khatt:>le khatbb khatt:>le khatt:>li: khattolj:> khatt:>li : khattolj:> Habitual Present Brahmin Dialect ChJistian Dialect I, II and III M and F khattasa khatt:)s()t khattasa kh()U()asot Kudali Dil).Iect Northern Speech khattasal khatt:>s:>t khattasa khattasot Pe;:~~t~The same as in past tense. PluPerfect Brahmin Dialect Christian Dialect Singular Plural Singular Plural 1&11 M&F khalleb khallele khalleb khallele III M&F khalleli : khaUdj:> khalleli : khalleljo 143 Kkudali Dialect Northern Speech khallel:> khaliele khallel::> khallele khalleli: khallelj:> khalleli: khallelj::> kha kha kha li!ha Imperative I&II M&F kha kha kha kha III M&F Negatiive Brahmin Dialect Christian Dialect 1,11&111 M&F khan;)k3 kh::>nali!a Kudali Dialect NortherlZ Speech khan;)b khan;)ka khan;)ko khanako Infinitive Brahmin Christian Kudali Northern S. 1,11&111 M&F khace:- khana khaiik li!haiik khauk k!hauk khal1a khal1a Subjunctive Brahmin Christian Kudali Northern dialect dialect dialect !>peech I, U and III M and F khace: khal1a khat}.a Paradigm for verb root ass;) = to be Present tense Brahmin Dialecf Christian Dialect Singular plural Singular plural I M and F assa assati oss::>ti II M and F assa assati: oss;)ti III M .and F as&a assati: osS:)ti Kudali Dialect Northern Speech asa assati .3sa assati: asa assati asa assati asa assati asa assati 144 Past tense Brahmin Dialect Christian Dialect Singular Plural Singular Plural I and II M and F asib asile ::lsib ::lsile nI M asib asile ::lsib ::lsile F asili: asiIj:l ()sili ()silj::l Kudali Dialect Northern Speech asib asile asib asile asib asile asib asile asili asilj:l asili asilY:l Future tense Brahmin Dialect Christian Dialect I and II M and F ass;)tab assatale ::lss:lt::>b ::lssatale III M as&}tab assatale ::lss:)bb :)ssataie F ass;)tQli assat~rj() ::lss:)t::>b :)ss:)t:)lj::> Eudali Dialect Northern Speech as~tab ass()ble assat:lb assatali assata.b ass()tale assaI::lb ass;)tale assatab assatalj:l assat:lb ass:)t:lIY::l Habitual Present Brahmin Dialect Christian Dialect I, II and III M F assatasa ass()tasat :)sS:)tasa ::lss::ltast Kudali Dialect N orthem Speech assatasa assatasa assatasa ass~tasa Habituated past Brahmin Dialect Christian Dialect I and II M F assatasb ass::>tasb :)ssatasb ::lss::ltasie nlM assatasli assataslj::> ::lss::>tasli ::>sstasIY::l Kudali Dialect Northern Speech, asstasli: assatasle assetasl asstrule asstasli ; asstasb ass;)taslj aSSQtasly:> 145 Perfect-The saml:! as in past tense. Plu Perfect Brahmin Dialed Chri3tiar1 Dialect Sfngu/ar Plural Singular Plural I and II M F assileb assilele ~ssileb ~ssilele III F assiJeli: assileJjo ossiJeli: ossilelyo Kudali Dialect Northern Speech assileb assileb assileb Msilelc assileli: ossileljo assileli ssilelyo Imperative Brahm;11 Dialect Chri3tian Dialect I, II and III M F aSE:') ass:') as~:,) ass:) Kudali Dialect Northern. Speech ass:') ass:,) as~o ass:) Negatiye Brahmin Dialect ChriJtion Dlaleel assonoko assn;)ko ass:;,D;}ko aSSQD;lko Kudali Dialect Northern Speed! ass;}n;}ko asson;}ko ass;lDokio ['IJ fill ire Brahmin Christian Kudali NOrIhern Dialect Dialect Dialect Speech I, II and III M F ass;}ce: ~ss;}na assl).a ass;}Q'a assiik assiik assiik Subjunctive Brahmin Christian Kuaali Northern dialect dialect dialect speech I, II and III M F ass;}ce: ~SS;}l).o ass;}Qa assoTla Verbal Inflections Different inflections are suffixed to a verb root for getting different verb forms due to gender, number, tense mood which are given below: lW~ M 146 Present tense +[a] +[ta] in.flections are suffixed for singular and +[ta tiJ for plural number to the verb root to get Present tense verbal form. V.R. +a =VRa ass +a =assa Y.R. +ta =VRta kha +ta =khatta(due to morphophonemic changei-come in between) V.R. +tati =VR tati kha +tati =khatati f +[101 inflection is suffixed for 1st, 2nd person masculine singular and feminine singular and for 3rd person masculine singular and 1, II person eminine singular. +[le] for I II III person masculine plural and I II person feminine plural, +[li] inflection is suffixed for III person feminine singular, and +[1jo 1inflections is suffixed for III person feminine plural, to the verb root for getting the past tense verbal form. V.R. +1:> =- VR 10 kha +10 =~hallo /1/ comes due to morphophonemic change V.R. +li '" VR Ii: kha +li khalli: V.R. +ljo =: VR Ijo, kha +ljo = khalj future tense +[t;)1o] inflection is suffixed for 1st, II and HI person on masculine singular and I II person feminine singular+[t~le] inflection is suffixed for I II III person masculine plural and I II person feminine pluraH-[toli:] inflection is suffixed for III person feminine singular and [t~ljo] inflection is suffixed for III person feminine plural, to the verb root t'o get the future tense verbal form. V.R. +t~1o == V.R. t~10 :khat+t~b khatt~lo V.R. +t~le V.R. t~le kha+tol~ khatt~lo V.R. -+ toli: V.R. t~li: khattoli: khatt~li V.R. +t~ljo V.R. t~ljo khatt~ljo khat;)ljo Habitual Present +[tasa] inflection is suffixed for I II III person singular (in both genders) +[tast] for I II III person plural (in both the genders) to the V.R. for getting Habitual present verbal form. V.R. +tasa =. VRtasa kha + tasa ::= khattasa V.R. +tas;;lt = VR tat~t kha + tta~t = khattas:;)t 147 Habitual Past +[tasb] inflection is suffixed for I II III person mlilsculine and I II perso n feminine singular,+ttasle] for I II III person masculine I II person feminine plural, +[tasli:] for III person feminine+[taslj:>] for III person feminine plural. to the verb root for getting habitual past tense .. V.R. +- tasl:> = VR tasl:> kha + tasb = khatasb V.R. +-tasle = VR tasle kha + tasle = khatasle V.R. +tasli: = VR tasli: kha + tasH: = khataslj: V.R. 4-taslj:> = VR taslj::l kha + taslj::l = khataslj::l Perfect Inflection is the same as in past tense. PluPerfect +[1eb] inflection is suffixed for I II III person masculine singular and for 1 II person feminine singular +[lele] for I II III pflrson masculine plural and I II person feminine plural +-f1eli] for 111 person feminine singular +[lelj:>] III person feminine plural, the verb root for getting plu Perfect verbal form. V.R. + leb == VR leb kha + lei = khallel:> V.R. + lele =: VR Ie Ie kha + Iele == khallele V.R. +- leli: =: VR le1i: kha + leli: '" khalleli: V.R. + lelj:> '" VR lelj::l kha + lelj '" khalelj::l Imperative For imperative no inflection is added to the verb root. Verb root as !luch is used for imperative mood. V.R. == Imperative kha == Imperative Negative +ngka and +[naj] are suffix to verbal form for negative. V.F. . +n:>ko v:>c +ngko = v;'c Mko asa -tnaj '= asa naj Infinitive +[ukJ and [ce:] suffixed to verb root in Brahmin dialect. uk and [I).a] are suffixed in all the dialects other than Brahmin dialect for getting infinitive form of a verb. Brahmin dialect V.R. 4- iik = VR. uk kha + iik = khaiik V.R. + ce: = VItc€: kha ce: = khace: 148 Other dialects Y.R. + t;la + VRt;la kha ~ 1;1 a Subjunctj,e Ce in Brahmin dialect +[na] in all dialects other than Brahmin dialect is suffixed for sUbjunctive mood. All other dialects except Brahmin dialect V.R. + J;l.a == VR Qa kha 4- Qa '" khaJ;la Brahmin dialect V.R.. +- ct = VR. cE: kha + ce == khacE: INDECLINABLES Konkani words which do not receive any inflection are termed as inde clinables, which may be classified in the following categories on the basis of their syntactic use. 1. Adverb. 2. Conjunction 3. Particles 4. Interjections In these indeclinables, no dialectal variation has been noted. These are described below. Adverb. Adverbs qualify a verb, adjective or another adverb semantically they may be classified as fo11o\1\ aji ::IZ aj aj today kali kal kal kal yesterday phalya phay phalya·udja phalya tomorrow sakali ~kaJ sakal sakal morning m:>ggiri maggit maggir- maggir aftelward pheri kedna kedna kedna ksdna always p:>ra P'>ra p::>ra para day after tomono\1\< Pyyri p:)yri peyri: JX)iri day before yesterday P'Jyile pcyle p:>y:)le pey~le before nitye deli: nity:) niytja daily parat;) ~rot p;1~t p;,rot again . :>tta .,tta .,tta otta DOW tUfQt tUr;)t turot tur.)t immediately pUlJoh punle pUJ;lQh pUMh again 149 Adverb of place-Adverbs which denote place are grouped in this category. Brahmin Christian Kudali Northern dialect dialect dialect speech laggi kore oorob:}r lagi near bitwr bitt;)ri bitt~r bitt;)r inside du:ri du:r du:r du:r far purhe purhe purhe purhe next bahio b.:>hir bahir bahir outside haila :>h:;,ila h:;,tia hJIia here th:;,i: th:;,I: th:;,l: th:;,I: there Adverb of manner-Adverbs which denote the manner or the way of act are grouped in this category. v;)ggi VJggi vegi vegi quickly h~ggur-h;)lu :lhlu h:lggur h:lggUI slowly ekd5m~ ekd:;,m ekd:lm ekd:lm at once bilkul:l bilkul bilkul bilkul exactly nir:;,nt:;,m nir:;,nt:lr nir:;,nt:lr nirt:lnter contiruous phJkt:l f:;,k:;,t ph:lkt ph:;,kt only Adverb of Affirmative or Negative-Adverbs denoting affirmation or ne gation of an act are grouped in this category. h:J h:l h:l ho Yf!S oorobor:l borooor oorooor oorob:lr right oore: oore: b:lre: b:lre: quite right D:lko n<>ko - D:l n:lk:;, n:;,k:;, - n:l not or no Particles The following particles are available in Konkani of MaharashtJa. Brahmin Christian Kz.dali Northern dialect dialect dialect speech lagi kore b:lIOber lagi neat khatir;) kh:ltir khatir khatir for sarkha s:lrkh:) satkha sarkha like vis<}j:;,k:l vis:lj:lk vj~j:lk "is:lj:"lk in respect of k:;,ro:;,no \ brJn kal;)D kamn . because :tmldd~ m:lddE: m:;,dde: m:;,ddE: amoung phati phati ph3!i phati· behind v:lj:m: V:lj:;,t:i : v:;'j:lri: v:lj:lri: over Interjections The expression which denotes ( (, sorrow, surprise. Brahmin Christian Kudali Nortilern dilliect dialect dialect speech Qre :lre are :If;) hekaj;) h:lkaj hekaj hekaj chs \ chs chs chs Sabsl;) s:>b:>s sabas sabas 150 Many adjectives ltke /m'Jst/ /thop/ /jast! /k'Jr//kedna! /k'Jsi/ /kitte: etc. are used as adverbs. Their dialectal forms an: same as described in adjectives. Conjunction Conjuctions are used to connect two words or two phlases or two sent- ences. 'they do not leceive any inflection. Followingconjuctions wrre met in our data Brahmin Christian Kudali Northern dialect dialect dialect speech aJ;li: ~J;li : aJ;li: api:-aJ;li: and ~I).~ p'JJ;l p'Jl). p'JJ;l . but sivaj;) siv"y sivay sivay again or only jalliari zcr jalliari j;)r if kitjak'J kitjak k!itjak kitjak become t'J1;) t"1 t:)f t;)l so SYNTAX A sentence is an unit of Language fmmed by the systematic arrangements of the words, whicil gives a grammt'tically complete sense unit. The arrangr ment of words in the r.yntactic system of a language gi ve a sentence structure. Slight change in the f>y&tem of arrangement will make the sentence as wlong sentence. Therefore for the sentence structure it is very necessary to know the rules of the syntactice arrangement of word orde-r. The sentence of Konkani may be divided into two .classes. Class I-Formal or Major sentence-this type of sentence contains, all their constitutent etements in tbem. Class n Informal or Mmor sentences-In conversational speech some times a few words are dropped from the sentence without hurt ing the sense of the sentence. The sense of the dropped words IS fulfilled by the context of the speech. A Konkani sentence has got two \sse.ntial parts as follows :- 1. Actor or Subject 2. Action or Predicate Generally a simple sentence in Konkani begins with the subject and ter minates in a predicate. Subject or Actor-ActO! or Subject of a sentence is the 8gent performing the action expressed by verb in the l>entence. The subject of the sentence may be simple or may have its enlargements. 151 Simple Subject~When a subject is without its enlargements it is known as simple subject. Generally Nouns and pronoun and in nominative case acts as the simple subject. Brahmin Chri!Jtian Kudali Northern dialect dialect dialect speech mohan~ moh~n m~han m;)h~n amba khatta amba amoo Mohan eat mango khatta amba khatta, khatta tii: ghara tii: guila tii gnar tu gh~r You went to home gell~ ghara gella gella Here /moh;}nl and {till are subject and lamba khatta/-{khatta am~1 and /ghara gell;)/-/guil;) ghar/ are predicates of the subjects respectively. Enlargement of the Subject- This simple subject can be enlarged by its enlargements. To show the qualiites and quantity of a l>ubject some attributes aft, used with the subject enlarging the subject proper. These attributes are termed as attribute adjuncts of the subject for examples : lJ1'ahmin Christian Kudali Northern dialect dialect dialect Jpeech kala ghop kalo ghara kala ghora kala ghor;) canbasa caliJ~sa canlaasa calik a5a a mg~l~c~lla ~mZQ purga amea p;}rg amca calla ambakhatta ai1b~ khatta amba kllatta amba khatta Predicate or action Predicate is the word or group of words whicb states or negates a pro perty condition etc. of the subject in a subject. When a predicate is without its enlargement it is known as simple pre dicate generally verb is used as the predicate. This predicate can be enJerged by its enlargements or attributes. Generally subject can be explanied as : (1) A Noun used in a nominative case: Brahmin Christian Kudali Northern dialect dialect dicdect speech ram geU::> ram guil::> ram ~ell::> ram gellQ ram went (ii) A pronoun used in nominative ca ,e : tii.kluttta tii kh::>tta tu khatta tu khatta you eat 152 (iii) An -Adjective used in nominative case: Bruhmin Christian Kudali Northern dialect dialect dialect speech ti :ni ti :n ti:ni ti :ni three went gelb guile gelle gelle (iv) An infinitive used in nominative case : gafik g:l1}a gaQa ga1}a To sing is wle(ul upj;)gi asa upjugi asa upjogi asa upjogi asa (v) A phrase in nominative case : jo manus;) zo dadl;) jo manus jomanus ) kopk;)rta kopbrta kOpKQrka kopkarta ~ The man who becomes vait asa • v:)it asa vait asa vait asa J angry is bad. Here/ ramI, Itu!, Iti :ni! gauk/ !jomaf).Uf! zodadl;)! are subjects. Enlargement of Subject (i) by an adjective qualifying He subject Brahmin Christian Kudali Northern dialect dialect dialect speech kiab ghora kal;:, ghora kiab ghora ka!. ghOra } black horse is good cailb asa cailb asa caill asa cailb asa (ii) A noun or pronoun used in possessive case qualifying~he subject. ;)mgE:l;) ;)mz;) ;)mc;:, ;)mCQ calla purg;) porg;:, call(') amba khatta amb;) amoo } our son eats mango khatta amb::l khatta kh~tta ramala ramaz;) ramac;) rama~;:, call;) purgo porg;) C;)l1;) amb::l khatta amba ambQ } Ram's son eats mango khatta amba khatta khatta (iii) Numerals or ordinals qualifying the subject eke c;)ll;:, e:ki purga e:k porg::> ek c;}ll;) one boy is asa asa asa asa paila p;)i[;) pail;) p;)il;) first boy went call;) purg;) porg::> call;) gell;) geUa gella gelb In the above sentences /ka!a! /;)mgel(')} -!::>mzaj -!;)lllC;)/, ;ramaia/- jramaza! . _ jramaca/, iek, - J e:kj and /paii;); -/P;)ila/are attribute adjuncts to Ighof::>/, Icallal - /purga/- !porga;. . Predicate can be explained as .' (i) A Verb of a subject Brahmin Christian Kudali Northern dialect dialect dialect spe('ch tu v..,ita tll jatta tu jatta you go (ii) A noun or pronoun in nominative case used predicati"ely. tiggd ti Z.., tiCQ ticQ nay na" asa naY nav her name is sunenda sun:mda sun..,nda sunQnda sUll;)nda :asa asa - asa Here jsunQndaj although in nominative case used predicatively forms the part of predicate. (iii) An adjective or numeral used predicatively. ram cvill ram asa ram caill ram canio RalQ is good asa caille asa asa Enlargement of Predicate . (i) By a noun or pronoun or any other word or phrase used objectively. hay mQg~Eb :>hv khatta mi majb:> mi majho < I eat mango. ambo khatta ili:>Zo ombo amb:> khatta amb:> khatta Here / amb:>! is the object of the verb. (ii) lly an adjecti ve, numeral or a noun or pronoun in possessive case qualifying the object. _ < hay :>hV mi mi mQ~e:b khalla majba majha ambo mazo ambj ambo I eat my mango khatta ambo .khatta khatta . hav cnigb :>hv khatta mi: mi: I eat good mango ambo khatta canb amb:> canglo canglo ambo khatta khatta - havdoni :>hv khatta mi: don mi: doni J eat two mangoes. ambe don aml)e ambo am be - khatta khatta khatta (iii) AQ adverb qualifying the verb Brahmin Christian K,~duli Northern dialect dialect dialect speech ti: ti: ti ti: lbgguc:> ohggur hQlu: hQggur she eats slowly h:>ggur" :>hggur h;}!u: h;)ggur khatta khata khatta khatta ti: khatta ;>hggur ohggur 1 RGI/80 154 Adjectives and verbs agrees with the nearest noun in number gender. Word order Except the Goanese christian dialect the word order is uniform in other dialects: Both the word-orders are described below: Q.s+s. +Q.o+o +Q.v+v ...... Konkani sentence except G. C. dialect Q.s+s. v+Q.v +Q.o+o ...... Goane:.e christian dialect Q.s ...... quaJifier of subject Q.v ...... qulifier of verb . s ...... subject v ...... verb Q.o ... qulifier of object o ...... object Brahmin Christian Kudali Northern dialect dialect dialect speech tiggeb tiz:> tec:> tic;:) c~lb cer:> porg:> c:)ll:> ram ram rarn ram tagge-b khatta taz:> tajha amb:> :)h:)ggur amb:> amb:) her son ram h~ggur hQggur eats his h::lggur tazo h:)}u heggur mango ilowly khatta ambo h::llu khatta kha.tta The adjectival adjunct gennerally precedes and agrees in gender and num l:>er to the noun or pronoun they qualify attributively. Th~ obj!ct com!s in b~tween th~ verb and subject in all the dialects except in G03.n:!se christian dialect where it follows the verb. Adverb pcecedes verb in all th;! dialects except in Goanese dialect where it sometimes precedes verb or sometimes follows the verb. Conjunctions are used to connect two words wh'!rever it is necessary_ The above mentioned order is generally followed by a single sentence These sentences can be grouped in following groups according to the manner of action. Group I IndiclI.tive-This type of sentences indicates the action. Brahmin Christian Kudali Northern dialect I dialect dialect speech ~bQn:l m:)h:ln m:>h:ln m:>h;:,n Mohan eat amb:, kh,ttasa amb:, amb:> man~o, .k.k~t~sa l\ll\Q J.chattasa khatta,sa, 155 Group 11 Affirmative anel Negative-In affirmative sentences-the sentence begins with affirmative word(h,,( and in Negative sentences the negative word In;)ko/ or/naj: is added after the verbal form. Brahmin Christian Kudali Northern dialect dialect dialect speech h"hiiv :)h :)hv h:)mi a:)mi yes I go v:)tta v;)tta jatta jatta tu v:)c tiiv:)c tu jatt tujaun~ko you do not n;)k:> n;;lko n~ko go. G~oup III Imperative-,{n imperative type of sentences, the root of the verb is ulled for imperative use. tumi v:>c tumi v:)c tumi ja tumija you go. Group IV Interrogation-The word of interrogation are put after the subject for converting a simple sentence into Interrogative sentence. tu kaj tu kaj tii kaj what are you k;)rta k(}rta k;;lrta doin&. Group V Exclamatory sentence-This type of sentence denotes' exclama.tion for which the word denoting exclamation is used before the sentence to exclamatIon. haj~ to o to haj to haj to Oh! . he is melb melb melb melb dead! ~c;)lb tu ago cer:>tii ho porg;> tu ho colb tu Oh! boy kaj~~rta kaj brta . kaj k;)rta kaj k;;)rta what are you doing Phrase~ When a group of two or more words act or can act syntactically as the syntactic constitutents of the sentence-c.c. Noun, pronoun, adjective, advelb or verb, is known as phrase. The phrase according to the syntactic use can be classified as follows ;._. 1. Noun Phrase 2. Adjective Phrase 3. Adverbiable Phrase 4. Verbal Phrase 156 i. Noun Phrase~When a group of two or more words act syntactically a& a noun in the sentence. It is known as noun pbra~e-As subject. ~ Brahmin Christian Kl/dali Aortlzern dialect dialect dialect speech tYl:lgggb In0Z;) m;)jh;) majh;) my younger I~han" dhaktJ ]~hJn bhan son Ram CJlb burg;) porg c~lb went. ram gell r:Jm gelb ram gel! ram gell As object- tii ~ml!ele tu di tii majhe tii majhe you give the I;)han ;)mb;);)mze lohan Igjum mangr to the ~Iljak dhakte porgak c;)lIjak younger son. amb di purgak amb di amb~ di 2. Acljective Phrau-When a group of two or more than two words acts syntactically as an adjective-(qualifying the noun) in a sentence-is known as adjectival ptlrase. hJkalJ o kab hJ kalJ h;) ka!:J that black al}i I~han Jni i~han ani I~han ani 19han and small ghor:) gb.;)r;) ghor;) ghorJ horse is mine. m;)gge.b mozJ ;)sa majh;) majhJ asa asa asa fii pik;)leb tii Jhr tii piblel tu pik~lel you bring ani canb ani canb ani canb ani canb ripe and ainb:J har amb:J' amb:J har amb:> hal' good mango. 3. Adverb Phrase-When a group of two or more than two words acts syntactically as an advarb (qualifying the verb) in a sentence is known as adverbial phrase. ' m;lgge:b mozJ majhJ majha my horse ghorJ gbop ghorJ ghorJ sometimes kevhd "Jitasa kevhd kevha ~Iow and teri kevhd t;)rI t~ri t;)ri sometimes h~ggur Jhggur h~lu h~ggur fast goes kevhO kevhd kevha kevhd t;lri t~ri t~ri t;lri "eggi veggi vegi "egi v;)ttasi.' jattasa jattasa 4. Verb Phrase-When a group of two or more than two words syntacti (" to cal~t to cal~t to caht tc. cal;)t while w8Jk·· caJ~t c~J~t cabt cal~t ing he stoppt'd~ thamb thamb thmb thamb gelb guib gelb gelb_ 157 Clausc-A phrase can further be replaced by a simple sentence~known as clause. g"ing a compound sentence of two or more sentences. The clause which replaces the phrase, being dependant in nature en the rest part of the sentence is known as subordinate clause and on which it depends is known as main 01 principal clause. These subordinate clauses may act syntactically as noun or pronoun, adjective or adverb. According to their syntactic use in the sentence they may be classified as Noun clause, Adjecti"e clause or Adverb clause. Their syntactic description is just like that of phrases des cribed earlier. Concluding Remarks-According to the language classification of 1961 Census of India, Konkani belongs to outer sub-branch of Indo-Aryan sub family. Geographical!y the speech area of Konkani is the southern' most a1'ea of Indo Aryan languages. As already described Konkani covers a vast speech area beginning from Maharashtra in the North to Kerala in the South. Having contact with different ether languages it has developed various shades of its c-wn but at the some time preserving its own identity. It is spoken by more than one million speakers most of them are billingual or trilingual. Even in absence of any script of its own it has kept itself lhing for a long time. Being the southern mest language Konkani preserves many of tbe qualities of outer circle, as been mentioned by Hoernle, but at the same it shows some si milarities with the languages ofI nner circle disagreeing ,-,(ith the language~ :)f onter circle. In the following lines, a concise comparative study will be given :- The nominative singular of strong masculine base ends in [C ] or r 0 ] like tbat of Bengali. Brahmin Christian Kudali Northern dialect aialect dialect speech c;:}lb burg::> p::>rg::> ~lb boy ghop gh"p gh"p gh;:}p borse kamb::> k"mp k:Jmbp kambp cock But here it would interesting to mention that Gujarati and Brajbhasha also show this tendency. Gujarati Brajabhasha ch"kr::> ch::>rc-mop boy b"kr" bokr" be goat. , [ ~ ] and [ a ] are more open like Bengali and this tendency is more in use in christian dialect. The openness of [ ;:} ] and [ " ] becomes more in south than North. Brahmin Christian Kuaali Northern clialect aialect dialect speech gh"r house n;:}v;:}r:> bridegroom 158 The articulation of affricates of Kudali and Brahmin dialects, is dental in some environments and is palatal in some environments like that of Ass amese , Marathi and Eastern Bengal *. But the articulation of affricate in christian and Northern speech is mostly palatal as of Hindi, Gujarati and other language~ *. Retroflex! 1/ occurs in Konkani like that of Marathi but this! 1 / looses its retrofiextion in the Northern speech like that of Hindi. , Past tense s}lffix + [l::l ] occurs in this language like that of Marathi and other languages of the outer circle. Occurrence of ( c::> ) - (co), (ci:) - (ci), (ce. - ce:) in Kudali and Northern speech like th~t of Marathi language. Thus in the above mentioned linguistic items Konkani agrees with the languages of the outer circle. On the other hand it shows some similarities with the languafges of Inner circle. Occurrence of P~latal affricates in christian as well as in Northern speech like that of the languages of the .inner circle. i I! looses its retroflexion in the northern speech and is pronounced as /1 ! like that of Hindi Bengali / 1 /. Occurrence of + [ ka ] the objective case suffix like that of Hindi ko and not like that [la 1 of Marathi. Causative verbal suffix + [ ::ljta ] like Hindi [ vata ] - [ ata ]. First Personal singular nominative pronoun of Brahmin and Christian dialects of Konkani f hay I and f ::>hv I respectively corresponds to Braj ana Gujarati I h5 I and I hii f' These above mentioned linguistic items of Konkani show that this language resembles the languages of outer circle in some.cases and in some other cases it resembles the languages of inner circles. As already mentioned Konkani is the southern most language of lndic family. Among languages of lndic languages it is much adjacent to marathi. Therefore, it resembles Marathi in many respects but at the same time it dis agrees in a few linguistic patterns with Marathl. As regards Konkani of Maharashtra is concerned, as already mentioned, it has four major dialects viz. Kudali, Northern Speech, Chtistian dialect and Brahmin dialect. on the basis of our present analysis it can be said that Kudali and Northern Speech are much more nearer to Marathi than the other two dialects. These dialects have more or less the same phonemic system as of Marathi. These dialects have more Marathi words in their vocabulary. But objective case suffix is +[ ka] unlike Marathi +f Ia], the auxiliary verb is asa and not 1aha I like that of Marathi General sentence structure is the same as of Marathi but Kudali speech has got a tone at the sentence leve/which is not met in Marathi. * See Phonology. 159 As regards other two dialects, they show more deviation than .Kudali and Northern speech. Brahmin dialect has got the same phonemIc system. as of Marathi. Brahmin dialect have more Sanskrit and Kannada words. Fust person singular nominative pronoun is I hav I unlik!e ~arathi J mi;/. Objective case suffix is +1 ka] and possessive case suffix IS [g?b] [g:}h 1 [ g:}}:}] Unlike Marathi [la] and [c:)] [ci] [ce] respectively. The auxiliary verb is 1asa I unlike 1aha I. The sentence pattern is more or less- the same as of Marathi. But Goan Christian dialect show much more deviation even in Phonology. Vowel [:}] and [a] are more open and sounds like that of [ :)]. 1ph ! of other dialects and of Marathi corresponds to I f 1 in this dialect. 1 h I does not occur in the initial position. Affricate are palatal. Portuguese and English words are more in this dialect. + [ka] is the objective suffix. ! :)hv / is the first personal pronoun (sing.) sentence structure is quite different from other dialects and Marathi. Therefore viewing all the linguistic patterns Konkani of Maharashtra is a different language from Marathi., having Kudali and Northern speech much more nearest to it. Here it would not be out of point that this investigator observed that for an ordinary Konkani speaker it is difficult to understand Marathi language and the same case is with the ordinary Marathi speaker towards Konkani. But as Konkani speakers are living in Maharashtra state they are mostly bi-lingual or tri-lingual and are able to pull on their work smoothly. During the investigation on the querry about their speech, almost all the informants were of the opinion that their speech is different from Marathi. But it is much nearer to it than to any other lndic language. Informants from Kudali and Northern speech area living here for a number of years are mostly bi-lingual having Marathi as the other language. Therefore they were of the opinion that they can do with state language for official purpose and medium of instruction and want to avoid any linguistic controversy. Whereas the informants of Goan Christian dialect and Brahmin dialect though hi-lingual or tri-lingual were much more cautious towards their mother tonglle. Their view was that their language should be developed and protected and it should be made the medium of instruction. For the development of their speech they have organized some language development organizations like Konkani Bhasa MandaI, to carry out the programmes for the development of their mother tongue. Here they stage some acts and plays in their mother tongue. They are trying to produce good literature also. They are also trying to overcome the difficulty of the common script of the speech. Although Goan Christians are using Roman script for their literature and Newspaper. But now all of them are trying to reach on a common script, so that script may not have any hindrance in its development. K?nkani. has. a long traditio.nal history of its o~n. It has kept its identity to thIS day lllspite of several hIts and pulls even lD absence of a script of its own. On the basis of this analysis it can be said that this language has got !l perfect and well organized Grammatical system and if protected and developed It has got 1111 the qualities to give flourishing literatl,lre Qf its own, 160 00 I I I I I~ I I I I IVi j I I I I l~ I 1 I I r<) I I j~ I 1- j 161 -\() 8 ~ .0 ,N o ;> cd ..a .0 :> bi :::3 ..a -P. "C ('l ~ lei! .~ u d·.l< ,.$:( ~ ,_" S0 " cd cd d~ 0 ....0 d' ~..a :::3 :> "> ..... ,.g :::3 :::3 ~ ('l4.l 0 :> > cd cd r::' (If..a..a ;:J '":::3 ~'''''''''''''''' 0 o..a .+l ~ .l<.l< r;:l.. P. ~ ..a 88,Sr:: a:::.o .0 .0 ~ :> ;j .l<'" :::3 ;:Jcd ~ ..Q - '" "C p. cd.o~ ~::s n d' ·,ocd.o>, S 0, 0 d.l<..lo: .l< • ..a (If';:;O"(If cd ..9 " ., .!J cd· .ti Icd 'Jl ~ !:t •..a.c; :::3 :> > a cd 'E, rn.E] gj~ ~~ ~'S S 8.~ ~]~ ..Q ~.l< r;:l..~.o Po.o..a.o,o .s a::: s::.o.o .0 Z ~ ~].~..!O:til· 0 0 """""_~O g ,::I!lt:Qll'1t:Q ,::I!l ...;~~~ tf\ ~~ ~ N 162 ...... (') ,.14 o '"s;::. ~ "0' .... -''''1('1) .... ('l) E E~ 163 .,_,t1> '"•• g"a0 ..... -';::;>'-..c:Ic...... -t1> s::. a) s::. .... a) ... ..c:I .r:l C<3t'3 ...... c 0 ~ C<3' JJ.:.; ::::I 0 ..c (') .... (') • :::.s::._ +-> eli .. ~ d····:.<:_ d·... ..c (:1...... ~ G) ..... '" (') g ..... ;; ...... CIl '5 t1> ",._ .,....., CI) ...... ·-co ~ ..... :;;> t1> •• 0 .... G ~ ~ ]. .i:: ~].E'~ 8.."0 ~ g..c 0 '5 eli ''_'''-..c:I 0 0 "'~ ..c Po. .... - ~ S S '~ ~ .;: Po.1:I c.. ._ S::. .... t'3 ~ ::::I .r:l d ,.e...... c a) 0 ... ..c:I S' 0" '"::::I ::::1,-..- ._ 1 i!! _ 'f5 +->"';:1 ':::1 ..c 1 rs> ... ,,:!oiI:.s Po.:::I "'!a)(') d",:;tI- ...... +-> ... Po.Po. :::C!)Po. ;> ~ G) .S!,,;l :3..[d g> eIi . .s::: CIl ~ ...... (')~~:;:: ~;:I;:I::I~- .~ t1> •• 0 .... a,::IvgCllClS"0 ..., (:1..,0 •.,., ...... c:I 0 '_' s ..... 0 .~ .... ~.r:l ..d S-O..c S~ ..c c...... ;:? .~ ;;:.. p. Po. ~ Po.~ . ..c... G) e.s '"'~.--. "0'"' ..d ,:.: . 1:1 ...... d C':S ::I ::::I] ~a) ~ ;> ..c:I ::::I 0 ...... r:l d' (l> ·tS .... 00>-0 ..c S p.... '"' ;:I '-' ... ::::I Jt ....~ IQ) c..;:I..c .... ,0 -? JJ.:.; '5 ~ CIS .2,;l .;:::~ (') g = .. e,_h c..Po. ; 'e Q :3..i;i 1: g. ~ ...... ~c;i:;:::=..d ::I..c:I= B.:::I "G> t1> c;! CIS S ..... "0 ..., .(.1 ..c ..c ..c ,.g.:.; _g ~ ClS E~ ~ ,Jj Po...... :~E S 8.'~~ a::l"0 Po. .~.... .....~ -vi 165 00 ....::t s'" 167 .~ s .~ s ....d S .~ ;:3 ~. s .~ S 168\ I· 00 ~ 0 ~ ~ .. 0 fiJZ - 169 1 .g·--= 170 I I [ I 100 I I I I III:' . \ I 1 1.0 r I I 1 I -I I 1 I I~ l 1- l I f 1 l I ~ t I I t I ~ l I l I I I t f ~ I M I f b f I I-I 171 00 .... 172 ... C'il ::s~ ~ ·g.~·6 !:I~..c= .. ""'" 1-01 ~ .s::I C'il ,_. UtI.lJ%l I~ I III I ~c:: "tI ~'6 I ::s~~ ~~"' .... m V,l~... f~ I r I .$ r ~ ~ r r 6' r- I z;::$ I r 173 174 175 o 00 ~.... 176 -:2 :2- ..a ;:::I .0 .!l .;.> ~ iilZ· e 177 Q :J til .... .2!)Q 11· 'E?.a...... (l> o·_ :E~ _u ':J 0 ., ~'a ...... ,.., I Q .... ,..c::o ::s !)Q ....til (") ,.Q !)Q C<:I :(")...." ...... :::I'G :E.2 s·!:.fl C<:IQ ._ ..... ::s 'fIl I (") ~...... , .....10) .~..... :<:: bl)e.> ::lo S ,D ...... t8 00 C'l 178 ...... ~ ....- -'-,.t:jS- ....CD ...... ~ t:: • ....ia) '"' .... 179 ~c/) ~ Cf) ~ 00 ...... rr. 00 ro o i (.) ~ ....o 00 Irl 180 ir ....o .~. ] 181 .....Q) ~ ....~ 10~ 00 r!. I 10 Io -00 -~ o '"