RELIGIOCTS IDEAS AND MOVEMENTS Structure I 29.0 Objectives 29.1 Introduction 29.2 Bhakti Movement 29.2.1 Ideology 29.2.2 Major Schools 29.2.3 Impact of the Bhakti Movement 29.3 Mysticism 29.3.1 Sun Philosophy 29.3.2 Doctrinal Texts 29.3.3 Major Silsilas 29.3.4 Mahdavi Movement 29.4 Islamic Revivalist Movement in the Eighteenth Century 29.5 Let Us Sum Up 29.6 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises After reading this. unit you will be able to know about : the ideology of the Bhakti movement; the major schools of the Bhakti movement; the impact of the Bhakti movement on society, literature, etc.; Islamic mysticism. Sufi philosophy and the major sufi-Silsilas, the character and philosophy of the Mahdavi movement, and the nature of revivalist movements in the 18th century. 29.1 INTRODUCTION The religious, milieu of India when Isiam reached this subcontinent, presents a phase where Buddhism had lost its supremacy, Brahmanism was trying to consolidate its position by compromising with Buddhist doctrines as well as with pre-Aryan practices. Islam though altogether a new thing, had exercised an influence upon the Indians with its principles of universal brotherhood and human equality. In the words of Tarachand "Not only did Hindu religion, Hindu art, Hindu literature and Hindu Science, absorb Muslim elements, but the very spirit of Hindu culture and the very stuff of Hindu mind were also altered, and the Muslim reciprocated by responding to the change in every development of life". An everlasting process of give and take, thus began. Among the Muslims, Al-Biruni, Amir Khusrau, Abul Fazl, Dara Shikoh, etc., tried to understand Hinduism and made valuable attempts to enhance Muslim understanding of Hinduism by their own works and by translating Sanskrit works into Persian. Rulers like Feroze Shah Tughlaq, Zainul Abidin of Kashmir, Sikandar Lodi, Akbar, Jahangir etc. encouraged this trend with the result that scholars like Mirza Jan Janan rose in the 18th century to declare that both Rama and Krishna were prophets. During this period one can identify two significant trends in the realm of' religion, mainly Bhakti and Sufi, a detailed discussion on which follows in the subsequent sections. 29.2 BHAKTI MOVEMENT Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU In spite of the pantheistic philosophy of Shankaracharya, at the time of the arrival of the Muslims in India, the Hindu society. comprised the followers of Saivism, Vaishnavism and the cult of Shakti. But there were intellectuals who had no faith in - - RCI~I- and ~ovementa the prescribed path of action (karma marg), but who regarded the path of knowledge (gyan marg) to be the appropriate method for attaining salvaticn. The disputes between the upholders of these views totally ignored the actual ethical behaviour of man, improvement of his status in life and fulfilment of his destiny on earth. Brahmanism with all its philosophical and ritualistic progress, had thus become an essentially intellectual doctrine. It ignored the personal religious aspirations of the people. The fundamental principles which it taught were impersonal and speculative. The people who were always in need of an ethical and emotional cult in which it was possible to find both satisfaction of the heart and moral guidance, understood nothing of it. It was in these circumstances that the path of Bhakti, devotion blended with love of God, found a favourable atmosphere. 29.2.1 Ideology The chief mark of this trend of thought is the relation of the soul w~ththe Supreme Being. The word Bhakti in the Pali literature takes its origin back to the 8th century B.C. The Bhagavadgita, pre-Buddhist texts and Chhandogya Upanishad, contain some references which underline the emergence of devotion to a ingle personal God. This reaction ofthe heart against rigid intellectualism is Bhakti. So, it is slightly harsh to gulp the suggestion of some scholars like Weber who argue that Bhakti was a foreign idea which reached India through Christianity. Scholars like Barth and Senart also maintain that Bhakti, in the sense understood in Indis and the tradition by which it is inspired, belongs to Indian thought. However, this does not mean that in the process of evolution, Bhakti did not accept any external influences especially after the arrival of Islam in India. The religious point of view of the Hindus, though always based upon old foundation, became considerably modified. From the time of the Bhagavadgita to the 13th century, the concept of Bhakti evolved with a process of compromise between the traditional classical philosophy of the Upanishads and the urge for a personal God. The object of the authors of the Bhagavadgita was not to contribute a difinite philosophy but only to establish a compromise between the different schools of Hindu philosophy. Monotheism and pantheism were clubbed together with the warmth of Bhakti in the Bhagavadgita. if Thus, up to the 13th century, the period when Islam penetrated into the interior of 3;[: India, Bhakti to a greater extent ramailled within the folds of Vedic intellectualism. 9 This is evident from the fact that caste division is recognized in the Bhagavadgita. $# 29.2.2 Major Schools The concept of Bhakti was defined and analyzed in different ways and under various shades of opinion at many stages. Shankara, a South Indian Shaivite Brahman, gave the doctrine of Advaita (allowing no second, i.e., monism) and assiduously preached Upanishad doctrine of salvation through Knowledge. Ramanuja, another South Indian Brahman, though a monist did not accept that God may be exempt from form and qualities. Salvation could be attained through devotion and Bhakti. Yoga was ! the best mystical training. Mutual relationship between the devotee and God was that of a fragment of the totality. Prapti (attainment) was the second means of salvation. Ramanuja's God was a personal Being. He argued that as people need God, God I too needs people. The individual soul created by God out of his own essence, returns to its maker and lives with Him forever, but it is always distinct. It was one with God, and yet separate. This system of Ramanuja is called visistadvaita (qualified monism). t y The translation of the Bhagavata Puran from Sanskrit into Indian regional languages made the Bhakti concept predominant in Hinduism. The most important movement in the religiolrs history of Medieval India was the I creation of a new sect by Ramananda (c. 13W-1470), a disciple of Ramanuja. He had I a better idea of the progress of Islam in North India under the Tughlaqs. By travelling all over India, he gathered ideas and made careful observations. He renounced the I rigidity of the Hindu ritual and his disciples took the name of Advadhuta (the I detached) and regarded themselves free from all sorts of religious and social customs. I But he was not prepared to go very far from the past. That is why in his Anand Bhashya he did not recognize the right of a Sudra to read the Vedas. One, therefore, should not expect social equality from Ramananda. Yet, Raidas and Kabir were among his disciples. Sockty ~d Cukre-1 Ramananda's teachnigs produced two distinct schools of thought among the Hindus: Saguna and Nirguna To the first belonged the noted Tulsidas who gave literary form to the religious Bhakti. In worshipping Rama as the personal incarnation of the Supreme God, this school raised the popularity of Rama, besides preserving the authority of the Vedas. Another school was represented by Kabir who preached a religious system strictly . monotheistic advocating abolition of Varnaashrama, and casting doubt on the authority of the Vedas and other sacred books. The school of Kabir sought to understand Islam and was sufficiently broad minded to incorporate some of its basic principles. That is why his references are available in the Sufi literature as well. In a 17th century account, the Mirat ul mar, he is called a Firdausiya sun. The Dabistan-i Mazahib places Kabir against the background of the Vaishnavite vairagis. Abul Fazl .called Kabir a rnuwabhM (monotheist). On the authotity of the BiJak, the authoritative account of Kabir's philosophy, it may be said that he never thought of founding a religion as happened after his death. He simply wished to give an effect of fullness to the reconciling trend introduced by way of Bhakti and welcomed all who were willing to join him. Belief in a Supreme Being is the foundation of his preaching. He believed that salvation is possible not by knowledge or action but by devotion (Bhakti). He neither favoured Hindus nor Muslims, but admired all that was good in them. Sikhism The teachings and philosophy of Guru Nanak constitute an important component of Indian philosophy and thought. His philosophy comprised three basic elements: a leading charismatic personality (the uru), ideology (Shabad) and organisation (Sangat). Nanak evaluated and critic7 sfd the prevailing religious beliefs and attempted to establish a true religion tvhich could lead to salvation. He repudiated idol worship and did not favour pilgrimage nor accepted the theory of incarnation. He condemned formalism and ritualism. He believed in the unity of God and laid emphasis on having a true Guru for revelation. He advised people to follow the principles of conduct and worship: sach (truth), halal (lawful earning), Khair (wishing well'of others), nlyat (right intention) and service of the lord. Nanak denounced the caste system and the inequaiity which it perpetrakd. He said that caste and honour should be judged by the acts or deeds of the individuals. He believed in Universal brotherhood of man and equality of men and women. He championed the cause of women's emancipation and condemned the sati pratha.