Disarmament & International Security Committee

Study Guide Welcome to DISEC at YorkMUN 2021 Your Chairs The United Nations Organization was founded with the prime aim of maintaining inter- Joe Kumar – Head Chair national peace and security of the world, and also to prevent the upcoming generation Jyotinder is a 2nd Year Engineering undergraduate at UCLan. from the scourge of war. This is as documented in the Universal Declaration of Human He has debated and chaired a large number of conferences in- Rights while condemning and thwarting all actions that threaten to disrupt the interna- cluding some international MUN’s. Originally from India and tional peace and security of the world, which serves as the prime directive of the United then having spent time in upstate New York, he has amassed a Nations. But in the years it followed it has become something more. The United Na- large amount of international experience which provides him tions is a promise, a promise for a better tomorrow, a promise that no matter the adversi- with a unique perspective of MUN which helps both him and ty, a panel of experts in association with technical specialists with the assistance of moti- his fellow delegates. Besides MUN, he also serves as the President of the School of Engi- vated volunteers will keep working to promote the basic human rights for all. neering at UCLan and is very excited about YorkMUN 2021.

Every personnel who works or believes in the United Nations has a solemn responsi- Jimmy Tsou – Co-Chair bility to the truth be it scientific truth, historical truth or personal truth. It is our first Jimmy is a 2nd Year International Relations undergraduate at duty to uphold these ideals that the United Nations stand for. At a Model United Nation Queen Mary, University of London. He has worked in the past (MUN) we try to simulate an environment we work towards these ideals and instill in in Taiwan’s legislature as a law assistant in the office of a con- ourselves a responsibility to hold ourselves to a better standard. As the light bearers for gresswoman. He also has over 6 years of experience in MUN the coming generation, it is our responsibility to make the most of now. Now is the most and enthusiasm in the political field. Jimmy is looking forward precious time. Now will never come again. to chairing DISEC and he hopes to give the best experience for all in the upcoming conference. At a MUN we try to measure up to this responsibility. Some people are of the opinion that it is no more than a few kids playing make believe. But the purpose of a MUN is to Dimitra Psychari - Co Chair develop a proficiency in a wide variety of skills like public speaking, conflict-resolution, Dimitra is a Hebrew student at the Hebrew University of Jerusa- decision making, the ability to effectively work in a team, making compromises, do- lem, however she has previously studied law at the University of ing good research and the list goes on. While developing such skills we also try to raise Liverpool and Cardiff University. Her MUN journey started in awareness of some of the issues currently plaguing the world. And, if someday one of 2012 when she joined her High School’s delegation as a replace- the delegates from such a conference is in a position to influence real change then they ment and today she has participated in a large numbers of con- would be well prepared. ferences as delegate, crisis delegate, chair, backroom and even secretariat member. Currently she is the USG of Academics at TLVMUN, hoping that Besides, to quote Mahatma Gandhi, “Be the change you want to see in others”. With that Covid will not get in the way. This will be her 4th YorkMUN and she is really excited to thought I leave you to ponder over the set agenda topics and come up with potentially be a co-chair in DISEC. She hopes that YorkMUN 2021 will be a great experience, with influencing suggestions. Do not hesitate to contact me with any questions. interesting debates, and hopes to meet many new interesting people.

2 3 to establish a free zone in Africa. (The United Nations Organisation, Introduction to the Disarmament and International Security Committee n.d.) I deemed necessary the UNGA can “unite for peace” as established under the The Disarmament and International Security Committee (DISEC) was established UNGA resolution 377 A which states that if there if the lack of unanimity among the in 1945 and serves as the First committee of the United Nations General Assembly five permanent members of the UNSC has failed the UNSC in performing its primary (UNGA). As stated in Chapter 4, Article 11 of the Charter of the United Nations and the responsibility, then the UNGA shall consider the matter immediately and may make International Court of Justice, the DISEC core working principle revolves around main- recommendations including the use of armed force if a special majority is reached in the tain international peace and security to which extent it may, consider the principles gov- UNGA-DISEC (2/3rd’s of the members). At no points shall the delegates overstep and erning disarmament and regulation of armaments, discuss any questions that may pose discuss issues outside the mandate of this committee. (The United Nations Organisation, a threat, immediate or not, to international peace and security and may deem necessary n.d.) (The United Nations Organisation, n.d.) to call upon the attention of the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) to situations which may threaten the international peace and security. At no point do these responsi- bilities limit the general scope of the UNGA and by extension of the DISEC stated forth Topic A- Use of PMC’s and Mercenaries in Areas of Armed in Article 10 of the Charter of the United Nations. (The United Nations Organisation, Conflict n.d.) Introduction to the Topic: Private Military companies (PMC’s) are for-profit private entities providing armed com- The UNGA-DISEC works in close cooperation with the United Nations Disarmament bat, security, intelligence, logistic or consulting services for financial gains. Employees Commission and the Conference on Disarmament based in Geneva, Switzerland. The who perform any of these services are referred to as contractors or security contractors. UNGA-DISEC is headquartered in New York City in the United States of America where A large number of contractors at PMC’s comprise of ex-military officials who provide it usually holds sessions once a year for a period of approximately 4 to 5 weeks. All mem- their skill and expertise learned at their respective national military forces for monetary ber nations of the United Nations Organization are members of the UNGA-DISEC and gain. Mercenaries on the other hand are individuals who partake on either side in armed currently the membership stands at 193. Furthermore, the UNGA may award observer conflicts merely for financial gain and have no affiliation, political or otherwise. They are member status to any entity or international organization as is currently held by Pales- not part of any official military and offer their services for payments as opposed to polit- tine and the Holy See. Only full members of the UNGA-DISEC are awarded a vote on ical interests. resolutions however, observer members may cast a vote on non-substantive procedural matters. The number of PMC’s has increased in the recent past especially following the war in Iraq. Various different nations use PMC’s and Mercenaries chiefly for two reasons. First- The UNGA-DISEC was established to oversee the actions of various national and non- ly, in order to avoid accountability of their actions on foreign soil and secondly, contrac- state actors and review situations whose level of urgency do not attract the attention of tors and mercenaries are deployed on missions considered too dangerous for a nation’s the United Nations Security Council (UNSC). In the past, UNGA-DISEC resolutions own military forces. (Seden Akcinaroglu (SUNY-Binghampton), n.d.) have dealt with a wide range of issues threating global peace with resolutions carrying out a wide range of functions like establishing new commissions, as was done in the very Use of PMC’s at times has resulted in full blown military involvement between the con- first resolution in 1946 which established a commission to deal with problems raised by tacted nation and the nation where PMC’s were deployed. For instance- the use of and the discovery of atomic energy; draft treaties as it did in 213 where a treaty was reached subsequent killing of four Blackwater USA contractors in Iraq in 2004 led to the first 4 5 battle of Fallujah. In other cases, PMC’s have been deployed in highly unstable areas for History the purposes of protection covert bases in conflicted regions without any proper backup, Formation: intelligence or logistical support. For instance- the use of contractors to provide securi- Looking at the history of the private military contractors (PMC), the formation of it ty for the CIA annex and the special mission compound in Benghazi which later came traced back to the origin of it in 1965, formed by a group of ex-SAS veterans, and lead under attack from local militia leading in death of several government officials including by the founder of SAS- Sir David Stirling and John Woodhouse, together they founded the US ambassador to Libya, J Christopher Stephens’. The security team had no backup, the WatchGuard International. It began its first assignment at Yemen by reporting the combat or logistical support from their home nation. Figure 2 depicts an aerial view of royalist forces’ state; for the next few years, it continued to provide numerous military the special mission compound which housed J Christopher Stevens and the CIA Annex. training teams and security issues advisory, including British selling weapons and main- (The US House of Representatives , 2016) ly weapon supplies in the Gulf States. Other than WatchGuard International, other PMC like Control Risks Group were also active during the 70s and the 80s. Looking at the dramatic increase of the use of PMC, it began after the where Western states began to rely mainly on its services to bolster their decreasing conventional military budget, along with the exodus of over 6 million military personnel at the time, PMC has become a new military resource since then. Later on, with the absence of western mili- tary support in international peace operations, PMC has been relied on in terms of the peacekeeper training and such.

Significant Events in the Recent Past • From Pre Gulf War to Afterward: With the foundation of the Private Security Com- Figure 2- A depiction of the special mission compound and the CIA Annex in Benghazi. pany Association of Iraq (PSCAI), it indicates the prevalence of the use of PMC by the US in Iraq and its legal stances of such in the next few years. The most significant Past use of PMC’s and Mercenaries have called into question the legality of their use on ones began with Donald Rumsfeld’s justification of the use of PMC in Iraq, with the the world stage. In some instances, their use has violated a number of treaties and con- bases of its effectiveness as well as its non-subject under the Uniform Code of Mil- ventions like the Geneva Conventions and the Universal declaration of human rights. itary Justice, following with the signed of Coalition Provisional Authority order 17 Currently, there are no treaties or regulations under either the International Humanitar- (“Order 17”) and the American Congressional Research Service’s 2007 report, US ian Law or Customary International Law which overlook or regulate the use of Private has justified its use of PMC in Iraq. Though in 2007, the Uniform Code of Military Military Companies. Another cause of concern is that when some contractors or mer- Justice was amended to the allowance of prosecution of the use of PMC for “declared cenaries commit any crimes or atrocities either they are able to avoid accountability or war” purpose, numerous events happened still indicates the problem of the use of some contractors are receiving punishments too severe for the crime. ((Princeton-Uni- PMC over the years. versity), n.d.) The aim of this conference is to decrease the vast amount of gray that • Abu Ghraib torture and prisoner abuse 2003-2004: This event refers to the violation exists around these and classification into the black and white. of human rights acts such as Sexual abuse, torture, rape, murder, and sodomy com- mitted mainly by the US Army and Central Intelligence Agency in the early stage of

6 7 the Iraq War in Abu Ghraib prison. The involvement of PMC in these incidents is army later concluded that this action was acted within the rules of the use of force, followed by employees’ involvement in this scandal from both CACI and Titan Corp Jeremy Corbyn later still insisted that the Pentagon should suspend its contracts with military company; it was later founded by the US army of the six individual employ- Aegis Defense Service until the incidents have been thoroughly investigated. Noted ees’ involvement and later culpable in the prison incident. It further raises the con- that Aegis did not confirm such an act has been done by its employees, it still ob- cern of the legitimacy of the prosecution of PMC’s act by whom and its accountabili- tained the closed down of the Stoner’s website in response to the injunction by High ty in the military assignment. (CNN Editorial Research, 2020) Court. (Telegraph), 2005) • 2004 Fallujah ambush (March 31, 2004): Iraqi insurgents are violently attacked four • Nisour Square Massacre (September 16, 2007): This incident refers to the shootings employées belonging to Blackwater USA in Falluja when they were conducting deliv- of civilians by PMC. In 2007, Blackwater security employees killed 17 and injured 20 ery for food caterers Eurest support service. They got dragged out of the car and got Iraqi civilians while escorting a US embassy in Nisour Square, Baghdad. Despite the violently murdered (bodies got beaten and burned) before being hung on the bridge. apparent outraged response from Iraq, it also further strained relationships between Such incidents lead to the famous “First Battle of Fallujah,” code-named Operation the US and Iraq. The legal response comes in later on 2014 in US federal courts, Vigilant Resolve operated by the US to take the city’s control back as well as the act of which further concludes in one of murder, and the rest of the three for manslaughter revenge later on. It later goes on the lawsuit in 2005, the famous Helvenston v. Black- and firearms charges. Blackwater depicts that such killing was based on the need for water security. (Reuters , 2012) protection against the attackers as such convoy was ambushed. (Times), 2014) Current Situation Studying on the current situation regarding cyber attacks, one of the elements we can notice is that nowadays they have a diversity regarding the country they come from, their targets and the reasonings and goals behind the attacks. Having a look at the Cyber Incidents report of the Centre for Strategic and International studies, we can see that a large number of significant cyber-attacks are taking place every month. Here is an exam- ple of the most serious cyber-attacks that took place in late 2019 and 2020: • November 2020: Hamas used a secret headquarters in Turkey to carry out cyberat- tacks and counter-intelligence operations • October 2020: The FBI, CISA and U.S. Cyber Command announced that a North Korean hacking group had been conducting a cyber espionage campaign against in- Figure 3- An image of the Blackwater PMCs working with the US Marine Corps dividual experts, think tanks, and government entities in South Korea, Japan, and the • Trophy videos (October 27, 2005): This incident refers to several “trophy” videos United States with the purpose of collecting intelligence on national security issues posted on the internet showing PMC in Baghdad firing upon civilians, including Ira- related to the Korean peninsula, sanctions, and nuclear policy qi drivers. This video has appeared on a website that is unofficially linked to the Aegis • September 2020: Russian hackers targeted government agencies in NATO member Defense Services, thou its spokesman stated: “There is nothing to indicate that these countries, and nations who cooperate with NATO. The campaign uses NATO train- film clips are in any way connected to Aegis.” it still brings the international com- ing material as bait for a phishing scheme that infects target computers with malware munity’s concern into the behavior and the legitimacy of the PMC. Although the US that creates a persistent backdoor.

8 9 • September 2020: The U.S. Department of Justice indicted five Chinese hackers with process of developing one. Currently, this issue has been addressed from many different ties to Chinese intelligence services for attacks on more than 100 organizations across bodies and organizations by adopting the following documents: government, IT, social media, academia, and more • The United Nations: • August 2020: Hackers for hire suspected of operating on behalf of the Iranian govern- 1. 6th review of the UN Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy A/RES/72/284 ment were found to have been working to gain access to sensitive information held 2. UN Security Council Resolution 2341 (2017) by North American and Israeli entities across a range of sectors, including technolo- 3. UN Security Council Resolution 2370 (2017) gy, government, defense, and healthcare. 4. Security Council text S/2015/939 (Madrid guiding principles) • August 2020: Ukrainian officials announced that a Russian hacking group had begun to conduct a phishing campaign in preparations for operations on Ukraine’s inde- • The European Union (EU): pendence day 1. On 9 April 2019 the European Council adopted the Cybersecurity act which intro- • June 2020: North Korean state hackers sent COVID-19-themed phishing emails duces: to more than 5 million businesses and individuals in Singapore, Japan, the United 2. a system of EU-wide certification schemes States, South Korea, India, and the UK in an attempt to steal personal and financial 3. an EU cybersecurity agency to take over from the current European Union Agency data for Network and Information Security (ENISA) • May 2020: Cyber criminals managed to steal $10 million from Norway’s state invest- 4. In addition, on May 17 the Council announced that it has established a framework ment fund in a business email compromise scam that tricked an employee into trans- which allows the EU to impose targeted restrictive measures to deter and respond ferring money into an account controlled by the hackers to cyber-attacks which constitute an external threat to the EU or its member states. • May 2020: Chinese hackers accessed the travel records of nine million customers of UK airline group EasyJet • The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO): • March 2020: North Korean hackers targeted individuals involved with North Korean 1. At the Brussels Summit in 2018, Allies agreed to set up a new Cyberspace Op- refugees issues as part of a cyber espionage campaign erations Centre as part of NATO’s strengthened Command Structure. They also • February 2020: More than 10 countries accused Russia of being behind a series of cy- agreed that NATO can draw on national cyber capabilities for its missions and ber attacks against Georgia in 2019 that took thousands of websites for private, state, operations. and media institutions offline 2. In February 2019, Allies endorsed a NATO guide that sets out a number of tools to • December 2019: Microsoft won a legal battle to take control of 50 web domains used further strengthen NATO’s ability to respond to significant malicious cyber activi- by a North Korean hacking group to target government employees, think tank ex- ties. perts, university staff, and others involved in nuclear proliferation issues 3. NATO and the European Union (EU) are cooperating through a Technical Ar- rangement on Cyber Defense, which was signed in February 2016. In light of This is only a small example of the most important cyber-attacks, the reality is that nu- common challenges, NATO and the EU are strengthening their cooperation on merous attacks happen daily in governments, large organizations, companies and in- cyber defense, notably in the areas of information exchange, training, research and dividuals. Even though cybercrime is affecting all the member-states, according to the exercises. United Nations, only half of the countries have a cybersecurity strategy or there are in a

10 11 Topic 2: Preventing the stockpiling of weapons in space. Bloc Positions: On April 12, 1961 Yuri Gagarin (figure 4) a cosmonaut national of the Union of Soviet • The United States of America (USA): It is estimated that in December 2006 alone, Socialists Republics (USSR) made history by becoming the first man in space. In re- there were over 100,000 PMCs in Iraq alone. Since then the USA has employed a sponse, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) launched the ex- large number of PMC’s across multiple areas of conflict performing a wide range of tensive Apollo Programme which echoed the words of John F Kennedy “We mean to be roles. However, in the recent years the actions of such contractors have been called a part of it--we mean to lead it.” Whose culmination was marked on July 20,1969 when into question. The USA continues to employ a large number of PMCs for a variety astronaut (figure5) became the first man on and thus showcasing of roles but has set up various committees over the years to monitor the workings of the first in the history of mankind. (National Aeronautics and Space Admin- said contractors sometimes even setting up committees to oversee particular inci- istration, 1961) (National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1969) (National Aero- dents like the US Congress’ select committee on the incidents surrounding the 2012 nautics and Space Administration, 1962) terrorist attack in Benghazi.

• Russia: The Russian Federation is another major large user of PMCs. A larger number of officials employed by various elite special forces, intelligence agencies and other branches of the military of the former USSR were left unemployed upon the collapse of the USSR. Such lack of employment served as a motivation factor for setting up of multiple Private Military Companies with in Russia. The Russian Federation has used Figure 4 -Yuri Gagarin Figure 5- Neil Armstrong these PMCs in a wide number of locations such as Central African Republic, Sudan, Since that day, all the nations have driven innovation and have made great strides in the Mozambique, Ukraine etc. Russia primarily employees PMCs for a wide number of development of space technology. While for brief periods in history a nation has had roles in areas of armed and/or political conflict. (US Congressional Research Service, supremacy in space, all the other nations have always pushed the limits and there has 2020) been a constant swapping of the top position between a number of nations over the last few years. Today, sending astronauts to the International Space Station (ISS) which is • Use by Private Entities: A number of private shipping entities employee a large num- situated in the Lower Earth Orbit (LEO), is a common practice. And these technological ber of PMC’s as on deck security officers. Over the years, a large number of merchant advancements have made the threat of proliferation of weapons in space a realistic one. ships have been subject to piracy which has created the need for such security offi- (National Aeronautics and Space Administration, n.d.) cials. PMCs provide protection of high value cargo being transported by shipping companies from potential pirates. Space if used properly has the potential to be “a common asset for humanity” but if the nations resort to tactics like stockpiling of weapons then it might turn into another battlefield for armed conflicts that could potentially have catastrophic consequences. A large number of nations believe that weaponization of space is an extremely scary pros- pect which might prompt an arms similar to the one’s that took place before the world wars, just in a new scene namely, space.

12 13 The key to preventing such a threat from realizing is to reach multilateral treaties which to counter oncoming intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBM) by using Nike nuclear will prevent the stockpiling of weapons in outer space. While we need to promote the missiles. It later leads to the Project Defender in 1958, which involved using a satellite peaceful use of space as it is key to development in some regions on Earth, under no weapon system orbited over Russia to counter Russia's ICBM. Over the later 1950s, the circumstances shall it be used a missile silo. (The United Nations Organisation (Press U.S. Air force then began the thought of denoting an atomic bomb on the Moon to dis- Releases), n.d.) play its strengths over Russia and to maintain its great status among such space race to the world, and this is the famous "Project A119". The Project Horizon at 1959 studying In the recent past, a number of nations have spent and pledged funding for the devel- the possibility of building a military base on the Moon as well as the Lunex Project on opment of “space weapons” as currently there is no accepted definition of what a space building a 21 airman air force base on the Moon both indicates U.S.'s attempts on de- weapon is and there is nothing preventing a nation from stockpiling weapons in space. ploying its military strength to outer space. Such weapons when deployed have the potential to act as anti-satellite weapons or even space to earth missiles which if used will possess a vast amount a kinetic energy, enough In 1983, in following a vocal critic of the doctrine of mutually assured destruction to destroy any of the big cities on our planet. (MAD), President Ronald Reagan called upon the development of a system that can In this session of the first committee, the DISEC aims to answer some of these questions, protect the U.S. from nuclear attack. This is the famous Strategic Defense Initiative define what space is and what a space weapon is while also analyzing the other aspects (nicknamed Star Wars program/ SDI). This program is a space-based protective missile involved with the stockpiling of weapons in space. defense system that seeks to protect the U.S. from weapons such as ballistic strategic nuclear weapons- intercontinental ballistic missiles and submarine-launched ballis- History tic missiles. Later in 1984, U.S. founded the Strategic Defense Initiative Organization Formulation: (SDIO), a unified command of the U.S. Department of Defense; a considerable amount The origin of space technologies' development can be dated back to the arms race be- of studies relating to particle beam weapons, ground- and space-based missile systems, tween the U.S. and the during the Cold War. In 1957, the Soviet Union and high-performance computer systems were being conducted since then. 1985, the launched its first artificial satellite, . Over the next decade, the U.S. and USSR U.S. then created the United States Space Command (USSPACECOM) to institutionalize began to regularly deploy satellite satellites, seeking to get rival countries' military infor- U.S. military force in outer space. Since then, the U.S. has proved to rely a lot on these mation and picture in the use of reconnaissance satellites. The idea of armed conflicts projects and command; USSPACECOM's role in the 1991 Gulf War can best exemplify in space began to formed as they began to advanced anti-satellite weapons to counter it. In 2002, the U.S. then announced the merge between U.S. Space Command and Unit- the intelligence satellite deployed in the early stage of the arms race as the technology of ed States Strategic Command ( USSTRATCOM ). it became more mature. Such counter involved researches and the use of weapons like direct-energy weapons (DEW) and kamikaze-style satellite. (Oberg, n.d.) The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) Soviet during the cold war space race age developed its weapon system as well, most The United States of America (USA or US) notably R-36ORB Fractional Orbital Bombardment System (FOBS) and orbital weapons Looking into the U.S.'s development of outer space technology history, some of the most system. R36ORB is an ICBM developed in the 1960s that can de-orbit the attacks from effective programs include Nike-Zeus Program, Project Defender, and the Safeguard the enemy. Polyus spacecraft, on the other hand, was a prototype orbital weapons plat- Program. Began looking at the Nike-Zeus Program; it was first developed in the 1950s form that uses carbon dioxide laser to destroy the Strategic Defense Initiative satellite. It

14 15 was first launched in 1987 from Baikonur Cosmodrome Site 250 as the first flight of the • 2008, U.S. destroyed its own malfunctioning satellite USA 193 Energia system but eventually fall before reaching out to orbit. (Bateman, 2020) • 2019, India destroyed a live satellite 1996, the Outer Space Treaty was considered by the Legal Subcommittee, and later on, reached to the U.N. General Assembly. This treaty bans the placing of nuclear weapons or other weapons that can cause mass destruction in orbit of Earth, Moon, or any celes- tial body, and station them in outer space. (United Nations Office for Outer Space Af- fairs, n.d.)

Current Situation The topic of Weapon Regulations currently is mostly theoretical, of political and legal Figure 6- An animation of the space threat. nature. In order for the delegate to understand better the current situation regarding the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) topic, it is crucial to give first a general background on the relevant current legislation. U.S. and USSR, towards the end of the cold war in 1979, came out with a SALT II trea- The first massive step regarding the prevention an arm race in space is the Outer Space ty; it is a bilateral conference between a representative from the U.S. and Soviet Union. Treaty that entered into force in 1967 (Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of SALT II was based after the SALT I; SALT I was the earlier negotiations in 1969 in Fin- States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celes- land, led to the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty. Moving on to the SALT II, it came out with tial Bodies, RES 2222 XXI). Adopted on the 21th Session of the United Nations General an agreement on the prohibition of the FOBS system's deployment; however, such treaty Assembly, It shapes the core framework of International Space Law, and it includes the only last less than a decade before the Soviet War in Afghanistan, leading to the U.S. sen- following basic principles: ate disagreeing on ratify such treaty. This agreement made between U.S. and USSR later expired in 1985. Later in 1987, with the payload of prototype orbital weapons platform Polyus, and Energeia rocket flew.

With the end of the cold war, numerous countries began to develop their space pro- grams, including China, Japan, India, and the European Union. The original USSR Space Forces were established as the Ministry of Defense Space Units in 1982, and the Soviet Union disintegrated; they established the Russian Armed Forces in 1992; which later led Figure 7- Signing of the Outer Space Treaty to the creation of Russian Space Forces. June 1, 2001, the Russian Space Forces became • Outer space is not subject to national appropriation by claim of sovereignty, by means an independent section of the Russian military. Looking back on world history, incidents of use or occupation, or by any other means that can be categorized as space war warfare were only training missions. • States shall not place nuclear weapons or other weapons of mass destruction in orbit • mid-1980s USAF pilot shot down the p78-1, communication satellite in a 345-mile or on celestial bodies or station them in outer space in any other manner orbit • States shall be responsible for national space activities whether carried out by govern- • 2007, China used a missile system to destroy its obsolete satellites 16 17 mental or non-governmental entities of December 1961 and addressed issues relating to States Parties responsibilities con- • States shall be liable for damage caused by their space objects; and cerning their space objects. The Secretary-General was, once again, requested to main- • States shall avoid harmful contamination of space and celestial bodies tain the Register and ensure full and open access to the information provided by States Earlier, in 1959 the United Nations had established the Committee on the Peaceful Uses and international intergovernmental organizations. of Outer Space (COPUOS) in A/RES/1472 (XIV). On 11 July 1984, another treaty came into force known as the “Moon Treaty”. The Moon From 1962 to 1967, the Legal Committee had been discussing about the formation of Treaty is banning the military use of the moon and other natural objects in Space. How- supplementary provisions to the Outer Space Treaty regarding rescuing and providing ever, it is considered as a “failed treaty” as only seventeen (17) countries have ratified it. help to astronauts. The Agreement, known as “Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts and the Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space” reached More recent developments relevant to the agenda topic: the General Assembly in 1967 (A/RES/2345 XXII). It came into force on December 1968 On 4 December 2014, the UN General Assembly passed a Russia-sponsored resolution and it elaborates on elements of articles 5 and 8 of the Outer Space Treaty, provides that on banning an arms race in outer space. It was adopted with 126 votes in favour and 4 States shall take all possible steps to rescue and assist astronauts in distress and promptly votes against (Israel, Ukraine, Georgia, United States of America). return them to the launching State, and that States shall, upon request, provide assis- On 7 December 2015, the General Assembly adopted A/RES/70/27, which elaborated tance to launching States in recovering space objects that return to Earth outside the on the issue of “no first placement of weapons in outer space”. Earlier on the same year territory of the Launching State. (27-31 July) the European Union and the United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs held Multilateral Negotiations on an International Code of Conduct for Outer Space In 1971, the document known as “Convention on International Liability for Damage Activities. Caused by Space Objects” reached the General Assembly and came into force in De- cember 1972 (A/RES/2777 XXVI). Elaborating on Article 7 of the Outer Space Treaty, In the next year, (4 April 2016) Russia and Venezuela presented a joint statement to the the Liability Convention provides that a launching State shall be absolutely liable to pay Conference of Disarmament declaring that they will not be the first to deploy any type compensation for damage caused by its space objects on the surface of the Earth or to of weapons in the outer space. In September of the same year, the United States submit- aircraft, and liable for damage due to its faults in space. The Convention also provides for ted on the same conference a report titled “Implementing the Recommendations of the procedures for the settlement of claims for damages. Report (A/68/189*) of the Group of Governmental Experts on Transparency and Confi- dence-building Measures in outer space Activities to Enhance Stability in Outer Space.” In 1974, the document known as “Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into In June 2017 the European Union Member-States delivered a statement to the confer- Outer Space” was adopted by the General Assembly (A/RES/3235 XXIX). It entered into ence that proposed a multilateral, non-legally binding instrument on Space Security force on 15 September 1976. Building upon the desire expressed by States in the Outer On 2018, at the first session of the General Assembly in October, four more documents Space Treaty, the Rescue Agreement and the Liability Convention to make provision for were adopted, titled “Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space,” “Further Practical a mechanism that provided States with a means to assist in the identification of space ob- Measures for the Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space,” “No First Placement of jects, the Registration Convention expanded the scope of the United Nations Register of Weapons in Outer Space,” and “Transparency and Confidence-Building Measures in Objects Launched into Outer Space that had been established by resolution 1721B (XVI) Outer Space.” The United States of America voted against all four of them.

18 19 On 27 March 2019, India announced the successful anti-satellite trial of a Prithvi Mark – Readings Recommended for YorkMUN 2021 11 delivery vehicle, which successfully intercepted an Indian Microsat – R satellite. Later Essential Readings that year they conducted their first simulated space combat drills. All the sources referenced in the bibliography are suggested as essential readings for the purpose of this conference. On 5 November 2019, the General Assembly approved eleven (11) drafts regarding Recommended Readings control over conventional arms and outer space security. In the same session, the United For Topic A: States withdrew a text on transparency. (For more information on those eleven drafts, • https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CHRG-107shrg84837/html/CHRG- the delegates are encouraged to read this article https://www.un.org/press/en/2019/ga- 107shrg84837.htm dis3642.doc.htm) • https://www.business-humanrights.org/en/latest-news/abu-ghraib-lawsuits-against- caci-titan-now-l-3/ In 2020, as a response to a Russian anti-satellite test of their direct-assent missile system, • https://www.nytimes.com/2013/01/09/world/middleeast/contractor-settles-case-in- the United States of America Space Command released a statement that Russian recent iraq-prison-abuse.html space development are a threat to the United States interests. • https://www.baltimoresun.com/news/bs-xpm-2004-05-01-0405010122-story.html • https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2011/01/25/ AR2011012507031.html Suggested Questions for the Committee to Consider • https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/iraq/1504161/Trophy-vid- • What is the definition of a Private Military Contractor (PMC)? eo-exposes-private-security-contractors-shooting-up-Iraqi-drivers.html • Whose jurisdiction does the crimes committed by a PMC fall under? • https://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/17/world/middleeast/17blackwater.html • How to prevent the use of PMC’s in areas of political conflict? • 2006, Democratic Republic of the Congo's police arrested 32 alleged mercenaries, • How to provide support and ensure security of PMC personnel? including 19 South Africans, 10 Nigerians, and 3 Americans. The employee involved • What is the definition of outer space ? in Omega Security Solutions and AQMI Strategy Corp • What is a space weapon? • 2015, the involvement of Specialised Tasks, Training, Equipment, and Protection In- • What legal framework can stop the stockpiling of weapons in outer space? ternational ( STTEP) in supporting Nigerian military to the Boko Haram activities. • What is the jurisdiction, at an international level, of the newly set up space wings of For Topic B: various armed forces by multiple sovereign nations? • https://web.archive.org/web/20180810110935/http://space.au.af.mil/books/oberg/ ch02.pdf • https://web.archive.org/web/20140213081035/http://russianforces.org/space/naviga- tion/glonass.shtml • https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/introouterspacetreaty. html • https://www.ft.com/content/6b1459d3-e918-468a-8c43-51aee2890c8e • https://thebulletin.org/2020/05/as-russian-satellites-stalk-us-ones-is-a-space-arms-

20 21 race-heating-up/ • National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1969. The First Person on the • http://www.astronautix.com/n/nikezeus.html Moon. [Online] Available at: https://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/k-4/stories/ • https://www.britannica.com/topic/Strategic-Defense-Initiative first-person-on-moon.html#:~:text=Collins%20stayed%20in%20orbit%20around,- • https://www.britannica.com/event/Strategic-Arms-Limitation-Talks did%20experiments%20and%20took%20pictures.&text=On%20July%2020%2C%20 • https://www.globalzero.org/updates/from-salt-to-start-a-timeline-of-u-s-russia- 1969%2C%20Neil,walked%20around%20for%20three%20hours. [Accessed Decem- arms-control-talks/ ber 2020]. • http://www.indiandefencereview.com/news/space-warfare-india-finds-focus/ • National Aeronautics and Space Administration, n.d. Mir Space Station. [Online] • https://defenceupdate.in/space-war-indias-anti-satellite-weapons/ Available at: https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4225/mir/mir.htm [Accessed December • Lennon, Alexander T.J. Contemporary Nuclear Debates, (Cambridge:MIT Press), 2020]. 1999, pp. 101–109. • Oberg, n.d. The Nature of Space Power. [Online] Available at: https://web.archive.org/ • https://web.archive.org/web/20170704040738/http://www.un.org/press/en/2014/ web/20180810110935/http:/space.au.af.mil/books/oberg/ch02.pdf [Accessed Decem- ga11593.doc.htm ber 2020]. • Sagan, Carl (1999). Billions and Billions: Thoughts on Life and Death at the Brink of • Reuters , 2012. Blackwater settles Iraq killings suit. [Online] Available at: https:// the Millennium www.reuters.com/article/us-blackwater-lawsuit-idUSTRE80602U20120107 [Ac- • https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna6975674 cessed December 2020]. Bibliography • Seden Akcinaroglu (SUNY-Binghampton), E. R. (. o. I. a. U.-C., n.d. Private Military • (Princeton-University), L. D.-B., n.d. Private military companies under International Companies, Opportunities, and Termination of Civil Wars in Africa. Telegraph), S. Humanitarian Law. [Online] Available at: https://lapa.princeton.edu/conferences/ R. (., 2005. Trophy Videos. [Online] Available at: https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/ military07/restricted/doswald-beck_military07.pdf [Accessed December 2020]. worldnews/middleeast/iraq/1504161/Trophy-video-exposes-private-security-con- • Bateman, A., 2020. As Russia stalks US satellites, a space arms race may be heating tractors-shooting-up-Iraqi-drivers.html [Accessed December 2020]. up. [Online] Available at: https://thebulletin.org/2020/05/as-russian-satellites-stalk- • The United Nations Organisation (Press Releases), n.d. Raising Alarm over Possible us-ones-is-a-space-arms-race-heating-up/ [Accessed December 2020]. Space War. [Online] Available at: https://www.un.org/press/en/2018/gadis3609.doc. • CNN Editorial Research, 2020. Iraq Prison Abuse Scandal Fast Facts. [Online] htm [Accessed December 2020]. • Available at: https://edition.cnn.com/2013/10/30/world/meast/iraq-prison-abuse- • The United Nations Organisation, n.d. Resolutions adopted by the General Assembly scandal-fast-facts/ [Accessed December 2020]. at its 1st session. [Online] Available at: https://research.un.org/en/docs/ga/quick/reg- • National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1961. Yuri Gagarin: First Man ular/1 [Accessed December 2020]. in Space. [Online] Available at: https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/sts1/ • The United Nations Organisation, n.d. Resolutions adopted by the General Assembly gagarin_anniversary.html#:~:text=April%2012%20was%20already%20a,in%20 at its 68th session. [Online] Available at: https://research.un.org/en/docs/ga/quick/ his%20Vostok%201%20spacecraft. [Accessed December 2020]. regular/68 [Accessed December 2020]. • National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1962. John F. Kennedy Moon • The United Nations Organisation, n.d. The Charter of the United Nations and the Speech - Rice Stadium. [Online] Available at: https://er.jsc.nasa.gov/seh/ricetalk.htm Statue of the International Court of Justice. [Online] Available at: https://www.un- [Accessed December 2020]. .org/en/sections/un-charter/chapter-iv/index.html [Accessed December 2020].

22 23 • The United Nations Organisation, n.d. UNGA- 1st Committee. [Online] Available at: https://www.un.org/en/ga/first/ [Accessed December 2020]. • The US House of Representatives , 2016. Select Committee on the Events Surround- ing the 2012 Terrorist Attack in Benghazi. [Online] Available at: https://www.con- gress.gov/114/crpt/hrpt848/CRPT-114hrpt848.pdf [Accessed December 2020]. • Times), M. A. (. T. N. Y., 2014. Blackwater Guards Found Guilty in 2007 Iraq Killings. [Online] Available at: https://www.nytimes.com/2014/10/23/us/blackwater-verdict. html [Accessed December 2020]. • United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs, n.d. Outer Space Treaty. [Online] Available at: https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/introouter- spacetreaty.html [Accessed December 2020]. • US Congressional Research Service, 2020. Russian Private Military Companies. [Online] Available at: https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/IF11650.pdf [Accessed December 2020].

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