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Mughal River Forts in Bangladesh (1575-1688)

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Mughal River Forts in Bangladesh (1575-1688) MUGHAL RIVER FORTS IN BANGLADESH (1575-1688) AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL APPRAISAL by Kamrun Nessa Khondker A Thesis Submitted to Cardiff University in Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Philosophy SCHOOL OF HISTORY, ARCHAEOLOGY AND RELIGION CARDIFF UNIVERSITY DECEMBER 2012 1 | P a g e DECLARATION AND STATEMENTS DECLARATION This work has not been submitted in substance for any other degree or award at this or any other university or place of learning, nor is being submitted concurrently in candidature for any degree or other award. Signed …………………………… (Candidate) Date ………………………… STATEMENT 1 This thesis is being submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of M.Phil. Signed …………………………… (Candidate) Date …………………………. STATEMENT 2 This thesis is the result of my own independent work/investigation, except where otherwise stated. Other sources are acknowledged by footnotes giving explicit references. The views expressed are my own. Signed …………………………… (Candidate) Date………………………….. STATEMENT 3 I hereby give consent for my thesis, if accepted, to be available for photocopying and for inter- library loan, and for the title and summary to be made available to outside organisations. Signed ……………………………… (Candidate) Date………………………… 2 | P a g e ABSTRACT The existing scholarship on the Mughal river forts fails to address some key issues, such as their date of construction, their purpose, and the nature of their construction, how they relate to Mughal military strategy, the effect of changes in the course and river systems on them, and their role in ensuring the defence of Dhaka. While consultation of contemporary sources is called for to reflect upon these key issues, it tends to be under- used by modern historians. Furthermore, the unavailability of inscriptional evidence for the river forts has led the relevant researchers to an unremitting debate concerning the river forts and the identity of their builders. These limitations suggest the need for further study. This study suggests that an advanced study, analysing and discussing contemporary and modern sources, along with field work conducted on the sites of the river forts, can clarify and resolve the various outstanding problems, thereby present and defend an improved understanding about the building and purpose of the river forts. This study suitably focuses on the historical changes in the course of the river systems and their impact on the building of river forts. Moreover, it examines in close details the role of river forts in the defence of Dhaka against various enemies, such as internal (bhuiyans, zaminders and their Afghan allies) and external (sea-borne invaders, such as the Maghs of Arakanese and the Portuguese) during the period 1575-1688. Finally it reasons out that a satisfactory study on the Mughal history in Bangladesh largely depends on pursuing a comprehensive and advanced study of the physical evidence and on wider consultation of contemporary and modern textual sources such as Persian, Bengali, Assamese and Arakanese. 3 | P a g e ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I am deeply indebted to my two supervisors, Professor Denys Pringle and Professor Geoffrey Samuel, for their unfailing supervision, constructive criticism and invaluable advice at all time throughout the period of my study. Without their patience and inspiration, this thesis would not have had accomplished a complete form. I am truly fortunate to have them as my supervisors. I would like to express my gratitude and appreciation for my brother-in-law, Mohammad Raju Ahmed for his unconditional assistance. Without his aid, maps and figures provided in this thesis would not have been possible to be furnished. Thanks are also due to the Archaeology Department of Bangladesh for granting me permission to visit their archive and compile rare photographs. I offer my appreciation to the staff of Cardiff Archaeology section, Sarah Tovey and Helen Szewczyk, for their assistance. I am also indebted to the library, particularly the inter–library loan staff at Cardiff University for their assistance throughout the study period. Finally, I owe a debt of gratitude to my parents, son and husband for their forebearance and understanding in coping with the difficulties inherent in such an undertaking. 4 | P a g e TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF MAPS 7 LIST OF FIGURES 8 LIST OF PLATES 9 PART ONE The Current State of Knowledge, and Outstanding Problems 11 Chapter 1 : Introduction 12 Chapter 1.1 : Brief Introduction: the Main Questions 12 Chapter 1.2 : Source and Scope of Study 16 Chapter 2 : Historical Background 23 Chapter 2.1 : Political History 23 Chapter 2.2 : Economic History 33 Chapter 3 : River Systems and Historical Changes in the Systems 44 Chapter 3.1: Major River System 44 Chapter 3.2: Historical Changes in the Systems 47 Chapter 4 : Descriptions and Discussion of the River Forts: Architectural Relationship of the River Forts with 54 Other Buildings of the Period Chapter 4.1 : Descriptions and Discussion of the Hajiganj, the Sonakanda and the Idrakpur River Forts 54 4.1.1 : The Hajiganj River Fort 54 4.1.2 : The Sonakanda River Fort 60 4.1.3 : The Idrakpur Rivet Forts 65 Chapter 4.1.4 : The Relationship Between the Architecture of the River Forts and that of Other Architecture of the 71 Period 5 | P a g e Chapter 5 : Military Strategy and Techniques in the Period 77 PART TWO Analytical Discussion 102 Chapter 6 : Resistance to the Mughal Rulers, 1576-1611 : The Role of Isa Khan and Other Bhuiyan Leaders 104 Chapter 7 : Islam Khan, Mughal Subahdar, 1608-1613, and His Immediate Successors: The Portuguese and Arakanese/Magh Threats during This Period 121 Chapter 8 : Shah Shuja, Mughal Subahdar, 1639-1660 : The Portuguese and Arakanese/Magh Threats during This Period 140 Chapter 9 : Mir Jumla, Mughal Subahdar, 1660-63 : The Portuguese and Arakanese/Magh Threats during This Period 148 Chapter 10 : Shaista Khan, Mughal Subahdar, 1663-1678, 1680- 156 88: Campaign against Chittagong PART THREE Chapter 11 : Conclusion 164 BIBLIOGRAPHY 177 MAPS 1-16 185-202 FIGURES 1-12 203-213 PLATES 1- 20 214- 234 6 | P a g e LIST OF MAPS Pages 185-202 Maps Page 1. Study area map 186 2. Afghan's ruling in Bengal 187 3. Bengal under the Emperor Akbar 188 4. Bengal under the Bara- Bhuiyans 189 5. Bengal under the Mughals before the conquest of Chittagong 190 6. Route of Islam Khan’s advance to Dhaka 191 7. The main river systems of Bangladesh 192 8. Brahmaputra, Jamuna,Padma and Lower Meghna river system 193 9. Palaeo channel over view 194 10. Changing courses of Bengal Rivers, 1548- 1779 (a, b, c and d) 195-196 11. Old trade routes and Portuguese Trade Empire 197 12. Environs of Dhaka 198 13. The Mughal Capital Dhaka 199 14. Demarcation between Pre-Mughal and Mughal Dhaka 200 15. Bengal under the Mughals after the conquest of Chittagong 201 16. Some forts during Islam Khan’s period in Bengal (based on Rennell’s Bengal Atlas 202 Sheet, No. 6) 7 | P a g e LIST OF FIGURES Pages 203-213 Figure Page 1. Satellite view of river networks and location of river forts 204 2. Satellite view of the Hajiganj fort 205 3. Satellite view of the Sonakanda fort 206 4. Satellite view of the Idrakpur fort 207 5. Plan of the Hajiganj fort 208 6. Plan of the Sonakanda fort 209 7. Elevation of the Sonakanda fort from North 210 8. Plan of the Idrakpur fort 211 9. Elevation of the Idrakpur fort from North 212 10. 3D visualisation of the structure of the Hajiganj fort 212 11. 3D visualisation of the structure of the Sonakanda fort 213 12. 3D visualisation of the structure of the Idrakpur fort 213 8 | P a g e LIST OF PLATES Pages 214- 234 Plates Page 1. a. Gateway of the Hajiganj fort: viewed from front 21 5 b. Gateway of the Hajiganj fort: viewed from inside 215 2. a. Eastern bastion of the Hajiganj fort before renovation (source: the Archaeology 216 Department of Bangladesh) b. Renovated eastern bastion of the Hajiganj fort 216 3. a. Seven-step platform in southern bastion of the Hajiganj fort 217 b. Southern bastion of the Hajiganj fort 217 4. a. Loopholes in southern corner bastions of the Hajiganj fort 218 b. Observatory tower of the Hajiganj fort 218 5. a. Inner pillar with spiral stairs of the observatory tower of the Hajiganj fort 219 b. South-western corner bastion with merlons and loopholes of the Hajiganj fort 219 6. a. Gateway of the Sonakanda fort: viewed from the front 220 b. Gateway of the Sonakanda fort: viewed from inside 220 7. a. Stairs of the observatory tower of the Sonakanda fort 221 b. Observatory tower of the Sonakanda fort 221 8. a. Merlons in the observatory tower of the Sonakanda fort 222 b. Flaking-plastered or pocked spaces of the wall of the Sonakanda fort 222 9. a. Merlons in eastern wall of the Sonakanda fort 223 b. South-western corner bastion of the Sonakanda fort 223 10. a. Merlon and loopholes in the south-western corner bastion of the Sonakanda fort 224 b. Gateway of the Idrakpur fort: viewed from the front 224 11. a. Gateway of the Idrakpur fort: viewed from inside 225 9 | P a g e b. Stairs of the observatory tower of the Idrakpur fort 225 12. a. Observatory tower of the Idrakpur fort 226 b. North-western corner bastion of the Idrakpur fort 226 13. a. Big loopholes in the north-eastern corner bastion of the Idrakpur fort 227 b. Secret passage to the basement of observatory tower of the Idrakpur fort 227 14. a. Fleets of Islam Khan as seen by an artist 228 b. Inscribed Cannon of Isa Khan discovered at Dewanbagh near Narayangonj 228 dated 1593 15.
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