BULLETIN OF ”CAROL I” NATIONAL DEFENCE UNIVERSITY

2 / 2021

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EDITORIAL BOARD

1. HONORIFIC BOARD

Brigadier Gen. Dorin-Corneliu PLEȘCAN ”Carol I” National Defence University Georgeta GAVRILĂ, PhD Ministry of National Defence Brigadier Gen.Prof. Constantin Iulian VIZITIU Military Technical Academy Brigadier Gen.Prof. Ghiță BÎRSAN, PhD ”Nicolae Bălcescu” Land Forces Academy Commander Conf. Eng. Alecu TOMA, PhD ”Mircea cel Bătrân” Naval Academy Commander Assoc.Prof. Marius ȘERBESZKI, PhD ”Carol I” National Defence University Col.Assoc.Prof. Marius-Victor ROȘCA, PhD ”Carol I” National Defence University Col.Prof. Valentin DRAGOMIRESCU, PhD ”Carol I” National Defence University Col.Prof. Daniel GHIBA, PhD ”Carol I” National Defence University Col.Prof. Ioana ENACHE, PhD ”Carol I” National Defence University Col.Assoc.Prof. Cosmin-Florin OLARIU, PhD ”Carol I” National Defence University Col.Prof. Doina MUREŞAN, PhD ”Carol I” National Defence University Col.Lect. Florin CÎRCIUMARU, PhD ”Carol I” National Defence University Col.Prof. Marinel-Dorel BUŞE, PhD ”Carol I” National Defence University Col. Alin CRIVINEANU ”Carol I” National Defence University Col.Assoc.Prof. Ștefan-Antonio DAN ȘUTEU, PhD ”Carol I” National Defence University Col.Conf. Daniel ROMAN, PhD ”Carol I” National Defence University Maj.Assoc.Prof. Marinel-Adi MUSTAȚĂ, PhD ”Carol I” National Defence University Lect.Florian BICHIR, PhD ”Carol I” National Defence University Col.Prof. Cezar VASILESCU, PhD ”Carol I” National Defence University Inspector Carol Teodor PETERFY Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical (Winner of the Nobel Peace Prize in 2013) Weapons – OPCW

2. SCIENTIFIC BOARD

Assoc.Prof. Iulian CHIFU, PhD ”Carol I” National Defence University Prof. Daniel DUMITRU, PhD ”Carol I” National Defence University Prof. Gheorghe MINCULETE, PhD ”Carol I” National Defence University Prof. Teodor FRUNZETI, PhD ”Titu Maiorescu” Christian University Prof. Sorin TOPOR, PhD ”Carol I” National Defence University Prof. Marian NĂSTASE, PhD The Bucharest University of Economic Studies CS II Alexandra SARCINSCHI, PhD ”Carol I” National Defence University CS II Cristina BOGZEANU, PhD ”Carol I” National Defence University Pavel OTRISAL, PhD University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic

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Assoc.Prof. Elena ŞUŞNEA, PhD ”Carol I” National Defence University Elitsa PETROVA, PhD ”Vasil Levski” National Military University Veliko Tarnovo, Bulgaria Jaromir MAREȘ, PhD University of Defence, Brno, Czech Republic Lect. Cris MATEI, PhD Center for Civil-Military Relationships, USA Assoc.Prof. Tengiz PKHALADZE, PhD Georgian Institute of Public Affaires, Georgia CS Richard WARNES, PhD RAND Europe Piotr GAWLICZEK, PhD ”Cuiavian” University in Wloclawek, Poland Assoc.Prof. Piotr GROCHMALSKI, PhD ”Nicolaus Copernicus” University in Torun, Poland Marcel HARAKAL, PhD ”General Milan Rastislav Štefánik” Armed Forces Academy, Liptovský Mikuláš, Slovak Republic Lucian DUMITRESCU, PhD Romanian Academy Prof. Anton MIHAIL, PhD ”Carol I” National Defence University Prof. Constantin IORDACHE, PhD ”Spiru Haret” University Prof. Gheorghe ORZAN, PhD The Bucharest University of Economic Studies Prof. Gheorghe HURDUZEU, PhD The Bucharest University of Economic Studies CS II Mihai-Ștefan DINU, PhD ”Carol I” National Defence University Assoc.Prof. Maria-Magdalena POPESCU, PhD ”Carol I” National Defence University CS III Sorin CRISTESCU, PhD ”Carol I” National Defence University

3. SCIENTIFIC REVIEWERS

Col.Prof. Cristian-Octavian STANCIU, PhD Col.Prof. Alexandru HERCIU, PhD Col.Prof. Andrei ION, PhD Col. Dan PETRESCU, PhD Lt.Col.Lect. Cristian ICHIMESCU, PhD Lt.Col.Sup.Instr. Gabriel CIAPA, PhD Lt.Col.Assoc.Prof. Ciprian PRIPOAIE, PhD Maj.Assoc.Prof. Vasile-Ciprian IGNAT, PhD Assoc.Prof. Mihaiela BUȘE, PhD Assoc.Prof. Alexandru LUCINESCU, PhD Assoc.Prof. Diana-Elena ȚUȚUIANU, PhD

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CONTENT

One army, two systems. Military justice in Transylvania, during the second 7 campaign of the war of reunification 1918-1920 Col. (ret) Prof. Ion GIURCĂ, PhD Col. Liviu CORCIU, PhD Candidate

Multilateralism, democracy, Concert of Powers: Russia’s Red Lines 19 Assoc.Prof. Iulian CHIFU, PhD

Russia’s geopolitical determinations in the Black Sea 27 Ilie-Răsvan DUMITRU, PhD Candidate

Operational concepts applicable to air space security in the Land Forces’ area 40 of responsibility for the integration of VSHORAD, SHORAD, SAM Air Defence Missile Systems Col.Assoc.Prof. Daniel ROMAN, PhD

Operational approach of Land Forces in the hibrid context 49 Lt.Col.Assoc.Prof. Paul TUDORACHE, PhD

State-of-the-art technologies to be used in command and control systems 54 Col. Cezar POPA, PhD Candidate Col. (ret) Prof. Ion MITULEȚU, PhD

The Arctic region, european union and climate change, as a global threat 64 to security Assoc.Prof. Mihaiela BUȘE, PhD

The persistent conflict, a characteristic of the concept of approaching 69 the hybrid war in the Eastern European operational environment Lt.Col. Valentin PETRESCU, PhD Candidate

The Russian Federation energy policy, an instrument for reconsolidating 76 the status of high power Lt.Col.Assoc.Prof. Andi Mihail BĂNCILĂ, PhD

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Medical protection, a key element in ensuring the continuity 83 of the military centers activities, under the constant pressure of contamination with the SARS-CoV-2 virus Lt.Col. Ionel COTOARBĂ, PhD Candidate

Relevant principles in the ECHR and CJEU jurisprudence 89 regarding national security Maj. Sorina Ana MANEA, PhD Candidate

Ukraine between peace and war with Russia 95 Ilie-Răsvan DUMITRU, PhD Candidate

The character of interdependence between ISR structures for Land Units 107 and those of Air and Naval Units Lt.Col. Valeriu Adrian JIANU, PhD Candidate

Prompt physical availability of the military ‒ concepts, principles, components 112 Lt.Col.Sup.Instr. George-Florin BĂIŢAN, PhD

Considerations regarding building motor skills specific to military 119 physical activities Col.Adv.Instr. Alin PELMUȘ, PhD

Hand-to-hand combat with or without portable armament ‒ 124 fundamental elements for the training of the modern military Lt.Col.Sup.Instr. George-Florin BĂIŢAN, PhD

Common values of the military organization and of the field 133 of physical education and sport Lt.Col.Sup.Instr. Marius Constantin ISTRATE, PhD Candidate Col. (ret) Prof. Ion BĂLĂCEANU, PhD

6 June, 2021 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University

ONE ARMY, TWO SYSTEMS. MILITARY JUSTICE IN TRANSYLVANIA, DURING THE SECOND CAMPAIGN OF THE WAR OF REUNIFICATION 1918-1920

Col. (ret) Prof. Ion GIURCĂ, PhD* Col. Liviu CORCIU, PhD Candidate**

In the middle of the campaign for Transylvania’s liberation, the Governing Council of Sibiu had decided to support the efforts of the Romanian army and ordered the establishment of a Territorial General Commandment meant to begin recruitment in Transylvania, Banat and the Romanian provinces in Hungary, in order to constitute an unit of volunteers. Ulteriorly, out of their ranks, 6th and 7th Army Corps have been established, recruited exclusively from Transylvanians regardless of their nationality. Under Decree I passed by the Governing Council of Sibiu, laws, ordinances, regulations and legal statutes issued prior to December 18th1918, when Transylvania was proclaimed independent of Budapest, were temporarily in force. Within this context, militaries of Transylvanian divisions were subject to military jurisdiction under Austro-Hungarian Military Criminal Code of 1855, whereas Romanian militaries who were under the command of Transylvanian Commandment of Troops were subject to the jurisdiction of Romanian laws, implicitly to the Code of military justice.

Keywords: military justice; discipline; disobedience; court martial; campaign.

The topic approached in this current paper is 13th 1918, across the flow line of Mureș river a specific not only to the military body, but also to the demarcation line was established which underwent entire legislation within Romanian territories united a sinuous course, from Rodnei Mountains, to subsequent to the War of National Reunification. the North, crossing Bistrița, Târgu Mureș, Alba At the time the Great Unification took place in Iulia, Deva, southern Arad and further westwards the Old Kingdom, the Criminal Code and the towards Szeged and Pecs, line which set up the Criminal Procedure Code of 1864 were into force, boundaries up to which the Romanian army could in Transylvania the Hungarian Criminal Code of march forward in Transylvania and Banat. 1878 and the Criminal Procedure Code of 1896, in The very first military actions in Transylvania Bessarabia the Russian Criminal Code of 1903 and were carried out by subunits of the Border Guard the Criminal Procedure Code of 1864, whereas in Corps HQ, starting from October 29th/November 11th Bucovina, the Austrian Criminal Code of 1852 and 1918, having the mission to enable the concentration2 the Processual Code of 18731. of the main forces of 7th Infantry Division and 1st We will attempt to continue presenting, the Light Infantry Division in western Carpathians. way we had learned in our documentation, the The first elements fit for the value ofa links between legislative inconsistencies from the reinforced infantry regiment of 1st Light Infantry two territories inhabited by Romanians, the lack Division commanded by General Aristide Lecca, of endowment with specialized personnel within respectively, from 7th Infantry Division commanded martial courts and the disciplinary stance of some by General Traian Moșoiu, Transylvanian at heart, of the volunteer units comprised by Transylvanian crossed the Carpathians on November 10th/23rd divisions, during the second campaign of the and 11th/24th 1918. Their task was to secure an Reunion War. operational alignment on the flow line of Mureș According to the provisions laid down under River, and to concentrate their efforts3 towards the the armistice signed in Beograd on November spring of Mureș River, within the Toplița-Ditrău- Gheorghieni area, respectively, the spring of Olt *”Carol I” National Defence University River, within the Sândominic-Dănești-Miercurea e-mail: [email protected] Ciuc area. ** Romanian National Military Archives Without encountering serious opposition, on e-mail: [email protected] November 17th/30th 1918, the elements belonging

June, 2021 7 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University to 7th Infantry Division which went forward entered or civilian attire, but had the obligation to wear a Reghin, and two days afterwards Târgu Mures; tricolor armlet on the left arm, on which the words on November 17th/30th 1918, 1st Light Infantry ”Romanian National Guard” were written. Regiment occupied Miercurea Ciuc, whereas on The efficiency of these structures which the same day, 6th Light Infantry Regiment occupied reached by end of November 1918 a number of Brașov. 8,000-10,000 people was proven when it came Due to Hungarian infringement of the to the defence of freedom of movement of the provisions of the Beograd Armistice Convention, on delegates from the Great National Gathering from November 29th/December 12th 1918, the Romanian Alba Iulia, when using armed forces, the liberated General Headquarters solicited4 the Danube Army the railway blockades from Cucerdea, Teiuș, Podul Headquarters, the agreement of Allied Powers to Mureș and Coșlar, previously occupied by Szekler cross the demarcation line established across the forces. In the meantime, more than 3,000 National flow line of Mureș River, both for replying to the Guard members ensured the order and safety of the appeal of the Consiliul Dirigent that had solicited delegates in Alba Iulia6. an immediate intervention, and for counter-tackling Therefore, after the surge generated by the the reorganization and concentration of Hungarian national feeling had been calmed down, after a forces within the concealment of delimitation decision7 of the Public Defence and Security Sector line, and by this way to hinder the spreading and within the Consiliul Dirigent from December propaganda of anarchist ideas. 9th/22nd 1918, the gradual abolition of Romanian Within this context, the Romanian General National Guards within liberated territories Headquarters ordered the Transylvanian Troops followed, which had become a danger, as recorded HQ, established on December 11th/24th 1918, to in a report8 by Transylvanian Troops HQ, although occupy all Romanian territories which had been they had been truly useful at the beginning under part of the former Austro-Hungarian monarchy, the enthusiasm of the revolution. save for Banat, already occupied by French and The National Guards had been replaced by Serbian forces, in order to ensure order, life and specialized gendarme and police forces, although welfare of inhabitants. On December 11th/24th 1918, their implementation lasted a long time. However, 7th Infantry Division soldiers entered Cluj, and in Transylvania lacked proper organization, especially Sibiu, General Traian Mosoiu was welcomed as a because most of the administration had been hero. settled with Hungarian clerks, which had retreated Besides all the remobilized and established together with the former sovereignty. division HQs, starting January 1919, courts martial That was why, Consiliul Dirigent called up9 were to be established in order to sanction all Romanian officers and militaries of all ranks, which infringements of provisions of military laws and had served in the former Austro-Hungarian army, regulations. thus organizing 15 companies of Transylvanian gendarmerie, which had the mission of disarming National Guards population and replacing local national guards. Romanian Army units recruited in Transylvania, Out of these forces, later on, the first also known as Transylvanian Divisions, were Transylvanian gendarme regiments was established, subsequent to the national guards which were first headquartered in Brașov, Cluj and Arad, which established5 on October 18th/31st 1918, the process gradually began to replace operational forces going further on in November and December. At within services of maintaining order and the safety rural level, the guards were structured according of communication ways within Transylvania. to territorial principles, in each commune mostly In the Austro-Hungarian army, characterized by inhabited by Romanians, a national guard was to a complex structure and a multinational character10, be established, with the mandatory requirement 30th, 63rd and 64th Regiments were exclusively that the number should not exceed 5% of commune Romanian, to which 13 more regiments were population. added comprising over 50% Romanians, initially The guards had no special uniforms, therefore totalizing, at the beginning of the war 72,000 using either the old Austro-Hungarian uniform militaries11.

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In 1915 Romanian forces comprising Austro- to regulate the rights and duties of Transylvanians Hungarian units reached 200,000-300,000 when exerting military service, and sought at the militaries, who had taken part in the Eastern Front same time to apply Romanian military organization Campaign, in Galicia, but also on the Balkan within a new territory, of principles of organizational and Italian fronts, being praised both in official and recruitment laws, as well as those referring to communications as well as by Hungarian press. position of officers, allowances, marriage, pensions, In an article published on August 18th/31st etc. 1915 in the Adevărul newspaper by publicist Ion Although the provisions from art.2, Law-Decree Grecu, entitled ”Romanian Regiments Sentenced no. 345 established that all Romanian military to Death. What does Hungarian Praise Mean”, the regulations were also applicable to these units, public was shown the battle course of one of these the lawmaker seems to have taken into account regiments, praised by Hungarian press, according the impartial reality of the situation, involving to the author, only after having been ”molten” also a certain transitional stance, which was to be by countless assaults against Russian cannons: regulated under ministerial decisions. ”Because Hungarian press (…) praises Romanian The impartial reality of the situation was taking soldiers only after they are dead (…). Hungarian into account both the fact that those concerned praise towards a Romanian regiment means that a did not know the laws, as well as the necessity of new regiment is sentenced to die and that sentence interoperability of the new structures, that most performance had begun”12. volunteers came from ex-POWs from the Serbian, However, the bravery of Romanian soldiers Italian or Galician fronts. To those mentioned serving the Austro-Hungarian army was also above, one must add the lack of training of the recognized by imperial authorities, 50th Regiment officers and soldiers under the regulations of the of Alba Iulia being the only one from the entire Old Kingdom, as well as language barriers, taking dualist monarchy bearing the golden medal on into account that the troop was to be recruited from the flag, and for its contribution in the Galician more nationalities, save for Hungarian. Campaign, the flag of the regiment was decorated In order to implement Law-Decree no. 345, by emperor Wilhelm II with ”The Iron Cross”13 . Ministerial Decision no. 40 was issued, which established firstly the constitution of 16th and Establishment of Transylvanian Divisions 18th Infantry Divisions, as well as the method of Simultaneously with Romanian army action operating with officers, organic composition of in Transylvania, Consiliul Dirigent decided to troop corps, weaponry, ammunition, and equipment support the liberating efforts and ordered the to be distributed16, etc. establishment14in Sibiu, on January 5th/18th 1919 of Alexandru Hanzu, former Austrian army the Territorial General Command (known in some colonel, originally from Săliște, Sibiu county, who documents as the A.B.U. Territorial Command), became General of the Romanian Army on April under the command of General Ioan Boeriu, having 11th 1919, had been appointed commander of 16th the mission to start recruiting in Transylvania, Banat Infantry Division. and within territories inhabited by Romanians in Dănilă Papp, former colonel in the Austrian Hungary, in order to create some Transylvanian Great General Staff, professor within the Military volunteering units. Academy of Vienna, and remarkable commander Approximately in the same period, Law- on the Russian front17, originally from Bihor county, Decree no.345 of January 25th/ February 2nd 1919, promoted in turn to General of the Romanian Army decided, following to be subsequently ratified on April 11th 1919, was appointed as commander of by the legislative bodies, the establishment of 6th 18th Division. and 7th Army Corps, with 16th, 17th, 18th, 19th, 20th Military Justice within the two divisions, and 21st Divisions, exclusively recruited amongst according to art.9 of Decision no. 40, was to be Transylvanian inhabitants15. administrated according to Romanian Code of The bill had been initially drawn up due to the Military Justice, by courts martial, inspired by those proposal of the Ministry of War of that time, Army from the Romanian Army, but having implemented Corps General, Arthur Văitoianu, and was meant some measures imposed by the transitional period.

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In order to implement the provisions of the One army, two systems of military justice aforementioned two norms, on March 1st 1919, in 16th and 18thInfantry Divisions left for the Sibiu, the Organization Service of 6th and 7th Army operational area, having military justice officers Corps (6-7 OS) was established, under the command in order to implement laws according to the of general Ioan Boeriu, directly subordinated to The provisions of Law-Decree no. 345 of January 25th/ Ministry of War, having the mission of coordinating February 7th 1919, more precisely according to the mobilization, equipping and training activities of Romanian military regulations and laws, when the Transylvanian divisions, but which also targeted units subordinated to the Transylvanian Troops unitary military organization of Transylvania, HQ were located on the Apuseni Mountains’ Banat and Maramureș18. alignment. A court martial23 had been also created Until March 27th 1919, mobilization of 16th within the vicinity of O.S. 6-7, but which was and 18th Infantry Divisions’ units had been mainly functioning according to Hungarian laws24. done, their forces comprising, besides volunteers General Gheorghe Mărdărescu, commander of the arrived in 1917 and trained in Moldavia, many Transylvanian Troops HQ was not very satisfied militaries from the former Austro-Hungarian army, with its performance, having even solicited demobilized after the Armistice of Villa Giusti. assignment of officers from the Old Kingdom with The Structure of those divisions was almost legal experience “because the way things work in identical with the structure of infantry divisions that service, leaves excessively to be desired”25. existing within the Romanian army, comprising The situation was known, because ever since also infantry, artillery regiments, light infantry and February 5th 1919, when he was the commander of engineer’s battalions, as well as a campaign hospital. the Territorial General Command, subordinated to Distribution of troops in peace garrisons of 16th Consiliul Dirigent, General Ioan Boeriu, initiated Infantry Division’s units was the following: 81st a report, registered as no. 44 of February 18th Infantry Regiment in Dej, 82nd Infantry Regiment 1919, both to the Ministry of War and Consiliul in Târgu Mureș, 83rd Infantry Regiment in Cluj, Dirigent. 84th Infantry Regiment in Bistrița. To these artillery He referred26 to the consequences of the Decree units and a light infantry battalion were added, no. I entitled ”ecree about the temporary functioning totalizing 10,590 men19. of public services, law implementation, clerks and 18th Infantry Division distribution was 89th language utilization”, actually about the fact that Infantry Regiment in Brasov, 90th Infantry Regiment the laws, ordinances, regulations and legal statutes in Sibiu, 91st Infantry Regiment in Alba Iulia, 92nd issued prior to October 18th/ 31st 1918, date when Infantry Regiment in Orastie, to which there were Transylvania had been proclaimed independent added artillery units, a pioneer battalion and a light of Budapest, had temporary remained into force infantry battalion, totalizing 11,210 men20. “suiting the interest of public order and to ensure As a consequence to the worrying evolution on rightful continuation”27. the Transylvanian front, since on March 25th 1919 Therefore, according to those recorded in the the new government in Budapest had declared war report, militaries of Transylvanian divisions which to all neighboring countries, the Romanian General were in the constitutive process, were subject to Headquarters ordered 6-7 OS to mobilize the two military jurisdiction under Austro-Hungarian divisions starting with April 1st 1919, after which Military Criminal Code, promulgated on January within 10 days they were to be at the disposal of 15th 1855. To its provisions the Hungarian law operational HQs21. article XXI ex. 1890, regarding punishment Therefore, on April 1st 1919, 16th and 18th for disobedience towards the call up under flag Infantry Divisions were taken out of 6-7 O.S. order and the seducement to such an offence, the subordination, being directly operationally and Hungarian law article XXX ex. 1912, regarding administratively subordinated to the Transylvanian criminal provisions of the law upon armed power Troops HQ, respectively, to the Romanian General and other laws concerning fulfillment of military Headquarters, after which they were to be assigned service obligations, as well as the Hungarian law to missions and to carry out military actions article XXXII ex. 1912, regarding military criminal together with the Old Kingdom units22. procedure were added.

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The report caused no change of the attitude framework within the domain, under legislation of the Consiliul Dirigent which, subsequently, on applicable within its territory, General Ioan Boeriu February 21st 1919 issued the ”Order no. 30301 initiated a new step. regarding military justice”, which regulated the way This time, together with the emergence of it was about to administer military justice within Law-Decree no. 345 of January 25th/February 7th the entire territory ”added” to the Old Kingdom 1919 and the issuance by the Ministry of Law of (Transylvania, Banat, the territories inhabited the “Decision no. 40 of January 20th/ February 2nd by Romanians in Hungary)28, subjected from a 1919, which we had presented before, he addressed military-administrative point of view to 6,7 O.S. to the Consiliul Dirigent by Report no. 11442 of Therefore, in Sibiu, a military court was to be April 21st 1919, informing the Justice Sector which established under provisions of Austro-Hungarian was comprised within that there are inconsistencies law, its jurisdiction was to comprise all the regarding military justice administration to United militaries subjected to O.S.6,7, as well as civilians Romania’s troops and formations31, between who under existing laws were eligible on the side provisions of Decree no. I of January 24th/February of the military judicial forums. 6th 1918 and the provisions of Law-Decree no. 345, The order was also mentioning the fact that, respectively of Decision no. 40. given the mobilization stance, the court was to General Ioan Boeriu, informed the Consiliul follow the campaign procedure, under chapter Dirigent about the legal framework applicable to XXVII of Hungarian law military criminal military justice, confirming the prior agreement of procedure, the O.S. 6,7 commander having the the Romanian General Headquarters, communicated processual attributions of the upper echelon. to the Chief of the General Staff of the Territorial The order also established a subsidiary in Cluj General Command, at that time colonel Dănilă of the military court from Sibiu, in charge with Papp, regarding the approval for Transylvanian causes concerning troops quartered in Cluj, Mureș divisions to establish, in their initial stance, their and Solnoc-Dăbâca29counties, and established a own courts martial. military prison facility in Cluj and Sibiu garrisons. Explaining to Consiliul Dirigent the possibility We need to state the fact that according to art.59 that Transylvanian Divisions, acting within of the Military Criminal Code of the former Austro- military circumstances alongside the Old Kingdom Hungarian army30, arrest in garrison imprisonment divisions, as required by operational interests, was applied to soldiers ranked up to sergeant, to to subordinate some of these units and the other those who had been subject to military demotion as way around, General Ioan Boeriu was wondering an auxiliary punishment, wives and children of all whether ”is it good and efficient for Transylvanian those previously mentioned, as well as to civilians divisions within criminal justice operational area for acts within the competence of military justice. to follow other laws as the divisions of the Old Minimum duration of arrest was 24 hours, Kingdom?”32. and maximum duration was 6 months, within Out of his explanations, one could notice the special circumstances this term could be exceeded. incompatibility of the legal framework regarding Also, according to art.77 under the same Military military justice administration, both in terms Criminal Code, the imprisonment punishment could of competence, as well as criminal procedure. simultaneously be added several ”aggravations”, According to article XXXII of Austro-Hungarian such as fasting, when the convict was fed several law, in campaign procedure, criminal justice fell days in a row only with bread and water, the under the competence of the division or army corps hard sheet, not more than twice a week, solitary commander, through the legal officers that were confinement, not more than 14 days in a row, labor nominated to him, situation in which soldiers from in the barracks or camp, etc. the Old Kingdom, reaching in the operational course Coming back to the way of applying military the orders of a Transylvanian division commander, justice in the Transylvanian campaign, more should have been judged following the former precisely to the simultaneous and specific existence Austro-Hungarian army laws, which would have of every law-making entity, both in Transylvania, as represented an infringement of the principles of the well as in the Old Kingdom, of the own regulatory Romanian Constitution.

June, 2021 11 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University

Things were no different even from the point ”originating from will of desire”35, motivating of view of criminal procedure, taking into account that they had been established in 1895, when the at least two factors. First, the Austro-Hungarian Austro-Hungarian Military Criminal Code was army military criminal procedure had no way of promulgated, and no longer corresponded to appeal, whereas the Romanian Code of military economic and social references of 1919, had been Justice had the option of recourse to the Permanent adopted by Consiliul Dirigent under ”Decree no. Revision Council. The argument was solid, since XIII” of May 20th 1919, entitled ”Decree regarding the provisions of the High Royal Decree no. 2930 of modification of some provisions of the Austro- September 16th/29th 1916, respectively, of the High Hungarian military criminal code, amended on Royal Decree no. 7 of January 7th/20th 1917, under January 15th 1855, and of the military criminal which the right to recourse had been suspended, procedure applicable to the Romanian territorial respectively lifted, had been abrogated under Law armies from Transylvania, Banat, and the Territories no. 2254 of August 28th 191833. inhabited by Romanians in Hungary”36. The second factor concerned the procedure The only modification brought to the itself, precisely the fact that if the competent administration of military justice, under this new commander had submitted a sentence, deemed by decree, was that sentences pronounced by courts him as being illegal, to the upper echelon in order martials of Transylvanian divisions were to be no to be quashed, according to the former Austro- longer given ”in the name of the emperor”, but “in Hungarian army military criminal procedure, this the name of the law”. processual attribution would have been assigned to the commander of the Transylvanian Troops Disciplinary status within Transylvanian HQ, being thus faced with applying a foreign law, divisions aspect forbidden by the same Constitution. Legal and procedural uncertainty among ”I therefore suggest, Ioan Boeriu was Transylvanian divisions had been also reflected concluding his report, to decree that military justice in the disciplinary status of some of the newly- within Transylvanian division and unitary units established units, especially because the ideas of located in operational area (…) criminal military the Bolshevik revolution were shattering not only justice to be made according to Old Kingdom laws, Hungary, but also the entire European continent and to the other Transylvanian troops, respectively and naturally, they also affected the Romanian troops outside operational area, as well as the soldiers from the former Austro-Hungarian army. civilians subject to military jurisdiction in this The morale, the material and disciplinary status territory, to have the laws applied as decreed by of Transylvanian forces, distributed in garrisons Consiliul Dirigent”34. within internal area, were illustrated in a report from Although Consiliul Dirigent allowed within General Ioan Boeriu addressed to the Transylvanian the text of ”Decree no. I ”the possibility for some Troops HQ, about an incident where 81st Infantry derogations, explaining that laws, ordinances, Regiment soldiers had brutally assaulted some regulations and legal statutes issued prior to gendarmes: ”Most of these elements are soldiers October 18th 1918, were temporary into force, ”with who returned from Russian captivity, who had the exception of those comprised by the current been through the Hungarian revolution filled with decree, and in other ulterior decrees”, there were impulses hostile to the sovereignty of state. Their no substantial amendments, neither were there disposition towards revolt is also nourished by the any exceptions notified regarding military justice deplorable circumstances the soldiers from this administration. garrison are facing (Dej garrison), most of them are The Governing College persevered in improperly dressed, barefoot and without bedsheet maintaining its own jurisdiction and procedures (…)”37. regarding Transylvanian divisions, although there The state of mind was not very different seem to have been opportunities of legislative between 16th and 18th Infantry divisions distributed harmonization. Specifically, another bill initiated in operational area. By a telegram addressed to the by General Ioan Boeriu, under which he was asked Transylvanian Troops HQ, General Traian Moșoiu for some modification of worth limit for offences informed on April 23rd 1919 that Transylvanian

12 June, 2021 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University forces from some units belonging to 16th and 18th As far as troop discipline was concerned, Infantry divisions manifest lack of discipline, although their gradual mobilization had been the officers from these units ”being morally and attempted, taking into account their education ever materially unable to hinder them”38. since they had entered the units, wrote General In order to remove this evil which was in his Dănilă Papp, the operational events sped the process opinion ”the germ of disorder”, General Traian up. The daily arrival within units of approximately Moșoiu suggested that for each division, one country 200-400 recruits, doubled by the lack of officers, detachment of gendarmes to be attached, under the not more than 20 for each regiment, out of which command of at least 3 to 4 energetic gendarme most did not yet know Romanian, lack of non- officers, who would be able to immediately repress commissioned officers and the need of time in any abuse. order to train all of them, equally contributed to the On the same day, also in a telegram, the situation. resolution of General Gheorghe Mărdărescu was Another cause, claimed General Dănilă Papp, communicated: ”It shall be ordered to immediately was the request of Transylvanian Troops HQ to report the measures adopted. I hereby declare have over 5,000 people involved in guard missions the division commanders directly responsible for of the railways due to the March 15th 1919 strike, slipping on this slope. Courts martial, they also mission which caused the training to fall from the need to function and repress with their entire rigor top interest. This aspect had been reflected also in these acts of wildness”39. the disciplinary stance: ”A systematic discipline As consequence, the commanders of the two implementation, which according to the morale of divisions were notified40 by ”Order no. 5090” of the people would have been necessary, could not April 25th 1919, about their subordinated troops be made and the regiments proceeded untrained to misbehavior and also about the concern of the the front. The guilty ones shall always receive the superior echelon regarding the order and discipline deserved punishment”42. amongst them, since the it gravely affect the prestige Having all these assurances, at the beginning and honour of the Romanian army. of July 1919, despite being located on Tisa River, Besides, 16th and 18th Infantry divisions had in the vicinity of Szolnok, 18th Infantry Division been ever since April 1st 1919 at the disposal of the still did not have a military prosecutor (royal Transylvanian Troops HQ and had already left for commissioner), although, the Transylvanian Troops the operational area, according to what the report HQ had sent a telegram to the Romanian General recorded, legal officers being assigned, in order Headquarters in order to receive one ”or at least a to apply justice according to the aforementioned substitute of military prosecutor”, according to the laws (laws applied in the former Austro-Hungarian request ”since this court cannot currently function army). because the actual military prosecutor does not General Dănilă Papp’s reaction to the know the [Romanian] laws”43. accusations brought against his subordinates came In the absence of any explicit order this telegram no later, so that, on April 28th 1919, he reported the may be considered a proof that Romanian General situation to General Gheorghe Mărdărescu41. HQ did not accepted a dual administration of the Although he accepted that there were some military justice, or at least did not accept it for 16th units where the soldiers had committed acts of and 18th divisions, which were subordinated through indiscipline which were under investigation, the Transylvanian Troops HQ, already involved in according to 18th Infantry Division commander military actions alongside Old Kingdom’s units. the situation of his troops was no different from The administration of military justice within the entirely Transylvanian social behavior of that 18th Infantry Division seems to have actually time. That behavior was facing a void when it represented an issue since on July 14th 1919, the came to authority, not only in administration, but Transylvanian Troops HQ sent another telegram also in all sectors of social life, both as having been to the Romanian General Headquarters, in order proclaimed independent of Budapest, as well as to tell the fact that, although three assignment due to the Bolshevik revolution, which was fully requests for a substitute of military prosecutor had underway on Hungarian grounds. been transmitted to the JAG’s office of the 18th

June, 2021 13 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University

Infantry Division court martial, the request was telegram48dated August 20th 1919, and assignment, still unsolved. was as it follows: Captain Nicolae Negreanu, This new step had been initiated as a 1stlieutenant Albert Lee and 2nd lieutenant Ion consequence to a new request from General Dănilă Dumitrescu. On August 28th 1919, this personnel Papp, who had warned the Transylvanian Troops was completed by Captain Aurel Bozac, former HQ, that ”due to dysfunctional military justice, auditor (military prosecutor) within the Austro- discipline is highly jeopardized”44. Hungarian army, 1st Lieutenant Vasile Crăciun, Being convinced in turn by the urgent character magister on probation and 2nd lieutenants Alexandru and the justness of the submitted arguments, General Țandrău, Emil Furcaș and Valeriu Simonetti, all Gheorghe Mărdărescu, emphasized towards the three law students49. Romanian General Headquarters the necessity of However, it seemed like there was no sign distributing one substitute of military prosecutor of solid results, since with ”Telegram no. 876” to each prosecutor’s office of 16th and 18th Infantry of October 7th 1919, the JAG from the General Divisions’ courts martial, who was to guide the Headquarters addressed to 16th Infantry Division work, otherwise they would not function. commander, warning him about the unreliability However, court martial of the 16th Infantry of the personnel of his division’s court martial Division was functioning or at least this can be due to which: ”many swindlers are on the verge of understood from ”Report no. 710” of June 26th 1919 averting punishment”50. issued by General Gheorghe Mărdărescu, with Since on July 20th 1919 the offensive of the Red the purpose of informing the Romanian General Hungarian Army had begun, which had succeeded Headquarters about the performance of the death to develop more bridge heads on the eastern bank sentence of three militaries, sergeants Gondosch of Tisa River, Transylvanian Troops HQ was Mihail and Boschzer Mihail, respectively, soldier submitting to the Romanian General Headquarters Friss Nistor. They had been judged on June 14th through ”Telegram no. 8152”of July 22nd 1919, the 1919 by 16th Division court martial, having report no. 778 by General Dănilă Papp, regarding been found guilty of ”agitating the spirit of their 18th Infantry Division situation, where the state of comrades, urging them to no longer obey military spirit was not good at all: ”this division’s infantry laws, to kill officers or leave the front”45 , and their is completely demoralized”51. sentences had been communicated to all divisions ”The wind of revolution affected these troops”, in order to be read in front of the troops ”under motivated52 General Dănilă Papp, attempting to arms”. explain to his superiors what caused these states, Within 16th Infantry Division, the Transylvanian ”destroying even the last remnant of discipline Troops HQ had requested the Romanian General from their soul”. Headquarters ever since June 8th 1919, to send a Among other causes that had generated that military prosecutor together with all the necessary attitude of the troops, General Dănilă Papp also laws and regulations, because the division had blamed it on lack of necessary time for organization reported that due to these shortages the court and training, after the recruitment process had martial could not function properly46. ended, within regiments, the divisional forces With all these repeated requests, it was only being brought directly from the front, their fatigue, on July 5th 1919 when the JAG managed to select taking into account that Transylvanians were at several officers: 1st lieutenant (r) Albert Lee and war for five years, as well as lack of an adequate 2nd lieutenant (r) Ion Dumitrescu, for 16th Division motivation, because the regiments of the division court martial, respectively 1st lieutenant (r) operated West from Tisa River, ”a region soldiers Constantin Balescu, for 18th Division court martial, know that it won’t belong to us”53. but the officers had not arrived yet, and other Last but not least, 18th Infantry Division licensed officers, who had already been mobilized, commander was mentioning that up to a great were not available47. extent, the fact that until the date of the issuance 16th Infantry Division court martial was of the report, July 22nd 1919, not even a single case functioning ever since July 5th following the of indiscipline had been brought before the court Romanian Code of military justice, according to a martial of the division, which had been banned

14 June, 2021 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University from judging according to Hungarian laws, and Regiment went forward under enemy fire in perfect personnel to know the laws and procedures of order without halting 6 kms on a smooth ground the Old Kingdom had not arrived until then, also (open ground) until reaching bayonets. Out of the contributed. enemy forces, only those who had chariots at their The disciplinary situation of the forces disposal escaped”57. comprised by the Transylvanian divisions seemed A possible explanation of this difference in to worry the Romanian General Headquarters, or at attitude seems to have been, besides an adequate least this way one could interpret ”Order no. 9732” training, the moral preparation of the troop. Before of July 24th 1919. Being inspected by Transylvanian marching to battle, they had been gathered in the troops, General Constantin Prezan, the Chief of the Orthodox Church from Țebea in order to take Romanian General HQ had telegraphically ordered The Oath, with the regiment flag emerging from the 2nd Army Corps to immediately send to the Avram Iancu’s tomb. There, Colonel Gheorghe Transylvanian divisions four substitutes military Rascoviceanu, commander of 9th Light Infantry prosecutors, ”from the skillful, energetic and Regiment, told them as it follows: ”Soldiers, I experienced magistrates”54 because when lacking hereby tell you today under the evergreen oak of competent personnel, the courts martial of the two Horia the Martyr, before the tomb of Avram Iancu, divisions could not function. former King of the Mountains. I hereby tell you ”It cannot be punished as deserved” was today in the great hour, in the supreme hour of the recorded in the telegram55 through which the redemption of our Folk. And I hereby tell you: may order had been transmitted, ”the various cases of all your limbs tremble before the memory of all deviation from duty, theft, fleeing from the front, those who during centuries had whitened with their indiscipline, desertions, etc. which are abundant in bones, the land of the Folk long and wide to get these divisions”. According to the specifications where we are and to become what we are. Be proud from the order, 2nd Army Corps was to select that fate has still chosen you, people of Apuseni officers on the same day, according to mentioned Mountains, has decided that you be the first from all criteria, among the magistrates of the courts martial Transylvania, to do The Oath of faith and sacrifice of subordinated divisions, those being about to go for our beloved Homeland (…)58. to the designated units even the following day. The regiment had been formed in Brad, between We are required to mention that not all 9th and 10th Light Infantry Regiments, and had Transylvanian units had manifested a low combat constituted ever since a part of 4th Light Infantry spirit and a precarious disciplinary state. One Brigade, taking part in all exercises, marches and of the units with forces recruited exclusively in maneuvers, day and night together with them, which Transylvania distinguishing from the others was seem to have influenced the morale both of the troop the Regiment ”Beius”, made up exclusively of as well as officers’59, considered by Transylvanian Romanian from the region of Apuseni Mountains, Troops HQ as very good ones. Besides, General volunteers originating from the areas of Brad, Baia Ștefan Panaitescu was reporting that during the de Criș, Campeni, Abrud and Hălmagiu56. 40-day period as long as they remained in direct On June 18th 1919, General Ștefan Panaitescu, contact with light infantry regiments, between chief of staff of the Transylvanian Troops HQ, officers and the Beiuș Regiment troops, the most was telegraphically reporting to the Romanian graceful harmony reigned. General Headquarters about the performance of the regiment in the battles on Tisa River: ”Beiuș Conclusions Regiment behaved very well in the operations it From the chronological exposition of the steps had performed (…). They took part in the attacks related to this topic, one should understand that of Csucs-Borossebes-Ocsod and they stood out at the moment the two legal acts had been issued, especially when attacking the bridge head from ”Law-Decree no. 345” of January 25th/ February 2nd Szolnok, supported by their own artillery, they had 1919, respectively ”Decision no .40” of January 26th/ outflanked and attacked the enemy who had been February 3rd 1919, Consiliul Dirigent had already supported by the various artillery units deployed on published ”Decree no. I” under which Hungarian both banks of Tisa River. In this attack the Beius legislation, laws, ordinances, regulations and legal

June, 2021 15 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University statues issued prior to October 18th 1918, were and lack of specialized personnel, trained lawyers temporary in force. or magistrates, available to be assigned to courts However, one cannot support the idea that when martial. the bills of the two legal acts had been drafted, the In the documentation of the current material minister of war, General Arthur Văitoianu, could we have encountered many demobilization have been aware with the way military justice requests from some officers in reserve, magistrates was administered within Transylvanian divisions, or lawyers in civilian life, who were invoking especially that the report of General Ioan Boeriu different reasons to be left aside, requesting even addressed to the Ministry of War, although dated their replacement with other magistrates who had February 18th 1919, had been registered by the not been called to mobilization yet, or who were Ministry of War no sooner than March 3rd 1919, proposing a rotation system for the mobilization of under no. 7095. magistrates. Also, nothing entitles us to assert the hypothesis Besides, even the Ministry of Justice was according to which, had he known these aspects, cautious when granting magistrates’ mobilization, General Arthur Văitoianu would have adopted due to the great number of issues that was facing, another measure, unlike that which, starting from and economic, social and legislative reforms January 24th/February 6th 1919, all regulations and underway, so that, at the repeated requests from all Romanian military laws became also applicable the Romanian General Headquarters, to this end, to the units comprised by Transylvanian divisions. the answer was usually negative: ”We requested The system of a common military justice, the Ministry of Justice to allow at our disposal difficult to be applied to the two entities which made a number of 10 magistrates, officers in reserve, up the Transylvanian Troops HQ, and we refer here absolutely necessary for the completion of courts to the regular troops from the Old Kingdom, and martial within the operational area”, reported JAG, the 6th and 7th Army Corps Transylvanian divisions, General Gheorghe Cereseanu, ”[but] I was given had a visible impact upon the disciplinary state the answer by the secretary general that due to from some units of the latter. expropriation, compensations and electoral offices, Poorly equipped, with a reduced number of it could not have any magistrate available for assigned officers, aspect which could be found military justice”61. more visibly within the precarious discipline Regarding the legislative differences we level, but above all, with the troop marked by presented, we should add the idea that they had long years of war and affected by the wind of been part of a natural process, a chance taken, we Bolshevik revolution, some of these units have not believe, by the great political figures of that time on confirmed, being withdrawn from the front in order both sides of the Carpathians: ”sudden removal of to carry out a training period, where they were laws and lawful institutions, which had been in the used for guarding objectives, as well as to other neighboring territories, would not have contributed preponderantly-administrative activities. to the union of the soul, which every good patriot It is worth mentioning that in June 1919, in desired, and could not even have been realized order to reestablish military order and discipline, without great difficulty. It was therefore inevitable, other types of measures were taken, besides that for a transitional period (…) the laws that had warning division commanders. Therefore, within dominated in the neighboring provinces before 16th Infantry Division, dismissal of all four 1919”62 to remain into force. commanders of infantry regiments was ordered, There have also been other disputes regarding Colonels Pompet Bersan, Carol Divisioli, Adolf legislation between Transylvania and the Old Reiner and Henrich Brandsch, who were replaced Kingdom. We could quote to this end the refusal of by officers from the Old Kingdom Romanian army Transylvanian Bars of Lawyers to accept among its structures60. members lawyers from the Old Kingdom, due to Obviously, Transylvanian Troops HQ made differences in university training between the two a direct correlation between troop disciplinary categories of the same guild; the lawyers from the state and dysfunctional military justice within Old Kingdom could profess after faculty, whereas normal parameters, due to non-unitary legislation their homologous Transylvanian had to have,

16 June, 2021 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University besides the title of PhD in law, a number of years 18 Cornel Țucă, Laurențiu Batin, Transylvanian and of practice63. Bucovina officers from the former Austro-Hungarian army, Ethnologia Publishing House, Baia Mare, 2018, p. 35. Legislative differences had not been solved even 19 Dumitru Preda, Vasile Alexandrescu, Costică Prodan, 64 after the adoption in 1923 of the New Constitution , op.cit, p. 156. which provided under art.137 that: ”All existing 20 Ibidem. codes and laws shall be revised in different parts of 21 Ibidem. the Romanian state, in order to be compatible with 22 [AMNR], fond microfilme, Ministry of War, Section III justice, FII.5.1852, file no. 20, f. 453-454. the current Constitution and to ensure legislative 23 Ibidem, f. 453. unity. Until then they are in force”. It was only in 24 [AMNR], fond Marele Cartier General, crt. 1990, f. 118. 1938 when, consequent to the reforming process of 25 Ibidem, f. 327. justice and its inherent legislation, one could talk 26 [AMNR], fond microfilme, Ministerul de Război, about legal, legislative, administrative and judicial Section III justice, FII.5.1852, file no. 20, f. 450. 65 27 Gazeta Oficială, no. 6 from 14/27 January 1919, p.1. unification of the new Romanian provinces . 28 Gazeta Oficială, no. 16 from 27 February/12 March As far as the Transylvanian volunteering units 1919, p. 3. are concerned, a couple of years later, General Henri 29 The territory of Solnoc-Dăbâca County has been Cihoski wrote66 that during the crowning parade divided among Cluj County (the center and the South, ceremony from Alba Iulia, General Dănilă Papp including the city of Dej), Maramureș County (the North), th Bistrița-Năsăud County (the East) and Sălaj County (the West), presented 18 Division ”in such [good] conditions” https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comitatul_Solnoc-D%C4% that he was decorated with the ”The Crown of 83b%C3%A2ca, accessed on 07.05.2021. Romania” Order, in Rank of Great Officer. 30 [AMNR], Biblioteca arhivistică, crt.1390, f. 147. 31 [AMNR], fond microfilme, Ministry of War, Section III NOTES: justice, FII 5.1852, ds.49, f. 453. 32 Ibidem. 1 Cristina Rotaru-Radu, ”Unification of criminal 33 Monitorul Oficial, no.127, 29 August 1918, pp. 2040-2041. legislation after the Great Union of 1918”, National 34 [AMNR], fond microfilme, Ministerul de Război, Conference ”Romanian Law 100 years after the Great Secția a III-a justiție, FII 5.1852, ds.49, f.453v. Union”, Faculty of Law of the University of Bucharest, 35 Ibidem, f.450. November 22-23, 2018, https://drept.unibuc.ro/dyn_doc/ 36 Gazeta Oficială, no. 31-35, from 25-31 May, 5,12,16 conferinta/brosura%20conferinta%20100%20de%20ani%20 June 1919, p. 5. update.pdf, accessed on 10.05.2021. 37 [AMNR], fond Marele Cartier General, crt.1990, f. 118. 2 Dumitru Preda, Vasile Alexandrescu, Costică Prodan, 38 Ibidem, f.57. În apărarea României Mari. Campania armatei române 39 Ibidem, f.72. din 1918-1919, Encyclopedic Publishing House, Bucharest, 40 Ibidem, f.73. 1994, p. 77. 41 Ibidem, f. 59-61. 3 *** History of the Romanian infantry, Scientific and 42 [AMNR], fond Marele Cartier General, crt.1990, f. 59-61. Pedagogical Publishing House, Bucharest, 1985, vol. II, p. 149. 43 Ibidem, crt. 2568, f. 149. 4 Dumitru Preda, Vasile Alexandrescu, Costică Prodan, 44 Ibidem, crt. 2568, f. 172. op.cit, p. 132. 45 Ibidem, crt.3215, f. 88. 5 Dumitru Preda, Vasile Alexandrescu, Costică Prodan, 46 Ibidem, crt. 2568, f. 126. op.cit, p. 91. 47 Ibidem, f. 174. 6 Ibidem, p.1 02. 48 Ibidem, f. 299. 7 Ibidem, p. 131. 49 Ibidem, f. 332. 8 Ibidem, p. 149. 50 [AMNR], fond Marele Cartier General, Section 9 Ibidem. Justiție, file crt.2568, f. 584 10 Mihail E. Ionescu (coordinator), Romanians in 51 Ibidem, dosar crt.1990, f. 308. the Great War: 1915. Documents, impressions, testimonies, 52 Ibidem. Military Publishing House, Bucharest, 2015, p. 227. 52 Ibidem, f. 308v. 11 Ibidem, p. 228. 54 [AMNR], fond Marele Cartier General, Section 12 Mihail E. Ionescu, coordinator, op.cit., p. 256. Adjutantură, file 3215, f.122. 13 Ibidem, p. 229. 55 Ibidem, f. 123. 14 Dumitru Preda, Vasile Alexandrescu, Costică 56 http://enciclopediaromaniei.ro/wiki/Regimentul_de_ Prodan, op.cit, p. 154. voluntari_Horea, accessed on 09.05.2021. 15 Monitorul Oficial, no. 243 from 26.01.1919, p. 4784. 57 [AMNR], fond Marele Cartier General, crt.1990, f. 111. 16 Ibidem. 58 http://enciclopediaromaniei.ro/wiki/Regimentul_de_ 17 Glenn E. Torrey, Romania in the First World War, voluntari_Horea, accessed on 09.05.2021. Meteor Publishing House, Bucharest, 2014, p. 345. 59 [AMNR], fond Marele Cartier General, crt.1990, f. 112.

June, 2021 17 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University

60 [AMNR], fond Marele Cartier General, crt.1990, f. 099. Rotaru-Radu Cristina, ”Unification of criminal 61 Ibidem, crt.2568, f. 185v. legislation after the Great Union of 1918”, National 62 Cristina Rotaru-Radu, ”Unification of criminal Conference ”Romanian Law 100 years after the legislation after the Great Union of 1918”, National Conference ”Romanian Law 100 years after the Great Great Union”, Faculty of Law of the University Union”, Faculty of Law of the University of Bucharest, of Bucharest, November 22-23, 2018, https:// November 22-23, 2018, https://drept.unibuc.ro/dyn_doc/ drept.unibuc.ro/dyn_doc/conferinta/brosura%20 conferinta/brosura%20conferinta%20100%20de%20ani%20 conferinta%20100%20de%20ani%20update.pdf update.pdf, p. 12. Rotaru-Radu Cristina, „Unificarea legislației și 63 Vasile Stăncescu, „Avocații din Regat și Avocații din Ardeal”, Curierul justiției militare, 15 March 1922, funcționarea sistemului judiciar după Marea Unire [AMNR], Biblioteca arhivistică, crt.1390, f. 180. din 1918”, Universul Juridic Publishing House, 64 http://www.cdep.ro/pls/legis/legis_pck.htp_act_text? Bucharest, 2018. idt=1517, accessed on 07.05.2021. Torrey Glenn E., Romania in the First World 65 https://www.unbr.ro/unificarea-si-integrarea-juridi War, Meteor Publishing House, Bucharest, 2014. ca-a-romaniei-consecinta-a-actului-de-la-1-decembrie- 1918-cu-privire-speciala-asupra-transilvaniei-alocutiune- Țucă Cornel, Batin Laurențiu, Transylvanian sustinuta-de-dl-prof-univ-dr-ioan-santai-la-alba-iul/, and Bucovina officers from the former Austro- accessed on 07.05.2021. Hungarian army, Ethnologia Publishing House, 66 [AMNR, fond Direcția Cadre și Învățământ, Memorii Baia Mare, 2018. Bătrâni, litter P, gl. Papp, file 68, f. 10. *** Gazeta Oficială, no. 6, from 14/27 January 1919. REFERENCES *** Gazeta Oficială, no. 31-35, from 25-31 May, 5, 12, 16 June 1919. *** History of the Romanian infantry, Scientific *** Monitorul Oficial, no. 243, 26 January 1919. and Pedagogical Publishing House, Bucharest, *** Monitorul Oficial, no. 127, 29 August 1918. 1985. http://enciclopediaromaniei.ro/wiki/Regim *** Unification of legislation and functioning entul_de_voluntari_Horea of the judiciary after the Great Union of 1918, http://www.cdep.ro/pls/legis/legis_pck.htp_ Collection of articles made by NIJ auditors and act_text?idt=1517 INM auditors, Universul Juridic Publishing House, https://drept.unibuc.ro/dyn_doc/conferinta/ Bucharest, 2018. brosura%20conferinta%20100%20de%20ani%20 Ionescu Mihail E., (coordinator), Romanians update.pdf in the Great War: 1915. Documents, impressions, https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comitatul_ testimonies, Military Publishing House, Bucharest, Solnoc-D%C4%83b%C3%A2ca 2015. https://www.unbr.ro/unificarea-si-integrarea- Preda Dumitru, Alexandrescu Vasile, Prodan juridica-a-romaniei-consecinta-a-actului-de-la- Costică, In defence of Greater Romania. The 1-decembrie-1918-cu-privire-speciala-asupra- campaign of the Romanian army from 1918-1919, transilvaniei-alocutiune-sustinuta-de-dl-prof-univ- Encyclopedic Publishing House, Bucharest, 1994. dr-ioan-santai-la-alba-iul/

18 June, 2021 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University

MULTILATERALISM, DEMOCRACY, CONCERT OF POWERS: RUSSIA’S RED LINES

Assoc.Prof. Iulian CHIFU, PhD*

The debate for resettling the world is at its peak. Different states are proposing nuanced approaches and solutions that would enable a better grip on the global governance of their own interests. Concepts are relativized and revisionism is carefully hidden beneath respect for the international rules and commitments. As is the case with democracy, embraced by all international players and subject to numerous interpretations by several actors. Multilateralism does not seem to mean the same to different stakeholders and new initiatives are challenged from the positions of a raising fear to be let aside in the big debates about the future world. But the fact is that continuity will play a role, a sophisticated system holding all alternatives will be in place and privileging one or another form is just a matter of global choice, appeal and influence of a project or another, a model or the next. This multiple circles coexistence model could be challenge by the new initiatives and their influence, the number of participants and theirgeopolitical footprint at the global level.

Keywords: Concert of Powers; multilateralism; power politics; Big Power Politics; spheres of influence; limited sovereignty.

Theoretical alternatives for ruling the world from raising powers or alliances of different The way that the international relations and actors, and the system can work as long as there is global security are organized is a concern that cooperation with other big powers in the system or last for ages. Actually, the whole debate about when there is enough capacity to enforce the rules alternatives is the one depending on several lines imposed to the system. of thinking, that created different doctrines. In • Big Powers’ Policies – Concert of Powers – theoretical terms, all models are equally interesting, Bipolarism – are solutions from the same family, with pluses and minuses. But in the real life, every with nuances. model is dependent on the real situation in the The Big Power Policy is translated into the world at a certain moment, quantifying the realities inclination of two major actors, Big Powers, to and power relations between the big players, grant one each other mutual respect and cut a deal in the lines of thinking and the models considered a Big Bargain at the expenses of other international close to the realities and following the trends and actors instead of making war, when it is possible. developments. The Concert of Powers refers to the European At the theoretical level, the models of managing Concert of Powers and means that some big powers, the international relations sit on some very few recognizing mutually their status and interests, options: are negotiating a common approach to the world, • G0 world – everybody for himself, No one’s common rules of cooperation, imposed, afterwards World1, a high level of anarchy with some local or to all international players. regional rules introduced in areas where there is an Bipolarism is the situation when the world is important actor and it has essential interests, the divided in two, based on ideological differences will to manage and observe the rules and enough and opposite models, and these rifts are creating resources to make those rules enforced. Subject to two opposite blocks confronting each other without a consequential challenge. involving the two Big Powers that are the center of • The Hegemonic world – one dominant power, coagulation and matrix of the two blocks. The rules with enough force, resources, and determination to and deals come also from the negotiation of the two shape and manage the system. It is open to contests main actors, the only superpowers or big powers in the system. Multilateralism – means the involvement in *”Carol I” National Defence University any international decision of all the states that are e-mail: [email protected] international actors, with an equal footing inside the debate – equal sovereignty – through individually

June, 2021 19 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University expressed preferences, majority vote, democracy Last but not least, the General Assembly and universal debate. debates of the UN and rules to vote non-binding All the theoretical models have clear conditions resolutions are a reflection of the multilateralism. for being dominants and present in the international arena: Russia’s red lines. A theory of enforcing The G0 or anarchic world is the natural the rules at the global international level form of evolution of the world when every actor On the 21st of April, Russia’s President is inclined to follow its own rules and interests, Vladimir Putin presented an Address in front of the accommodating its relations with another actor and Federal Assembly2 which became famous due to its own preferences, without any dominant model the references to the ”red lines” not to be crossed. or rules to be imposed by somebody to the system. Criticizing the fact that ”Western colleagues have It is the vivid reflection of the liberty in the system. been stubbornly rejecting Russia’s numerous It is what we usually have in the international proposals”3, president Putin noted that ”unfriendly arena. moves towards Russia have also continued unabated. The Hegemonic world needs to have a major Some countries have taken up an unseemly routine power, with enough resources and will to manage where they pick on Russia for any reason, most the world, at a large respect, to impose its views often, for no reason at all. It is some kind of new and models, and enforce the rules it has created. sport of who shouts the loudest”4. There are references for the period after the fall It is in this framework and context that President of the Berlin Wall with US being the hegemon in Putin made his famous statement: the system. But the model is more common in the ”We really want to maintain good relations with Roman Empire World, Greek World, the times of all those engaged in international communication, the big empires which covered the known world including, by the way, those with whom we have with their rules and military power, their capacity not been getting along lately, to put it mildly. We of projecting the power and the norms and to really do not want to burn bridges. But if someone enforce them. mistakes our good intentions for indifference The Concert of powers seems to be the most or weakness and intends to burn or even blow natural form of arrangement when there is a up these bridges, they must know that Russia’s conscience to provide one and avoid conflicts of response will be asymmetrical, swift and tough. high intensity, but it relies also on the level of Those behind provocations that threaten geopolitical power of the main actors as well as to the core interests of our security will regret what their will and determination to be involved more they have done in a way they have not regretted than to defend their immediate individual interests. anything for a long time. We had a few attempts, but the model did not avoid At the same time, I just have to make it war (except for short periods of time, less than a clear, we have enough patience, responsibility, generation). And this is possible as long as the professionalism, self-confidence and certainty difference of potential between those big players, in our cause, as well as common sense, when big actors, and those small ones is enough to making a decision of any kind. But I hope that no impose the dominant agreed approach without too one will think about crossing the ”red line” with much pain and costs. regard to Russia. We ourselves will determine The European Concert of Powers from in each specific case where it will be drawn”5. Vienna,1815, the Yalta meeting between the US, So the red lines invoked are linked, in Soviet Union and the UK as well as the permanent Vladimir Putin’s statement, to burning or blowing members of the Security Council, with a veto up relations – lack of communication or isolation right, could be two models for seeing the Concert of Russia in the international arena – provocations of Powers. Ribbentrop-Molotov secret Pact of that threaten core interests on security of Russia. 1939 and the Cold War period could be moments Russia will establish unilaterally those red lines and of bipolarism and mutually agreed spheres of enforce them and those red line will be established influence, with Big Powers’ Politics and Big in a case by case manner, involving a clear threat Bargains at the expenses of other players. coming from Russian part for an asymmetrical,

20 June, 2021 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University swift and tough response. This approach could be a unilateral claim and related threat for the use of easily presented as a direct threat for using the force force. in international affairs. So Russia’s red lines are directly linked to And we could see this in all the mainstream a unilateral approach, illegal according to the media in the West. BBC made the interpretation UN Chart, condemned in the international law, that Putin was warning the West6 and President’s including a threat to use force. The red line used Putin spokesman Dmitry Peskov later described by president Obama is related to enforcing the the ”red lines” as ”our external security interests, international law, the countries commitments and our internal security interests in preventing any signature of an international treaty, being a part of outside interference, whether in our elections or the bona fides principle of respect in good faith of other domestic political processes”7. On another the commitments undertaken. From that point on point, discussing Russia’s ”asymmetric response” we have an illustration of the antagonism between to Western actions is an old statement, but it is the the law of the force, in the first case, and the force first time we have the mention of existing red lines.8 of law in the second. There is no mention of the substance of the red lines invoked, moreover, the statement allows Russia to Sergey Lavrov and ”true multilateralism” make a moving target of those red lines, meaning in the UN Security Council framework to adapt them according to its own unilateral will. A sort of clarification related to Russia’s red At the same time, without a clear definition of lines invoked in Vladimir’s Putin State of the Nation Russia’s red lines how could they ever be observed discourse on the 21st of April 2021 could be found in by someone? the statement of Sergey Lavrov at the online debate The origins of the Red Lines reference (the organized by China, in its position of chair in office French have the yellow lines, for the same purpose of the Security Council, the 7th of May 2021. In that – les lignes jaunes) comes from the 1928 July 31, speech that should have focused on a debate about named Red Line Agreement9, agreement between multilateralism, the Minister of Foreign Affairs of partners of Iraq Petroleum Company not to seek the Russian Federation underlined11 his own take independently oil interests in the Ottoman failing and that of Russia on the ”true multilateralism”: empire. Do not cross the given arbitrary line ”It is clear that the prospects of the international established in dividing a space. In real terms, it community’s sustainable and predictable means establishing a condition that should not development are directly connected with our ability be challenged, with the threat to the use of force to find effective solutions to common problems and and huge costs for those breaching this condition. our readiness to exercise collective leadership in Now, in the international law, the red lines are order for true multilateralism to prevail”12. forbidden per se because this enshrines a unilateral The red lines, described by Lavrov and Russia condition and the threat of using the force against are: all the international rules should be established an international actor. in the UN framework, with Russia having a veto On another point, there is a second meaning, power in all issues, including the New World Order13: used, for instance, by President Barack Obama in ”Russia, like the majority of countries, is relation with the Syrian use of chemical weapons10. convinced that such work must be carried out It is linked to the respect of international law, solely on the basis of universally recognized norms international established rules and commitments of of international law (…). The United Nations must one’s country and establishes a limit in time or an serve as the key platform for coordinating efforts: it ultimatum to withdrew from such a position and is the backbone of the modern global order, where come back inside the limits of an agreed position, all independent states are represented. Today, its behavior or rules, if not to face consequences. The unique legitimacy and unique capabilities are two interpretations are at the opposite side since the especially needed. The core tenets of international last is the one aiming at making everybody respect law enshrined in the UN Charter have withstood international law and undertaken commitments, in the test of time. Russia calls on all states to good faith, bona fides, or face consequences – not unconditionally follow the purposes and principles implying necessary the use of force, the other being of the Charter (…)”14.

June, 2021 21 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University

Russia is keen to come back to Yalta agreements For sure, any other reunion of sovereign and Big Power politics of Big Bargain in order to states and all the agreements reached outside of settle the world of tomorrow, recalling Vladimir’s the UN framework and permanent members’ veto Putin proposal of a reunion of the Permanent are rejected by Russia, including the Summit of Members of the UN Security Council for this deal, Democracies and the Alliance for Multilateralism, or at least a US-Russia meeting to set the rules since Russia is not present and does not held a veto of the game in the future. But, at the same time, power in such framework. This breaches directly the limits of respecting the status quo are given the right of the states to establish agreements by ”a stable balance of interests” and ”the new and negotiate mutually convened rules and realities”15 which could give way for revisionism commitments, also granted by the international under another label: law. And the requirement to put all international ”It is necessary to preserve the internationally institutions, norms and agreements under the UN recognized legal basis for building a stable balance and Security Council veto powers is an excess of interests that meets the new realities (…). of interpretation, a claim never agreed on by the What could be more natural then discussing the international community. tasks of strengthening multilateralism at the UN? ”The well-known idea to convene a Summit (…) This also reveals the West’s true attitude for Democracy proposed by the US Administration toward multilateralism and the UN, which they is in the same vein. The establishment of a new do not regard as a universal format for developing club based on interests, with a clearly ideological 16 solutions acceptable to everyone” . nature, has the potential to further inflame Russia rejects the concept of rules-based world international tensions and deepen dividing lines and prefers to refer to the agreed rules, meaning in a world that needs a unifying agenda more only those established in a UN Security Council than ever (…). Another initiative with the goal framework: of global leadership that bypasses the UN is the ”The concept of the rules-based order is French and German idea to create an Alliance for advanced as a substitute for international law. It Multilateralism (…). New ambitious initiatives to should be noted that international law already is a create narrow partnerships are emerging all the body of rules, but rules agreed at universal platforms time within the Alliance for Multilateralism, on and reflecting consensus or broad agreement. The issues that are already being discussed at the UN West’s goal is to oppose the collective efforts of or its specialized agencies, for example, on cyber all members of the world community with other security (with 65 member countries), respect for rules developed in closed, non-inclusive formats, the international humanitarian law (43 member and then imposed on everyone else. We only see countries), the Information and Democracy harm in such actions that bypass the UN and seek Partnership (over 30 countries), etc.”20 to usurp the only decision-making process that can claim global relevance”17. The debate about multilateralism The equal sovereignty of the states – a principle and the obvious need for a UN reform directly extracted from the UN Chart – is rejected The real issue at stake in the idea of a multilateral de facto since for Lavrov, Putin and Russia, only system, with respect for the equal sovereignty of the Big Powers are qualified to discuss the future of the world18. With Russia in the forefront, at the table: the states, is related to the rules of the decisions ”The permanent members of the UN Security in the UN Security Council. The remains of the Council are called on to play a key role in fostering agreement coming from World War Two are still open and direct dialogue about the most pressing in place and any attempts to revise and reform the problems of our time. According to the UN Charter, Chart in this respect have been rejected especially they bear special responsibility for maintaining by the permanent members of the Security Council, international peace and security. President of Russia in spite of the best arguments possible. Vladimir Putin proposed convening a summit with First, it was about the losing side in the WWII the leaders of the five permanent members. We hope which did not make it in the Security Council, to make this idea a reality once the epidemiological meaning first and foremost Germany and Japan. situation in the world stabilizes”19. Then the idea of a geographically balanced presence 22 June, 2021 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University would have required India, Brazil and maybe South self-restraint – as President Truman put it, to deny Africa to be permanent members. If the qualified themselves the license to do always as they pleased majority for a reunion of representatives, even split – because they recognized that this would ultimately between permanent members and non-permanent serve not only humanity’s interests, but their own. ones, is OK for the effectiveness of the decisions. The United States did this, even though it was by But the veto right of specific countries is a big far the most powerful nation on Earth at the time. atavism that should be replaced. But it has been It was enlightened self-interest. We believed other rejected at all moments, even the rule of abstention nations’ success was critical to ours. And we didn’t from using the veto on issues related to the member want less powerful countries feeling threatened and state at stake. obliged to band together against us”23. The need for revising the UN Chart, as well State Secretary Blinken underlined also that as the rules of the Security Council, first and all the rules should be observed by the permanent foremost the veto right of permanent members, members of the Security Council in the first place, has been identified by almost all participants in and the fact that this status requires more from those the debate about multilateralism. Even Wang Yi, members and does not grant impunity, the right to the Chinese representative, and Volkan Bozkir, the ignore the rules or taking decisions at the expenses Turkish diplomat holding the position of President of the smaller states. He also assumed the fact that of the General Assembly, refer to this: ”On many the Chart is not for states first and foremost, but for occasions, the Council has been divided, and the people, for their rights and freedoms as well: unable to rise to the challenge. For most of those ”This bold endeavor, whatever its imperfections, cases, the reason for failure is the differences has been an unprecedented achievement. And it’s between its members, in particular, its permanent endured because the overwhelming majority of members”, he said. Mr Bozkir highlighted the need people and nations continue to see it as representing for reform, and a more representative, accountable their interests, their values, their hopes (…). At the and transparent Council, stating ”I am conveying same time, we will continue to push back forcefully this, as the President of the most democratic organ when we see countries undermine the international of our system”21, an indirect reference to the less order, pretend that the rules we’ve all agreed to democratic Security Council and its veto rights don’t exist, or simply violate them at will. Because which alters the direct vote. for the system to deliver, all countries must abide State Councilor and Minister for Foreign by it and put in the work for its success”24. Affairs of China, Wang Yi, discussed directly the But the most important part of the statement reform of the Security Council, pleading for a is related to a reply to the ”true multilateralism” better representation of the developing countries: and the system proposed by Russia, revealing, ”The UN needs to keep pace with the times and even though without naming, the most important should improve its efficiency, emergency response problems and challenges at the international world capability, and transparency of its work through order and the rules-based world coming from reform. Earnestly increase the representation and Putin and autocratic regimes. He challenged the voice of developing countries and make the global reference to non-interference in internal affairs governance system more just and equitable”22. stating that ”human rights are subjective values that For sure, the US has its share in the multilateral vary from one society to another. But the Universal debate, which prompted the reality by recalling Declaration of Human Rights begins with the word the basic principles of the Chart and the original ”universal” because our nations agreed there are understanding of the signatories. State Secretary certain rights to which every person, everywhere, Anthony Blinken quoted President Harry Truman is entitled. Asserting domestic jurisdiction does for challenging the relativisation and interpretation not give any state a blank check to enslave, torture, of minister Lavrov. Maintaining peace and security disappear, ethnically cleanse their people, or violate is the prime objective of the UN, but human rights their human rights in any other way”25. are present from article 1: Anthony Blinken also referred to another ”The most powerful countries bound themselves principle from the Chart, the principle of the to these principles. They agreed to a form of sovereign equality of its member-states, accusing

June, 2021 23 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University once again Russia’s behavior in the international translated at the international stage. Supremacy of arena: law, rule of law, sovereign equality of the states ”A state does not respect that principle when are part of the general acquis and any relativization it purports to redraw the borders of another; or of those rules, any rejection or limitation of the seeks to resolve territorial disputes by using or freedoms for states as for people, is a reach of this threatening force; or when a state claims it’s common understanding of the international law. entitled to a sphere of influence to dictate or coerce The fundamental anarchism of the international the choices and decisions of another country. And relations means also liberty of the states to associate a state shows contempt for that principle when it the way they feel appropriate for their interests, but targets another with disinformation or weaponized also in a sustainable manner, through observing the corruption, undermines other countries’ free and same set of principles and values – and this is the fair elections and democratic institutions, or goes core of any agreement. The Concert of Powers has after journalists or dissidents abroad. been overstated and embraced for its effectiveness28, These hostile actions can also threaten the since we are speaking about consensus between a international peace and security that the United few states. But the very experience and history of Nations Charter obliges this body to maintain. the Security Council prove that this consensus is When UN member-states – particularly as hard to reach as the one among a huge number permanent members of the Security Council – flout of countries. On the other hand, the EU and NATO these rules and block attempts to hold accountable proved that if all members observe the convened those who violate international law, it sends the rules and assume the same values and principles, message that others can break those rules with you can have consensus among a relatively impunity”. important number of actors. In that respect, we have to look attentively to The hierarchy of international institutions the new institutions for democratic cohesion. NATO versus global freedom of association has developed formats with global partners, beyond Those evolutions are crucial in seeing the way the transatlantic link, that worked in Afghanistan, the new world order is to be settled and how each of and democracies could repeat this experience, the countries involved in the debate are positioning with the common grounds of principles and values themselves. We already saw the idea embraced by in the basic matrix of these organisations. The the US that democratic countries are in direct rivalry Community of Democracies is there to stay and with the autocracies, that US is interested in a real develop, as the Summit of democracies prepared multilateralism26. This multilateralism involves to by the US could lead to a better coordination of get together the full weight of all democracies, be democracies. The Alliance for multilateralism that it big ones, medium or small, in order to obtain the France and Germany are preparing is another format convergence of ideas and positions, the strategic that worth be considered. The new multilateral weight and to obtain a dominant global majority institutions could become instruments that could to frame and propose the general rules27 and to offer new instruments for monitoring the existing defend the application of the existing principles rules and norms, commitments and agreements, and commitments, not only the provisions of the and to prepare the new rules for the needed UN Chart. technological developments, on cyber defence, on In fact, the idea of a hierarchy of the institutions artificial intelligence, on space, on the Grand North of the international system and the subordination of and Arctic29, and so on. all organisations to the UN, and to its veto rule in A realist design of the New World Order should the Security Council is an expression of the lack of have in mind a more sophisticated approach than democracy, multilateralism and equal sovereignty the one over-simplified that fetishizes one of the of the states. On the contrary, the international theoretical options to resettle the World Order. In system including the one established through the fact, all options are there and all instruments are United Nations, is based on democracy, human in place, some new approaches are on the way rights and freedom, the freedom of countries for free of being framed and constructed, and the reality association and on the rules of the democratic world would allow alternative mechanisms to be present

24 June, 2021 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University and useful as long as there is support for one or 2013, https://www.msnbc.com/morning-joe/obama-i-didnt- another at a certain moment, on given issues. In set-red-line-the-world-msna155636; Smith, Roff, Red line, fact, all coexist and are superposed, but the states National Geographic News, 7 May 2013, https://www. nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/130507-red-line- and people will refer alternatively to each of them obama-syria-mccain-chemical-weapons; Ben Zimmer, ”The and the most relevant with the most support will Long History of the Phrase ‘Red Line’”, The Wall Street become the reference for the solution of a certain Journal, July 19, 2013, https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB1000 problem. 1424127887323993804578612210634238812; Wordsworth, This does not mean that there are all perfect or Dot, ”What, exactly, is a ‘red line’?”, The Spectator magazine, 8 June 2013, https://www.spectator.co.uk/article/ that there will not be clashes and conflicts. But that what-exactly-is-a-red-line- is the way to avoid wars and open military conflicts 11 Sergey Lavrov, Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov’s and to discuss and cope with the problems of the remarks at the meeting of the UN Security Council, world in a more adequate way that we have done ”Maintenance of international peace and security: Upholding during World War Two, with Ribbentrop-Molotov multilateralism and the United Nations-centred international system”, held via videoconference, Moscow, May 7, 2021, Pact, using the military violence and power https://www.mid.ru/en/posledniye_dobavlnenniye/-/asset_ politics, with Yalta Concert of Power, the Cold publisher/MCZ7HQuMdqBY/content/id/4721942 War rivalries, Big Bargain, proxy conflicts and Big 12 Sergey Larov, op.cit. Power Politics. 13 Iulian Chifu, „Ucenicii vrăjitori care desenează lumea de mâine cu mâna: supra-simplificare şi paseism”, Adevărul, 19 mai 2021, la adev.ro/qtc7w3 NOTES: 14 Sergey Larov, op.cit. 1 Kupchan Charles A, No One’s World. The West, The 15 Iulian Chifu, „Multilateralismul Rusiei: Concertul Rising Rest and the Coming Global Turn, Oxford University de Putere de la Yalta, sfere de influenţă şi veto în afacerile Press, 2013, p. 258; Ian Bremmer, Every Nation for Itself. globale”, Adevărul, 11 May 2021, adev.ro/qsxepm Winners and Loosers in a G0 World, Portfolio Penguin, 2012, 16 Sergey Larov, op.cit. p. 229. 17 Ibidem. 2 Vladimir Putin, Presidential Address to the Federal 18 Iulian Chifu, „Multilateralismul Rusiei: Concertul Assembly, Manezh Central Exhibition Hall, April 21, 2021, de Putere de la Yalta, sfere de influenţă şi veto în afacerile http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/65418 globale”, Adevărul, 11 May 2021, adev.ro/qsxepm 3 Ibidem. 19 Sergey Lavrov, op.cit. 4 Ibidem. 20 Ibidem. 5 Ibidem. 21 UN, Security Council upholds role of multilateralism 6 BBC, Putin warns of tough Russian action if West in a complex world, 7 May 2021, https://news.un.org/en/ crosses ‘red line’, 21 April 2021, https://www.bbc.com/ story/2021/05/1091532. news/world-europe-56828813 22 Ibidem. 7 Ibidem. 23 Secretary Antony J. Blinken Virtual Remarks at the UN 8 Nikola Mikovici, What are Russia’s red lines?, Security Council Open Debate on Multilateralism, May 7, 2021, CGTN, 22 April 2021, https://news.cgtn.com/news/2021-04- https://www.state.gov/secretary-antony-j-blinken-virtual- 22/What-are-Russia-s-red-lines--ZF1SXkzoWc/index.html remarks-at-the-un-security-council-open-debate-on- 9 Michael Quentin Morton, ”Once Upon a Red Line: multilateralism/ The Iraq Petroleum Company Story”. GeoExpro, 6 April 24 Ibidem. 2013, https://www.geoexpro.com/articles/2013/06/once- 25 Iulian Chifu, „Multilateralismul Rusiei: Concertul upon-a-red-line-the-iraq-petroleum-company-story. To cross de Putere de la Yalta, sfere de influenţă şi veto în afacerile the red line means passing the point of no return. globale”, Adevărul, 11 May 2021, adev.ro/qsxepm 10 On August 20, 2012, President Barack Obama 26 Stewart M. Patrick, The Biden Administration and used the phrase ”red line” in reference to the use of chemical the Future of Multilateralism, European Council of Foreign weapons in the Syrian civil war, saying, ”We have been very Relations, 21 April 2021, https://www.cfr.org/blog/biden- clear to the Assad regime, but also to other players on the administration-and-future-multilateralism. ground, that a red line for us is we start seeing a whole bunch 27 Joseph Biden Jr., Interim national security strategic of chemical weapons moving around or being utilized”. guidance, White House, 3 March 2021, https://www. When the Ghouta chemical attacks occurred. Obama then whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/NSC-1v2.pdf clarified ”I didn’t set a red line. The world set a redline 28 Richard Haass, Charles Kupchan, The New Concert when governments representing 98 percent of the world’s of Powers, Foreign Affairs, 23 March 2021, https://www. population said the use of chemical weapons are abhorrent foreignaffairs.com/articles/world/2021-03-23/new-concert- and passed a treaty forbidding their use even when countries powers are engaged in war”, a reference to the Chemical Weapons 29 Iulian Chifu, „Multilateralismul Rusiei: Concertul Convention. See Michele Richinick Obama: ”I didn’t set a de Putere de la Yalta, sfere de influenţă şi veto în afacerile red line, the world set a red line”, MSNBC, September 4, globale”, Adevărul, 11 May 2021, adev.ro/qsxepm

June, 2021 25 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University

REFERENCES United Nations-centred international system”, videoconferință, Moscova, 7 May 2021, https:// *** Secretary Antony J. Blinken Virtual www.mid.ru/en/posledniye_dobavlnenniye/-/ Remarks at the UN Security Council Open Debate asset_publisher/MCZ7HQuMdqBY/content/ on Multilateralism, 7 mai 2021, https://www.state. id/4721942 gov/secretary-antony-j-blinken-virtual-remarks- Mikovici Nikola, What are Russia’s red lines?, at-the-un-security-council-open-debate-on- CGTN, 22 April 2021, https://news.cgtn.com/ multilateralism/ news/2021-04-22/What-are-Russia-s-red-lines-- [BBC], ”Putin warns of tough Russian action ZF1SXkzoWc/index.html if West crosses «red line»”, 21 aprilie 2021, https:// Morton Michael Quentin, Once Upon a www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-56828813 Red Line: The Iraq Petroleum Company Story, [UN], Security Council upholds role of GeoExpro, 6 April 2013, https://www.geoexpro. multilateralism in a complex world, 7 mai 2021, com/articles/2013/06/once-upon-a-red-line-the- https://news.un.org/en/story/2021/05/1091532 iraq-petroleum-company-story Biden Joseph Jr., Interim national security Putin Vladimir, Presidential Address to the strategic guidance, White House, 3 martie Federal Assembly, Manezh Central Exhibition 2021, https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/ Hall, 21 April, 2021, http://en.kremlin.ru/events/ uploads/2021/03/NSC-1v2.pdf president/news/65418 Chifu Iulian, „Multilateralismul Rusiei: Richinick Michele, Obama: ”I didn’t set a red Concertul de Putere de la Yalta, sfere de influenţă line, the world set a red line”, MSNBC, 4 September şi veto în afacerile globale”, Adevărul, 11 May 2013, https://www.msnbc.com/morning-joe/obama 2021, adev.ro/qsxepm -i-didnt-set-red-line-the-world-msna155636 Smith Roff, ”Red line”, National Geographic Chifu Iulian, Ucenicii vrăjitori care desenează News, 7 May 2013, https://www.nationalgeogra lumea de mâine cu mâna: supra-simplificare şi phic.com/culture/article/130507-red-line-obama- paseism, Adevărul, 19 May 2021, adev.ro/qtc7w3 syria-mccain-chemical-weapons Haass Richard, Kupchan Charles, ”The New Stewart M. Patrick, The Biden Administration Concert of Powers”, Foreign Affairs, 23 March and the Future of Multilateralism, European 2021, https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/ Council of Foreign Relations, 21 aprilie 2021, world/2021-03-23/new-concert-powers https://www.cfr.org/blog/biden-administration- Kupchan Charles A, No One’s World. The and-future-multilateralism West, The Rising Rest and the Coming Global Wordsworth Dot, ”What, exactly, is a «red Turn, Oxford University Press, 2013; Bremmer, line»?”, The Spectator Magazine, 8 June 2013, Ian, Every Nation for Itself. Winners and Loosers https://www.spectator.co.uk/article/what-exactly- in a G0 World, Portfolio Penguin, 2012. is-a-red-line- Lavrov Serghei, Foreign Minister Sergey Zimmer Ben, ”The Long History of the Phrase Lavrov’s remarks at the meeting of the UN Security «Red Line», The Wall Street Journal, 19 July 2013, Council, ”Maintenance of international peace https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424127887 and security: Upholding multilateralism and the 323993804578612210634238812

26 June, 2021 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University

RUSSIA’S GEOPOLITICAL DETERMINATIONS IN THE BLACK SEA

Ilie-Răsvan DUMITRU, PhD Candidate*

The present paper analyzes the projection of Russia’s economic and military power in the Black Sea region, seen both in terms of its huge resources and as a way of projecting military power in the coastal States and the Eastern Mediterranean. The energy perspective is important in Russia’s geopolitics, and the Black Sea region is perceived by it as the point of confluence of several globalist interests, in which Russia desires not only to be a mediator, but the decisive pivot to impose regional policy. Creating an energy dependency of the West on Russian resources represents a well-defined political goal in the Russian strategy. Russian gas is thus becoming a Trojan horse, by which Russia can influence European policies, this energy instrument being complemented by other powerful instruments aimed at undermining or diminishing NATO’s role in Eastern Europe. Russian interests are concentrating firstly on the desire to maintain different levels of political and economic influence in each coastal State, to maintain the Black Sea under control for oil or gas exports and other maritime transport through Novorossiysk port as well as preventing a security deficit toward NATO that could threaten the South-West flank of Kremlin. In pursuing these interests, Russia’s strategy is based on the use of political, diplomatic, information and economic instruments, which are supported by an increasingly credible military capacity, analyzed and explained in this paper.

Keywords: Russian-Ukrainian war; Crimea; energy weapon; Black Sea.

General observations land area, it is only the ninth most populated of In order to analyze Russia’s current conduct, the world’s States. However, even if 75% of its motivation and geopolitical interests, we will take a territory is on the Asian continent, this region is look at Churchill’s speech at Westminster College, populated with only 22% of the total population Fulton, Missouri of March 5, 1946: ”from what I of the state. And although most of the territory is have seen of our Russian friends and allies during on the Asian continent, Russia having a common the war, I am convinced that there is nothing they border with Kazakhstan, Mongolia, China, North admire so much as strength, and there is nothing Korea, including the sea border with Japan and the for which they have less respect than for weakness, US, it is not an Asian power, but more an European especially military weakness”1. Churchill perfectly power, given the fact it is an extension of Europe and guessed the specific character of Russian politics, that the most important part of Russian economic unchanged for centuries, expressing the opinion activity is concentrated in the West of the Ural that Russia does not necessarily desire a war, Mountains. Even so, outside the traditional Russian but warning that Moscow wants the fruits of war territory established during Ivan the Terrible (1533- and the undetermined expansion of its power and 1584), a part of the Russian Federation’s population policies2. is composed of other nationalities: Ukrainians, Russia has the largest territorial surface area Bashkirs, Chuvash people, others. This population (17.125.191 km2), which stretches from Eastern heterogeneity required a more strict control regime, Europe to North Asia on 17 time zones. European situation which can be found including in the Russia is West of the Ural Mountains, and the Asian existence period of the Soviet Union. But, Siberia side is represented by Siberia, which stretches at represents Russia’s resourceful treasure consisting East from the mountainous chain to the Bering Sea of enormous deposits of ore, oil and gas, meaning and the Pacific Ocean. By its size and complexity, that Russia’s preferred weapon being the energy Russia has a strong non-harmonious character. one in the current global competition for resources. Although it covers an eighth of the world’s habitable The projection of Russia’s economic power in the Black Sea region, must be seen through its huge *”Carol I” National Defence University resources and less through its economic activity. e-mail: [email protected] This fact also gives its regional policy, sometimes aggressive, toward the West, and especially to states

June, 2021 27 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University that are close to its borders. The energy perspective back to the 19th century when the Eastern Slavic is important in Russia’s geopolitics, and the Black tribes formed a proto-federation called Kievan Rus, Sea region is perceived as the point of confluence of made up of cities around Kiev and those on the several globalist interests, in which Russia desires Dnieper River, on the current territory of Ukraine. not only to be a mediator, but the decisive pivot to The invasion of the Mongolian in the 13th century, impose regional policy. The restrictions imposed as well as their pressure on Kievan Rus, led to a by international war laws and at the borders by the migration to North-East and a concentration of the North Atlantic Alliance and the Western countries Russian ethnic population around Moscow. This are limiting Russia’s ancient right to impose itself concentration of the Russian population led to the militarily, but also economically. This is because formation of Moscow’s Grand Duchy. Ivan III the the economic dimension of the Federation is not at Great (1462-1505) was the one that completed the level it can impose itself, nor at the level where the centralization of the Duchy, by conquering it can develop as during the cold War. Russia, the Russian regions of Novgorod (1478) and however, is using energy resources to make them Tver (1485). He led a moderate expansion policy, the most effective weapon through which it can extending the power by unifying the territories impose its regional policy. Creating an energy inhabited by the Russians, until the Golden Horde dependency of the West on Russian resources ceased to hold the Suzeran feudal power (1480), represents a well-defined political goal in the thus leading to an increase in the force, resources, Russian strategy3. Russian gas is thus becoming population and territorial extent of the Duchy. But a Trojan horse, by which Russia can influence this territorial expansion had a critical vulnerability, European policies, but only the energy resource is because of the landscapes that did not provide not enough to reaffirm Russia as a great regional an effective protective barrier against potential power, unless it is accompanied by other means of invadors, the principality could only be defended force that undermine or diminish NATO’s role in by Moscow surrounding forests. The lack of natural Eastern Europe. Thus, Churchill’s vision of Russian obstacles that would allow Russians to organize politics, although issued at the end of the second their defence was the main catalyst for territorial world deflagration, is very real in our days. expansion. This policy, based on the idea of attack as a defence, was put into practice by Ivan 4th Short history of Russian state formation the Terrible (1533-1584), who claimed the merit For Russia, the geostrategic factors of the of having laid down the foundations of the Tsarist Black Sea region have not changed since 18534, Russia. During Ivan 4th, the Tsarist reached the NATO and the United States replacing individual natural barrier formed by the Ural Mountains in the European States as Russia’s main geopolitical East, the Caspian Sea in the South and the Arctic competitors. In the current regional geopolitical Circle in the North. In the next century, the Tsarist context, Russian gas is the poisoned apple for the extends beyond the natural barrier of the Ural West, Crimea being the basis for imposing military mountains, incorporating all Siberia to the Pacific force, Turkey representing the pivot, and Turkish Ocean of the far East. This territorial expansion straits being the strategic yield. Thus, Moscow’s allowed the Tsarist Russia to gain strategic depth final goal is the access and the military presence to which it could turn in case of invasion. Such in the Eastern Mediterranean, as a counterbalance a large area requires a great logistical effort and to the expansion of the US and NATO to the East, a long supply line for the armies, which could as well as an expansion of power in the Aegean exhaust any military force that would desire to take sea and central Mediterranean area, to extend the over Moscow. Under the reign of Peter the Great influence on the new road silk created by China (1682-1725), whose policy led to the emergence that aspires to an universal hegemonic status. of the Russian empire (1721), as well as under The complex, conflicting, expansive and the leadership of the Empress Ecaterina the Great hostile nature of the Russian Federation could (1762-1796), the Tsarist Russia expanded also to not be understood if we did not enter the sinuous West and South, being protected by a huge ring of history of this conservative, traditional, rigid and protection represented by the Arctic region, Baltic proud people. Russia, as a societal formation, dates region, land of Ukraine, Carpathian mountains,

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Black Sea, The Caucasus Mountains, the Caspian access to major world10 trade routes. The port of Sea and the Ural Mountains to the Arctic Circle. The the Arctic Ocean (Murmansk) and the one of the endless stretch of Siberia, its poor and cold climate, Pacific Ocean (Vladivosok) are inaccessible for the desert steppe of North Mongolia, represented a several months a year due to ice, which affects both huge natural buffer zone against any attackers; it trade while blocking the Russian fleet to act as a was the geography that assures the empire that no major global naval power. The lack of a hot port to enemy could attack it from the East. allow free access to the world’s oceans has become Russia’s extensive geography has presented an important issue, being identified as a strategic and presents two large hot regions over which its vulnerability since Peter the Great period. Forcing hostile actors have always created pressure. One is access to the Mediterranean and from there to the the plain of Northern Europe, which stretches from Pacific Ocean, as well as access to the Indian Ocean France to the Ural Mountains, and the second is the through the conquest of Afghan lands, represented Black Sea region. Regarding the Northern Europe vital purposes for Russia’s expansionist policy. plain, it extends from the North-West of France, During World War II, the Soviets saw Bulgaria, Belgium, the Netherlands, Northern Germany and Romania and Ukraine becoming Nazi instruments, all Poland. On the border with Russia, the Northern through which they tried to defeat the Red Army European plain, which joins with the Russian plain in southern Russia, in order to take control of oil together forming the European plain, is 3200 km fields in the Caucasus area. wide and represents a flat region beyond Moscow. During this time, the Soviet Union has It was precisely this flat landscape of this area that expanded its influence in the Black Sea region allowed large hostile troops to travel around them, through territorial changes (reannexation of relatively easy in terms of mobility, but extremely Basarabia11) and support for the establishment of the difficult in relation to large armies supply lines communist governments in Bulgaria and Romania, and unpredictable climate. From this plain over which were forced to align with Moscow’s policy. the last 500 years, the West has attacked Russia; The establishment of the Warsaw Pact in 1955, as the first time by Poles5, followed by the Swedish a response to the formation of the North Atlantic army led by Carol XII6, the Napolenian armies7, Treaty Organization, further strengthened the and the Germans in the two world deflagrations. position of the Soviet Union in the region. The Russia’s endless expanse, the supply difficulties of Soviet troops, which remained in Romania after the troops and the capricious climate, determined 1945, were withdrawn only in 1958, but not after the French illustrious general A. H. Jomini, who they became poor, they robbed resources and led accompanied Napoleon in the 1812 campaign, to a ferocious policy of economic subjugation of leave the legacy of what many armies had to think Romania, hidden by the sestablishment of joint of: ”Russia is a country where you enter easily, but companies called SovRoms. During the cold War, it is very difficult to emerge from”8. the Soviet Union enjoyed a political, military and A number of political, economic and military economic preeminence from Burgas to Batumi. factors have determined Russian leaders to seek Russia’s pressure on Turkey to take control of and maintain influence in the Black Sea region the straits led to Turkey’s adhesion to NATO in in order to take control of the region. From the 1952. This was compensated by increasing the US end of the 16th century to the 20th century, the ability and of other allied forces to operate from Russian Empire carried 12 wars with the Ottoman military bases established in Turkey, thus imposing Empire9, which desired to increase the political a regional balance of powers that Moscow had to and economic influence, especially in the Crimean recognize. Peninsula. A permanent base in Crimea would have allowed the control of the Kievan steppes, Observations on current Russian geopolitics the Northern Europe plain, the Astrahan region Politically, the Soviets perceived the penetration and the Azov Sea. The Black Sea has also been of of democratic capitalism in Eastern Europe as an great interest to Russia, due to the need for military existential threat to the Soviet Union. Its collapse vessels to have access to a hot-water port, which deprived the Russian Federation of much of its does not freeze in the winter, and which offers free influence and regional security around the Black

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Sea. The political loyalty of the former allies at the • The Central Asia area: Kzahstan, Kirkistan, Black Sea, proved to be fragile with the collapse Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan; of the USSR. Although by the Friendship Treaty • The Eurasian area: Russia. signed with Ukraine on 31 May 1997, the Russian Thus, geography replaced the Soviet ideology, Federation maintained its Black Sea fleet in the the borders of sovereign States regaining their military ports around the Crimean peninsula, the logical configuration, following the mountain, lakes, phenomenon of colored revolutions, of roses in rivers and seas line. Traditional borders delimit Georgia (November 2003), the orange in Ukraine spaces where peoples speak their own language (November 2004) or the failed one in the Republic and respect their traditions stemming from history. of Moldavia (April 2009), were perceived as an The exception is the ’stan’ that emerged from the interference of the West in Russia’s geostrategic old Persian empire, with the artificially drawn policy. The full membership in NATO (2004) borders by Stalin, which sought to weaken the and the European Union (2007) granted to national power of States by intercalating national Bulgaria and Romania (former Warsaw Treaty minorities in neighboring States. Member countries), as well as the call of the US These states detached from the former USSR President George Bush12, urging other NATO can be divided into three categories, depending on leaders to declare that Georgia and Ukraine would Russia’s influence on their policy: join the military alliance13, worried the Russian • neutral States: Uzbekistan, Azerbaijan and Federation’s authorities, feeling obliged to take Turkmenistan. They are energy independant and action. The strong intervention in Georgia14 (2008) are neither indebted to the West nor to Russia has significantly damaged Russia’s relations regarding the security and trade, which leads them with the West and, in particular, with the United to reconsider their national policies on their own. States. In fact, at the Munich Security Conference In an attempt to reduce neutrality and relative (2007), Putin had warned Western countries about independence, Russia planted frozen16 conflicts NATO’s expansion in the proximity of the Russian inside or close to them; Federation15, criticizing what he called the US’s • pro-Russian States: Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, monopolistic domination in global relations and Tajikistan, Belarus and Armenia. All of these States ”the almost constant use of force in international are economically interconnected with Russia, have relations”. Given the relatively rapid decline of Russian minorities well integrated into society, Russian influence in the Black Sea region, Russia are part of the Eurasian Economic Union17 (except was forced to reconsider its role as regional power Tajikistan) and the Collective Security Treaty and to develop a new strategy to protect its interests Organization – CSTO18 (also except for Tajikistan). there, even before 2014. The illegal annexation of • pro-Western States are Ukraine, Georgia and Crimea in 2014 forced Kremlin to adopt urgent Moldavia, which aspire to join both NATO and measures in order to diminish the effects of Western the EU but are under Russia’s influence, which disposed measures. consider them included in the concept almost Given the intensification of the confrontation abroad, keeping on their territory, through enclaves with the West, which began with the war in Georgia or autonomous regions, which fuel frozen conflicts, (2008) and escalated with the conflict in Ukraine military troops or pro-Russian militia. (2014), it is important to understand how Russia In addition, the other States that were part of perceives its interests in the region and the strategy the Warsaw Pact are all in NATO and the EU19, it pursues to secure these strategic interests. namely: Poland, Latvia, Estonia, Lithuania, When the Soviet Union collapsed, 15 sovereign Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, States were reborn out of the USSR. They can be Slovakia and Albania. grouped into 5 geographical regions: Of all these States, coastal to the Black Sea • The Baltic area: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania; are all the pro-Western, except for Russia. This • The Eastern Europe area: Belarus, Moldavia explains why Kremlin intervened so brutally in and Ukraine; Ukraine’s politics, against the background of the • The South Caucasus area: Georgia, Armenia, political tensions escalation over the direction Azerbaijan; Ukraine was heading toward in 2013.

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Prior to Georgia conflict (2008), the Black Sea economic and political advantages from both the was promoted as a model of naval cooperation West and Russia. This game attracted the animosity between former cold War opponents. Joint naval of the pro-Western population that triggered the activities (BlackSeaFor and Black Sea Harmony), EuroMaidan revolution, which finally led to the as well as Russia’s regular participation in NATO’s 2014 event. Yanukovych’s dual policy was not Active Endeavor Operation, promised a future unique, as this strategy was also found in Igor in which all Black Sea coastal States could work Dodon, Vladimir Voronin, Vladimir Plahotniuc, together to ensure a regional security climate, Aleksandr Lukashenko and the Armenian leader reducing threats such as smuggling or human Serzh Sargsyan. trafficking. This cooperation climate deteriorated The idea of having a common border with a after the Russian-Georgian war, but elements were NATO or EU Member State is unacceptable to maintained until 2013 as a result of the combined President Putin’s policy. Establishing a NATO efforts of Russian and NATO members – in military base near a Russian one (Sevastopol) is particular Turkey. With the annexation of Crimea, inconceivable for Russian politics, which sees the war in Donbas and the sharp degradation of all this Western expansion as a formal aggression relations with the West, the cooperative element of against Russian politics20. After the forced the Russian military strategy has turned to political annexation of Crimea, no matter how we try to look and subversive confrontation with NATO as well in another direction, politically and militarily, what as competition for military presence in the Black is happening in the Black Sea region is pivotal, Sea and Eastern Mediterranean regions. not only for the States in the neighborhood, but I believe that Russia did not want and does not also for the Western Balkans, the Middle East, want a conflict with NATO, but the proximity to The Baltic Sea area and even the far North. The its border creates tension and concern to not react, strategic importance of the Black Sea is also given especially as it was advanteged by factors that could by the fact that Sevastopol is the only Russian sea allow hybrid aggression to be lightly launched, port, with warm water, which greatly increases as: the presence of a significant Russian minority its economic and military potential. From this in Crimea and the eastern proximity of Ukraine, military port, Russia can exercise its control over a tense and destabilizing climate, a significant the maritime traffic from the Black Sea region. But military force in the vicinity of the area concerned, access outside this region is not easy. To exit into the as well as a vulnerability of the institutional and Mediterranean is restricted by the 1938 Montreal administrative framework of the peninsula. Convention, which allows Turkey (NATO Member If Ukraine’s leadership had been a pro-Russian country) to control trafficking on the Bosphorus government or at least a neutral government that straits. Military vessels may only transit the area in did not join Western organizations, Russia would limited numbers and tonnage and only in peaceful not have acted brutally because it would have been conditions. Even if they manage to pass through guaranteed to preserve a buffer zone in the Northern the Bosporus, in order to enter the Mediterranean, Europe plain and the Black Sea, that will protect Russian military vessels should be allowed access the Russian Federation from possible aggression. It to the Aegean Sea. Further, the access to the needed guarantees that the naval base in Sevastopol Atlantic Ocean, from the Mediterranean, can only would not be affected by a pro-Western direction be achieved by allowing passage through Gibraltar of Ukraine, also relying on the fact that its energy straits. The Indian Ocean can only be allowed to dependence on Russian resources was a solid pass through the Suez Canal, under the control of counterargument that would keep it within the an MFO21 multinational force. Another strategic Federation’s influence. Ukraine’s entry on a pro- difficulty is that the Russian fleet in Kaliningrad Western axis was a risk of proximity to Russia, can only exit the Baltic Sea through the Skagerrak which could have led to the transformation of the strait, which connects with the North Sea, Sevastopol base into a NATO military base. The controlled by Denmark and Norway (both NATO situation has become tense because the Ukrainian Member States). Even if Russian vessels were able President, Viktor Yanukovich made the mistake to pass through this narrow corridor for access to of running on two fronts, in an attempt to obtain the Atlantic Ocean through the North Sea, they

June, 2021 31 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University would have to pass through the corridor defined influencing other states, but also other marketed by Greenland, Iceland and the United Kingdom products or even tourism are used to influence (GIUK corridor). All these restrictions limit the positions of sovereign States. Thus, at the end Russia’s potential to become a great naval military of 2015, Moscow imposed economic26 sanctions force and to aspire to a status of world hegemon. consisting in limiting trade in agricultural products In this situation, Russian strategic interests in the and restricting tourism in Turkey, following Black Sea region are largely focused on security, Ankara’s shooting down of the Russian bombers political and economic influence reflecting the Su-24, which entered into Turkish airspace. country’s high-power status. A key element of how Russia perceives its Interests of the Russian Federation in the interests in the region and how these interests can Black Sea. In the field of security, Russian military be threatened is the nature of Russia’s relationship forces in the region exist to protect critical areas with the West. During the early years of Putin’s to economic production, to ban illegal activity, regime, Kremlin sought to engage in a good to ensure safe navigation and to help carry out cooperation with the United States and its allies. foreign policy actions in economically important Even after the accession of Bulgaria and Romania maritime areas, joint applications or peacekeeping to NATO (2004) and the EU (2007), there was a operations22. From strategic point of view, Russian certain degree of security cooperation in the Black forces in the region are intended to secure Russia’s Sea region between Russia and the West. Until the South-Western flank from an attack against the state, deterioration of relations with the West and the to intimadate and discourage the neighbors from United States, especially after the Georgian War pursuing policies contrary to Moscow’s interests, (2008), Russia had not clearly defined its security, even by force if necessary. The capacity of these political and economic interests in the region, forces to carry out operations in the Black Sea was balancing between zero-sum or confrontation demonstrated in the Russian attack on Ukrainian relations. After the crisis in Ukraine, the sharp navy vessels and the detention of 24 sailors aboard deterioration in relations with the West led to a near the Kerch Strait on 25 October 201823. reconsideration of Russia’s security policy, with In addition to its security interests, Russia the expansion of the EU and NATO perceived as pursues political interests on all coastal States in a threat to the stability of the Russian state27. At the Black Sea. Since Bulgaria and Romania are the same time, Russia’s position can be seen as an both EU members, and both as well as Turkey, act of persuasion by displaying a minimum degree are members of NATO, influencing their policies of influence that it believes should maintain in its is more difficult in the post-cold War period. neighborhood, regardless of the state of relations Recent history has shown that Russian political with the West. influence in Ukraine and Georgia is more efficient Regarding the objectives of the Russian from Moscow’s point of view, because they do not Federation in the Black Sea, the official strategic belong to Western or North Atlantic structures. documents represented by the military doctrines The russian policy consists in Moscow’s attempt and Russia’s national security strategies, do not to support those who favor friendly relations with mention any significant details on the Russian Moscow, together with the rejection of those who geopolitical direction in the Black Sea region. But do not have a pro-Eurasian policy. Regarding its policy can be deducted on the basis of Russian Russia’s economic interests, Turkey and Ukraine interests and behavior, showing the gap between are Russia’s largest trading partners in the region, desire and acceptance, respectively, what Russia with a larger trade than the other coastal countries. would prefer, and what it would accept. Since Thus, Turkey had a total trade volume of $26 Vladimir Putin came to lead Russia, it had de facto billion24 in 2018 and Ukraine $11,7 billion25. reprinted the status of great Eurasian power. This Russian exports to trading partners are primarily hegemonic quality claimed by Russia seems to mean focused on natural resources (mainly natural gas), that Russian leaders would prefer to benefit from a which is seen as an efficient economic weapon to privileged influence by establishing a mechanism influence other States’ policy. However, it is not for the reintegration of the former Soviet republics only the energy resource that is an instrument for into Eurasian structures, except for the Baltic

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States (Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania). In the Black orientation of each country. Russia’s regional policy Sea region, this reintegration project gives Russia strategy is adapting to a large extent to key factors greater security, political and economic influence such as history, culture, security considerations in Ukraine and Georgia (as well as in Moldavia and currently geopolitical realities. Russia is and Armenia). The final outcome can take a variety emphasising on former Soviet republics, which, in of forms, but Russia’s main objective remains to addition to being part of ”almost abroad” politics, maintain influence in Ukraine and Georgia and have a significant Russian minority, are contiguous to prevent, by any means, their integration with and share a common culture and history. In 2013, Western and North Atlantic structures. Given the Russia made a sustained and targeted effort to deteriorating relations with the West and the United discourage Ukraine and Georgia (and Armenia and States’ reaction after the events of 2008 and 2014, Moldavia) from signing the association agreements Russia could continue to accept Western-oriented in the Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade Area – governments in Kiev and Tbilisi, as long as these DCFTA with the EU. These steps led Armenia to countries reconsider their position toward NATO unexpectedly abandon the pursuit of an Association or the EU. Agreement in 2013, joining the Eurasian Economic Regarding the policy of Bulgaria, Romania and Union. Russia has probably sought a similar Turkey, which are already integrated into NATO, reversal of the Western path in Kiev and Tbilisi, the prospects of drastically changing its geopolitical but did not manage to achieve this goal. Putin orientation are almost null and void, Russia not claimed in a documentary interview in 2015 that being willing to pursue this, which does not lead the West was deliberately trying to undermine to any results. Russia’s policy, however, betrays Russia’s so-called Eurasian integration efforts28. actions that are likely to undermine or counteract From Georgia’s, Moldavia’s and Ukraine’s point of any anti-Russian policies perceived as coming from view, getting closer to the EU, more economically within the region, supporting any opportunity that stimulating, was more attractive than joining the promotes Russian interests in the Black Sea region. relatively poorer Eurasian Economic Union, which Kremlin’s political goal is to support leaders, Russia sought to dominate for its own interests. In particularly in Ankara and Sofia, who stand tolerant order to change the policies that Moscow considers for greater engagement with Russia and are willing unsatisfactory, Russia has engaged in a variety of to act on these inclinations, ideally in ways that political, informational, economic and clandestine resemble division and uncertainty in the West. activities in these countries and in other countries In essence, Russia desires that the governing in the region. In Bulgaria, for example, Russia used regime in each NATO coastal country to respect elements of history, culture and religion to support Russia’s status as a regional power and not to Russian initiatives and to generate dislike to the allow the development of a security situation West29. Kremlin also directly threatened the use that legitimately threatens its South-West flank. of force against Romania in 2016 in response to In Russia’s opinion, a possible integration of Bucharest’s decision to host the US missile defence Ukraine, Moldavia or Georgia into NATO and infrastructure on its territory30. For Romania, the EU structures is seen as a long-term threat, which risk of hybrid aggression coming from the Russian aims to undermine the Eurasian Economic Union Federation or its potential economic partners is by fueling Western political influence on Russia’s growing, as there is no Russian or pro-Russian borders. The perspective of a such integration minority on Romanian territory and the fact would justify the promotion of Russian interests in that the country is in a geographic area in which all key areas that would at least affect the policies Russia has the right to express itself. As a matter of the coastal States. This vision is underlined by of fact, Romania is still trapped by the geostrategic Russian military interventions in both countries decisions taken by the great allied military powers since 2008. led by Napoleon and Alexandru I of Russia in The Russian Federation strategy at the Black 1807, through which the influence in Europe was Sea consists in a combination of non-military divided. The naughty document31, as the percentage and military instruments, whose content and agreement is known, that ruled on the understanding application depend on the context and political between Churchill and Stalin of dividing Eastern

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Europe in spheres of influence, in fact, it was extent, Moldavia. This issue is possible considering merely a reconfirmation of the agreement in the the buffer territory with NATO border limit along Tilsit Treaty (1807) between the great Eastern all axes except the South-East. The other way the and Western powers of the beginning of the 19th plan changed for Russia was to reposition and century, which were fighting for supremacy over restructure a relatively large amount of fighting Europe. power along many Russian borders with Ukraine. Given the changes in strategic direction in In many respects, this repositioning does not cost 2014, it is clear that Russia is rebuilding its military Russia much, given that major security threats come capacity around the Black Sea. The plan to reequip today from western Russia, and forces along the the Black Sea fleet and other forces in the Southern border with Ukraine could be moved to the North military district, however, preceded the annexation in case of a crisis there (although perhaps Russia of Crimea and the war in Eastern Ukraine. Even if would accept a higher risk in Ukraine or maybe in there had been no Euromaidan protest movement Georgia, depending on the number of forces that in Ukraine, Russia would have delivered modern have been redeployed). This statement will remain weapons to its armed forces in relatively large valid as long as there is no major friction between numbers. This is because Russian leaders believe Russia and China regarding the activities in Central that in all geopolitical circumstances, Russia needs Asia or the far East, which may require Russia to an army that credibly discourages potential foreign rely on existing forces. aggression and is strong enough to coerce regional In the event of a crisis triggered elsewhere, the actors if necessary. I believe that Russia had a well- provision of the South-West flank would be more established security strategy even before the crisis precarious for Russia than for the Soviet Union, with Ukraine. In particular, the increased capacities which had a much larger human and financial for the Southern military district, which was part of resource at its disposal. The threshold for Russia the state weapons Program, which started in 2011, that employs these new forces on the non-NATO would have ensured the exceeding quantity of territory adjacent to it is, of course, quite low. local soldiers and, to a certain extent, would have Historical evidence, recent Russian behavior served as a discouraging factor against Western and rhetoric suggest that the former Soviet area intervention in the event of a regional crisis. The is essential to Russia’s political, economic and strategic discouragement is primarily supported by security objectives. Russian leaders have explicitly Russia’s strategic nuclear forces (strategic rocket stated on several occasions in their speeches, forces, strategic naval forces, strategic aviation and remarks and official strategic documents that the tactical nuclear weapons), while the conventional reintegration of the former Soviet Union States in discouragement against NATO in the Black Sea one form or another is a key political objective32. region could involve increased long-range attack Considering Russia’s actions in Ukraine, since capacity from surface and submarine combatants, 2014 - which, at least to a certain extent, were A2/AD assets and other general-purpose forces in linked to Russia’s attempt to involve Ukraine in the region. the Eurasian integration project - remains unclear The annexation of Crimea and the corresponding Russia’s availability to accept that Ukraine (as well deterioration of Russia’s relations with Ukraine as Georgia, Moldavia and Armenia) is outside these and the West have changed Russia’s plan for its processes of Eurasian integration. What seems army in two ways. Firstly, the annexation of clear today is that Russia has recognized that some Crimea allowed the Russian Federation to relocate of its neighbors can sign association agreements a considerable amount of military capacity 300 km with the EU. But Moscow will certainly oppose, by West to increase the fleet and naval infantry that non-military as well as military means (excluding were already there. Given the current and likely on NATO Member States), any formal political or future state of relations between Russia and the military integration with the West, such as NATO West, this increased capacity allows Moscow to or EU accession. threaten NATO beyond the Russian political center Historically, the potential loss of an ally, and potential theaters of military operations, such reoriented to the West, represented casus belli as Ukraine, the South Caucasus and, to a lesser for Russia (and the Soviet Union), although this

34 June, 2021 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University did not always lead to military intervention. For Iraq and Libya35. In the light of future large-scale example, neither the Rose Revolution in Georgia intervention in Ukraine or the South Caucasus, in 2003 nor the Orange Revolution in Ukraine in Moscow would probably study the possibility and 2004 have led to clear military actions by Russia. ability of NATO to respond militarily, in addition More recently, the popular revolution in Armenia to other military36 forecasts. In general, a change in 2018 - targeting Serzh Sargsyan, a Kremlin ally, (or possibility of change) in the political status quo who was outed from power and replaced by the to the detriment of Russian interests and in favour leader of the revolution – did not require a forceful of the West remains a relatively reliable, albeit intervention by the Russian army. On the other insufficient, indicator of possible Russian military hand, the Russian war with Georgia in 2008 and intervention in the Black Sea region. But this does the Russian intervention in Crimea and Eastern not exclude Russia from interfering with hybrid Ukraine took place in the context of the potential means and instruments, below the limit of detection change of direction of these countries. They have or through third parties, in order to achieve the become too Western for Russia’s protective and goals. expansive taste, although circumstances have been different in each case. In Georgia, Russia deployed Conclusions troops to strengthen its control of South Ossetia, When the Soviet Union collapsed, the Russian which the Saakashvili regime is threatening. In Federation inherited considerably less influence in Ukraine, Russia sent forces to Crimea only after the Black Sea region than its Soviet predecessor the Ukrainian President Viktor Yanukovich, who had, as well as fewer global resources to mitigate was more friendly to Moscow’s politics, fled the perceived threats. At the same time, recent history country and a pro-Western government was formed, has shown that Russian interests in the region have potentially threatening Russian interests, including remained largely unchanged, especially as regards the navy base in Crimea. the former Soviet republics. This dynamic added a Clearly, the decision to intervene militarily degree of urgency and tension to the region which is much more complex than it seems at first sight was probably less intense during the cold War and may depend on many factors and actions, because of Soviet influence in the capitals of coastal some of which may not come from Moscow. There States and the larger maritime area controlled by are certainly many aspects that are not public, the Russian military fleet. about the decisions of Kremlin in relation to the Russian interests focus primarily on the aforementioned crises. However, it is known that desire to maintain different levels of political and neither the Soviet Union nor the Russian Federation economic influence in each coastal State, to keep deployed military forces in a NATO country with the Black Sea under control for oil or gas exports the intention of taking hold of the territory or of and other maritime transport through Novorossiysk forcibly changing the political status quo. Several port, as well as preventing a security deficit toward times33 Moscow has deployed forces in areas of NATO that could threaten the South-West flank of strategic interest only when there was little or no Kremlin. Russia’s strategy to pursue these interests chance of intersecting with NATO forces. is based on the use of diplomatic, informational, As an exception, Russia’s intervention in Syria political, cyber and economic instruments, which in 2015 – where US troops were present and there are supported by an increasingly credible military was a declared US policy, however informal, against capacity. Moscow’s calculation of the possible use the continuation of the Assad regime – was, to some of force in the Black Sea region is shaped by many extent, a normal aspect. On the other hand, given factors. the small number of US forces present in Syria, Regarding the possible elements or implications Moscow was probably relatively confident that the of a Western compensatory strategy, there are at least war with the United States is unlikely. Publicly34, two key aspects of the research contained in this Putin suggested that Russia intervened in Syria to article. Firstly, Russian interests in the region are prevent the spread of terrorism and to rule out an not the same for all coastal States. Russia’s relations outcome – the fall of the Syrian government – which with NATO members (Romania, Bulgaria and resembles with the Western actions in Yugoslavia, Turkey) are secondary to its relations with Ukraine

June, 2021 35 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University and Georgia. Considering the future policy toward over Transnistria), so those territories have a these latter countries, the United States and NATO particularly deep resonance for the Russian must determine their own commitment, tolerance spirit. Both Ukraine and Georgia as a whole are of risk and prioritization of the policy, while taking part of Russia strategy to control as many areas into account possible Russian reactions. Secondly, circumscribed to the extent area of the Black although it is not necessarily a hunch of future sea. Moldavia occupies a special, distinct place, action, Russian behavior over the past two decades because the launching of some aggresions in the has shown that Russia is not seeking a military region would involve the crossing of Ukraine, confrontation with NATO and will endeavor to avoid which would expose the Russian forces too much. any scenario involving a large-scale deployment of In a more practical sense, the Black Sea is its land forces. They are no longer structured to lead important due to the projection of its significant a long-term war, on a large scale, or supported by power and access to Russia - in particular, access to a large economy (as compared to that of the West). global maritime trade and communication routes, A large-scale military intervention in the Black Sea opportunities for power projection at strategic region, although unlikely, cannot be excluded, but distance as well as the expansion of air and coastal Russia’s aversion to expose a significant part of its defence. The east-west axis crossing the Black Sea land forces suggests that continuing and persistent from the Caucasus to the Balkans is the strategic demonstrations of NATO cohesion and political trade hub for trade between Asia and Europe. resilience in NATO partner countries could be key Also, the reason for Russia’s national security factors in deterring and coercion of Russians in the concerns is the closeness of NATO forces and its region. military operations to Russia’s proximity areas. In Finally, I believe that the Russian position on Kremlin’s view, the region poses risks to Russia’s security suggests three important ways in which security. Any challenge for Abkhazia or Crimea - Russian leaders look at the Black Sea region and or for the rest of Georgia or Ukraine - directly and Russia’s strategy. intimately affects Russia’s sense of security. The The Black Sea is not a single region important claim of Russian Federation to be recognized as for the security of the Russian Federation, but it the great power in a multi-polar hegemony, partly has its importance in relation to the confluence on its roles as protector of Crimea, Abkhazia and of interests between Asia and Europe. About the South Ossetia, solution provider in Donbas, but also Russian national security thinking, the Black Sea as a great power in the large part of the Black Sea, is a distinct region, but its importance does not represents a risk for its stability in the situation if prevail over other regions of equal importance, he fails to maintain his domination in this region. such as the Baltic area. Certainly, the Black Sea has a unique geographical feature, with operation NOTES: environment implications, including hot water 1 https://winstonchurchill.org/resources/speeches/1946- ports. But treating the sea and surrounding nations 1963-elder-statesman/the-sinews-of-peace/, accessed on as a single region risks imposing an inaccurate 17.03.2021. framework of Russian thinking. 2 https://learning.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/03/05/marc h-5-1946-winston-churchill-warns-of-soviet-iron-curtain/, The Black Sea and the coastal States do not accessed on 17.03.2021. occupy a certain discrete space on a general list of 3 http://cpc-ew.ro/pdfs/politica_energetica_a_rusiei.pdf, Russian regional priorities. More specifically, the accessed on 26.05.2021. area is a crossroad of several of Moscow’s main 4 The Crimean War of 1853 between Russia and the national security concerns, varying in nature and alliance of the Ottoman Empire, the second French Empire, intensity. The most important of these concerns the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and the are the places Russia considers to be close to Kingdom of Sardinia. home (almost abroad) and therefore integrated 5 The Polish-Russian war from 1605 to 1618 was into Russia’s own sense of identity and security. represented by a series of military conflicts between the Russian state and the Polish-Lithuanian union, which took These areas include all Ukraine, Moldavia and advantage of the internal chaos generated by the frequent civil Georgia, with Russia always launching pretensions wars unleashed by the interim government of the country, on Crimea, Abkhazia and South Ossetia (including after the tsar’s, Fyodor I death in 1598, by transferring power

36 June, 2021 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University from Rurik dynasty (1598) to Romanov dynasty (1513), 22 https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/ which was called at the time as the troubled times of Russia. research_reports/RRA300/RRA357-1/RAND_RRA357-1. 6 The Great Northern War, of 1700-1721, fought between pdf, accessed on 19.03.2021, Stephen J. Flanagan & others, Swedish troops and those of the coalition of Denmark, Poland Russia, NATO, and Black Sea Security, Published by the and Russia. RAND Corporation, Santa Monica, Calif, 2020. 7 Napoleon’s campaign of 1812, which although it 23 https://www.dw.com/ro/ucraina-starea-de-r%C4%83 conquered Moscow, in reality became the greatest disaster zboi-este-iminent%C4%83/a-46460018, accessed on of the Neapolitan campaigns. The military losses amounted 09.03.2021. to about 300,000 French, 70,000 Poles, 50,000 Italians, 24 https://www.dailysabah.com/business/2019/04/09/ 80,000 Germans and probably 450,000 Russians. The French turkey-russia-seek-new-ways-to-reach-100b-in-bilateral- lost about 200,000 horses and more than 1,000 pieces of trade, accessed on 26.05.2021. artillery. 25 https://eurasianet.org/how-has-conflict-with-russia- 8 https://www.historia.ro/sectiune/general/articol/ affected-ukraines-trade; and Stephen J. Flanagan & others, napoleon-wehrmacht-ul-si-capricioasa-vreme-din-rusia, 2020, p. 49. accessed on 18.03.2021. 26 https://www.economica.net/rusia-pregateste- 9 1568-1570, 1676-1681,1686-1700, 1710-1711, 1735- sanctiuni-economice-dure-contra-turciei-erdogan-vrea- 1739, 1768-1774, 1787-1792, 1806-1812, 1828-1829, 1853- indreptarea-erorilor-facute-de-ambele-parti_110874.html , 1856, 1877-1878, 1914-1918. accessed on 19.03.2021. 10 The economic potential of the Black Sea region 27 https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/ was first discovered by Greek settlers, later by Romans and IDAN/2017/578016/EXPO_IDA%282017%29578016_ Byzantines, the economic peak of the region being reached EN.pdf, accessed on 26.05.2021. during the commercial expansion of the Italian Genoese and 28 Vesti, „Miroporyadok: Dokumental’nyi fil’m Venetian republics. Vladimira Solov’eva [World Order: Documentary by Vladimir 11 Initially annexed by Russia through the Peace Treaty Solov’ev],” video, YouTube, 20 December 2015. Ca răspuns of Bucharest of 1812, following the end of the Russo-Turkish la o întrebare referitoare la relațiile dintre Rusia și Occident War of 1806-1812. în ceea ce privește Ucraina și alte probleme, In response to 12 http://www.bbc.co.uk/romanian/news/ a question about Russia-West relations regarding Ukraine story/2008/04/080401_bush_bucuresti.shtml, accessed on and other issues, Putin replied: ”Regarding Ukraine and in 18.03.2021. general post-Soviet area, I am convinced that the position 13 https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/ of our Western partners - European and American – is not news/releases/2008/04/20080402-2.html, accessed on focused on protecting the interests of Ukraine. But rather, 18.03.2021. (their position) is linked to an attempt to interrupt the attempt 14 http://www.cpc-ew.ro/pdfs/razboiul_ruso_georgian. to recreate the Soviet Union and no one wants to believe that pdf, accessed on 18.03.2021. we have no purpose in recreating the Soviet Union. But there 15 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hQ58Yv6kP44, is the possibility of uniting (the former Soviet republics) in accessed on 18.03.2021. the modern processes of economic integration (I want to 16 Nagorno-Karabah is a disputed territory, internationally emphasize this word), which would undoubtedly make Russia recognized as part of Azerbaijan, but mostly governed by the and Ukraine more competitive in the global economy and unrecognized Artsakh Republic (formerly called the Nagorno- which would allow Russia and Ukraine to take their rightful Karabah Republic (NKR) since the first Nagorno-Karabah place in the modern system of division of labor in global War. This is a region without exit to the South Caucasus sea, markets. Even this possibility does not allow our partners to located in the mountainous area of Karabah, between Lower sleep soundly, and I believe that the main task (of the West) Karabah and Zangezur, covering the South-Eastern part of is to interrupt this joint effort... Why can the European Union the mountains of the Small Caucasus. be formed, but not the Eurasian Union?” 17 The Eurasian Economic Union (EEU), established 29 https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/research on November 18, 2011, was conceived by Russian President _reports/RR1700/RR1793/RAND_RR1793.pdf, accessed on Vladimir Putin as an alternative to the European Union market, 19.03.2021, Raphael S. Cohen and Andrew Radin, Russia’s but is far from offering its economic benefits. In addition to Hostile Measures in Europe: Understanding the Threat, the 5 states mentioned, in 2019 Serbia also joined. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation, 2019, p. 67, https:// 18 It is an intergovernmental military alliance that www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RR1793.html was established on May 15, 1992. Uzbekistan joined the 30 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w1U4E_QwW organization at the time of its establishment, but left in 1997. pg, accessed on 19.03.2021. Following the activation of the It subsequently rejoined in 2006 but withdrew from the CSTO anti-missile system, Putin warned: ”Now we are obliged to in 2012. react in an appropriate manner and if yesterday those parts of 19 Except for Albania. Romania’s territory did not know what it is like to be in the 20 https://www.nato.int/nato_static/assets/pdf/pdf_2014 crosshairs... then today we will have to take certain actions to _07/20140716_140716-Factsheet_Russia_en.pdf, accessed ensure our security.” on 26.05.2021. 31 https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2019/04/02/winst 21 Peacekeeping force supported by the US-Egyptian- on-churchills-naughty-document-written-stalin-go-display/, Israeli Government, established on August 3, 1981. accessed on 26.05.2021.

June, 2021 37 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University

32 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sV-8RxtQtcw, Flanagan J. Stephen & others, Russia, NATO, accessed on 19.03.2021. and Black Sea Security, RAND Corporation, 33 Hungary –1956; Czechoslovakia -1968; Afghanistan Santa Monica, California, 2020, https://www. – 1979; Georgia -2008; Crimea –2014; eastern Ukraine – 2014. rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/research_reports/ 34 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6ly2n94izbI, RRA300/RRA357-1/RAND_RRA357-1.pdf accessed on 19.03.2021. Freedman Lawrence, The future of war. A 35 Vladimir Putin, Meeting of the Valdai International history, Litera Publishing House, Bucharest, 2019. Discussion Club, October 22, 2015; Vladimir Putin, Meeting Friedman George, Pressure points. About the of the Valdai International Discussion Club, October 27, 2016. future crisis in Europe, Litera Publishing House, 36 Stephen J. Flanagan & others, Russia, NATO, and Bucharest,, 2016. Black Sea Security, Published by the RAND Corporation, Hoffman Frank, ”The Hybrid Character Santa Monica, Calif, 2020, p.72. of Modern Conflict”, Hybrid Warfare and Transnational Threats: Perspectives for an Era of REFERENCES Persistent Conflict, eds., Paul Brister, William H. Natter, Robert R. Tomes, Council for Emerging Benedyczak Jakub, ”The Importance of National Security Affairs, New York, 2011. Turkey in Russian Policy”, Polski Instytut Spraw Ioniță Liviu, „The hybrid dimension of the Międzynarodowych Bulletin (The Polish Institute Russian-Ukrainian conflict”, Bulletin of ”Carol I” of International Affairs), 2020. National Defence University no. 3, 2015. Binnendijk Anika, Understanding Russian Jacek Reginia-Zacharski, Ukrainian issues in Black Sea Power Dynamics Through National geopolitical thought of the twentieth and twenty first Security Gaming, Published by the RAND centuries, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego, Corporation, Santa Monica, California, 2020. 2016. Brister Paul, ”Revisiting the Gordian Knot: Jenkins Simon, The short history of Europe, Strategic Considerations for Hybrid Warfare”, from Pericles to Putin, Litera Publishing House, Hybrid Warfare and Transnational Threats: Bucharest, 2019. Perspectives for an Era of Persistent Conflict, eds., Kaplan D. Robert, Ghosts of the Balkans – Paul Brister, William H. Natter, Robert R. Tomes, a journey in history, Antet Publishing House, Council for Emerging National Security Affairs, Bucharest, 2008. New York, 2011. Kaplan D. Robert, Revenge of geography. Brusylovska Olga, Dubovyk, Volodymyr, and What the map tells us about future conflicts and Koval, Igor (eds.), Black Sea Region in World the fight against destiny, Litera Publishing House, Policy: Actors, Factors, and Scenarios of the Bucharest, 2015. Future, Odesa Mechnikov National University Kondratenko Oleg, Ukraine as a Geopolitical Press, Odesa, 2020. Priority of the Russian Federation, National Brzezinski Zbigniew K, The grand chessboard: Aviation University, Kiev, Ukraine, 2016. American primacy and its geostrategic imperatives Mackinder J. Halford, Democratic Ideals And / 1928 (reed 1997), Basic Books, A Member of the Reality ‒ A Study in the Politics of Reconstruction, Perseus Books Group, 1st ed. NDU Press Defence Classic Edition, 1942. Chifu Iulian, Nantoi Oazu, Information war. Maior George, Sergei Konoplyov, Strategic Typing the model of aggression, Publishing House knowledge in the extended area of the Black Sea, of the Institute of Political Science and International RAO Publishing House, Bucharest, 2011. Relations I.C. Brătianu of the Romanian Academy, Marshall Tim, Prisoners of Geography, Litera Bucharest, 2016. Publishing House, Bucharest, 2020. Diaconescu L., ”Island of the World – Moving Massie K. Robert, Peter the Great. His life and the World Strategic Center from Heartland to the world, ALL Publishing House, Bucharest, 2015. Indian Ocean”, Romanian Journal of Political Meyers Steven Lee, The New Tsar, Corinth Geography, 22 (1), 2020. Books, Bucharest, 2016. Dughin Aleksandr, The theory of the multipolar Orzechowski Marcin, The Russian Federation’s world, People’s University, Chișinău, 2014. neo-imperial expansionist strategy for the Post-

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Soviet region discussed using the example of the https://learning.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/03/05 Russo-Georgian conflict of 2008, Reality of Politics. /march-5-1946-winston-churchill-warns-of-soviet- Estimates - Comments - Forecasts 9/2018:30-43, https:// iron-curtain/ www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=772494 http://cpc-ew.ro/pdfs/politica_energetica_a_ Siudak Michał, ”Geopolityczne Wizje Krymu I rusiei.pdf Ukrainy”, Przegląd Geopolityczny 18. https://www.historia.ro/sectiune/general/artic Stancu Mihai-Cristian, ”The information war. ol/napoleon-wehrmacht-ul-si-capricioasa-vreme- Case Study: «Rusisia Today» role to cover the din-rusia mission carried out by the Russian Federation in http://www.bbc.co.uk/romanian/news/story/ Eastern Ukraine, between May 2014 and February 2008/ 04/080401_bush_bucuresti.shtml 2015”, Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/ University No. 4/2019. news/releases/2008/04/20080402-2.html Ünalmiş Ahmet Nafiz, Şafak Oğuz,2008 Rusya- http://www.cpc-ew.ro/pdfs/razboiul_ruso_ Gürcistan Savaşının Vekalet Savaşı Teorisi – The georgian.pdf Investigation of 2008 Russia-Georgia War in Terms https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hQ58Y of the Theory of Proxy War, Açısından İncelenmesi. v6kP44 Karadeniz Araştırmaları 61/2019:31-41, https:// https://www.nato.int/nato_static/assets/pdf/ www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=782070 Urban Jakša, ”EU Policy Options Towards pdf_2014_07/20140716_140716-Factsheet_ Post-Soviet De Facto States”, Polski Instytut Russia_en.pdf Spraw Międzynarodowych (The Polish Institute of https://www.dailysabah.com/business/2019 International Affairs), no. 6 (159), October 2017. /04/09/turkey-russia-seek-new-ways-to-reach- Ven Bruusgaard Kristin, Challenges in Russia 100b-in-bilateral-trade & Afghanistan. Crimea and Russia’s Strategic https://eurasianet.org/how-has-conflict-with- Overhaul, Army Strategic Studies Institute, 2014. russia-affected-ukraines-trade Waseem Ahmad Qureshi, The Rise of Hybrid https://www.economica.net/rusia-pregateste- Warfare, 10 NOTRE DAME J. INT’L & COMP. sanctiuni-economice-dure-contra-turciei-erdogan- LAW 173 (2020). vrea-indreptarea-erorilor-facute-de-ambele-parti_1 Wojciech Lorenz, Strengthening Deterrence 10874.html in the Black Sea Region, Polski Instytut Spraw https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/ Międzynarodowych (The Polish Institute of IDAN/2017/578016/EXPO_IDA%282017%29 International Affairs), 2017. 578016_EN.pdf Wojciech Łysek, Crimea in great powers foreign policy: bordeland-conflict-destabilization, https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2019/04/ Polskie Towarzystwo Geopolityczne, 2015. 02/winston-churchills-naughty-document-written- https://winstonchurchill.org/resources/ stalin-go-display/ speeches/1946-1963-elder-statesman/the-sinews- https://www.dw.com/ro/ucraina-starea-de- of-peace/ r%C4%83zboi-este-iminent%C4%83/a-46460018

June, 2021 39 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University

OPERATIONAL CONCEPTS APPLICABLE TO AIR SPACE SECURITY IN THE LAND FORCES’ AREA OF RESPONSIBILITY FOR THE INTEGRATION OF VSHORAD, SHORAD, SAM AIR DEFENCE MISSILE SYSTEMS

Col.Assoc.Prof. Daniel ROMAN, PhD *

Airspace security is regulated at the level of each state according to the international treaties and conventions, in all possible situations, in times of peace, crisis or war, by integrating all the civilian and military air traffic control systems. The deep concern reaching the level of worry of the specialists in the field of airspace security is the reality of the complex operational environment of the land forces operations. In this context, due to the upgrades in the air space technology and the scale of the air actions at different altitudes, the need for the operational conceptualization of the air defence systems is well justified. For this, we redefined the airspace in the land forces area of responsibility from the perspective of two directions of research. The first direction of research is the threat and the aggression of a hypothetical air enemy, and the second direction of research is the conduct of the air defence response at different altitudes. In order to obtain results, in this article, we have developed several directions of analysis and conceptualization on the possibilities of integrating the VSHORAD, SHORAD, SAM air defence missile systems. Through this scientific approach, we consider to have opened new series of possibilities of planning the air combat and of probabilistic configuration on the notion of event of the air defence response, in a manner which is appropriate to the new challenges arising in the current airspace.

Keywords: aerial threat and aggression; air defence response; air defence event; air defence probability; operational art.

Conceptualizing the Negative Air Event airspace control system underline the importance in Redefining Airspace Security and role of the concept of negative event. The The multidimensionality of the battle space object of study of the probability theory, the notion is given by the resultant of the possibilities of of event (as a result of an experiment), highlights employing a structure to counteract the means the laws that manifest themselves in the field of that a hypothetical adversary can use in a military random phenomena having a mass character. For conflict. In what the airspace security is concerned, argumentation, we will refer to the fundamental this requires planning and implementing an concepts used in the probability theory1: integrated and interoperable airspace control system • a random experiment is performed in order to for all categories of forces. The purpose of such an collect the data necessary to establish the presence airspace control system is to allow the actions of or the absence of a risk factor or to determine a all the missile and air defence artillery structures simple status: positive or negative; to be synchronized with the operations of the other • the test is the method by which the experiment forces participating in the joint operation, in order is obtained on an entity from the analyzed set; to obtain the minimum level of operational risk. • the event is the possible result of a test (an Establishing the security of any conflict environment elementary event if it appears as a result of a single is the first condition for achieving the freedom of test); action without the hazard of negative events caused • the probability is the possibility of the event by a hypothetical opponent. The definitions of the to occur after a test. multidimensionality of the combat space and the Therefore, in the practice of probabilities, expression of the notions of airspace security and events can be of three types: certain, impossible and possible, which is why we chose to express airspace *”Carol I” National Defence University security from the perspective of conceptualizing e-mail: [email protected] the negative event, due to the limited knowledge of

40 June, 2021 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University the actions of a hypothetical opponent, respectively we will be able to express the state of affairs on a knowledge based on the estimates of the situation the airspace security from a new perspective of in the modern combat space2. The estimate as a the possibility of the occurrence of the negative separate document, as it appears in the operational event, which can be for example, a surprise air art, is specific to military action planning and has attack. The state of the airspace security, in this two components: of certainty and of uncertainty. case, is expressed by analyzing three factors that For the first direction of research (a topic of this give the resultant of the air threat, respectively: the article) which is the threat and the aggression of a composition, the disposition and the capabilities hypothetical aerial enemy, we conceptualized the of the air enemy. Based on the three components notion of negative event to show the impossibility of the air threat, we can build the model of the air of acquiring full knowledge on the actions of a aggression or the probable courses of action of the hypothetical opponent. The actions of a hypothetical air enemy. enemy can be interpreted and deduced following the Therefore, we will express the state of the processing of the data base prepared in peacetime airspace security as the sum of all the possible or during the (airspace) reconnaissance operations. negative events out of the totality of the possible The creation of the data base is the result of the events that can occur by the conduct of the air intelligence preparation of the battle space and of the enemy’s actions. Depending on the role and the war game (a tool specific to the military operations destination of the means of air action, available to a planning) which help identifying which of the total potential aggressor, we can establish the multitude possible events are certain, impossible or possible. and the typology of the possible events that the Thus, we will identify as certain events those that enemy can achieve in the airspace. To provide will mandatorily occur as a result of performing the an example, we shall refer to the action of the war game (in this case, the war game is performed reconnaissance aircraft that can cause a negative similarly to conducting an experiment). event, namely, ”disclosure of the friendly forces After going through the war game in planning on the march or in the deployment area” or the military operations, a combat situation can be actions of the attack helicopters that can cause the interpreted as an experiment repeated under negative event from no. 68 by ”hitting column 3 of the same conditions or by changing certain tanks belonging to 22 Armor bat.” and so on. The circumstances, through which we can obtain, advantage of conceptualizing the negative event each time, new visions of the states of a system of is that it establishes the state of affairs regarding forces and means. By this, we expect to identify the the airspace security and offers the possibility to possible events that, following the determinations, determine the number of negative events out of the are subject to certain laws, also called statistical total number of possible events that could occur laws. By applying the theory of probabilities we in the airspace. Obtaining such a report on events can obtain a new knowledge on the reality of the or a report of the possible events of the enemy in operational environment in the sense that they will relation to those of his friendly air defence forces, allow us to predict the development of possible substantiates the determination of the balance of air mass events such as: the imminence and the way of superiority in an area of military conflict3. In other conducting an air strike. By applying the formula: words, the expression of the level of security in the airspace is not only a regulation at the level of each P(A) = Number of favorable cases / state according to the international treaties and Number of possible cases conventions through an integration of all civilian and military air traffic control systems, but rather, where P(A) is the probability of occurrence of it can be expressed by the number of possible the event, we obtain a factual situation in which negative events in the airspace. P(A) is in relation 0 ≤ P(A) ≤ 1, which in other words The air threat, as presented above, can be means that the relative frequency of the event that redefined as the sum of all possible negative we analyze is equal to the ratio between the number events that an air enemy can generate at a given of the tests in which event A occurred and the total time. In this sense, we have decomposed the number of the tests (repeated trials). Therefore, threat of a hypothetical enemy into three main

June, 2021 41 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University categories: the composition, the disposition and be destroyed on the ground or immediately after the capabilities. For clarification, we shall refer take-off). to the representation of each of the three levels, The two observations prove that the namely to their content expressed in terms of the conceptualization of the notion of negative event negative event. The composition of the air enemy can be applied to expressing the state of security of is the form of organizing the forces and means of the airspace. Based on this fact, we can reconsider action, leadership and logistical support necessary the ways of developing risk management as a for planning and conducting an air event. In this decision-making process which leads to expressing regard, we have distinctly identified the group of the situation estimates by describing the possibilities forces and the mission organization which can of the occurrence of the negative events and are consist of: closely related to the possibility of planning and • manned reconnaissance means for gathering designing air defence events. intelligence, surveillance, locating and engaging targets – fixed-wing (FW) and rotary-wing (RW) Conceptualizing the Airspace aircraft; in the Land Forces Area of Responsibility • ballistic missiles (BMs), weapons of mass Due to the technical and tactical capabilities of destruction (WMDs) and means of information the air defence artillery systems of the land forces, warfare – currently developing complex weapons there is a certain action dimensionality in the systems; airspace. We define action dimensionality in the • unmanned aerial vehicles (U [C] AVs) – with airspace as the totality of the geometric places in the low and easily amortized costs; airspace where the air defence artillery structures • air-to-surface missiles (ASMs), cruise can plan and execute actions of reconnaissance, missiles (CMs) and large-caliber missiles (LCRs); tracking and classification, identification, • high precision striking systems – of more engagement and destruction, as well as evaluation recent development. of these actions against hostile aircraft or types of A first observation consists in the fact that, ammunition launched by air. After expressing the regardless of the composition and organization definition of action dimensionality in the airspace for the mission, planning and conducting an event and by correlating the two types of events, namely in the airspace are actually done by the physical the negative air event and he air defence event, it presence of that aircraft in the studied airspace. As is possible to express the state of security of the the presence in the airspace is a flight path specific airspace of responsibility and implicitly to conduct to the aerial system, we can deduce that the set of risk management. We define the air defence event possible events in the airspace is the geometric place as the possibility of executing any air defence of all the points in the airspace where at least one action planned and carried out by the air defence aircraft can be located. If the aircraft are hostile, by artillery structures of the land forces. the nature of their actions, they have the potential Each air defence action is the result of specific to generate negative events. In this sense, we can activities, which are planned and carried out by reformulate and make the following statement: ”if each subsystem of the air defence response system the aircraft has the potential to perform a hostile (the reconnaissance subsystem, the command and action, then the geometric place occupied by the control subsystem, the air defence firing subsystem aircraft in the airspace or through each position on and the logistics subsystem). Depending on the the flight path, is anegative event”. time and space classification of the air defence The second observation is related to setting response actions, the algorithm for fighting the air in time and space the negative event caused by a enemy results, on distinct stages, as follows: hostile aircraft carrying combat potential, on its • reconnaissance of the airspace as a result of flight path. This tells us that in order to suppress the actions of all sensors in the visible, infrared and certain negative events that could take place in the electromagnetic spectra, which depending on the air one can intervene on each of the points on the technical and tactical characteristics of the optical hostile aircraft’s flight path, but no later than it can electronic means and devices, namely the radar achieve its own mission (ideally the aircraft should stations, results in a shape and dimensionality of

42 June, 2021 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University the air defence surveillance area (depending on the algorithm as defined above, and the physical enemy’s jamming possibilities, the relief features, overlap of the firing areas and the launch areas is the weather conditions and the light or dark times a multiplication of the participation in performing resulting in different detection distances in the area the air defence event. In other words, an air defence of ​​responsibility of the military operations); event may consist of the action of several air defence • detection and classification of air targets systems, but the intended objective is preserved in (fixed or rotary wing aircraft, different types of space and time, in the sense that the hostile aircraft ammunition launched by air); will take countermeasures to achieve the negative • continuous tracking and establishing the air event. The major advantage of approaching the identification of the aircraft (friend or foe); air defence response from the perspective of the • decision-making on engaging hostile targets events occurring in the airspace is the possibility (a task of the command and control subsystem, in of splitting the actions of the air defence response compliance with the rules of engagement and the and thus achieving a significant economy of forces weapons control status); and means (of air defence potential). Splitting the • engagement with air defence fire or the air defence response actions means that all the air execution of air defence fire (depending on the defence systems that achieve a dimensionality of the technical and tactical capabilities the air defence airspace take part in the air defence event singularly firing areas and the launch areas for the air defence under the most optimal and favorable conditions missiles, which determines a certain dimensionality for intervention to prevent the occurrence of the of the airspace, to combat and to destroy – a task of negative air event. the air defence fire subsystem); In the context of the joint achievement of • evaluation of the effects of the air defence the dimensionality of the airspace of several air firing, a mandatory sequence depending on the air defence missile or artillery systems, based on defence system and respectively, its ability to react the principle of the common participation in the to the actions of the hostile aircraft); effort to carry out the air defence event, a series • cessation or resumption of one of the stages of specific lines result, as shown in Figure 1. of the air defence algorithm until the objective of Depending on the spatial positioning of the air the air defence response is achieved. defence systems, an air defence event, according Due to the high speeds of the aircraft, the to the practice of probabilities, is of three kinds: deployment of the air defence response sequences certain, impossible and possible. The description is very fast, which implies the development of new of the air defence response lines, as in Figure 1,

Figure 1 Schematic representation of the action dimensionality in the airspace of responsibility technologies for informational connection of the air implies the successive activation and deactivation defence system subsystems. For clarification, we of the air defence systems for the realization of the mention that each air defence missile or artillery stages of the air defence algorithm, depending on system consistently covers the entire air defence the evolution of the aircraft on its flight path or

June, 2021 43 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University the achievement of the air (negative) events. The systems within all categories of forces: air disadvantage of activating and deactivating the forces, land forces and naval forces. This implies corresponding stages on specific actions of the air analyzing, planning and decision-making on defence systems, consists in the possibility of losing the employment in combat of all the air defence information about the evolution of the aircraft in the response capabilities depending on the degree of air, which causes a loss of precious reaction time threat and aggression of a hypothetical air enemy. to the negative air event. One solution to remedy Decoding the level of air threat requires knowing this disadvantage may be to carry out air defence and understanding the composition, the disposition work in an air defence response network. The role and the possibilities of air action of a hypothetical of such an air defence network is to divide each opponent. The overlap of the air threat models on sequence of the air defence response into discrete the geographical format of the area of operations combat spaces in which only those systems that together with the possibilities of occurrence of the develop the maximum result per unit of air defence other factors influencing the military actions (the effort will operate. We define the air defence existence of important objectives in the category of performance as the air defence end state pursued critical infrastructure, or the implications of signing per unit of air defence effort. In other words, we international treaties, etc.) may lay the foundation aim to change in time and space the air defence of the development of the air aggression model. efficiency depending on the contribution of each The conceptualization of the notion of negative air defence system to the achievement of the air air event opens new perspectives regarding the defence event. This means this can take place in analysis, planning and decision-making of the air a coherent expression of the contribution of each defence action, according to a network model, as air defence system to the targeted event. Thus, for in the graphic representation shown in Figure 2. the same position and the coordinates of a hostile Linking the two types of achievable events, aircraft on the move in the airspace, the air defence namely the negative air event and the air defence

Figure 2 Simplified scheme for representing a negative air event and the conduct of the air defence event5 systems in the same dimensionality of the airspace, event, contributes to the creation of an air defence will simultaneously encounter the three event architecture based on an air defence algorithm, situations: certain, impossible and possible. In this which is a correct and efficient tool for the air context, in order to obtain the optimal solution threat assessment and the activation of the TEWA6 to solve the problem of the negative air event, an (Threat Evaluation and Weapon Allocation) integrative control unit according to the model of weapons systems/ air defence forces and means the collaborative work network is necessary.4 of the land forces, air forces and naval forces alike. Based on the creation of such air defence Integrating the VSHORAD, SHORAD, architecture, a unitary integration of the actions SAM Air Defence Missile Systems of the VSHORAD, SHORAD, SAM air defence The airspace defence involves the responsible missile systems can take place according to the joint action of the air defence missile and artillery model in figure 3. Expressing the statement of the

44 June, 2021 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University air defence problem by conceptualizing the notion reaching the level of worry of the specialists in of air/air defence event implies the development of the field of airspace security, we have developed more solving variants where each variant has its a series of original ideas on the applicability of own distinct results. As represented in the diagram conceptualizing the notions of negative air event and in Figure 3, the contribution of the VSHORAD, air defence event. Following this conceptualization, SHORAD, SAM missile systems results in a new against the background of the airspace technological perspective of the operational art in the planning development and the scale of the air actions at of air defence actions. In other words, there is a different altitudes, we have proven there is a dissemination of the geometric locations of all justified need for the integration of the VSHORAD, the positions of the hostile aircraft on their flight SHORAD and SAM air defence missile systems path in the airspace, which implies a coherent in a collaborative air defence network following activation/deactivation of the air defence missile the operational model in Figure 3. For this, we systems, depending on the evolution of the air redefined the airspace of responsibility of the situation in the airspace of responsibility. Basically, land forces from the perspective of two research a computer-assisted electronic ordering takes place directions which we approached separately: the in which successive missile launches are performed threat and the aggression of a hypothetical air

Figure 3 Variant of schematic representation of the air defence architecture7 for the unitary integration of the actions of the VSHORAD, SHORAD, SAM air defence missile systems8 depending on the air event decomposed for each enemy and the conduct of the air defence response launching area of ​the VSHORAD, SHORAD and at different altitudes. SAM systems as shown in Figure 3. The first aspect resulting from the analysis The result of such a collaborative air defence of the airspace security is the redefinition of the network depends on the speed of disseminating the dimensionality of the airspace and the possibility information on the position of the hostile aircraft of a coherent integration of several air defence in the airspace and is one of the models resulting missile or artillery systems. Thus, new possibilities from overlapping the launching areas, at different are opened for the creation of the air defence altitudes of threat and aggression in the airspace. The event through the selective participation of the actual creation of a collaborative air defence work VSHORAD, SHORAD, SAM air defence missile platform implies the joint work of the subsystems systems corresponding to the combat possibilities of the air defence response system, so that all the in coordination with a series of specific alignments sequences of the air defence response algorithm are as shown in figure 1. Depending on the air defence carried out under technical interoperability conditions. formation, an air defence event can be, according to the mathematical expectation of the theory of Conclusions and Suggestions probability, of three kinds: certain, impossible and From the starting point of this scientific possible. The advantage of such an approach is the approach in which we tackled the deep concern achievement of a significant economy of forces

June, 2021 45 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University and means of the air defence response. Another The two resulting aspects lead to suggesting that advantage results from the perspective of splitting the communications technological compatibility of the air combat, a period of time in which the forces the VSHORAD, SHORAD, SAM missile systems can maneuver in order to get out of the enemy’s should be identified in order to create a typical line of fire. structure of collaborative air defence network (as Another important aspect regarding the creation in Figure 3). A second suggestion, arising from the of a collaborative air defence response platform first, is to design the procurement of air defence is related to the nature and manner of conducting weapons systems in accordance with the principle negative air events, which results in an air defence of the technological interoperability. In this way, structured on tiers and on heights, depending on the the modern short-range systems (VSHORAD), technical and tactical capabilities of the air defence easily deployable and highly mobile in the tactical missile and artillery systems. The strategy of such field, based on the information received from the collaborative networks is to deal with threats SHORAD and SAM systems, can achieve a much through gradual countermeasures for various more effective air defence response against the intervals of interception of the hostile aircraft. threat of the air enemy found in the vicinity of the In this way, an air target is forced to gradually friendly troops. This method aims to increase the cross the air defence fire of several air defence value of the capability of the VSHORAD radar- systems, leaving little chance of achieving the air based air defence systems to counter cruise missiles threat against the land forces. In a conventional (CM) or unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) which battlefield situation, this air defence strategy can due to the use of terrain lines where the radar cross be successfully applied. If a coordinated air raid sections are quite weak, are impossible to detect from a previously known direction is expected, on the radar (hence an impossible air defence then several medium-range air defence systems event). Following the results of the analysis of such as PATRIOT and HAWK can be deployed and the air defence response in the context of the new massed in the area of ​​the contact line, providing security environment from the perspective of air defence in depth but also exposing these conceptualizing the notion of negative air event, systems to the enemy artillery or infantry fire. respectively air defence event, the arguments The integration of SHORAD air defence systems related to how an air surveillance system (the information subsystem) should be equipped to be with SAM surface-to-air missile systems, such as able to meet the challenges of a future extremely ROLAND or air defence cannon systems, such as dynamic battlefield, are as follows: GEPARD9 (German air defence system) or ZSU-2310 • it is necessary to create and provide a unitary (Russian air defence system), can generate an air real-time air picture in order to report without delay defence combat formation much more effective all the aerial surprise actions; based on splitting the air defence algorithm and a • it is necessary to conduct covert radar operation much more organic self-defence. However, in the because many missions require surveillance in current operational environment of the military stealth mode to avoid detection by the enemy; missions carried out mainly outside the militarized • the air insecurity situations should be solved area or the deployment areas, the situation of the through previously prepared plans based on land forces structures becomes problematic from anticipated negative air events, without the existence an air defence point of view. In the case of the of a complete air picture, when a continuous forces deployed in regions with limited conflict 24-hour coverage is needed, during which air and crisis, as well as in peacekeeping missions, the attacks can occur from anywhere and anytime; notion of contact line loses its significance and the • in order to ensure the quality of the air defence hostile areas become arbitrarily distributed among fire command/control data, the performance of the the areas of responsibility of the allied forces. radar systems must be improved appropriately to Based on a complete aerial image, as in the case each air defence system by data on the coordinates of the collaborative network integration of the air of the current position of the target detected in the defence systems, the air defence actions can be air and its speed, respectively the future position carried out as previously planned missions. coordinates of the air target.

46 June, 2021 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University

In conclusion, although we have not expressed military operations, The Lightning Press, Norman all the suggestions that may result from the M. Wade, 2019. conceptualization of the notions of negative air *** Join/Interagency, SMARTbook: Joint event or air defence event, we are convinced that strategic & operational planing, The Lightning the decision-makers’ adopting an appropriate Press Ferlemann, 2019. attitude on the implementation of the air defence Bărbăcioru Iuliana Carmen, Cursul 1 – Teoria response in the area of responsibility of the land probabilităților și statistică matematică, https:// forces increases the airspace security and limits www.utgjiu.ro/math/cbarbacioru/book/tpsm2010/ casualties and property damage in the event of a c01.pdf contemporary military conflict. Pearsică Marian, Băluţă Silviu, Tendinţe pe plan internaţional privind realizarea sistemelor NOTES: din clasele SHORAD şi VSHORAD, AFASES 2008, 1 Iuliana Carmen Bărbăcioru, Cursul 1 – Teoria Publishing house of „Henri Coandă” Air Force probabilităților și statistică matematică, https://www.utgjiu. Academy, Brașov, 2008, https://www.afahc.ro/ ro/math/cbarbacioru/book/tpsm2010/c01.pdf, accessed on 19.05.2021. afases/volum_afases_2008_1.pdf 2 *** The Battle staff, SMARTbook, third revised Roman Daniel, Riposta antiaeriană a forţelor edition: Guide to designing, planning & conducting military terestre din perspectiva modelelor conceptuale operations, The Lightning Press, Norman M. Wade, 2019, pp. 2.29-2.40. de lucru colaborativ, ”Carol I” National Defence 3 Stephen P. Robbins, Organizational Theory: Structure, University Publishing House, Bucharest, 2017. Design, and Applications, Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 1990. Stephen P. Robbins, Organizational Theory: 4 *** Join/Interagency, SMARTbook: Joint strategic & operational planing, The Lightning Press Ferlemann, 2019. Structure, Design, and Applications, Prentice Hall, 5 Daniel Roman, Riposta antiaeriană a forțelor terestre New Jersey, 1990. din perspectiva modelelor conceptuale de lucru colaborativ, Thomas F. Iversen, ”Mobile and Netted Air ”Carol I” National Defence University Publishing House, Bucharest, 2017, p. 116. Defence Systems”, RTO Meeting Proceedings 63, 6 Thomas F. Iversen, Mobile and Netted Air Defence 2000. Systems, DK-8520 Lystrup, Denmark, p. 6, https://www. Sapaty S. Peter, Basic Distributed Control researchgate.net/figure/A-number-of-OODA-loops-in- Model and Technology for Mobile Crisis Reaction parallel-22_fig2_288970156, accessed on 19.05.2021. 7 Walter J. Bernard, Silent-Mode Air Surveillance, Forces and their United Air Defence, https:// https://www.google.ro/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&sourc www.google.ro/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&so e=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjN-PuFwN_wAhXpk4sKHa urce=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjN-PuFwN_w aDBNwQFjAAegQIBBAD&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww. AhXpk4sKHaaDBNwQFjAAegQIBBAD&url= sto.nato.int%2Fpublications%2FSTO%2520Meeting%2520 https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sto.nato.int%2Fpublica Proceedings%2FRTO-MP-063%2FMP-063-%24%24ALL. pdf&usg=AOvVaw13Yi-drSQz-GTrRvk9ssKK, accessed on tions%2FSTO%2520Meeting%2520Proceeding 19.05.2021. s%2FRTO-MP-063%2FMP-063-%24%24ALL. 8 Peter S. Sapaty, Basic Distributed Control Model pdf&usg=AOvVaw13Yi-drSQz-GTrRvk9ssKK and Technology for Mobile Crisis Reaction Forces and Walter J. Bernard, Silent-Mode Air their United Air Defence, https://www.google.ro/url?sa=t Surveillance, https://www.google.ro/url?sa=t&rct &rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwj N-PuFwN_wAhXpk4sKHaaDBNwQFjAAegQIBBAD& =j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUK url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sto.nato.int%2Fpublications EwjN-PuFwN_wAhXpk4sKHaaDBNwQFjAAeg %2FSTO%2520Meeting%2520Proceedings%2FRTO-MP- QIBBAD&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sto.nato. 063%2FMP-063-%24%24ALL.pdf&usg=AOvVaw13Yi- int%2Fpublications%2FSTO%2520Meeting%2 drSQz-GTrRvk9ssKK, accessed on 19.05.2021. 520Proceedings%2FRTO-MP-063%2FMP-063- 9 https://www.army-technology.com/projects/gepard/ accessed on 22.05.2021 %24%24ALL.pdf&usg=AOvVaw13Yi-drSQz- 10 http://www.army-guide.com/eng/product1704.html GTrRvk9ssKK accessed on 22.05.2021 https://www.researchgate.net/figure/A-numbe r-of-OODA-loops-in-parallel-22_fig2_288970156 REFERENCES https://www.google.ro/url?sa=t&rct=j&q= &esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwj *** The Battle staff, SMARTbook, third revised N-PuFwN_wAhXpk4sKHaaDBNwQFjAAegQ edition: Guide to designing, planning & conducting IBBAD&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sto.nato.

June, 2021 47 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University int%2Fpublications%2FSTO%2520Meeting%2 520Proceedings%2FRTO-MP-063%2FMP-063- 520Proceedings%2FRTO-MP-063%2FMP-063- %24%24ALL.pdf&usg=AOvVaw13Yi-drSQz- %24%24ALL.pdf&usg=AOvVaw13Yi-drSQz- GTrRvk9ssKK GTrRvk9ssKK https://www.army-technology.com/projects/ https://www.google.ro/url?sa=t&rct=j&q= gepard/ &esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwj http://www.army-guide.com/eng/product N-PuFwN_wAhXpk4sKHaaDBNwQFjAAegQ 1704.html IBBAD&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sto.nato. https://www.thalesgroup.com/en/activities/ int%2Fpublications%2FSTO%2520Meeting%2 defence/air-forces/advanced-air-defence

48 June, 2021 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University

OPERATIONAL APPROACH OF LAND FORCES IN THE HIBRID CONTEXT

Lt.Col.Assoc.Prof. Paul TUDORACHE, PhD*

Visualizing the various operational contexts of recent Land Forces’ employment, there were many situations where the nominated structures also faced unconventional adversaries, even though, initially, the nature of operation had been identified as having a conventional pattern. This particularity is perpetuated more and more aggressively, determining the conventional military structures of the Land Forces to operate in order to face both regular and irregular forces, even within the same AO. Based on these coordinates, the article triggers to identify the principles needed to adjust the operational approach of Land Forces, so that the organic structures can perform in engaging the adversary from AOs within current and future operations. Also, a subsidiary objective of the present research is to identify the mutations at the level of ACOAs based on which the adjustment of FFCOAs will be made.

Keywords: hybrid operational approach; ACOA, FFCOA; regular forces; irregular forces.

The various recent operational contexts techniques, and procedures (TTPs) by developing have highlighted the fact that the approaches of and applying adversary COAs (ACOAs), based on participants to the military actions have undergone hybridization of his actions. significant changes, the most conclusive being From the perspective of operational approach, localized at the level of courses of action (COAs) the Land Forces have to rethink their options, either adopted. It is not so difficult to understand how operating individually, which requires their own and why this formula was adopted, the justification operational adaptation, or interagency, in close being the opponent’s intention to balance the cooperation with other entities such as special combat power by diminishing the conventional operations forces (SOF). advantages of friendly forces. Practically, friendly forces are determined to react to the permanent Mutations in the opponent’s COA and TTPs opponent’s operational changes, the latter being In general, ACOAs are determined by able to correlate, optimally, actions of regular and performing the intelligence preparation of the irregular forces, even though in the same tactical battlefield (IPB) which, according to APP-28, area of operations (AO). is renamed as intelligence preparation of the The reaction of the friendly forces has not operational environment (IPOE), representing the taken long to appear, and in this sense the doctrines ”systematic process of analyzing the adversary of different armies, out of the desire to improve (enemy), terrain, and weather in an area of interest their Land Forces’ training, use the opposing forces to determine their (likely) effects on operations”2. (OPFOR), clarifying it, from theoretical view, as Although these two concepts differ, the IPB ”a plausible, flexible, and free-thinking mixture focusing on a more detailed analysis of the specific of regular forces, irregular forces, and/or criminal elements, while the IPOE approaching them more elements representing a composite of varying comprehensively and generically, supporting the capabilities … (doctrine, tactics, organization, and commander in ”identifying the adversary’s most equipment)”1. Organized and prepared to act in likely intent and COA … strategy, vulnerabilities, accordance with the opponent’s doctrinal model, and centers of gravity”3, in essence, both comprise the usefulness of OPFOR is given by the possibility the same activities, as follows: ”define the of understanding and combating opponent’s tactics, operational environment, describe environmental effects on operations, evaluate the threat, determine *”Nicolae Bălcescu” Land Forces Academy, threat COAs”4. Sibiu Therefore, at the level of adversary’s visuali- e-mail: [email protected] zation, the most conclusive mutations appear related to the threat’s evaluation, respectively

June, 2021 49 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University

ACOAs’ determination. The first variable, threat’s regular component as well as ACOAs specific to evaluation, is pointed to ”threat force capabilities the irregular one. Although the first option is much and the doctrinal principles and TTP threat forces more complex and demanding, the benefits of its prefer to employ”5. Analysis of threat’s evaluation applicability can be more conclusive, as it is much highlights the fact that, until recently, the personnel easier to visualize the likely conjugated effects on specialized in intelligence from Land Forces (S2, friendly forces COAs (FFCOAs). G2) considered only the adversary’s conventional Also, another pattern that should be taken into component, somewhat omitting their correlation account in determining ACOAs is that of combining with unconventional capabilities and TTPs. As a operational procedures specific to the regular forces result, at present, the threat’s evaluation by S2/G2 such as area defence, deliberate offense and so forth, 6 should be much more comprehensive, including : with irregular forces’ TTPs. One such ACOA that • regular threats – probable hostile intentions somewhat follows the above pattern is the one used of the opponent’s conventional forces such as by the Islamic State of Iraq and Levant (ISIL) for tactical military structures (battalion, brigade, Mosul defence, determined at that time as the center and so forth) that have the ability to operate in a of gravity (COG) of ISIS forces in Iraq. Broadly multi-domain manner; as a rule, the opponent’s speaking, ISIS COA was based on adopting the task conventional forces are used when are created of area defence fueled by hybrid TTPs, manifested windows of opportunity, in other words, moments in the form of: integrating the Mosul city into the when friendly forces can be surprised; combat formation; using the indigenous population • irregular threats – probable hostile intentions (seized by jihadists) as human shield; emplacing of terrorist/insurgent structures, transnational on main avenues of approach of the entire range criminal organizations, nationalist entities, guerrilla elements, paramilitary structures, and so on, which of improvised explosive devices (IEDs), most of exhibit an excessive degree of volatility in the use them vehicle-borne improvised explosive device of their specific capabilities; (VBIEDs) in nature, to acquire counter mobility of 7 • hybrid threats – probable hostile intentions friendly forces . substantiated by correlating regular and irregular Concluding on this first part, it can be forces to generate effects and achieve common appreciated that the opponent should not only desired end states; as a rule, during the operation, the be interpreted in a divided manner, but rather in characteristic structures and entities complement an integrated one that captures all elements of each other. generating the opponent’s combat power, on the Thus, in defining the adversary doctrinal one hand, respectively the probable intentions to model, S2/G2 personnel should capture the whole direct it, on the other hand. mixture of its forces and structures, starting from the regular ones to the irregular ones. Principles regarding the hybridization Regarding the determination of ACOAs, it is of friendly forces COAs substantiated by integrating the threat’s evaluation Clarifying the issues related to the and developing event’s template/matrix. Therefore, reconfiguration of ACOAs, further attention will be the adjustment of the threat evaluation, which as focused on analyzing the Land Forces’ operational outlined above is an essential element, must also approach, in order to identify those elements that be transposed on the ACOAs’ determination. require interventions within it. First of all, taking More specifically, in the final form ACOAs must into account the international military literature, highlight very clearly the likely capabilities, the operational approach is understood as ”a broad intentions and actions of all entities involved, description of the mission, operational concepts, even if S2/G2 personnel may have difficulties in tasks, and actions required to accomplish the analyzing and estimating irregular forces. There mission”8. From another theoretical perspective, are two possibilities for transposing all elements of the operational approach represents the head bridge the opponent: developing integrated ACOAs that which links initial state and desired end state, picture all adversary’s capabilities and probable ensuring the overcoming of identified obstacles actions; developing ACOAs dedicated to the which are represented by ACOAs (Figure 1).

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Figure 1 The operational approach within Land Forces (Author’s conception) Identifying the answer to the question the employment of adversary unconventional associated with the operational approach requires component, the most convenient solution being the analyzing the issue of the FFCOAs’ development use of the SOF (Figure 2). specific to the Land Forces, so how they should be adjusted in order to ensure the overcoming of ACOAs. Representing ”any sequence of activities that an individual or unit may follow… a scheme developed to accomplish a mission”9, FFCOAs, once developed and approved, must be able to “defeat all feasible adversary (enemy) COAs while accounting for all tactical activities”10. By operationalizing the essential concept of the present research, the hybrid operational approach can be defined as a way to overcome ACOAs, correlating missions and tasks performed in the conventional, unconventional and/or hybrid spectrum by dedicated organic structures in order Figure 2 Hybridization of FFCOAs specific to create the conditions estimated for desired to the Land Forces – combat tactical structures end state. Beyond the multi-domain operational (Author’s conception) support, focusing only on the action of maneuvering structures from designated AO, defeating ACOAs SOF structures can be an organic part of the by the Land Forces can be done as follows: Land Forces service, such as the American model, • independently – it is more demanding, because Army Special Operations Forces (ARSOF), or it involves the prior preparation of organic structures a separate service, following the model of other to counter unconventional or hybrid actions; armies. In order to facilitate the exercise of • cooperating with SOF elements – involves a command and control (C2) and the development split of responsibilities, the Land Forces’ structures of operational cohesion, the first variant would be engaging the conventional component of ACOAs, more appropriate (organic SOF), while the SOF, while SOF ensuring the desired effects on the as a different service, is more likely suitable for unconventional one; operational and strategic objectives. In the above • cooperating with other elements responsible configuration, the SOF will have the ”ability to for carrying out the maneuver of the combat forces. operate in small teams and in friendly, politically Thus, a relatively new constant to be introduced sensitive, uncertain, or hostile environments … in the equation of the operational approach is unilaterally or with or through indigenous forces

June, 2021 51 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University and populations”11. Along with very well-known (battalion, brigade) will coagulate the Land Forces’ lethal actions, the SOF will support the Land Forces’ capacity to simultaneously/successively engage all conventional structures with nonlethal actions, specific ACOAs’ elements and capabilities, finally aiming at modelling the local security forces and guarantying the achievement of all desired end gaining the support of the local population. state’s conditions. Within the hybrid operational approach of the Land Forces, the range of SOF component, in terms Conclusions of missions and tasks, is defined by12: The Land Forces, facing the changes related • unconventional warfare – creating/supporting to the continuous reconfiguration and adaptation of the resistance movement, the insurgency, acting the opponent’s regular and irregular forces, or their through or with hidden auxiliary or guerilla forces; mixture, are required to identify those operational • counterinsurgency – combating insurgent strategies whose applicability will guarantee elements in AO; for the economy of the mission a their success. Clarifying the ACOAs’ typology, at key variable is to obtain the indigenous population’s present, the following variants can be defined: support; • conventional – shaped by the use of • counterterrorism – combating terrorist elements opponent’s regular structures, with a quite a and their infrastructure, using hidden, clandestine low usage probability, being applied mainly for or low profile visibility means; deterrence purposes; • assistance of the security forces – supporting • unconventional – configured by integrating the local/regional security forces in the AO in order irregular elements such as terrorist, insurgent, to outline the Land Forces’ unified action; guerrilla, organized crime, resistance movements, • direct action – ”short duration strikes and and so forth; having a moderate to high usage other small-scale offensive actions conducted with probability, it makes sense in situations where specialized military capabilities to seize, destroy, the friendly forces’ combat power is superior, capture, exploit, recover, or damage designated the opponent seeking to diminish the operational targets in hostile, denied environments …”13; advantages created; • special reconnaissance – intelligence, • hybrid – coagulated by the mixture of regular surveillance and reconnaissance (ISR) activities in and irregular elements, in which the following hostile, denied environments, requiring specialized essential configurations can be identified: military capabilities; conventional accentuated - unconventional diminished • information support operations – usually (low to moderate usage probability); moderately psychological operations (PSYOPS) carried out in AO; conventional - moderately unconventional (average • civil-military cooperation (CIMIC) usage probability); conventional diminished operations – engaging the local population and - unconventional accentuated (high usage authorities for nonlethal effects; probability). • environment preparation – activities necessary Of all these, the most demanding challenges for shaping the AO in order to creates conditions for the Land Forces’ structures are generated by for future operations; usually are information and those ACOAs configured by hybridizing regular security in nature; and irregular elements, their applicability having • search, rescue and recovery – offensive as initial purpose surprising the friendly forces. activities issued to prevent, deter, preempt and Such a variant of the opponent’s configuration respond to terrorist threats/acts that include the needs to be solved through a similar operational release of hostages, as well as the restoration of approach, in other words a hybridized one (hybrid control over military and civilian capabilities and FFCOAs). At the level of Land Forces, a suitable infrastructure. and perhaps the most recommended solution is to The timely and effective fulfillment of the above include and develop inside their task organization a missions and tasks by the organic SOF, will fuel the SOF component, which reaching fully operational Land Forces with the ability to successfully strike the capability (FOC), will have the ability to irregular elements of the opponent. Its conjugation engage unconventional targets, either lethally or with the action of conventional military structures nonlethally.

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At the end, it can be concluded that the 12 Ibidem, pp. 2-1 – 2-9. Land Forces, generally, and organic structures, 13 *** JP 3-05, Special Operations, Joint Chiefs of particularly, will have to significantly change their Staff, July 2014, p. x. operational mentality, planning, preparing and executing the operations in a hybridized manner REFERENCES in order to defeat an accentuated hybridized adversary. *** Army Regulation 350-2, Operational Environment and Opposing Force Program, NOTES: Headquarters, Department of the Army, Washington, 1 *** Army Regulation 350-2, Operational Environment DC, 19 May 2015. and Opposing Force Program, Headquarters, Department of *** APP-28, Tactical Planning for Land Forces, the Army, Washington DC, 19 May 2015, p. 1. Edition A, Version 1, NATO Standardization Office 2 *** APP-28, Tactical Planning for Land Forces, (NSO), November 2019. Edition A, Version 1, NATO Standardization Office (NSO), November 2019, pp. 2-19. *** TM 2010-404, Intelligence Preparation 3 *** TM 2010-404, Intelligence Preparation of the of the Battlefield and Operational Environment – Battlefield and Operational Environment – General Principles General Principles and Research Avenues, Defence and Research Avenues, Defence R&D Canada - Valcartier, November 2010, p. 21. R&D Canada - Valcartier, November 2010. 4 *** ATP 2-01.3, Intelligence Preparation of the *** ATP 2-01.3, Intelligence Preparation of Battlefield, Headquarters, Department of the Army, the Battlefield, Headquarters, Department of the Washington DC, March 2019, p. 1-3. 5 Ibidem, p. 5-1. Army, Washington, DC, March 2019. 6 Ibidem, pp. 5-2 – 5-3. *** TRADOC G-2 ACE, Threat Tactics Report: 7 *** TRADOC G-2 ACE, Threat Tactics Report: Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant, version 1.6, February Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant, version 1.6, 2016, pp. 7-8. February 2016. 8 *** Joint Publication (5-0), Joint Publications, Joint *** Joint Publication (5-0), Joint Publications, Force Development, 1 December 2020, p. GL-11. 9 Ibidem, p. GL-7. Joint Force Development, 1 December 2020. 10 *** APP-28, Tactical Planning for Land Forces, *** ADRP 3-05, Special Operations, Edition A, Version 1, NATO Standardization Office (NSO), Headquarters, Department of the Army, Washington November 2019, p. 3-3. DC, January 2018. 11 *** ADRP 3-05, Special Operations, Headquarters, Department of the Army, Washington DC, January 2018, *** JP 3-05, Special Operations, Joint Chiefs p. 1-9. of Staff, July 2014.

June, 2021 53 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University

STATE-OF-THE-ART TECHNOLOGIES TO BE USED IN COMMAND AND CONTROL SYSTEMS

Col. Cezar POPA, PhD Candidate* Col. (ret) Prof. Ion MITULEȚU, PhD**

With the diversification of risks and threats in the multidimensional operational environment, in variable geometry conflicts, state-of-the-art technology must be used at all times in the architecture of command and control systems. This will ensure optimal response conditions both at the planning level and at the level of the execution of the military operation/ action. Real-time communication, horizontally and vertically, between tactical level forces, operational and strategic level command and support structures, and with other institutions with security and defense responsibilities can only be ensured and protected by using advanced technologies. Not to be neglected at all is the training of the human resource for an efficient use of equipment as well as the algorithms and processes for making an efficient decision-making process, in line with technical, technological and artificial intelligence developments.

Keywords: command and control; artificial intelligence; efficiency; technologies; InformationTechnologies.

The impact of state-of-the-art technologies advantages obtained by their implementation at the on actions/operations in multidimensional level of command and control systems, having in confrontation environments mind that they have been developed at the tactical Analyzing the impact of state-of-the-art and sometimes operational level. technologies implemented in the architectures of The Advanced Command and Control command and control systems (C2), we consider System (AC2S) developed by the Czech Defence it important to start from the fact that the current University in 2017, is a concept of how to use extremely complex, evolved conflict environments modern technologies to increase the efficiency of are characterized, in addition to technological decision-making (TDDS decision-making tactical evolution, by the power of information. Planning to support system) and military operations/actions. achieve a common goal of the actors participating in In addition, the number of military personnel and the conflict involves the exchange of information, their equipment for the action/operation to be similar working methods and joint planning carried out may also be determined in accordance sessions, which, at the strategic level often prove with the requirements of the mission. to be difficult. Planning in a multidimensional The concept of Mosaic Warfare has a variant environment and under the conditions of the specific of the approach through CONTEXT-CENTRIC C31. risks and threats of conflict with variable geometry This concept assumes that during C2 processes, creates challenges for both civilian and military commanders develop a general approach to an actors. The military situation and its evolution, operation that reflects their strategy and the intent together with necessary information, become of the upper echelon. The commander directs available in a shorter time and create the possibility the machine-activated control system through of a prompt response, absolutely necessary to a computer interface, assigns tasks to execute, the often-changing situations in the evolution of and introduces estimates for opponents, force a modern conflict. We will bring up some of the size, and desired effect. The machine-activated innovations in the field, in order to present the control system implements Context-Centric C3 by identifying forces (human or robotic/human, technical and weapon) that could perform the *”Bucegi” Mountain Warfare Center tasks but maintains a manageable control level e-mail: [email protected] for the commander. The commander then decides **”Carol I” National Defence University which forces will perform the tasks. This was e-mail: [email protected] driven by the idea that a modular force, capable

54 June, 2021 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University of composing and recomposing rapidly, could offer Drone units have gained particular importance several advantages: Rapid incorporation of new in military operations with the armies of state technologies and techniques, tactics and execution actors. Combat techniques, tactics and procedures procedures, high adaptability of disaggregated have been adapted and folded into the capabilities forces, high complexity and great difficulty for the of drones to provide real-time information. UAVs opponent regarding the evaluation of distributed and are used independently or in coordination with disaggregated forces to determine the intentions and attack groups or special forces units throughout the effects desired by the opponent, increased efficiency targeting process – target acquisition/identification, in the decision-making process, increased area of conducting fires and battle damage assessment. action, and implementing an optimal operational A C5I2SR command-control system strategy. (command, control, communications, computers, Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs/air drones) cooperation, information, interoperability, have also experienced rapid military development. surveillance, recognition)4, in addition to current Military drones are basically the future of military capabilities4 (force command & control, common technology2,which is why the list of military drone operating picture and its interpretation, information, research and production companies is growing by surveillance, reconnaissance, operational and the day. For example, Iran used extensively used tactical planning, air situation and missile defence, Shahed 129 indigenous strike drones in Syria in joint fire and management of air, naval and land military operations (2016), Azerbaijan used Israeli targets, effects management, maneuvering and UAVs IAI Harop in Nagorno-Karabach, Iraq used synchronization, information operations, force the Chinese CH-4 drone and Turkey’s own Bayraktar protection, resource coordination, healthcare, etc.) production drones. Turkey has successfully need to expand its interoperability, macro- conducted drone operations in northern Syria. The surveillance and recognition at least at regional United Arab Emirates used Chinese Wing Loong level if not globally or even in space, in all II drones in Yemen and Libya in 2018. In 2019, environments of conflict manifestation. Russia used Orion drones in Syria, and France use It is the moment when artificial intelligence UAVs in Mali. The American uses multiple drones, comes into play which is increasingly found in MQ-9 Reaper being the most visible. The Nagorno- the architecture of command and control systems. Karabakh conflict between Azerbaijan and Armenia Cyber system systems that will emerge from (2020) has best highlighted the success of drone integrated approaches to all conflicting experiences operations. In less than 48 hours Armenia suffered over time will be able to pre-generate in advance lost 241 tanks, 4 S-300 installations, 2 SCUD combined evolutionary conflict schemes that can installations, 39 tanks and 24 BMP were captured. be managed before real situations degenerate. The subsequent proliferation of military air drones The development of IT technologies has in general – and attack drones in particular – has implicitly also led to an increase in the number made it possible for the latter to be used more and of cyber-attacks and increased crime rates. more frequently in large-scale military operations. Individuals, corporations and governments have At this moment, we are facing the accelerated faced extremely varied threats and cyber-attacks. proliferation of both state and non-state military For example, in South Africa, crime operation aerial drone technologies, which will generate new run from the Deep Web segment with the Dark risks and threats to regional or global security (40 Web section (not accessible to the broad masses) states have acquired and hold military combat or a segment in surface Web, where normal search ISR drones, while 28 states are developing UAV engines do not have access6. In this respect, technologies). The “World of Drones” American multifunctional platforms which can fight against statistics place the world’s states in three main cybercrime are needed: the detection and pro- groups3: states that already use combat drones in active identification of destructive IT activities, military operations, states that possess military the prevention and reduction of crime through drones but have not used them (yet) in combat the exchange of information and the protection of and states that develop technologies for military relevant users and stakeholders against emerging drones. IT activities in the use of pro-active techniques.

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However, the context of technological development based and satellite control systems, in conjunction does not exclude the human element. It remains with the control part of the execution of military the most important in the decision-making process or non-military operations by disaggregated supported by an appropriate command and control forces on the concept of mosaic warfare, may be system. Also, through the personnel who serve these the optimal solution for models of command and technologies with their capabilities, the information control systems extended at strategic level, with becomes available to decision-makers. the possibility of rapid adaptation to the changing Another direction in technology development geometry of latest conflicts. are the satellites. They can be used separately in Any nation with space intelligence gathering all PMESII domains, but a group of cooperating capabilities, also has the possibility of optimal use satellites offers a wide range of advantages. of its high-performance ground attack installations Benefits include optimizing performance in (high-precision striking systems) and vice versa, mission execution and reducing or removing the best-performing missiles become somewhat errors. Technically and technologically, while there useless without observation and information from are many benefits for the involvement of a large space. group of cooperating satellites in the command and Specifically, the results obtained in identifying control process, there are also many challenges. the impact of state-of-the-art technologies and One of the challenges is to determine how cluster/ artificial intelligence on operations carried out in group satellites manage to retain data on other the multidimensional conflict environment will be satellites, knowledge necessary for cooperation, to presented through a brief SWOT analysis. respond promptly and effectively to emergencies/ crisis (of any kind) and to optimize the resources Tech integration within the modular needed for their efficient management. The U.S. and flexible command and control systems Air Force Space Vehicle Research Laboratory Integrated systemic approaches into the art (AFRL)7 has researched these challenges and many of operational planning capture the fact that up to others by developing prototypes and testing them date technologies ensure information flows at all within AFRL TechSat-21 program. In command levels (strategic, operative and tactical). and control macro-systems (developed at regional The starting point for optimizing conflict with or global level by alliances), these technological variable geometry command and control systems is components called satellites cannot be deprived of that they must extend their interoperability, macro- their highly developed location and communication surveillance and recognition capabilities. capabilities of any kind and which can be equipped The equipment used is based on the latest even with defensive or offensive combat and/ technological discoveries and developments. For or combat support systems when the cosmic example, Network Enabled Ability (NEC), a term operational environment is found among the used at NATO level for the system designed to conflict environments. The command and control achieve greater military effect through integrated approach using satellites provides the ability to use of information systems, integrates all these integrate traditional approaches with artificial equipment and technologies. Artificial intelligence intelligence (AI) and non-AI. Problems related is increasingly integrated into highly complex to the integration (knowledge and cooperation) IT systems that are able to learn for themselves of many components can be solved by applying from situations that are managed with their help. solving techniques for subcomponents (intelligent Researches in this field have developed artificial agents) and integrating individual solutions to intelligences to work on the same principle as the reach a final, complete solution. human brain. They can analyze algorithmically We believe that in the concept of space and synthetically and can generate quick solutions warfare (ground-space operations ‒ ground attack that are absolutely necessary in time sensitive of satellites, space-space operations ‒ satellites situations in the decision-making process. The attack satellites, space-ground operations – attack commander may be offered, in a relatively short executed by satellites on ground and combined time, already analyzed COAs, using variables that devices) a symbiosis of architectures of the ground- were previously fed to the system, and using a

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A. PROs (STRONG POINTS) C. CONs (WEAKNESSES)

Developing the efficiency of decision-making process:  Partial replacement of the human factor in the decision-  rapid (real-time) transfer of information; making process / how far certain tasks should be delegated to  rapid, comprehensive, synthetic, analytical and objective the AI (Ex: during the Cuban missile crisis, human decision- analysis of specific situations in the field/area/region; makers changed their minds about actions/attacks. AI would not  automatic generation of COAs based on big-data access and have done so in the absence of actual data to generate this analysis algorithms used by artificial intelligence embedded change); within C2;  Possibility of decreasing or losing human control in the  quick force task org set up, in accordance with the execution of missions using robotic weapon systems; requirements of the mission (number of military and equipment)  The need for exponential growth of measures to protect necessary to carry out the action/operation; information and artificial intelligence systems;  optimizing/updating the organization of military systems as  COAs generated by artificial intelligence lose sight of military well as doctrines, primarily by changing the ratio of human art elements, data and information analysis being algorithmic resources and materials/equipment involved; and may be overlooked essential human-specific analytical  The concentration of human resources will be on the really variables; relevant/important/critical aspects.  Involves the error-free use and/or integration of automated platforms - robots, drones, etc.; Development of response force capabilities:  Creates problems related to moral/ethical aspects as well as  Leading to increased speed of military operations: those concerning the legality of the use and actions of Artificial 1. The huge amount of data available may increase the Intelligence; (not yet really debated /profound discussions on speed of decision-making, but if the decision-making process is moral issues; morality and legality are determined by the power overwhelmed with data/information it may decrease the speed brokers/those who make the laws/leaders); of this process in the absence of adequate management tools.  2. It increases the process’s speed and boosts decision- Developing AI is a task in itself; making process;  AI is a real challenge – training an AI is done through real processes 3. It increases the quantity and quality of processed and activities, not simulated, such as training in a military range. Ex: in information and products/processes, as well as the efficiency of 2003 a Patriot system operating on automatic operating mode shot processes /activities; down an RAF (UK) aircraft, and a few months later, in another similar 4. It significantly/decisively contributes to increasing the incident, a USAF aircraft was shot down. level of understanding of the data provided by the multitude of Communications: it is necessary to secure portable devices sensors. for use in military networks (military personnel do not have  disaggregated force (capable of composing and recomposing individual secure tactical terminals); an increased need for IT rapidly adapted to the specifics of the mission); specialists; processing speed and storage capacity are critical as  reducing human losses by using advanced (robotic, automated) combat technologies; the amount of data increases exponentially and the human factor  ergonomics in the use of forces and equipment by performing cannot process them. large-scale operations or surgical blows, as needed.

Communications:  communications and portable technologies that communicate within networks at soldier level;  different networks communicate with each other;  facilitating the creation of tactical, operational, strategic information networks.

Issues relevant to Command Points within C2: CP mobility is increased by using modular (container) infrastructure and mobile networks are build-up based on miniaturization of components and terminals, for use in heavy humidity conditions, etc. Secure wireless. Currently, secure IP-based transmissions can only be made from static locations, but state-of-the-art technology will allow mobility. Cyber Security ‒ physical destruction can be caused by IT means (e.g. Stuxnet – destruction of Iranian centrifuges); use of troll factories in shaping public/social agendas and opinions at the level of a society (e.g. fakenews phenomenon, Russian troll factories) IT/network access ‒ building the common operating picture, access and processing of signals and images/maps, ISR integration systems, security, etc.; (one possibility is to access information stored in cloud – see US government contracts with IT giants for cloud capabilities). Low-altitude satellite networks and other civilian infrastructures can be used for military action by encrypting signals and data, as they make it impossible to completely destroy the system/multiple redundancy (similar to the STAR system).

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B. OPPORTUNITIES D. THREATS

On the efficiency of the decision-making process:  the real factor of the databases used;  instant access to specially designated or international  neutralizing C2 systems or intelligent weapons systems databases, information; through imminent cyber-attacks;  extremely fast processing of data and information (with an  the great influence of artificial intelligence on human immeasurably higher speed than the possibilities of the human decision-making (decision based on experience, knowledge and brain); talent can be overlooked);  the connection and interconnection of command and control  taking control of weapons systems by artificial intelligence or systems in extensive multinational operations; the enemy through cyber-attacks on the infrastructure of poorly  the use of C2 modules in a rubic or mosaic mode (as a whole protected C2 systems; or in combination, according to the specifics of the operation and at the required level); On communications:  architectural flexibility of the platforms used and C2 modules;  Connectivity and traffic levels raise access/risk/vulnerabilities  simultaneous action with the response cells actions planning; issues;  can contribute to the construction/validation/verification of a  The Internet of Things will generate huge amounts of data and context, a reality, in the military field of the Common Operating metadata, and its control and access may be restricted or may Picture / Situation Awareness. generate disputes. E.g.: Some companies may be restricted from  immense power in identifying and classifying various entering the market; objects/equipment/threats/individuals, with an incomparable  Access to metadata can provide relevant data and if pieced precision and speed higher than man. together can lead to critical information. Ex: Cambridge  Building relevant databases can facilitate the success of Analytica scandal – Brexit, US election; military operations  Modeling/influencing the public opinion /a critical mass to 1. Example: based on databases with images of enemy have a desired reaction (action or passivity) E.g. elections won equipment, a vector can prioritize its first attacks, in which at thresholds below 5%, by presenting a small number of voters impact zone can cause the most damage, make difference / electoral passivity. E.g.: Sun Tzi – "win a war without between friend or foe, etc.; conducting it". 2. Large enough biometric databases allow for the construction of diagrams/networks and the extremely rapid identification of critical elements/objectives in a human network – see Baghdad in the Gulf War, Afghanistan, criminal databases... 3. Increased accuracy leads to a decrease in the likelihood of a misperception/mistake and an escalation of the security situation can thus be avoided.

On the disaggregated, technological and robotic force:  Rapid implementation of new technologies and techniques, tactics and execution procedures;  High adaptability of disaggregated forces;  Complexity and great difficulty for the opponent regarding the evaluation of distributed and disaggregated forces to determine the true intentions and opponent’s desired effects;  Increased efficiency in decision-making process during the execution of the mission;  Increase the area of operations by ergonomic use of force;  Optimal operational strategies - exponential reduction of resource losses of any kind;  By increasing the degree of automation, more robotic equipment will be integrated at the tactical level, while the human resource will be more engaged in the analysis and decision-making process.

comprehensive database. The decision will be made operation of command and control is important much faster, whether a system-generated course in the decision-making process. Identifying and/ of action or an intuitive or a combined course of or constructing tools to analyze the operational action is taken. However, the human factor plays environment and to identify the procedures for the most important role. action necessary for command-control, under the The integration and interconnection of conditions of managing conflict-specific situations subsystems and technologies necessary for the with variable geometry, becomes imperative.

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The process of making forward-looking and and support structures, as well as between strategic correct decisions in these situations is conditional on leadership elements or other elements with security adapting military action to real strategic situations and defence responsibilities, is a determining and addressing all areas of conflict with variable condition in achieving the desired effects throughout geometry in planning and leadership. In this respect, the execution of non-military or military operations. the modularity of the command and control systems Information and communication technology have will lead to increased structural and actional the lead position, both in terms of the number of mobility. The use of high-performance technologies innovations and their impact in the military field. will lead to a significant increase in decision-making At the command and control level, regardless of and action capacity on: increasing the distance of the structure, field or level at which it is conducted, action and precision that will make it possible to cognitive systems will construct scenarios based on selectively and punctually engage objectives; the relevant assumptions and contextual data, offering ability to choose the target effect from a wide range decision-makers alternatives/COAs or, in certain of non-lethal and lethal effects, which will give situations, making their own decisions with direct the military decision greater flexibility; achieving impact on operations. This effect of the sharing the state of confusion necessary to obtain surprise data and information by computers and people is of and victory through processes of psychological, most importance in the decision-making process. informational warfare and misleading operations; The next level is to model data and information and increase responsiveness, optimizing management classify them semantically to reconstruct virtual and achieving the viability of technical systems. possible scenarios from reality. It is the level to The result of the use of high-performance which all command and control systems used in the technologies, their integration and interconnection effective management of latest crises and conflicts of the subsystems at C2 level will result in: tend, particularly of those whose geometry is significant increases in the mobility of systems constantly changing. and subsystems and decision-making capacity; Information technology is defining but the increasing the potential of forward-looking; human element gives it the shape we perceive. broadening the range of planned and conducted Digital development and new information operations; diversification of decision-making technologies have led to significant changes in the and management procedures and management preparation and use of the human resource involved of military or non-military actions/operations; at both decision-making (architecture, structures solutions for multidimensional protection of forces/ and infrastructure) and execution (technical and objectives. equipment, combat and armaments). The global military trend is to transform C2 architectures The role of information technologies and models folded into the current requirements and artificial intelligence optimizing generated by the variable geometry conflict using the decision process effects generated by new information technologies Information technologies developed to date in based on digital evolution. Artificial intelligence the military, ensure information flows within the implemented in command and control systems will forces command and control, obtaining the Common anticipate human intentions and provide options/ Operating Picture and its interpretation, in the variants/scenarios/COAs before we actually need field of intelligence, surveillance, reconnaissance, them. strategic, operational and tactical planning, air In the military field, information is managed situation and missile defence, joint fires and by intelligence structures/units (Intelligence- management of air, naval and land targets, effect INTEL). The role of INTEL units is to provide management, maneuvering and synchronization, decision-makers with a complete picture of information operations, force protection, actors participating in the conflict and the conflict coordination of resources, healthcare, etc. environment (or the operational environment In the face of the risks and threats of a conflict – in a narrower understanding of the conflict with variable geometry8, real-time communication environment). This image should include the actors’ between national or multinational forces, command status (temporary objectives, strategy, doctrine,

June, 2021 59 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University tactics, composition, capabilities, weight centers, acquisition systems (Intelligence, Surveillance, vulnerabilities, capabilities and intentions). INTEL Target Acquisition and Reconnaissance ISTAR) must provide a complete picture on the enemy, its that use information to support the decision-making culture, traditions and history, shaping its societal process. and ethnic environment. An information process Information technology generates developed carried out in support of the decision-making capabilities, tools and techniques or key elements process must be timely sound and accurate. This specialized in information activities. For example, is based on the need for the rapid information flow information technology helps PSYOPS (different from all sources available through state-of-the-art from public information), to have direct control over information technologies. The information shall be the content, dissemination and audience to achieve collected on the basis of the Commander Critical objectives of supporting the general interests of Information Requirement (CCIR) after it has been force, weakening the combative will of opponents previously identified. or potential hostile target audiences, strengthening An information cycle comprises 4 stages – the beliefs of friendly or allied target audiences, planning, collection, processing and dissemination attracting support and cooperation of neutral and of the finished product and information technologies undecided, supporting reconciliation and tolerance are undoubtedly the component that ensures the actions, promoting a positive image of military accuracy and speed of the process and implicitly forces deployed in the theatre of operations and of the information cycle. The information thus countering hostile psychological actions. processed ensures the Comprehensive Picture of Operation security requires identifying and the Operational Environment (CPOE) in terms of protecting critical information considered essential the development of the main characteristics of the elements of information (EFI) and can only be operational environment (terrestrial, maritime and achieved through state-of-the-art information air) as well as of the political, military, economic, technology. Information security ensures the social, infrastructure and information fields of confidentiality, integrity and accessibility of opponents, allies and neutral actors that may information through procedural, technical and influence operations of any kind. administrative control based on unbeatable The complex and continuous process of information technology. planning, coordination, synchronization and Misleading the opponent is achieved by conducting information activities in order to manipulating, distorting and falsifying information achieve the desired effects on the ability of and applying both informational and traditional understanding and perception, the will and means and techniques and technologies. Electronic capabilities of the opponent or other entities, in Warfare (EW) supports Info Ops by using advanced support of the achievement of military objectives, technologies so that critical information underlying while at the same time the protection of their own the opponent’s decisions and the systems that carry is also supported and is based on state-of-the-art this information is affected, commanders can use and ever-improving information technologies. EW activities in the context of influence measures, This process consists of performing information and prevent the opponent from exploiting these operations (Info Ops). opportunities. Advanced information technologies are used Information technology also supports the in shaping operations, focused on changing or engagement of key leaders by facilitating bilateral strengthening the perceptions and attitudes of the discussions between commanders and their military opponent or potential opponent, or in information and civilian correspondents at the same level of protection activities, focused on maintaining influence, speaking on various occasions, in the freedom of maneuver in the information space presence of the media and/or key decision-makers, by defending the data and information that in the preparation and dissemination of interviews, support the decision-making process. There are for a particular media segment, with broad coverage also attacks of data and information systems that and a great influence on the targeted objectives, support the opponent or potential opponent and on conferences prepared to address specific topics of those information systems, surveillance and target interest, with potential for influence.

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The opportunity and efficiency of computer during conflicts with variable geometry for timely network operations (NoCs) depend on the degree management through analysis and informational of dependence of the opponent on the information synthesis of the rapid change in the geometry of technology used and materializes through executed operations carried out or even of conflict in general. attacks on the opponent’s computer networks and the At the moment we believe that it is irreplaceable defence of their own networks. Attacks are carried in the architecture supporting national, regional, out by feeding flawed codes (computer viruses) and global or even space defence and security. The manipulating data for the purpose of modifying fight goes for supremacy in the field of information the characteristics and performance of devices or technology and artificial intelligence in order to of disclosing the information contained therein by have global control. However, the implementation exploiting them. Maintaining the capabilities that of AI in command and control systems and weapons support the decision-making process is essential systems without clearly drawing its limitations for the execution of operations. A procedure in decision and control and without maintaining is therefore being developed for maintaining a absolute control by the human factor over it, can defensive attitude and using protective techniques have a destructive effect. The questions that need to monitor and penetrate information systems also a quick answer are those such as how far should on the basis of existing and permanently developed certain tasks be delegated to AI? For example, information technologies. The aim is to identify and during the Cuban missile crisis, human decision- define the type of attack and to have an appropriate makers changed their minds about actions/attacks. response through actions to limit/delay and/or wind AI would not have done that in the absence of real up their effects. data to generate this change. Another question that The challenges of artificial intelligence in the arises is about moral/ethical issues as well as those field of security and defence are not few and must concerning the legality of the use and actions of be taken into account on current conflicts with Artificial Intelligence (Development of AI is a variable geometry or for future ones. On this date task in itself and has not yet been actually debated/ we are witnessing a major advance in the use of AI discussed in depth regarding its moral issues). in all areas of life, this type of technology providing A weapon system using artificial intelligence is a more comfortable life for those who use it. But initially programmed (target determination and AI also has a strong negative social impact by destruction) later it will schedule itself on the basis reducing personal privacy and can lead to a climate of AI. How will these completely independent of insecurity if not properly managed. High- weapons be controlled? When and if an autonomous performance computers AI has the ability to self- system kills, who is responsible for that action?10 learn. This contributes to the redefinition of both the We all know that a soldier’s mission is particularly security and defence concept and strategy and the dangerous, but certain missions that soldiers must operational planning process where planning for a carry out are extremely difficult, if we are talking potential conflict campaign/operation is required. In about clearing a building where enemies are found or this respect, the command and control structures at the deactivation of a bomb. What if we had the ability the strategic, operational and tactical level need to to send robots to carry out such missions instead develop capabilities to anticipate potential attacks of humans? If something did not go according to on national or regional security (in the context of plan, we would just lose material resources. We see a regional, multinational, extended conflict) and to important benefits of this technology, but can we be the security of forces in the area of operations (for sure that this approach will not completely change operational-tactical level). our way of life? A real challenge is to train an AI AI can have beneficial effects (efficiency of that is done through real processes and activities, decision, protection of force, reduction in the not simulated, just like training soldiers in a range. number of human victims, etc.) but also destructive For example, in 2003 a Patriot system operating on (in the field of security, the future of humanity)9. This automatic operating mode shot down an RAF (UK) technology poses a major challenge for command aircraft, and a few months later, in another similar and control systems and beyond. It is absolutely incident, a USAF aircraft was shot down. The US necessary in the conditions and situations created successfully uses unmanned aircraft that carry out

June, 2021 61 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University surveillance missions and can launch missiles at to have the possibility that different networks targets11. The effectiveness is undeniable but there (belonging to or serving different structures) to is controversy over the morality of these actions. be able to communicate with each other (tactical, While the drones are doing their job at a height, the operational, strategic). This level of connectivity enemy has absolutely no chance of defence (The and traffic (e.g. 5G) can, however, raise access Nagorno-Karabakh conflict of September 2020 – issues, create risks and create vulnerabilities. Armenian losses: destroyed 241 tanks, 4xS-300, Building the Common Operating Picture requires 2xSCUD and captured 39 tanks and 24 BMP all access and processing of signals and images/maps, within 48 hours of the outbreak of the conflict ISR integration systems, security, etc. AI can have and all as a result of drone action. Azeri losses - quick access to information stored in cloud (see unspecified). In this scenario, a human operator U.S. government contracts with IT giants for cloud will decide when that drone will open fire. The capabilities). For the human factor, the processing use of weapons systems or autonomous weapons speed and storage capacity are critical as the requires thorough risk analysis, as technology can amount of data increases exponentially and the quickly replace the human factor due to information human factor cannot process and store them. From processing speed and algorithmic decision-making this point of view, it is recommended to implement speed. Command and control, however, must not AI at the processing level data stored in macro be delegated from the human factor to AI. exponentially growing databases. Low-altitude satellite networks and other Conclusions civilian infrastructures can be used for military The evolution of artificial intelligence and action by encrypting signals and data, as they make information technology in recent years is significant it impossible to completely destroy the system and unavoidable. Today, we are no longer talking with multiple redundancy (similar to our STAR about computers that are capable of generating system). solutions, following pre-defined algorithms, but we Therefore, the impact of the state-of-the-art are talking about computers and devices that have technologies implemented in C2 systems is the ability to develop their own learning capacity. manifested concretely in terms of data traffic, With reference to the security and defence subjects accurate analysis of information and its and applicable in the military field, we believe dissemination, efficiency of decision-making and that new information technologies in conjunction optimizing12 and achievement of common objectives with AI will develop the decision-making process for actors participating in the conflict13. specific to operational planning developed using complex and modular command and control NOTES: systems at all hierarchical levels. AI terminals will 1 Bryan Clark, Dan Patt, Schramm Harrison, Mosaic be found in all automated, robotic weapons systems warfare exploiting artificial intelligence and autonomus within the disaggregated forces (with the possibility system to implement decizion – center operations, Center of rapid aggregation on the specifics of the mission for Strategic and Budgetary Assessments 2020, accessed at 10.02.2021. to be executed) reducing the risk of human losses, 2 Cristian Eremia, The era of air drone wars has finally increasing the level of force protection, increasing settled?, May 14, 2020, https://monitorulapararii.ro/epoca- reaction speed and firepower, etc. Artificial razboaielor-dronelor-aeriene-s-a-instalat-definitiv-1-31794, intelligence has a potential role to play in reducing accessed at 13.03.2021. the use of factor and human resources in various 3 Ibidem. 4 Niculai-Tudorel Lehaci, Trends in the evolution of the fields, processes or activities, but this requires command and control system at operative level, ”Carol I” the use and/or integration of digital, automated National Defence University Publishing House, Bucharest, platforms as well as robots, drones, etc. 2015, p. 65. In the sphere of communications, technology 5 Daniel Roman, Abordări sistemice integrate în is evolving rapidly, the trend being to have arta planificării operaționale, ”Carol I” National Defence University Publishing House, Bucharest, 2017, p. 56. communications and portable technologies that 6 *** Proceedings of the 14th International Conference communicate within networks from the military on Cyber Warfare and Security, Stellenbosch University, structure level to the individual level. It is preferable South Africa, 28 February-1 March 2019 platform The

62 June, 2021 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University cybercrime combating Mapimele, Fikile V and Mangoale, Ene Petru-Viorel, ”Benefits and risks in the Bokang C Council for Scientific and Industrial Research field of artificial intelligence”, International Pretoria, 0001, South Africa, https://scholar.google.ro/schol Scientific Conference Romanian Military Thinking, ar?q=Proceedings+of+the+14th+International+Conference +on+Cyber+Warfare+and+Security&hl=ro&as_sdt=0&as_ Bucharest, November 2019. vis=1&oi=scholart, accessed on 12.02.2021. Eremia Cristian, The era of air drone wars 7 TechSat 21: ”Advanced Research and Technology has finally settled?, May 14, 2020, https:// Enabling Distributed Satellite Systems”, Overview Briefing monitorulapararii.ro/epoca-razboaielor-dronelor- of TecdhSat 21, http://www.vs.afrl.af.mil/vsd/techsat21, aeriene-s-a-instalat-definitiv-1-31794 accessed on 18.02.2021. Freedman Lawrence, Viitorul războiului, o 8 Ion Mitulețu, ”Syria- the space of a conflict with variable geometry and unpredictable consequences”, Journal istorie, translation by Corina Hădăreanu, Litera of the Academy of National Security Sciences no.1 / 2019. Publishing House, Bucharest, 2019. 9 Petru-Viorel Ene, ”Benefits and risks in the field of Hariuc Nicolae, Spațiul, un nou câmp de luptă, artificial intelligence”, International Scientific Conference 16 December 2019, https://www.rumaniamilitary. Romanian Military Thinking, Bucharest, November 2019. ro/spatiul-un-nou-camp-de-lupta 10 htps://www.forbes.com/sites/cognitiveworld/2019/ Lehaci Niculai-Tudorel, Trends in the evolution 01/14/the-weaponization-of-artificial intelligence/#4877c3 of the command and control system at operative 72368 6, accessed on 23.03.2021. level, ”Carol I” National Defence University 11 https://science.howstuffworks.com/robots-replacing- soldiers1.htm, accessed on 23.03.2021. Publishing House, Bucharest, 2015. 12 By implementing AI in IT systems and facilitating AI Mitulețu Ion, ”Syria- the space of a conflict access to the big data database, thus generating comparative with variable geometry and unpredictable analyzes based on algorithms, fast and with a concrete result consequences”, Journal of the Academy of National in providing clear and coherent courses of action, as well as Security Sciences no.1 / 2019. in establishing taskorgs on the type of mission. Roja Alexandru, „Transformarea digitală 13 Through the fast exchange of information, similar – provocare, risc sau oportunitate?”, Research working methods and an availability to joint planning sessions. And Education No. 2, March 2018, www. researchandeducation.ro BIBLIOGRAFIE Roman Daniel, Abordări sistemice integrate în arta planificării operaționale, ”Carol I” National *** Proceedings of the 14th International Defence University Publishing House, Bucharest, Conference on Cyber Warfare and Security, 2017. Stellenbosch University, South Africa, 28 http://economie.hotnews.ro/stiri-it-12494265- February-1 March 2019 platform The cybercrime kaspersky-exista-dovezi-solide-sunt-legaturi- combating Mapimele, Fikile V and Mangoale, stranse-intre-armele-cibernetice-stuxnet-flame.htm Bokang C Council for Scientific and Industrial http://windows.microsoft.com/ro-ro/windows/ Research Pretoria, 0001, South Africa, https:// viruses-faq#1TC=windows-7 scholar.google.ro/scholar?q=Proceedings+of+t http://www.vs.afrl.af.mil/vsd/techsat21 he+14th+International+Conference+on+Cyber https://www.dw.com/ro/irakul-ringul-de- +Warfare+and+Security&hl=ro&as_sdt=0&as_ lupt%C4%83-americano-iranian/a-51853825 vis=1&oi=scholart htps://www.forbes.com/sites/cognitiveworld/ Clark Bryan, Patt Dan, Schramm Harrison, 2019/01/14/the-weaponization-of-artificialintellig Mosaic warfare exploiting artificial intelligence and ence/#4877c372368 6 autonomus system to implement decizion – center https://science.howstuffworks.com/robots- operations, Center for Strategic and Budgetary replacing-soldiers1.htm Assessments 2020. https://www. darpa.mil/news-events/

June, 2021 63 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University

THE ARCTIC REGION, EUROPEAN UNION AND CLIMATE CHANGE, AS A GLOBAL THREAT TO SECURITY

Assoc.Prof. Mihaiela BUȘE, PhD*

The Arctic region, on one hand, an area situated so far from the European Union and, on the other hand, an environment so hostile to life, is în the spotlight of the world’s powers. The resources, so necessary for the nations, ‒ the riches în the depths of the soil and în the ocean ‒, the potential of tourism and the importance of shorter transport routes aroused the interest of some actors în the region. The European Union has developed a policy for the Arctic region. Are the European Union՚s concerns strictly related to security and the economy or is there a much wider horizon of goals to be achieved?

Keywords: The Arctic region; European Union; globalization; climate change; threat; international security.

Why is the Arctic region important natural resources as well as the opening of new for the European Union? navigation routes that would ensure a faster The Arctic, an extensive far away region, located transport of goods in various parts of the world. ”at the northernmost part of the planet”1, despite Climate change, which is devastatingly affecting very challenging conditions of life and climate, the region, is also a matter of concern to countries is arousing more and more interest globally. The around the world, these being, also affected by Arctic region is characterized by extreme climatic climate change occurred increasingly intensified in peculiarities: very large temperature fluctuations, the Arctic4. heavy snow, brief summers, large areas covered According to the Joint communication to with ice, substantial discrepancies in terms of light the European Parliament and the Council. An periods. It is an extremely harsh living environment integrated European Union policy for the Arctic, but to which both the fauna and the indigenous the EU’s concern about the Arctic refers to the populations have managed to adapt2. Although it fact that, first of all: ”A safe, stable, sustainable is an extremely tough environment which makes it and prosperous Arctic is important not just for the difficult to explore, the Arctic region stores special region itself, but for the European Union (EU) and natural resources. for the world”5. This way, the importance of the Not only the important natural resources of the Arctic is underlined not only locally but also for the Arctic have generated an increased attention to this EU and for the whole world. Consequently, given region from the countries of the world. According the importance of the Arctic region for the EU, it is to the research activity realized for Arctic Human natural that UE become an actor involved in issues Development Report. Regional Processes and related to the Arctic and international cooperation: Global Linkages during 2004 (when the first report ”The EU has a strategic interest in playing a key was published) - 2014 (when the second report was role in the Arctic region”6. Secondly, ”Eight states published) the authors state that ”we have witnessed have territories in the Arctic: Canada, the Kingdom a dramatic increase in interest in the Arctic”3. of Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, This unprecedented interest of the international Sweden and the United States. Three EU Member community was due on one hand to economic States are therefore also Arctic states, while reasons and on the other hand to environmental Iceland and Norway are members of the European reasons. In this order of ideas, it is necessary to Economic Area”7. With member countries with mention the possibility of exploiting the enormous territories in the Arctic, the EU’s interest in peace, stability and prosperity in this region is strategic. **”Carol I” National Defence University The Ambassador for the Arctic, Michael e-mail: [email protected] Mann, summarizes the reasons why the Arctic

64 June, 2021 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University region is important not only for the EU but also affecting Arctic and Antarctic glaciers, ice caps, and for the world as a whole, given that the effects of ice sheets suggests that low-end projections of global climate change are much more pronounced in the sea-level rise made by the Intergovernmental Panel Arctic region than in other parts of the globe8. With on Climate Change (IPCC) are underestimated”12. three member states that have territories in the Satellite measurements revealed that ”over the Arctic, the European Union perceives this region period 1979-2020, the sea ice area in the Arctic from the perspective of internal security rather decreased by 33.000 km² per year in winter than foreign security or foreign policy. So here is (measured in March) and by 79.000 km² per year a first, extremely important reason that highlights in summer (measured in September)”13. The trend the EU’s interest in the Arctic. A second reason is in terms of melting ice is a continuous acceleration that the Arctic is very important for the EU, for which is having effects both in the EU and around products like oil, gas, fish, and, in the long run, the the globe. Thus, only ”the cumulative ice loss from exploitation of minerals is also being considered. Greenland from 1992 to 2017 was 3.900 billion The third reason is a paradox: on one hand, the EU, tones, […] contributed approximately 11 mm of due to the developed industry, is one of the factors the global sea level rise”14. that causes the effects of climate change, and on the High Representative/Vice-President Josep other hand, the EU is the main international player Borrell, aware of the tremendous importance of in the fight against climate change. Consequently, the Arctic for the EU but also for the whole world, EU action to protect the Arctic seeks both to protect stated that ”the European Union’s engagement its own interests and to protect the planet. in Arctic matters is key for our foreign policy in many ways”15. That is why the EU is determined to The global effects of climate change affecting help solve the problems that the Arctic is facing. In the Arctic ‒ a challenge for the European Union this sense, the Arctic policy has been continuously Over time, there have been two approaches to adapted and developed. In 2021, the EU Arctic climate change: either non-existent or real, with policy provides three directions of action: ”firstly, devastating consequences for the environment to preserve the Arctic as a region of peaceful and thus for humans. In March 2008, The cooperation; secondly, slow the effects of climate European Union, through the voices of the High change; and thirdly, to support the sustainable Representative and the European Commission, development of Arctic regions to the benefit of stated that climate change is not only real but future generations”16. This three key aims at both already has effects on EU security and international short and medium-term and long-term goals security. Climate change is perceived as ”a threat because actions to mitigate the effects of climate multiplier which exacerbates existing trends, change and sustainable development can give future tensions and instability”9. In November that year, generations the opportunity to enjoy the legacy we the European Commission stated that the Arctic have received from our forefathers. region is essential for the planet’s climate but at the same time exposed to the effects of climate change. The EU role in addressing the environmental Thus, a cause for concern is represented by the challenges temperatures twice as high than anywhere in the The Arctic faces far greater global warming world. In addition, the accelerated melting of the consequences than other regions of the globe. ice sheet on the soil but also of the ice that covers According to Josep Borell, ”regardless of the important parts of the ocean influences the entire current pandemic, climate change remains the globe by increasing sea levels10. biggest global challenge that humanity is facing. Arctic ice monitoring has revealed that the This is especially true for the Arctic”17. As the EU effects of global warming are much more severe is directly interested in the Arctic being a protected than anticipated. Thus, the new data show that ”the region in all respects: from the point of view of Arctic Ocean could be largely free of sea ice in global warming, the economy, the protection of summer as early as the late 2030s, only two decades natural resources, it has been concerned about issues from now”11. Also, contrary to previous estimates, affecting its security. Thus, since 2008, the EU ”the recent recognition of additional melt processes has distinguished itself through various initiatives

June, 2021 65 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University on the Arctic region: Communication from the ESIF programmes provide funding for research Commission to the European Parliament and the and innovation activities in the European part Council ‒ The European Union and the arctic of the Arctic”24. Investments are essential for region18, EU policy towards the Arctic region19, development, so the Investment Plan for Europe Joint Staff Working Document ‒ The inventory can finance infrastructure projects in the Arctic: of activities in the framework of developing a ”Through this instrument and its existing lending European Union Arctic Policy ‒ Accompanying operations, the European Investment Bank (EIB) the document Joint Communication to the could not only help to finance projects to improve European Parliament and the Council ‒ Developing transport connections over land, sea and air, but also a European Union Policy towards the Arctic telecommunications, energy efficiency projects and Region: progress since 2008 and next steps20, low-carbon technology”25. Also, the EU-owned Joint Communication to the European Parliament space technology, the Copernicus program and the and the Council. An integrated European Union European Global Navigation System, will be used policy for the Arctic21. The last document, Joint for security and environment monitoring purposes Communication on an integrated EU policy for the in the Arctic. Arctic, published by the European Commission The third priority in the Arctic is primarily and the High Representative on 27 April 2016 the involvement of the EU in collaboration with focuses on three priorities: climate change and international organizations and fora, the UN the Arctic environment, sustainable development Convention on the Law of the Sea, and participation in the Arctic, international cooperation on Arctic in the Arctic Council. Secondly, the EU is involved matters. in regional and sub-regional cooperation. Thirdly, Regarding the first priority, the EU is a leading the EU maintains a constant dialogue with Arctic contributor to Arctic research. On one hand, it funds indigenous peoples in order to respect human rights research-related initiatives (40 million EUR under and to cooperate in areas where it is considered the 2016-2017 work program), on the other hand, it necessary. supports research projects such as the EU-PolarNet initiative. Also EU space programs will be used in Conclusions research on the effects of climate change on the According to Michael Mann, Ambassador for Arctic. Moreover, through the Paris agreement, the Arctic, the European Union is in the Arctic. From another EU initiative to mitigate the effects of this perspective, the EU has a strategic interest in climate change, it aims to limit global temperatures the Arctic, both in terms of internal security and below 2°C. To this end, the EU aims ”to reduce its in terms of economics due to the various natural total greenhouse gas emissions by 40% by 2030 resources that are currently exploited (such as fish, and by 80% by 2050 compared to 1990 levels”22. oil) and those that will be exploited in the future In addition, the EU is working ”to limit emissions of short-lived climate pollutants such as black (various minerals). In addition, the fragile Arctic carbon and methane”23. Also, in order to protect the environment is much more vulnerable than the rest environment and implicitly the Arctic region, the of the planet to global warming. EU respects its commitments under multilateral That is why the EU, one of the most active environmental agreements. In this regard, the EU actors involved in climate change mitigation, has envisages international cooperation in finding created a policy for the Arctic that it has developed ways to protect biodiversity, in establishing marine continuously because, from an EU perspective, protected areas in the Arctic, as well as measures a safe and prosperous Arctic is not just a benefit against invasive alien species. for the EU, but also for the whole world. The The second priority, sustainable development melting of the ice cap has effects not only in the in the Arctic, is a necessity for people in such Arctic region and does not involve severe climate a hostile region in terms of temperatures and change only regionally but globally. In addition, environment. The innovative technologies will very low temperatures and the environment are generate great social and economic benefits. In characteristics of a daily life lived in difficult the EU’s vision ”in addition to Horizon 2020, the conditions for the indigenous populations.

66 June, 2021 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University

All these issues, from global warming to the 13 [European Environment Agency], Indicator social and economic difficulties of indigenous assessment, 8 Dec. 2020, https://www.eea.europa.eu/data- peoples, are addressed in the EU’s Arctic policy. and-maps/indicators/arctic-sea-ice-4/assessment, accessed on 14.02.2021. The EU identifies many directions for action both 14 [European Environment Agency], Indicator for the sustainable development of the Arctic and assessment, Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets, https:// for the global threat posed by climate change. www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/indicators/greenland-ice- However, the approaches to these issues, in order to sheet-4/assessment, accessed on 14.02.2021. generate satisfactory results, involved international 15 [European Union External Action Service], Arctic: Speech by High Representative/Vice-President Josep Borrell cooperation. As an example, the EU’s efforts to at the Arctic Frontiers conference, Brussels, 02.02.2021, limit global warming alone are not enough to slow https://eeas.europa.eu/headquarters/headquarters-homepage/ the evolution of climate change. As specified in 92475/arctic-speech-high-representativevice-president- many official EU documents, global challenges can josep-borrell-arctic-frontiers-conference_en, accessed on only be addressed through global efforts. 16.02.2021. 16 Ibidem. 17 [European Union External Action Service], The Arctic, NOTES: a key region for the EU and global security, 03.02.2021, https:// 1 [European Union External Action Service], EU Arctic eeas.europa.eu/headquarters/headquarters-homepage/92500/ policy, 20.02.2017, https://eeas.europa.eu/headquarters/ arctic-key-region-eu-and-global-security_en, accessed on headquarters-homepage/20966/eu-arctic-policy_en, accessed 08.02.2021. on 12.02.2021. 18 *** Communication from the Commission to the 2 *** UN Environment programme, https://www. European Parliament and the Council - The European unep.org/explore-topics/oceans-seas/what-we-do/working- Union and the arctic region /* COM/2008/0763 final ,*/ regional-seas/regional-seas-programmes/arctic-region, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri= accessed on 03.03.2021. CELEX%3A52008DC0763 3 Joan Nymand Larsen, Gail Fondahl, Arctic Human 19 *** EU policy towards the Arctic region, 2012, Development Report: Regional Processes and Global https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/LSU/?uri= Linkages.Copenhagen, Nordisk Ministerråd, 2014, p. 29. CELEX%3A52012JC0019 4 Ibidem. 20 *** Joint Staff Working Document ‒ The inventory 5 *** Joint Communication to the European Parliament of activities in the framework of developing a European and the Council. An integrated European Union policy for Union Arctic Policy ‒ Accompanying the document Joint the Arctic,, Brussels, 27.4.2016, JOIN(2016) 21, finalhttps:// Communication to the European Parliament and the Council eeas.europa.eu/archives/docs/arctic_region/docs/160427_ ‒ Developing a european Union Policy towards the Arctic joint-communication-an-integrated-european-union-policy- Region: progress since 2008 and next steps, 26.06.2012, for-the-arctic_en.pdf, accessed on 22.02.2021. https://ec.europa.eu/transparency/documents-register/ 6 Ibidem. detail?ref=SWD(2012)182&lang=EN 7 Ibidem. 21 *** Joint Communication to the European Parliament 8 Why does the Arctic matter to us? Ambassador for the and the Council. An integrated European Union policy for Arctic, Michael Mann, explains in 60 seconds, 02/02/2021, the Arctic, Brussels, 27.4.2016, JOIN(2016) 21, https://eeas. https://eeas.europa.eu/headquarters/headquarters- europa.eu/archives/docs/arctic_region/docs/160427_joint- homepage/92597/why-does-arctic-matter-us-ambassador- communication-an-integrated-european-union-policy-for- arctic-michael-mann-explains-60-seconds_en, accessed on the-arctic_en.pdf, accessed on 22.02.2021. 24.02.2021. 22 Ibidem, pp. 6-7. 9 *** Climate change and international security, Paper 23 Ibidem, p. 7. from the High Representative and the European Commission 24 Ibidem, p. 10. to the European Council, 14 March 2008, https://www. 25 Ibidem, p. 11. consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_data/docs/pressdata/en/ reports/99387.pdf REFERENCES 10 [European Union External Action Service], Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council ‒ The European Union and the *** Communication from the Commission to the Arctic Region, Commission of the European Communities, European Parliament and the Council ‒ The European Brussels, 20.11.2008, https://eeas.europa.eu/archives/ Union and the arctic region /* COM/2008/0763 docs/arctic_region/docs/com_08_763_en.pdf, accessed on final*/, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ 12.01.2021. 11 *** The Arctic Monitoring and Assessment TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A52008DC0763 Programme (AMAP), Snow, Water, Ice and Permafrost in the *** Climate change and international Arctic. Summary for Policy-makers, Oslo, Norway, 2017, p. 3. security, Paper from the High Representative 12 Ibidem. and the European Commission to the European

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Council, 14.03.2008, https://www.consilium. [European Environment Agency], Indicator europa.eu/uedocs/cms_data/docs/pressdata/en/ assessment, 08.12.2020, https://www.eea.europa. reports/99387.pdf eu/data-and-maps/indicators/arctic-sea-ice-4/ *** EU policy towards the Arctic region, assessment 2012, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ [European Environment Agency], Indicator LSU/?uri=CELEX%3A52012JC0019 assessment, Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets, *** Joint Staff Working Document ‒ The https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/indicato inventory of activities în the framework of developing rs/greenland-ice-sheet-4/assessment a European Union Arctic Policy ‒ Accompanying [European Union External Action Service], the document Joint Communication to the European Communication from the Commission to the Parliament and the Council ‒ Developing a European Parliament and the Council ‒ The european Union Policy towards the Arctic Region: European Union and the Arctic Region, Commission progress since 2008 and next steps, 26.06.2012, of the European Communities, Brussels, https://ec.europa.eu/transparency/documents- 20.11.2008, https://eeas.europa.eu/archives/docs/ register/detail?ref=SWD(2012)182&lang=EN arctic_region/docs/com_08_763_en.pdf *** Joint Communication to the European [European Union External Action Service], Parliament and the Council. An integrated European Arctic: Speech by High Representative/Vice- Union policy for the Arctic, Brussels, 27.04.2016, President Josep Borrell at the Arctic Frontiers JOIN(2016) 21, finalhttps://eeas.europa.eu/ conference, Brussels, 02.02.2021, https://eeas. archives/docs/arctic_region/docs/160427_joint- europa.eu/headquarters/headquarters-homepage/ communication-an-integrated-european-union- 92475/arctic-speech-high-representativevice- policy-for-the-arctic_en.pdf president-josep-borrell-arctic-frontiers-confer *** The Arctic Monitoring and Assessment ence_en Programme (AMAP), Snow, Water, Ice and [European Union External Action Service], The Permafrost în the Arctic. Summary for Policy- Arctic, a key region for the EU and global security, makers, Oslo, Norway, 2017. 03.02.2021, https://eeas.europa.eu/headquarters/ *** UN Environment programme, https:// headquarters-homepage/92500/arctic-key-region- www.unep.org/explore-topics/oceans-seas/what- eu-and-global-security_en we-do/working-regional-seas/regional-seas- [European Union External Action Service], programmes/arctic-region EU Arctic policy, 20.02.2017, https://eeas.europa. *** ”Why does the Arctic matter to us?”, eu/headquarters/headquarters-homepage/20966/ Ambassador for the Arctic, Michael Mann, explains eu-arctic-policy_en în 60 seconds, 02.02.2021, https://eeas.europa.eu/ Larsen Joan Nymand, Fondahl Gail, Arctic headquarters/headquarters-homepage/92597/why- Human Development Report: Regional Processes does-arctic-matter-us-ambassador-arctic-michael- and Global Linkages, Nordisk Ministerråd, mann-explains-60-seconds_en Copenhagen, 2014.

68 June, 2021 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University

THE PERSISTENT CONFLICT, A CHARACTERISTIC OF THE CONCEPT OF APPROACHING THE HYBRID WAR IN THE EASTERN EUROPEAN OPERATIONAL ENVIRONMENT

Lt.Col. Valentin PETRESCU, PhD Candidate*

The Contemporary Eastern European operational environment is a complex system of actors, weapons and weapon systems, circumstances and conditions that manifest themselves in well-defined areas and that can directly influence decisions to use military capabilities. It may include both enemy and neutral or allied enemy forces and systems participating in the persistent conflict, as well as the culture of the population, the physical environment, local resources, the technological level, the political decision-maker and the executor. The lessons learned from the first part of this century convinced us that the Eastern European operational environment is quite conflictual; constantly changing at local and regional level, it falls into a dynamic, persistent and complex context, which, combined with energy blackmail strategies favor the emergence of hybrid dangers and threats to the stability and security of the Eastern European area. Through this article I want to give a firm and documented answer to questions related to: the conception of approaching the persistent hybrid conflict; the tendency of some actors to persist in tensions in the area of Eastern European insecurity and their concern to maintain the persistent conflict as a form of modern manifestation of Eastern European Community relations.

Keywords: operational environment; persistent conflict; hybrid threats; hybrid operating system.

In order to make a coherent analysis, we will use all available tools (military, economic, political start from the hypothesis that state actors present in and information), in order to achieve the proposed the conflict environment can fit into a wide range of objectives during operation planning. forces, starting from the structure of a regular force, The theory of US military science defines the which belongs to a state, to the level of non-state main elements that can influence the planning actors. such as non-governmental or governmental and conduct of military operations specific to organizations that can act firmly to achieve their the persistent conflict, such as: globalization, own goals. To this scenario, if we add various demographic change, technological level, resource organized crime and/or terrorist organizations, requirements, urbanization, natural disasters and we have the complete picture that constitutes the climate change, proliferation of weapons of mass operational environment for conducting military destruction, failed or poorly governed states, etc. operations. In this sense, we can consider that Thus, ”the persistent conflict is the prolonged the operational environment extends beyond the confrontation between state, non-state and geographical theater of conflict, being a military individual actors who are willing to use violence to arena in which phase lines and objectives are achieve political and ideological goals”1. The main lost or achieved by using lethal force or by using feature of military actions in hybrid operational time in which the fighting force can recover and environments is that combat missions performed maintains the security and stability of the conquered with unconventional means may be more numerous objectives. Thus, all actors involved, enemies and persistent, compared to those performed with or allies, non-state or state, regardless of combat conventional means. Often, this aspect derives from capabilities and military capabilities available, will the asymmetric configuration of persistent conflicts in the hybrid operating system, which may include components specific to all environments in which *”Carol I” National Defence University military operations can be performed: information e-mail: [email protected] environment, physical environment, geophysical environment, moral environment, etc.

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The Eastern European concept of tackling between these types of approaches are related to the the persistent hybrid conflict fact that, in the Russian conception, conventional The concept of approaching hybrid warfare threats are missing from the combination. ”One became important in the Eastern European of the main objectives pursued by hybrid threats operational environment, it was implemented is to destabilize the government and the main in the Russian-Ukrainian conflict (2014) and institutions of the opponent, thus creating chaos strategically supported by Russian officials. Thus, and power vacuum”4, states Gherasimov. Seeking in his article entitled ”The value of science in to gain some strategic advantage and achieve prediction”, General Valery Gherasimov (Chief advantageous objectives or alignments, through of the General Staff of the Russian Army) stated unexpected tactics and procedures, or by violent on September 1, 2015 that the rules of war will means of attack, Russian military theorists have undergo significant changes in its persistence. In abandoned the use of traditional methods and the this regard, he argues that ”the center of gravity predictability of their actions, arguing that this of the methods applied in the conflict has shifted is the sure way to achieve the planned military towards the widespread use of political, economic, desideratum. information, humanitarian and other non-military Moreover, the hybrid threat is invisible, means applied in coordination with the potential difficult to justify and, consequently, cannot be protest of the population”2. Moreover, he demonstrated and amended by international legal claims that, in the modern conflict environment, structures, because state-of-the-art weapon systems, asymmetric actions will be present and particularly advanced technological means, unexpected tactics active, making it possible to reduce the advantages and innovative procedures specific to operations are of conventional opponents, present in the theater used. In essence, the approach to the new concept of operations. Gherasimov emphasizes that an of persistent conflict involves a concentrated use of important part of the asymmetric actions will be key elements, able to activate the fighting spirit of carried out through the use of special operations the great Russian people, these elements being5: forces (FOS) or through close cooperation with • carrying out actions under the cover of the internal opposition forces, in order to maintain a law ‒ the central element of the Russian military persistent conflict situation throughout the territory strategy is the creation of perfectly legal aspects, of enemy troops. These actions will be more in order to avoid any liability to international legal effective if they are carried out with improved security bodies. In this regard, a relevant example information and technological means. is the illegal annexation of Crimea by occupying Thus, when we talk about the modern conflict, and subsequently simulating a referendum, without we understand that military officials no longer take international supervision, by which Moscow into account separate threats, the approaches in this managed to orchestrate the annexation of the field being fundamentally different. The current Crimean Peninsula and establish its status, outside doctrine of the Russian army places an important the will of the local population and the sovereign emphasis on the use of new tactics, techniques and state of Ukraine; procedures for action, combined with simultaneous • demonstrations of military force ‒ The action. Within the persistent conflict we can Russian Army has deployed important military observe the trend of convergence of irregular force structures, weapons systems and logistical threats, in which the actors in conflict resort to means near the border with Ukraine, in order to a comprehensive approach in order to achieve prepare the offensive operation, invade the territory strategic objectives. ”War is no longer declared, of the neighboring state and forcibly resolve a crisis but, once it begins, it is carried out according to an situation, created at the level of Ukrainian political unfamiliar model”3, added the head of the Russian system; army. • the use of the ”green men” ‒ Putin’s masked It is necessary to emphasize that there are ball ‒ in order not to attract international political major differences between the Russian approach responsibility, on the territory of Ukraine, the strategy, applied, in particular, in Ukraine and the Russian state used special forces from the Vostok Western strategy. The aspects that differentiate battalion (without military insignia), which invaded

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Ukrainian territory as local security, the correct characteristics (weather, climate, etc.)6. By carrying purpose of these operations being to facilitate the out operations in the physical environment, the aim intervention of Russian military structures in the is to disorganize or prohibit the important activities area and not to protect the population of Russian of the opponent, by using lethal or non-lethal force nationality; and by performing maneuvers throughout the • using the advantage created by local militias area of operations. Most persistent conflicts are and the screen of tensions in the area ‒ Russia resolved in the physical environment, mainly in the protected its Russian minority population before area of terrestrial space, as in this environment are starting military operations, by supporting and placed most of the resources of the participants in grouping them, providing them with a shield of the conflict. Usually, resources are most important protection during the intervention; in the balance of power, as they are the center of • propaganda, lies and systematic misinformation gravity of the operations planned in the scheme ‒ Russia was aware of the importance of the of the conflict. From here we can conclude that media both nationally and regionally or globally, the effect of military actions, carried out in the for which it carried out a vast campaign of physical environment, is decisive for destroying the manipulation and misinformation of the masses, opponent, or for blocking his access to the resources using several components of the war media that necessary to achieve the planned objectives or have turned information into a formidable weapon, achieve the desired alignments / final state. as follows: humanitarian coverage (motivation of The military operations carried out in physical offensive actions with humanitarian arguments, space of the persistent conflict have two spatial in order to attract consistent support from the components (conventional and unconventional), international environment); systematic and targeted which define the geometry of the operational misinformation in order to activate the fighting environment in which the missions planned by the spirit of the Russian people (movement used by the participants in the operation are fulfilled. We mention Russians and against the Nazi invasion); credible the fact that, in the conditions of past conflicts, not denial - false arguments and bizarre explanations very far away, the geometry of the operational offered by Russian officials about the purposes of space, at operational and tactical level, was quite the invasion (in support of denying the green men simplified, it was a geometry of straight lines, belonging to Russia, Russian officials justified the which defined contiguous areas. The operational fact that their uniforms can be bought from any environment of the present persistent conflict is a second-hand store); New Russia ‒ motivating aid hybrid one, generated during the development of given to Russian rebels in Ukraine motivated by modern conflicts, with a complicated geometric invoking historical arguments. aspect, in which the conflict areas are concentrated In conclusion, the physiognomy of the persistent around areas with rich energy resources, or around conflict was perfectly applied in the situation of the objectives targeted by hybrid threats. From the invasion of Ukraine (2014), a combination of actions perspective of analyzing the disposition of these being used simultaneously: political, economic, objectives, using the principles of conventional cyber, psychological and guerrilla, which caused conflicts, we can understand that it is a chaotic chaos and created vulnerable and destabilized state dislocation, in reality, the objectives pursued public authorities. have a network configuration, and neutralizing an objective can affect the entire structure of the The physical environment, the environment objective network. of using lethal force and resolving The strategy of persistent threats also takes persistent conflicts into account the geographical space of the actors The physical environment is the environment in the area that generate the military force, even of physical spaces, conflicting entities, actions and if the projection of the force and the conduct of effects that manifest in the theater of operations. operations are performed in an operational theater It includes armed groups, military forces, civilians, at a great distance from it. However, the concept infrastructure, natural resources, geographical of war theater, defined as ”land, air and sea space area (air, land and sea), as well as meteorological which is or may be directly involved in the conduct

June, 2021 71 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University of major operations or campaigns requiring armed cybernetic environment and the electromagnetic struggle”7, has become quite complex, given environment. the spatial dimension. of the hybrid operational The electromagnetic environment is an environment, the strategic objectives pursued and operational space in which all actions using the increased degree of technologizing information electromagnetic energy can take place. Usually, and communication systems. these actions precede those performed in moral In conclusion, we remain convinced that in and physical environments, and the timely and any conflict, whether persistent or not, the decisive successful accomplishment of some can decisively operation requires the presence and action of influence the success of others. Electronic warfare, the instruments of force, and the maintenance in as a form of persistent conflict, is the sum of attention of the specific elements of the geometry offensive and defensive measures that take place of the operational environment is necessary. directly in the electromagnetic environment, which can be exploited, modeled and used for attack and/ The informational environment, the space or defence9. of manifestation of the forms of persistent The modern cyber environment encompasses confrontation ”all systems designed to collect, process and The information environment is an environment distribute information in support of timely decision- specialized in carrying out persistent military actions making, command and control operations”10, and processes, which performs the procurement, the basic feature of which is that systems have processing and use of data and information, being telecommunications networks, integrated the link between the moral environment and the processors, computer systems and interdependent physical environment. In essence, this environment computer networks. is the ideal space for the manifestation of the From the analysis of the Eastern European forms of persistent confrontation which have, as insecurity area, it results that the operations carried a central and integrating element, the information out in the cyber environment presented several on the set of measures and actions carried out in peculiarities. Thus, they aimed at: destroying, order to achieve the objectives pursued. In this banning, disorganizing and delaying the collection, environment, non-destructive or destructive actions processing and dissemination of information; can be performed. the use of a wide range of actions specific to the Persistent non-destructive actions can manifest information war (virtual or physical attacks on themselves in order to distort collective or individual important information systems of the opponent); perceptions of the situation in the tactical field8. entering false or contradictory information into The targets of these actions are found either in the system; diminishing the fighting power by the spectrum of the military system (interception, prohibiting or distorting the opponent’s access to espionage, misleading, etc.) or in the spectrum of the civilian community (space of origin or space the current situation, or by affecting his ability of deployment of forces), more importantly in the to lead actions; destruction or damage to the area of decision-making personnel, non-destructive architecture of computer systems, information actions can be channeled on psychological networks, databases and the Internet. actions, providing false information, propaganda, In conclusion, the Eastern European information manipulation, etc. environment has, for decision and execution, high- Persistent destructive actions can be carried out performance information products from its own permanently, by hitting the structures and means sources, from related sources with internal, external, in the composition of the information flow (of judicial responsibility, etc. It encompasses virtually the elements in the composition of the command- all those information systems and open sources control system: communication centers, command that operate in the environments of interest and points, sensors, etc.), or by attacking information facilitates the assurance of information superiority technology systems. (communication systems, or supremacy, an essential condition for the computer networks, databases, etc.). domination of the battlefield. Through the effects The modern information environment, the achieved in the space of Russian-Ukrainian forces, military structures, has two components: the it can be concluded that information operations,

72 June, 2021 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University conducted by Russian specialized structures, have in the operational environment, new types of exceeded the local borders of the crisis in Ukraine, weapons were used, generically called geophysical gaining regional and international proportions. weapons, with an effect against the environment. In Western literature it was called ecological The moral environment, the environment warfare or meteorological warfare, while in for carrying out persistent psychological Eastern literature the notion of geoclimatic warfare operations was used. The persistent conflict specialists claim The moral environment includes ”attitudes, that there are occult forces that can control the beliefs and determinations specific to individuals phenomena generated by tornadoes or hurricanes, or groups of individuals, manifested by their desire using them as devastating weapons. They also to overcome fear and aversion and achieve unity said that the artificial influence of the weather, as a of effort, necessary to achieve the proposed goals/ process of struggle, presented the potential danger objectives”11. The moral environment includes two of giving rise to uncontrollable destruction, with basic components: the psychological component unforeseen consequences. The worst thing is the and the cognitive component. Manifestations of high probability that such destruction will have the psychological component are found in the more serious consequences for the population than emotional spectrum of the individual, such as: sense for the armed forces12. of ethnicity, patriotism, faith in which he fights, The technique of changing the environment religious zeal, etc., and the level of education, includes a set of techniques to change the structure judgment and issues related to indoctrination we or composition of the Earth (by deliberate will find in the cognitive component of the human manipulation of natural processes), including outer individual. space, biosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and In essence, operations of persistent conflict that its atmosphere. With the onset of climate change, take place in the moral environment aim to influence there has been increasing pressure to develop new those behaviors and attitudes of management technologies that could block the sun’s heat or suck personnel, commanders, groups, organizations carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Many of the or individuals belonging to allies, partners, own technologies considered can have unpredictable forces, neutrals or adversaries, who manifest effects, they can get out of control, leading to themselves vocally to achieve goals and objectives. pandemics with universal action, because they own forces. The most important types of operations do not respect national borders. Often, critical that take place in the moral environment are media civil infrastructure has been targeted in regional operations and psychological operations. conflicts, and state and non-state actors have In the psychological operations, carried out in long experience in manipulating the environment the Eastern European operational environment, the for tactical advantage, the implementation of groups of people from the field of action of the armed geoengineering technologies being a source of new forces, the civilian population, the morale and the threats to environmental security. psychic citizen were targeted, using information, Collateral damage to the environment was images and a specific language, it would hurt their considered an inevitable consequence of armed attitude and will. Moreover, these operations had conflict. At the same time, there were examples visible effects, targeted volitional, affective and of intentional manipulation of the environment cognitive processes, altered feelings, produced by most warring parties, with the environment strong emotions and subjected the individual becoming a weapon of war. There are many or collective will to the deepest levels of human examples, some very old, in which the conflicting emotion, in order to weaken psychologically and belligerent forces have deliberately harmed the morally the opponent and cause significant losses. war environment. Thus, the scorched earth tactic is meant to destroy a certain area and deprive it of any The geophysical environment, the space value to opponents, their own troops or civilians. for manifesting threats to the environment This action may include the destruction of critical Geophysical warfare was experienced and civilian infrastructure, food and water sources, developed in the latter part of the Cold War, when, shelters, natural resources, etc. The Soviet army

June, 2021 73 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University used this strategy in its withdrawal from Ukraine in far beyond the boundaries of the area of operations World War II in order to slow down the offensive and even of the theater of operations; of German troops. The information operations are, day by day, a Deliberate deterioration of the environment category of actions whose role and significance can is a decision caused by a set of natural conditions no longer be neglected in the context of changes or dangerous, irresponsible and harmful human in the phenomenon of conflict characteristic of activities or serious natural phenomena, with direct today’s society, this trend being imprinted by the effects on the safety and security of the population, role assigned to information that has become a real both at national and regional level; or global. weapon, embodied in concepts specific to persistent Among them, we emphasize: natural disasters, conflict (such as network-based warfare, effects- severe geophysical or meteorological-climatic based operations, etc.), resulting from the need for phenomena (floods, strong storms, prolonged effective operations, while limiting the loss of life drought, etc.), generated by global warming; and destruction of property. sudden and radical changes in living conditions The fact that, during armed conflicts, the (landslides, earthquakes, etc.); industrial or environment has been continuously manipulated is ecological catastrophes resulting in heavy loss not and will not be a surprise. Throughout history, of life, substantial disruption of economic and the environment has changed in many ways and for social life and serious environmental pollution; many reasons, from changes in weather to physical the increasing probability of pandemics, the most changes in natural landscapes. In addition to armed recent example being the pandemic triggered by the conflict, environmental changes are generally A1H1 virus and Covid-19. These phenomena, in implemented to mitigate environmental risks or our opinion, give the analyzed factor an accentuated improve access to natural resources. potentially conflicting character which, in the The danger caused by earthquake-type climatic conditions of some unfavorable evolutions, can anomalies depends on the proximity of potential turn into persistent geophysical war. sources, their magnitudes and the occurrence Actors who agree with the strategy of rates expressed in probabilistic terms, smaller in persistent conflict often use critical infrastructure magnitude and with short durations. to gain a military advantage. This includes the use of environmental infrastructure for strategic NOTES: purposes, such as some water networks (dams, 1 *** ADRP 3-0, Unified Land Operations, Department watercourses, canals and lakes), as well as industrial of the Army, Washington, 2012, cap. 1, p. 1-1. facilities that are particularly dangerous for the 2 Valery Gherasimov, General, Chief of the General environment. Such use is commonplace, but as Staff of Russia, „Valoarea ştiinţei în predicţie” (1 September societies have become dependent on environmental 2015), Gherasimov Doctrine and Russia’s non-linear war infrastructure for economic and social life, the on the territory of Ukraine, http://romaniabreakingnews. ro/ consequences of using these arrangements against doctrina-gherasimov-si-razboiul-non-liniar-dus-de-rusiape- teritoriul-ucrainei/; The value of science in prediction, the warring parties become particularly severe (the https://inmoscowsshadows.wordpress.com/2014/07/06/ reinforcement of water infrastructure provides thegerasimov-doctrine-and-russian-non-linear-war/, accessed such an example). Thus, dams, sewage treatment on 05.03.2021. plants, pumping stations or pipelines may be the 3 Ibidem. subject of a deliberate attack to endanger and 4 Ibidem. subjugate the civilian population. The forms of 5 Rebecca Blum, ”The future of NATO in the face of hybrid conflict”, Bernard El Ghoul, International Relations, water reinforcement are multiple, from disturbing Academic year 2014/2015, p. 5. or diverting watercourses to flooding large areas of 6 *** Doctrina Armatei României, Bucharest, 2018, land, with serious consequences for both combat p. 135. forces and the civilian population. 7 *** JP 1-02, DOD Dictionary of Military Terms, US Department of Defence, Joint Education and Doctrine Conclusions Division, 2010, https://www.jcs.mil/Portals/36/Documents/ Doctrine/pubs/dictionary.pdf, accessed on 05.03.2021. The analysis of hybrid threats shows that the 8 Ion Bălăceanu, Florian Râpan, Marius Hanganu, spatial dimension of the operational environment in Iulian Martin, Doina Mureșan, Valentin Dragomirescu, which such a persistent conflict takes place extends Interacțiunea strategiilor în conflictele armate moderne,

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”Carol I” National Defence University Publishing House, *** Manualul de planificare a operaţiilor, Bucharest, 2010, pp. 49-74. Bucharest, 2016. 9 *** Manualul de planificare a operaţiilor, Bucharest, Bălăceanu Ion, Râpan Florian, Hanganu Marius, 2016. 10 *** Doctrina Armatei României, Bucharest, 2018, Martin Iulian, Mureșan Doina, Dragomirescu p. 134. Valentin, Interacțiunea strategiilor în conflictele 11 Ibidem, p.135. armate moderne, ”Carol I” National Defence 12 https://www.hotnews.ro/stiri-arhiva-1258889- University Publishing House, Bucharest, 2010. romania-victima-razboiului-geofizic.htm, accessed on Blum Rebecca, ”The future of NATO in the face 05.03.2021. of hybrid conflict”, Bernard El Ghoul,International Relations, Academic year 2014/2015. REFERENCES https://www.hotnews.ro https://inmoscowsshadows.wordpress.com *** ADRP 3-0, Unified Land Operations, https://www.jcs.mil/Portals/36/Documents/ Department of the Army, Washington, 2012. Doctrine/pubs/dictionary.pdf *** Doctrina Armatei României, Bucharest, ro/doctrina-gherasimov-si-razboiul-non-liniar- 2018. dus-de-rusiape-teritoriul-ucrainei/ *** JP 1-02, DOD Dictionary of Military https://inmoscowsshadows.wordpress. Terms, US Department of Defence, Joint Education com/2014/07/06/the-gerasimov-doctrine-and- and Doctrine Division, 2010. russian-non-linear-war/

June, 2021 75 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University

THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION ENERGY POLICY, AN INSTRUMENT FOR RECONSOLIDATING THE STATUS OF HIGH POWER

Lt.Col.Assoc.Prof. Andi Mihail BĂNCILĂ, PhD*

The disintegration of the USSR in December 1991 marked the end of the Cold War. Many foreign policy analysts were quick to point out that Russian Federation had ceased to be a threat to the Western world. Despite facing a multitude of economic, social and military problems, under the leadership of Vladimir Putin the Russian state managed to be reborn. Russian Federation’s miraculous return was made possible by the successful implementation of a policy of economic centralization that overlapped with a period of rising global oil prices. Economic prosperity encouraged the Russian Federation government to return to the old practices of the Soviet period, succeeding in unbalancing the fragile states of Eastern Europe and once again endangering the peace of the entire continent.

Keywords: Russian Federation; Cold War; Crimea; hydrocarbons; conflict.

Even though, by the end of the 20th century, most former republics of Ukraine, Kazakhstan, and politicians and academics saw Russian Federation Belarus, which wanted to preserve part of this as an old great power incapable of honoring its arsenal on their territory. Being aware of the risk of commitment on a global scale, the beginning of nuclear proliferation, the United States supported the 21st century gives us a very different picture the total withdrawal of these weapons in Russian of the initial perception. To understand Russian Federation and, through the Memorandum signed Federation’s positioning in a multipolar world and in Budapest on 5 December 19943, they guaranteed its evolution in the first half of the 21st century, territorial integrity to the former Soviet republics we must examine carefully the path it has taken and support in the event of a violation of its over the past 500 years. It is interesting to note that agreements4. the sinuous evolution of Russian Federation makes From an economic point of view, Russia it difficult for specialists who try to anticipate its remained the main power of the former Soviet future course. During this time, the Russian State Empire, having direct or indirect access to most behaved atypically in relation to the experience of mineral resources. The Russian State ranks first any other great power, managing to be reborn after in the world in the natural gas production and each limit situation it had been through. eighth in oil production5, a position it merges by controlling deliveries of these resources extracted Soviet heritage from the Central Asian States (the oil and gas With the dissolution of the former Soviet pipelines that served the deposits of these states Empire, Russian Federation became the natural were interconnected only with the Russians, with heir of the most important elements of its heritage no alternative for their export). Even though the (nuclear weapons and its place in the UN Security role of coal has decreased in the functioning of new Council1). The huge nuclear arsenal deployed industrial capacities, from an energy point of view, during the Cold War both in Soviet territory and in it continues to play a key role. Russian Federation some European States was withdrawn by important has had the second-largest coal reserve in the world, international agreements on Russian Federation which, along with its hydropower potential, makes territory2. In the first phase of this process, many it the world’s fourth-largest producer of electricity6. negotiations took place between Russia and the With the help of Gazprom, which exploits 94% of the country’s natural gas resources7 and holds *”Ferdinand I” Military Technical Academy significant stakes in European companies, Russian e-mail: [email protected] Federation has put European states in trouble whenever its geopolitical interests have called for

76 June, 2021 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University it. The interruption of natural gas supplies in winter of the Russian government. This company can or even the total cessation of exports to some states theoretically deliver its products to Western markets have become common practice. In this way, the without responding to the Kremlin’s orders. Aware Russian Federation managed to obtain numerous of the risk of market liberalization, Vladimir economic or even political concessions. Very few Putin’s new political leadership nationalized these oil-dependent states have taken a firm stand when companies. The movement of centralization of the Kremlin political leader deliberately violated energy production began on 25 October 2003, with existing international treaties and regulations. the arrest of the Russian oligarch for tax evasion. There are even situations in which some European He was accused of embezzling the state with several leaders such as the Prime Minister of Hungary, billions of dollars, in 2004 his fortune was estimated Victor Orban, have indirectly supported certain by Forbes at about 15 billion US dollars11. Russian Federation initiatives8. To reduce the losses of large companies, the Moscow government, under the new leader Energy resources ‒ the main asset of Russian Vladimir Putin, has nationalized or increased Federation foreign policy its participation in many of the country’s large Russia’s post-cold war era proved to be winding, energy companies. This, together with a period of and the periods of normalization, escalation, and rising oil prices, has allowed Russian Federation crisis in its relations with other members of the to reconsider its position at the table of great international community varied considerably. After powers and come back into force to regain some the disappearance of the USSR, the Russian State of its former sphere of influence. Although initially went through a strong political and economic crisis political and economic analysts had serious doubts which affected its international credibility. After the about Russian Federation’s acceptance into the elite failed privatizations of the 1990s, many factories club of the world’s most industrialized states, since closed their doors, firing millions of Russians. The 1997 it has been accepted in the G7 group which only areas that theoretically could still benefit were has become the G812 since then. energy companies, which unfortunately had been The restoration of Russian Federation‘s taken over by an interest group known as oligarchs monopoly on its energy resources has given the (former prominent members of the CPSU or secret new Kremlin leader Vladimir Putin the leverage services). The main financial losses weakened the necessary to regain high power. Because of centralized leadership and allowed these ”investors” their monopoly on the European energy market, to govern the regions in which they operated, negotiations on technology and additional funding sometimes challenging Moscow leadership. for new investments have been difficult. This has The attempt by the European States to forced the Western States to identify a new way of emancipate themselves from Russian Federation reducing energy dependence on Russian Federation13. energy control has proved difficult. In the early 1990s, Politicians have sought to promote a series of the West supported a project aimed at liberalizing projects by which they would reduce dependence the exploitation of Russian energy resources9. On on resources imported from this state. Many funds 12 May 1993, by Government Resolution No. 354, have been earmarked for the development of the the two major state oil companies Yuganskneftegaz alternative energy sector (wind, solar, hydropower, (which produce 11% of the oil extracted from etc.). In an ambitious medium- and long-term plan, Russian Federation) and Kuybyshevnefteorgsentez the European Union intends to reduce the amount

(extracting 9% of Russian Federation’s oil) were of CO2 released into the atmosphere by 40% merged into a single company Yukos10 which, in by 2030 and to increase the percentage to 60% 1996, was sold to Mikhail Khodorkovsky. The man by 205014. behind this enterprise gained in very little time or This aim cannot have immediate effects, so impressive power, allowing him to influence many European countries need to develop other energy aspects of the Russian state’s economic policies. strategies. They also approved the allocation of At its peak, the Yukos produced 20% of Russian funds for the construction of terminals for imports oil and could decide where and at what price to of liquefied natural gas to be used for imports of sell products, sometimes the political decisions gas from Norway, Qatar and shale gas extracted

June, 2021 77 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University from the United States15. The most accessible and benefiting from significant benefits. Netherlands efficient project, achievable in a short time, was the and France, represented by N.V. Nederlandse construction of a network of pipelines competing Gasunie and GDF Suez S. A., were registered as with those of the Russian Federation, through project partners and were rewarded with 9% of the which cheap natural gas could have been imported actions20. from central Asia. The construction of the Nabucco The strategic acquisitions allowed the Russian project, which is supposed to deliver cheap gas from state to obtain even the indirect control of project the Caspian Sea16, to Europe, became the EU’s zero Nabucco’s future, through Gazprom Russia controls priority and a series of impact assessments have been 30% of Austrian packet, named Baumgarten and commissioned. The 3,900 km long pipeline was to 20% of Centrex Europe Strategy company, which be a joint project of Turkey, Bulgaria, Romania, were to be involved in the construction of the Hungary and Austria, which, through national future pipeline21. In case Nabucco would become a companies, should have monitored a percentage reality, Russian companies already control directly of future business17. Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan and or indirectly the Azerbaijan’s gas production, Kazakhstan should have become major suppliers purchasing with an overstated price the exploitation of European countries that could have benefited from Shah Deniz with a confirmed capacity of from natural gas at competitive prices. 15 billions of cubic meters every year22. Even Unfortunately, this approach was easily canceled more, Russia has secured an important part of the by Gazprom, which began the construction of two route of the future pipeline, concluding strategic new competing North and South Stream projects, partnerships with a part of Central Europe states. in which it could attract from the beginning several Hungary has become one of the main partners of the key Nabucco States (Bulgaria and Hungary), and Russian state in this geographic area, benefiting of the largest consumer of natural gas, Germany. deliveries of natural gas at preferential prices and Also, Russian Federation ensured that Georgia, substantial gains resulting from the privatization of one country on whose territory a significant part the state oil company MOL (through the company of the pipeline was to be built, goes bankrupt and Surgutneftegaz, Russian Federation bought at a even lose its sovereignty over important areas of double price, compared to the listing on the stock its territory. Russian rulers reactivated one conflict exchange, an important package of actions of frozen in the 90s and threw the State into an infinite Hungarian company23). civil war. In 2008, troops of the Russian Federation intervened directly against the Georgian State, Political blackmail and military intervention, tearing two autonomous republics of Abkhazia and an important part of Russian Federation Southern Ossetia18, thus indefinitely delaying the diplomacy construction of the pipeline. Even though Russian Federation managed Russian Federation ‘s energy strategy has to keep much of the international privileges of proved much more complex, considering many the former USSR, its geopolitical position has other options. From the very first moment, it adopted deteriorated significantly, especially as a result of the decision to build a pipeline system to bypass the loss of territories that ensured the access to the the territory of Ukraine, and Russian Federation planet’s ocean. Russian Federation’s exit to the has tried to win the goodwill of some States of Baltic Sea was reduced to only 6 nautical miles24 the European Union. The Russian geopolitical wide lane near Saint Petersburg and another small game was indirectly supported by Germany, part in the area of Kaliningard enclave, where which became the main importer and distributor most of the Baltic fleet was deployed (coastal of Russian gas later, two companies registered in areas adjacent to the former republics of Lithuania, that state became partners of the North Stream Latvia and Estonia, and Finland had requested project (Wintershall Holdings and E.ON Ruhrgas the rising of territorial water’s limits from 4 so 12 owned 15.5% of the project)19. The other Member nautical miles). Russian Federation also lost most States of the European Economic Area took part of its exit to the Black Sea in favor of Ukraine and in this project by participating with their energy Georgia, including the Crimean Peninsula which companies in the pipeline’s construction and had been transferred by CPSU Secretary General

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Nikita Khrushchev (Ukrainian in origin) in 1954 This organization was initially joined by 11 of the to the Soviet Socialist Republic of Ukraine25. The 15 former members of the USSR, to which Georgia32 Black Sea fleet has been divided between the three was added in December 1993 (the exceptions were successor states of the USSR, Russian Federation the Baltic states, which had begun negotiations for winning almost 70% of its ships. Because most their Euro-Atlantic integration). As in the case of of the port infrastructure was located in Crimea, the single market of the former British Empire, the in Sevastopol the two states signed a treaty CIS encountered great difficulties in functioning, allowing the Russian navy to stay in this port until especially as a result of the competition that other 201726. Taking advantage of the installation in great powers had created in this space. Many of the the presidential chair in Kiev of the pro-Russian Soviet enterprises operating with subassemblies Victor Ianukovici, in 2010 Russia renegotiates the produced throughout the former USSR diversified agreement to extend stationary of Russian troops their suppliers and indirectly bankrupted some of for another 25 years. the economic actors they traditionally33 worked The issue of the Russian navy stationed in with. Morally used Soviet technology was replaced Sevastopol is being re-discussed after the overthrow by the one produced in the West or in the South of the president Viktor Ianukovici and the Asian states, with Russian Federation remaining installation in Kiev of a pro-Western government27. a mere supplier of raw materials. Also in this Ukraine initiated association and later accession interval, the Soviet economy suffered due to the loss of control of important energy suppliers in talks to the two Euro-Atlantic structures NATO the Central Asian states. Initially, oil and gas and EU. This severely disturbed the Kremlin producers in Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan and leadership, which considered unacceptable the idea Uzbekistan depended on transport infrastructure of having such a directly long28 border line with the located on Russian territory. This benefited the competing collective security organization. Russian Russian Federation, which could set the selling Federation’s response was not left waiting for long; price of these products. Over time, China, directly with the voice of president Putin a hypothesis was interested in the exploitation of existing gas and oil launched that the border was guaranteed to another in this area, invested considerable sums and created state, not to the one that asserted itself after the 29 a system of pipelines that connected it directly to movement known as the Euromaidan . the oil fields of these states34. Even though after the dismemberment of the Another sign of the Russian Federation’s former USSR the international prestige of Russia weakness in relation to its former Cold War had decreased significantly, the vast majority of competitor, the United States, was the loss of international organizations created and coordinated military outposts in territories considered to be by Moscow (Warsaw Pact, CAER) had dissolved, of strategic importance to its national security. and the third world states revolving around it had This happened not only in the territory of Eastern sought new protectors, slowly but surely, Russian European states, but also in the territory of some Federation managed to return to the table of great former Soviet republics. The Baltic States were powers. Efforts to regain political and economic the first entities to express their desire to detach influence, including within the former Soviet themselves politically and economically from the empire, were significant. former USSR. In 2004 the three former republics 30 On December 8, 1991 , shortly before the joined NATO and the EU35, later managing to build collapse of the former USSR, the Kremlin leadership a separate road from Moscow. Less well known set up a new economic cooperation organization to the public is the fact that Russian Federation’s called the Commonwealth of Independent States. economic and military weakness in the 90s allowed The most likely source of inspiration had been the United States to move significantly closer to the the British Commonwealth, which had sought to oil area around the Caspian Sea. preserve the single market of its former colonial After the outbreak of the global war against terror empire. The CIS (Commonwealth of Independent in 2001, the United States showed its willingness to States)31 had to play the role of a common market cooperate with them in order to develop its own for the states from the former Soviet empire. energy or military infrastructure. In this respect, the

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US government approved several loans to Central The most important conflicts assumed totally or Asian states, with Uzbekistan receiving 160 only partially by Moscow were those in Syria million dollars and Kyrgyzstan about 92 million36 and Ukraine. In 2014, Russia launched the most dollars. This gesture was not disinterested, as the controversial political action since the post-Soviet US government was interested in developing a era by invading part of its territory in neighboring network of military bases around Afghanistan Ukraine and producing the annexation of the at the time. The United States negotiated several Crimean province. This incident significantly agreements with these states that would require the contributed to the suspension of the Russian temporary installation of the US military in bases state from the G839 forum and the imposition of near the area of operations in Afghanistan. In 2002, economic sanctions by the US and major EU the US military deployed about 2,000 soldiers to Member States. the Karshi-Khanabad military base in Uzbekistan. The military and political actions taken by this Under a similar agreement, Kyrgyzstan agreed to great power will continue to attract the attention host up to 2,000 troops at an air base in Manas near of Western decision-makers and raise concerns the capital, Bishkek37, while all other former Soviet among the governments of neighboring states. republics in the area had agreed to allow overflight of U.S. military aircraft. NOTES: 1 Blum Yehuda, ”Russia Takes over the Soviet The U.S. military in Afghanistan and Union’s Seat at the United Nations”, European Journal of neighboring states near the Russian Federation International Law, Volume 3, Issue 2, 1992, p. 354. border grew rapidly, from about 25,000 troops in 2 William Walker, ”Nuclear Weapons and the Former 2000 before the outbreak of the war on terror to no Soviet Republics”, International Affairs, Volume 68, Issue 2, less than 80,000 a few years later38. The Russian April 1992, p. 256. 3 https://web.archive.org/web/20140317182201/ authorities interpreted that as an attempt to encircle http://www.cfr.org/arms-control-disarmament-and-nonpro the oil area (the US military presence in the Persian liferation/budapest-memorandums-security-assurances- Gulf had been established since the early 1990s 1994/p32484#, accessed on 28.02.2019. following the conflict with Iraq), position from 4 The fulfillment of the conditions set out in the which the US could subsequently launch a military memorandum signed in Budapest, also undertaken by Great Britain, China, and France, was invoked by the Ukrainian State attack against any state or non-state entity that when the undeclared conflict with the Russian Federation led could have endangered its interests. to the loss of Crimea in 2014. The provisions of the treaty were also recalled to the international community at the Conclusions outbreak of the secessionist conflict in the eastern part of the country, where the Ukrainian state again accused Russia of Russia’s political instability ended with the interfering in the country’s internal affairs. coming to power of former KGB agent Vladimir 5 Constantin Hlihor, Security policy in the contemporary Putin. With the help of people from the intelligence international environment: energy sector, European Institute and public order structures, he restored the Russian Publishing House, Iași, 2008, p. 103 6 M. Luzhikova, Energy Security in Russia Federation Federation government’s control over all regions apud I. Chifu, A. Sauliuc, B. Nedea (ed.), Energy security of the state and the country’s most important strategies in the wider Black Sea Region, Curtea Veche companies. Through a particularly violent military Publishing House, Bucharest, 2010, p. 243. action, Putin managed to pacify the Caucasus 7 Lars Petter Lundena, Daniel Fjaertofta, Indra Overland, Alesia Prachakova, ”Gazprom vs. other Russian (ended the war in Chechnya) and directly supported gas producers: The evolution of the Russian gas sector”, the separatist movements in the former Soviet Energy Policy No. 61, 2013, p. 663. republics. The rich mineral resources to which the 8 https://www.euractiv.com/section/politics/news/ Russian state had access were a great geopolitical hungarys-orban-defends-russia-cooperation-at-putin- visit/?fbclid=IwAR1Yc6W98EnP-e2h4j31stFLQsi_ntrCmA advantage. Through them, they were able to put K80nAEBqYlJ0_8QIBj96jKGPo, accessed on 29.02.2020. pressure and obtain important concessions from 9 Constantin Hlihor, op.cit., p. 131. European states and China. 10 Sim Li-Chen, The Rise and Fall of Privatization in Recovering even part of its revenues, Russia the Russian Oil Industry, Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 2008, p. 51. re-launched a series of military actions outside the 11 Marshall Goldman, ”Putin and the Oligarchs”, national territory both within the former Soviet Foreign Affairs, Vol. 83, No. 6 (Nov. - Dec., 2004), p. 34, empire and at a great distance from its borders. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20034135

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12 On 24 March 1014, the Russian Federation was 31 The CIS was born on December 8, 1991 by signing suspended from the G8 because of armed aggression the Belavezha agreement. Under this treaty, it was decided against Ukraine, which led to the annexation of the Crimean that as of December 26, 1991, the USSR would cease to peninsula. Smale Alison, Shear, Russia is ousted from group function as a state. After the disintegration of the USSR for a of 8 by US and Allies, The New York Times, March 24, 2014, time, the former Central Asian republics continued to revolve https://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/25/world/europe/obama- around Moscow, on which they continued to depend for russia-crimea.html, accessed on 26.06.2020. technological imports and transport infrastructure of the main 13 Alexander Ghaleb, Natural gas as an instrument of exported products, oil and natural gas. As they had been given Russia state power, US Army War College. Retrieved, 2011, the necessary conditions to strengthen their own economies p. 20, http://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep11537, accessed on through direct exports of natural gas and oil, they sought new 27.01.2021. opportunities to emancipate themselves from Moscow. 14 Rihard Morningstar, Andras Simonyi, Olga Khakova, 32 Zbigniew K Brzezinski, Russia and the Commonwealth Irina Markina, European Energy Diversification: How of Independent States: Documents, Data, and Analysis, Alternative Sources, Routes, and Clean Technologies Can Routledge, New York, 2015, p. 238, https://books.google.ro/ Bolster Energy Security and Decarbonization, Atlantic books?hl, accessed on 09.02.2021. Council Global Energy Center, 2020, p. 2, https://www.jstor. 33 Robert Strayer, Why Did the Soviet Union Collapse? org/stable/, accessed on 27.01.2021. Understanding Historical Change, M.E. Sharpe, New York, 15 https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/ 1998, p. 134, https://books.google.ro/books?hl, accessed on es/IP_19_1531, accessed on 27.01.2021. 09.02.2021. 16 Stefanova Boyka, ”European Strategies for Energy 34 In 2003, with the economic and technological support Security in the Natural Gas Market”, Journal of Strategic of China, Kazakhstan managed to inaugurate the first 448 km Security, Vol. 5, No. 3, Fall 2012, p. 58, https://www.jstor. of oil pipeline that Russia no longer directly controls. In 2011, org/stable/26463950, accessed on 28.01.2021. the length of this pipeline exceeded 2798 km, ensuring for the 17 Ibidem, p. 59. first time the total economic independence of the Central Asian 18 David Matsaberidze, ”Russia vs. EU/US through states. See Kazakhstan-China Crude Oil Pipeline, https:// Georgia and Ukraine”, Connections, Vol. 14, No. 2, Spring www.hydrocarbons-technology.com/projects/kazakhstan- 2015, p. 82, https://www.jstor.org/stable/26326399, accessed on 28.01.2021. china-crude-oil-pipeline/, accessed on 26.06.2019. 19 http://www.nord-stream.com/en/the-pipeline/facts- 35 Jurkynas Mindaugas, Security concerns of the figures.html, accesed on 28.01.2021. Baltic States in the twenty first century, p. 113, apud Clive 20 Ibidem. Archer, Alyson J.K. Bailes, Anders Wivel, Small States and 21 M. Luzhikova, op.cit., p. 259. International Security: Europe and Beyond, Routledge, New 22 Ibidem. York, 2014, https://books.google.ro/books?, accessed on 23 George Mihailov, Rolul Turciei în securitatea 11.02.2021. energetică europeană, apud Dan Dungaciu, Darie Cristea 36 Paul Dobrescu, Geopolitics, Communication (ed.), Doctrine, strategii, politici. De la discursul geopolitic Publishing House, Bucharest, 2003, p. 312. la operaționalizarea securității internaționale, Publishing 37 Douglas Schorzman, ”Staging Base for Afghan House of The Institutute for Political Sciences and War Handed Over to Kyrgyzstan”, The New York Times, International Relations, Bucharest, 2012, p. 238. June2,2014, https://www.nytimes.com/2014/06/04/world/ 24 Sergiu Tămaș, Geopolitica, Publishing House of The asia/staging-base-for-afghan-war-is-handed-to-kyrgyzstan. Institute for Social Theory, Bucharest, 1999, p. 265. html, accessed on 26.06.2020. 25 Scânteia No. 2908, 28 februarie 1954. 38 Paul Dobrescu, op.cit., p. 311. 26 In 1997, the presidents of the two states signed the 39 Alison Smale, Michael Shear, ”Russia Is Ousted From Friendship Agreement between Ukraine and the Russian Group of 8 by U.S. and Allies”, New York Times, March 24 Federation, which regulated this issue. The agreement was 2014, https://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/25/world/europe/ renewed in 2010 by President Medvedev, who extended his obama-russia-crimea.html, accessed on 05.10.2020. stay for another 25 years in exchange for significant price reductions for Russian gas delivered to Kiev. REFERENCES 27 Roy Allison, ”Russian ‘deniable’ intervention in Ukraine: how and why Russia broke the rules”, International Affairs, 90: 6, 2014, p. 1257. Archer Clive, Bailes J.K. Alyson, Wivel 28 The Russian Federation already has a direct border Anders, Small States and International Security: with two NATO member states (Poland and Lithuania) in the Europe and Beyond, Routledge, New York, 2014. area of the Kaliningrad enclave. Blum Yehuda, ”Russia Takes over the Soviet 29 https://warontherocks.com/2015/06/the-budapest- Union’s Seat at the United Nations”, European memorandum-and-the-russia-ukraine-crisis/, accessed on 28.01.2020. Journal of International Law, Volume 3, Issue 2, 1992. 30 http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20060720175013/ Boyka Stefanova, ”European Strategies for http://www.therussiasite.org/legal/laws/CISagreement.html, Energy Security in the Natural Gas Market”, Journal accessed on 28.01.2020. of Strategic Security, Vol. 5, No. 3, Fall 2012.

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Chifu I., Sauliuc A., Nedea B. (ed.), Energy Smale Alison, Shear Michael, ”Russia Is security strategies in the wider Black Sea Region, Ousted From Group of 8 by US and Allies”, New Editura Curtea Veche, Bucharest, 2010. York Times, March 24, 2014. Dobrescu Paul, Geopolitics, Communication Strayer Robert, Why Did the Soviet Union Publishing House, Bucharest, 2003. Collapse? Understanding Historical Change, M.E. Dungaciu Dan, Cristea Darie (ed.), Doctrine, Sharpe, New York, 1998. strategii, politici. De la discursul geopolitic la opera- Tămaș Sergiu, Geopolitica, Publishing House ționalizarea securității internaționale, Publishing of The Institute for Social Theory, Bucharest, 1999. House of the Institutute for Political Sciences and Walker William, ”Nuclear Weapons and the International Relations, Bucharest, 2012. Former Soviet Republics”, International Affairs, Ghaleb Alexander, Natural gas as an Volume 68, Issue 2, April 1992. instrument of Russia state power, US Army War Zbigniew K. Brzezinski, Russia and the College. Retrieved, 2011. Commonwealth of Independent States: Documents, Goldman Marshall, ”Putin and the Oligarchs”, Data, and Analysis, Routledge, New York, 2015. Foreign Affairs, Vol. 83, No. 6, Nov. - Dec. 2004. https://www.hydrocarbons-technology.com/ Hlihor Constantin, Security policy in the projects/kazakhstan-china-crude-oil-pipeline contemporary international environment: energy sector, European Institute Publishing House, Iași, 2008. https://warontherocks.com/2015/06/the-buda Lars Petter Lundena, Fjaertofta Daniel, pest-memorandum-and-the-russia-ukraine-crisis/ Overland Indra, Prachakova Alesia, ”Gazprom vs. http://webarchive.loc.gov/ Other Russian gas producers: The evolution of the all/20060720175013/http://www.therussiasite.org/ Russian gas sector”, Energy Policy, No. 61, 2013. legal/laws/CISagreement.html Matsaberidze David, ”Russia vs. EU/US http://www.nord-stream.com/en/the-pipeline/ through Georgia and Ukraine”, Connections, Vol. facts-figures.html 14, No. 2, Spring 2015. https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/ Morningstar Rihard, Simonyi Andras, detail/es/IP_19_1531 Khakova Olga, Markina Irina, European Energy https://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/25/world/ Diversification: How Alternative Sources, Routes, europe/obama-russia-crimea.html, and Clean Technologies Can Bolster Energy Security and Decarbonization, Atlantic Council https://web.archive.org/web/20140317182 Global Energy Center, 2020. 201/http://www.cfr.org/arms-control-disarm Roy Allison, ”Russian ‘deniable’ intervention ament-and-nonproliferation/budap est-memora in Ukraine: how and why Russia broke the rules”, ndums-security-assurances-1994/p32484#, International Affairs, 90: 6, 2014. https://www.euractiv.com/section/politics/ Schorzman Douglas, Staging Base for Afghan news/hungarys-orban-defends-russia-cooperation- War Handed Over to Kyrgyzstan, The New York at-putin-visit/?fbclid=IwAR1Yc6W98EnP-e2h4j31stFLQ Times, June 2, 2014. si_ntrCmAK80nAEBqYlJ0_ 8QIBj96jKGPo Sim Li-Chen, The Rise and Fall of Privatization in the Russian Oil Industry, Palgrave Macmillan, https://warontherocks.com/2015/06/the-buda New York, 2008. pest-memorandum-and-the-russia-ukraine-crisis/

82 June, 2021 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University

MEDICAL PROTECTION, A KEY ELEMENT IN ENSURING THE CONTINUITY OF THE MILITARY CENTERS ACTIVITIES, UNDER THE CONSTANT PRESSURE OF CONTAMINATION WITH THE SARS-CoV-2 VIRUS

Lt.Col. Ionel COTOARBĂ, PhD Candidate*

In the event of a pandemic, the priorities for any commander must be focused on protecting their own personnel, maintaining combat capability and carrying out the missions. The personnel protection measures are implemented in a unitary and gradual conception depending on the pandemic evolution in the area of responsibility. The appearance of increasingly contagious viruses and the promotion of their rapid spread globally through the diversity and complexity of land, air and naval transport, forces us to reconsider our position on the following issues: training and recruitment of staff; making stocks; adaptation of protection measures, in particular of personnel; optimization of operating procedures based on clearly defined principles.

Keywords: military centers; planning; personnel protection; protection measures; circuits; risk areas.

After the declaration by the World Health Center for analysis and also, as a guide of conduct Organization in March 2020 of the COVID- in such situations. 19 pandemic as a result of the sudden spread of Many claim that we were lucky, others say infections caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus and that we are too exaggerated, but we say that in the declaration of a state of emergency throughout addition to a gram of chance, our success was Romania starting with 16th of March 20201, every based on the observance of some principles: institution in the national security system, public anticipation; adaptability; flexibility in applying order and national security has gone through measures; gradualism; economy of forces and difficult moments, understanding more or less the means; concentration of effort; restrictive mobility necessity to implement the minimum measures (establishing priorities)3. imposed by governmental and local authorities. Even from the specifics of military centers Regarding the aforementioned issue, at the to interact permanently with reservists, potential military units’ level, there was rightly felt a candidates during the recruitment process, countless necessity to coordinate structures through orders, actions of direct promotion of the institution in instructions, directives, realistic messages to schools, military units, through stands organized at present the situation at the global, regional, national local events, interaction with war veterans through and local level. visits through the ”visit the veterans at their homes”4 In my opinion, in the absence of coherent program, the permanent collaboration with the police standard operating procedures, the commanders/ stations, the local public administration authorities, managers applied the recommended measures the economic operators and the structures from the in their own interpretation. For this reason, but area of responsibility, derived the bringing to the also as a result of our success, at least so far2, to forefront of the issue. communicate zero cases of infection with the new virus, we intend to present the actions, activities Establishment of risk areas and circuits and measures taken at the Argeș District Military From the beginning, I must mention that before the pandemic, we were using waiting rooms for the public relations activities/events. The risk was *Argeș District Military Center assigned based on the assumption that its own staff e-mail: [email protected] and those outside the institution receive adequate protection.

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Our conception for establishing the risk areas of AURTI5 or other symptoms that fall within was based on the physical delimitation of some the case definition of the disease (fever, cough, areas depending on the threat, the potential dangers dysphagia, headache, rhinorrhea, etc.) Their access and vulnerabilities. to the program is allowed. In case of manifestation/ The red area represents the visible space to be occurrence of symptoms, the person is immediately limited and marked accordingly, where the initial removed and sent for investigation, following the interaction with an outside person takes place. procedures established at national level. In this perimeter the triage is made: the minor That person has the obligation to inform the interrogation regarding the problem in question, medical decision immediately and to provide a the completion of the COVID-19 questionnaire, certificate stating that he or she is not at risk of the body temperature measurement and the being infected with the SARS-CoV-2 virus, sick instruction regarding the access to the counter or leave or other health-related documents in order to the information-recruitment office are performed. take action. This area is classified as a high risk area, it can We established the second circuit for public be an office where a contaminated person has been relations on issues concerning the military evidence. identified and which, prior to the contamination, In this regard, the special space is designed to was a green or yellow area. ensure social distance by establishing safety limits, The yellow area is outlined based on the and for proper communication with the petitioner a spaces in which it relates to the public. The access transparent protective panel has been installed. to these spaces is made with the cumulative Each petitioner that presents himself at the observance of some conditions: triage performed, military center headquarters, after thermometry, protection measures in operation (wearing a mask, is escorted and guided to complete a COVID-19 decontamination of hands/wearing surgical gloves, evaluation questionnaire established by our own shoes decontamination, social distancing and flow operational procedure. Before entering in to the circuit compliance). Daily, these areas are ventilated waiting room, the person is invited to carry out and decontaminated with ultraviolet rays and decontamination with hands and shoes sanitizers. solutions, according to the product specifications. Subsequently, he will wait in the area specially The green area includes all the other spaces marked to ensure social distancing, until he is that have not been assigned the color yellow or picked up by the service staff at the counter. green. Usually, the staff works in this area. The The duty and the administrative staff were staff wears masks, the surfaces are decontaminated trained to disinfect the work surfaces after daily, including the communication equipment. interacting with each person. When suspicions arise, ultraviolet decontamination The third circuit and set of measures targets can be conducted, but this type of action is focused the candidates and the staff in the information- on the yellow area. recruitment office. The arrival of the candidates at At the same time, we established three the military center headquarter, for their orientation circuits without intersection, focused strictly on or for the completion of the candidate file, is made the protection of our own personnel and the one through an appointment, in order to ensure social we interacted afterwards, with the mention that distance in the workrooms and in compliance with the wearing of the mask was established from the the restrictions established at the national level. beginning, by anticipating the evolution at the The candidates are constantly guided to follow national level. the pre-established and properly marked itineraries. The routes established in the first circuit are Before entering the hall of the information- addressed to our personnel, who at the beginning recruitment office, the candidate and his companion of the program, after parking the vehicles inside decontaminate their shoes and hands with alcohol- the unit, are tested for fever and questioned at the based sanitizer or by washing with soap and water epidemiological triage performed by the designated for 20-40 seconds. After completing the activity person. with each candidate, the recruiting staff performs Then, they decontaminate the hands and shoes, the disinfection of the work/contact surfaces with and after signing the special register on the absence materials and sanitizers provided by logistic staff.

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The spaces designated for the service at the possible, to avoid merging staff at the institution, counter and the office were classified as yellow by sending teams in several directions in the area areas based on two main aspects the public and the of ​​responsibility, managing to achieve the planned desire to achieve a clear separation of the circuits. objectives. Such actions had a double purpose, on In accordance with the approved daily work the one hand to reduce the possible inherent intra- schedule, the decontamination with ultraviolet rays personal tensions, generated by the stress that you of the spaces designated for the execution of the can be contaminated by the one you interact with service at the counter and for relations with the daily, and on the other hand the mental improvement candidates is carried out daily. by extraction from the oppressive bureaucratic environment, risk taken, awareness that you may Staff protection be less exposed in this way. In order to make the protection actions of our The results of the measures taken were own personnel more efficient we permanently reflected in the health of the staff, which favored focused on regular training, the provision of the execution of rest leave in full, but according to protective equipment and materials, the completion a rule derived from dialogue and analysis by which of stocks, the adaptation and improvement of the the person concerned had a recreation period of ordered protection measures. about one week, followed by spending the next Through regular training, we believe that we 14 days in their home /safe area, during which time have succeeded in forming a noteworthy behavior, they could realize a possible contamination. permanently based on dialogue, mutual trust, Breaking stereotypes may have been the most credible information and substantiated statements. important element in our success to avoid infection The processing of compliance with protection with the new virus, managing to interact directly measures, social distancing, wearing a protective with over 160 economic operators, performing mask, washing hands, disinfecting work surfaces, actions to promote the military profession in all ventilating the premises, at the risk of transmitting educational institutions in the area of responsibility the SARS-CoV-2 virus, even from asymptomatic (206 middle schools and high schools), relating to persons was also performed by applying informative, about 2000 candidates, over 700 petitioners and to explicit materials placed at the epidemiological honor our war veterans as we know best, through triage point, at the public relations desk, in the the program ”visit the veterans at their homes” with restrooms and on each level. representatives of The Quality of Life Directorate At the same time, through the presence of the and representative associations in the county. doctor and the psychologist that we are assigned to, The success in completing with military and we managed to maintain the staff’s morale at a high material resources some military structures was the level, verified by the specific tests applied even in result of the synergistic actions of the own personnel, the big trouble and identification of solutions to of the completed structure and last but not least of solve a community contamination at national level. The dialogue with employees about the measures the personnel from the police structures. taken, the constant pressure of contamination, Of course, these results are based on the can lead to the identification of people who need remarkable inter-institutional collaboration psychosocial support. relations with the local public authorities and the Also, a considerable percentage of our success structures of the national system of security, public is largely attributed to the implementation of order and national security, consolidated during the orders received from higher echelons, which have over 50 years of experience. permanently perceived solving the problem as a However, it should be noted that depending joint effort. The establishment of the shift work on the incidence of cases at the local level, some schedule or staggered shifts, but also the freedom activities were suspended or rescheduled when of the commanders to adapt their measures, helped the situation was favorable, and others such as to avoid staff depletion. analysis, gatherings, including the preparation of For example, when achieving tasks where a local elected officials and economic operators took sustained effort was required, we tried, as much as place by mail or via online6.

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The continuity of the activity of the military equipment, biocides, equipment and specific center was supported by the inspections and internal materials. These needs have been prioritized and controls, also those of the upper echelons through resolved in a relatively short time with the support which a complete radiography was performed, of local authorities, the military unit that provides tasks and new protection measures were outlined. us from a logistical point of view and the upper echelons. From this point, it was only a step in Specific protection measures establishing circuits and measures for disinfection For every manager, undertaking and applying and decontamination with solutions or ultraviolet all measures of prevention and protection rays. against contamination with the SARS-CoV-2 The realized circuits follow some rules: virus must be not only a responsibility but also a daily decontamination, before the beginning of moral obligation to minimize occupational risks. the program and whenever there is a suspicion, Infection of employees can have a negative impact including with UV rays; controlled access by on the performance of tasks, current activities and, thermometry, wearing protective equipment (at least implicitly, on the achievement of objectives7. a mask), completing the COVID-19 questionnaire, Conclusions from the behavior, characteristics decontamination of hands and shoes; marked routes and resistance of viruses to environmental and information materials for guidance, warning conditions, incubation period, pathogenicity, and awareness of the danger; construction of work contagiousness and lethality rate contribute to the areas with low risk of infection by reducing the adoption of certain measures8. number of the personnel, installation of protection Thus, all the protection measures applied panels, daily ventilation and decontamination, concerned, in particular, the health of staff and, in wearing a protective mask. particular, the gain of time until the discovery of a Ensuring social distancing by tracing the vaccine. markings, including in the waiting rooms and on Among the first measures adopted since the the sports base for practical-applicative meetings, declaration of the pandemic were, in addition to assemblies or inspections, was also an effective those related to reducing the number of people measure in terms of decongesting crowds in in offices, those focused on information and enclosed spaces. This measure was completed with training, initially carried out abroad, and later on the installation of transparent protection panels in the electronic training platform COVID-19, where offices, at the counter and in the information and the orders were posted and numerous information recruitment room. Each recruiter was assigned materials were received/transmitted. a personalized work point, personal protective Here we especially appreciate the constant equipment (surgical masks, gloves, visors), support of the Directorate of Information and materials and solutions for disinfecting work Public Relations within the Ministry of National surfaces after each interaction with the candidate. Defence, which has always managed to give Considering that RBC decontamination is us a comprehensive and realistic picture of the planned and carried out in order to maintain / evolution of contamination and some orders, restore combat capability, reducing contamination data, statistics and information of interest, thus to a negligible risk, so as to ensure the continuity permanently knowing the share of threats and risks of activities and the accomplishment of missions9, in the disposal area. the disinfection of outdoor spaces, with a focus The installation of sanitation dispensers in on the red zone, was carried out in the first part areas easily accessible to staff and visitors, the of the pandemic with the logistic unit support. promotion of a culture of hand washing and Subsequently, after receiving the specific equipment, regular disinfection of work surfaces, common by the staff of the administrative structure, through areas, are considered basic measures, which have a prior training of its and of the entire staff of own led to awareness of the danger among employees, structure. an important aspect in managing the situation. The activities performed in the area of The most pressing issues were those related responsibility were carried out in compliance to providing the necessary personal protective with measures to prevent contamination with

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SARS-CoV-2 virus, based on careful planning With the information related above, we want (algorithm establishment, check list, phone calls, to be a starting point for the leaders of military clarification messages, reconnaissance, etc.). institutions and not only, in managing a situation Several seemingly elementary rules have contributed like the one addressed, maintaining the functionality to our success in reporting zero contaminated of the structure, designing and carrying out specific COVID-19, by reducing the exposure / interaction activities. time with each economic operator, police station, In a world of overwhelming development veteran usually less than 15 minutes, to replace of information technology, the establishment of protective equipment and perform minimal hand recognized levels of protection, at least at national decontamination. The vehicles were equipped with level, the creation of interinstitutional databases that disposable wipes, plastic bags and products needed can be queried about infected people, supplemented to disinfect hands and surfaces with which they by the support of specialists for ”understanding frequently come into contact. how to transmit of the pathogen, the degree of The phasing of the program, the sequential virulence and the lethality of the contamination at program (14 working days, 14 recovery days), local, regional or global level”11 are aspects that the provision of workspaces with equipment and can contribute to ensuring adequate protection. materials, the reduction of congestion and through missions performed simultaneously in several NOTES: directions, the merging of rest periods contributed 1 The act signed by the President of Romania, Mr. Klaus to ensuring protection of its own staff. Werner Iohannis, regarding the establishment of the state of emergency on the Romanian territory of March 16, 2020. Through protection measures adapted to the 2 March 4 2021, the date of sending the article for specifics of the structure, we managed to gain the verification and publication in the Bulletin of ”Carol I” necessary time to make the vaccine. Given that all National Defence University no. 2/2021. staff want to be vaccinated and that three types of 3 *** CBRN protection Field Manual, Bucharest, 2015, vaccine are approved at EU level, we believe that 2015, p. 18. 4 The program was initiated by The Quality of Life the war against an unseen enemy will end with the Directorate within the Ministry of National Defence. acquisition of immunization as a result of the recall. 5 Acute upper respiratory tract infection. The effects of the COVID-19 pandemic and 6 *** Romanian Government Decision no. 969 of 22nd the prospect of the cyclical evolution of the virus August 2007 on the organization, conduct and management oblige us on the one hand to be vigilant and of training for the defence of persons with managerial responsibilities in the field of public administration, at central cautious, and on the other hand to continue and and local level, Art. No. 1. develop new protection measures to ”increase the 7 https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public, accessed capacity to manage such a crisis”, especially in on 22.02.2021. terms of increasing the resilience of structures10. 8 Ion Mitulețu, ”Are we ready to deal with a biological crisis?”, Journal of Military Chemistry, no. 18/2020, p. 9. 9 Ion Mitulețu, Alexandru Herciu, Apărarea CBRN în Conclusions operația brigăzii mecanizate, ”Carol I” National Defence All actions and protective measures applied University, Bucharest, 2014, p. 88. must be scientifically substantiated, based on 10 [Presidential administration], The National Security relevant analyzes and a rigorous planning process Strategy of Romania for the period 2020-2024, Bucharest, that includes an ongoing assessment of the risks, 2020, p. 8. 11 Ion Mitulețu, ”Are we ready to deal with a biological threats and dangers in the vicinity of the disposal crisis?”, Journal of Military Chemistry, no. 18/2020, p. 9. area to identify the best solutions to avoid, limiting and eliminating cases of contamination in the REFENCES pandemic situation generated by the SARS-CoV-2 virus. *** Law no. 446/2006 on the preparation of As a conclusion, when a COVID-19 pandemic the population for defence. occurs, stress management, continuous assessment *** Romanian Government Decision no. 969 of risks, threats, dangers and vulnerabilities, the of 22nd August 2007 on the organization, conduct identification, adaptation and gradual application of and management of training for the defence of protection measures can be a successful algorithm.

June, 2021 87 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University persons with managerial responsibilities in the Mitulețu Ion, ”Are we ready to deal with a field of public administration, at central and local biological crisis?”, Journal of Military Chemistry, level. no. 18/2020. *** CBRN protection Field Manual, Bucharest, Mitulețu Ion, Herciu Alexandru, Apărarea 2015. CBRN în operația brigăzii mecanizate, ”Carol I” [Presidential administration], The National Security Strategy of Romania for the period 2020- National Defence University, Bucharest, 2014. 2024, Bucharest, 2020. https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public

88 June, 2021 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University

RELEVANT PRINCIPLES IN THE ECHR AND CJEU JURISPRUDENCE REGARDING NATIONAL SECURITY

Maj. Sorina Ana MANEA, PhD Candidate *

The European system ensuring the protection of human rights is nowadays one of the most advanced in the world. However, there are also areas of activity where clarification and improvement are constant demands. Counter-terrorism measures considered or adopted in Europe, in particular those that increase mass surveillance, the collection and storage of electronic information or the protection of personal data are such areas. Some of these measures give more intrusive powers to the intelligence services to channel decisions in the direction of the executive branch, without the necessary judicial guarantees being established in a state governed by the rule of law.

Keywords: community law; ECHR; CJUE; national security.

Electronic surveillance by national law of intelligence services was supported by national enforcement authorities is inherently linked to governments by measures that allowed for greater the right to privacy and the protection of personal easiness in assessing how information gathering data. Such rights are enshrined in EU law, which takes place mostly in regard with the technical and requires compliance with the principles of technological means employed. necessity, proportionality and subsidiarity. Legal The intelligence activity to identify, prevent and issues arising from electronic surveillance, which counter threats to national security, in particular that may affect the rights of individuals, are not subject carried out through large-scale surveillance, may to review by the Court of Justice of the EU (CJEU), interfere with fundamental rights and freedoms, in which has jurisdiction to rule on cases brought particular the right to privacy and data protection against States or institutions for failure to fulfill which may lead to disruption of the rule of law and their obligations under EU law, in which case the the respect of the fundamental rights and freedoms state that has not fulfilled its obligations is obliged of citizens. to take measures to put an immediate end to the Following the revelations of NSA analyst violation of the legal norms. Injured persons, after Edward Snowden1 and those of the press regarding exhaustion of national remedies, can apply to the the mass electronic surveillance by US intelligence European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) for a services more or less with the agreement of several final decision. Therefore, the decisions of the two EU Member States2, the European Parliament international courts form the jurisprudence that adopted a resolution on the US NSA Surveillance can lead to a change in the internal procedures Program, supervisory bodies in different Member according to which the competent state authorities States (EU) and their impact on the fundamental operate to protect the national security. rights of EU citizens. After September 2001, mass electronic In this context, the CJEU and the ECHR have surveillance experienced an unprecedented developed a set of legality tests transposed into evolution in response to the aggressiveness with principles that are compatible with the rule of law. which the terrorist phenomenon began to manifest. Thus, in the Digital Rights Ireland Ltd Case3, Precisely because of the urgency with which they the CJEU annulled the EU Directive4 which required had to act to meet the obligation to protect their states to ask telecommunications providers to keep citizens throughout the European Union, the work metadata for a period of six months (minimum) and two years (maximum) and to make it available to criminal investigation and investigation bodies in *”Carol I” National Defence University case of investigation of serious crimes. The directive e-mail: [email protected] left it up to states to establish safeguards to regulate access to metadata and prevent abuse of power.

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However, the case has not led to a standardization be adopted, thereby ensuring that such a measure of investigative practice in criminal or national is limited to what is strictly necessary (see, by security matters in the EU Member States, who analogy, in relation to Directive 2006/24, the Digital prefer to consider liability, at least in the field of Rights judgment, paragraph 54 and the case-law security, to be exclusively national. cited)”10. Also, „in regard to the material condition In October 2015, in the Schrems case5, the to be met by national legislation which allows, in CJEU invalidated the EU-US agreement called the fight against crime, the preventive storage of The Umbrella Agreement6, which replaced the Safe transfer data and location data, in order to ensure Harbor Agreement7 and allowed private companies that it is limited to what is strictly necessary, it to transfer personal data to EU citizens in the US, must be shown that, although these conditions may ruling that, in light of the Snowden disclosures, vary depending on the measures taken to prevent, it was reasonable and pertinent to argue that the investigate, detect and prosecute serious crime, law and practice in force in the US did not ensure data retention must always meet objective criteria adequate protection of personal data, finding that that establish a relationship between the data to monitoring the content of emails, phone calls and be kept and the purpose pursued. In particular, text messages, as well as extracting large amounts such conditions must prove, in practice, capable of metadata about the location of the mobile of effectively delimiting the extent of the measure phone, internet browsing, e-mails, e-mail address and, consequently, of the relevant public.”11. books, etc., was not protected against illegitimate In October 2020, the Grand Chamber of surveillance. The CJEU found that EU countries the CJEU gave two rulings12 on data retention, were not free to transfer data to third countries, national security and fundamental rights unless those third countries provided for data prohibiting EU Member States from enacting protection standards equivalent to those applicable legislation designed to undermine the scope of its in the EU. confidentiality obligations in the field of traffic In December 2016, in the case of Tele2 and location data unless it respects the general Sverige AB8 concerning Directive 2002/589 laying principles of Community law, in particular the down the rules applicable to the processing of principle of proportionality, and the fundamental traffic and location data generated by the useof rights enshrined in the EU Charter of Fundamental electronic communications services, as well as the Rights. anonymization or deletion of such data, except in In the related cases C-511/18 and C-512/18, criminal and national security, the CJEU found that the situation regarding the legality of national the guarantees of safeguarding and access that must legislation requiring communications service exist are under Community law. In this respect, providers to transmit to users traffic data and the CJEU ruled that access to metadata must be location data to a public authority or to keep such conditional on the prior approval of a court. data was brought to justice, given in a general The CJEU noted that discriminatory storage of or non-discriminatory manner. National courts traffic and location data, in order to combat serious referred cases to the CJEU to clarify whether: the crime under national law, can be accepted as a activities of national security services ‒ as opposed precautionary measure when „In order to satisfy the to criminal bodies ‒ fall within the scope of EU requirements set out in the preceding paragraph of law and whether the non-discriminatory retention the present judgment, that national legislation must, of data for national security is compatible with EU first, lay down clear and precise rules governing law. the scope and application of such a data retention The CJEU decided that automated analysis measure and imposing minimum safeguards, so and real-time collection of traffic data, location that the persons whose data have been retained have data or real-time collection of device location data sufficient guarantees of the effective protection of is permitted if: automatic analysis is limited to their personal data against the risk of misuse. That cases where a Member State faces a serious threat, legislation must, in particular, indicate in what authentic and present or predictable for national circumstances and under which conditions a data security, and real-time collection is limited to retention measure may, as a preventive measure, persons validly suspected of being involved in

90 June, 2021 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University terrorist activities. In both cases, the seriousness relevant conditions must be established in each case of the threat and the danger posed by the suspect in accordance with the provisions of the Convention must be subject to prior verification by a court or an or the allegedly violated rights, the secrecy of independent administrative body whose decision is the contested measures and the link between the binding. person who considers himself injured in his rights Finally, the CJEU analyzed the situation where and those measures. The Court also noted that the it is possible to temporarily maintain the effects possibility of secret surveillance of certain citizens of a national provision that infringes EU law in is permitted under the Convention only to the extent order to avoid legal uncertainty and to use data strictly necessary for the protection of democratic previously collected and stored. On this issue, institutions. „Noting, however, that democratic the CJEU considered that the Directive, read in societies nowadays find themselves threatened by the light of the Charter, does not allow a national highly sophisticated forms of espionage and by court to temporarily apply a provision of national terrorism, with the result that the State must be law that would otherwise be incompatible with EU able, in order effectively to counter such threats, law. In particular, the CJEU has prohibited national to undertake the secret surveillance of subversive courts from applying a national provision requiring elements operating within its jurisdiction, the Court providers to keep traffic and location data in a considered that the existence of some legislation generalized and non-discriminatory manner, even if granting powers of secret surveillance over the the purpose of the contested provision is to protect mail, post and telecommunications was, under national security and prevent serious crime. exceptional conditions, necessary in a democratic The CJEU ruling has an important role to play society in the interests of national security and/or in regulating national security and intelligence for the prevention of disorder or crime”14. activities in EU Member States. In this regard, Therefore, this judgment, reflecting the Advocate General Campos Sanchez-Bordona, in conventional provisions, establishes the principles his Opinion delivered in January 202013 on the of the legality test on the implementation of above-mentioned cases, argued that there was a temporary restrictive measures of fundamental distinction between intelligence work carried out rights and freedoms, namely the right to privacy, to protect national security and legislation adopted freedom of expression, access to justice and the to protect national security. obligations that affect right to a fair trial, as well as their correlative their Community rights. This relative novelty rights. is reflected in the EU legal framework, where The Court ruled that the storage of data relating national security, despite European integration, to the privacy of a person by a public authority has explicitly remained the responsibility of the constitutes an interference with the right to privacy, Member States. regardless of the subsequent use of the information The ECHR also plays an active role in ensuring or whether or not the information collected respect for fundamental human rights and freedoms has harmed the data subject15. Including public against the arbitrary use of state power. In this information collected and stored systematically regard, the ECHR has ruled on the interception of by the authorities falls within the scope of privacy, communications of any kind that when a State takes especially if the information concerns a person’s surveillance measures it is possible that the persons distant past and some of this information has been concerned may be treated in a manner contrary to declared false and is likely to harm the concerned Article 8 of the Convention without them being aware person’s reputation16. of it, and, therefore, without being able to obtain an According to the case law of the Court, the appeal at national level or before the institutions of requirement that any interference be in accordance the Convention. The Court has therefore accepted with the law is met where the contested measure that a person may, under certain conditions, claim must have a basis in national law and the law in to be the victim of an infringement caused by the question must be accessible to the person concerned mere existence of secret measures or legislation and have foreseeable consequences17. In the case permitting secret measures, without having to of Rotaru v. Romania18, the Court examined claim that such measures were applied to him. The the Romanian legislation on secret surveillance

June, 2021 91 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University measures related to national security and concluded NOTES: that the legislation on the collection and storage 1 Edward Snowden, North American whistleblower of information did not provide the necessary who made public the classified mass surveillance program conducted by the US. guarantees. The court reiterated this finding in its 2 European Parliament resolution of 12 March 2014 on decisions regarding the cases of Dumitru Popescu the surveillance program of the US National Security Agency against Romania, no. 2, 2007 and the Association (NSA), the surveillance bodies of the various Member States „21 December 1989” and others against Romania, and their impact on the fundamental rights of EU citizens 2011. and on transatlantic cooperation in the field of justice and security of Internal Affairs (2013/2188 (INI)), https://eur-lex. The State’s interest to protect its national europa.eu/legal-content/RO/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:52014I security must be proportionate to the seriousness of P0230&from=RO, accessed on 12.03.2021. the interference with the person being monitored in 3 Judgment of the Court (Grand Chamber), 8 April respect of his or her privacy. Thus, in the case of 2014, Electronic communications - Directive 2006/24/EC Kennedy v. The United Kingdom, the Court held - Publicly available electronic communications services or public communications networks services - Retention of data that the power to institute oversight of citizens was generated or processed in connection with the provision of tolerated only in accordance with the provisions of such services – Validity – Articles 7, 8 and 11 of the Charter the Convention in so far as it was strictly necessary of Fundamental Rights of the European Union In Joined for the protection of democratic institutions, in Cases C‑293/12 and C‑594/12, Requests for a preliminary other words that there were adequate and effective ruling under Article 267 TFEU from the High Court (Ireland) and the Verfassungsgerichtshof (Austria), made by decisions safeguards against abuse. of 27 January and 28 November 2012, respectively, received at the Court on 11 June and 19 December 2012, http:// Conclusions curia.europa.eu/juris/liste.jsf?num=C-293/12 , accessed on The activity of the CJEU and the ECHR 12.03.2021. 4 Directive 2006/24/EC of the European Parliament formulates the democratic framework for carrying and of the Council of 15 March 2006 on the retention of data out the intelligence activity at legislative level, generated or processed in connection with the provision of also as a result of the constitutionality control, publicly available electronic communications services or of but especially of Romania’s membership in the public communications networks and amending Directive 2002/58/EC, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ EU, at executive and judicial level. If in 1990 the TXT/?uri=uriserv%3AOJ.L_.2006.105.01.0054.01.ENG intelligence activity carried out for the achievement &toc=OJ%3AL%3A2006%3A105%3ATOC, accessed on of national security was shrouded in secrecy and 12.03.2021 inaccessibility, today and certainly in the future it 5 Judgment of the Court (Grand Chamber) of 6 October 2015. Maximillian Schrems v Data Protection will have as coordinates the observance of human Commissioner. Request for a preliminary ruling from the rights and the jurisprudence of the community High Court (Ireland). Reference for a preliminary ruling - courts. Personal data - Protection of individuals with regard to the The importance of the two sources of regulation processing of such data - Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union - Articles 7, 8 and 47 - Directive 95/46/ of some of the working methods of the intelligence EC - Articles 25 and 28 - Transfer of personal data to third services is enhanced especially if the rules and tests countries - Decision 2000/520/EC - Transfer of personal data established by jurisprudence were to be taken as the to the United States - Inadequate level of protection - Validity - Complaint by an individual whose data has been transferred performance standards of the mentioned activity. from the European Union to the United States - Powers of For example, in order to prevent terrorism, States the national supervisory authorities. Case C-362/14. Digital may take measures that, for example, interfere reports (Court Reports - general) at http://curia.europa.eu/ with the right to privacy, freedom of expression or juris/liste.jsf?num=C-362/14, accessed last 12.03.2021. 6 Council Decision (EU) 2016/920 of 20 May 2016 association, or the right to free choice. However, on the signing, on behalf of the European Union, of the the rule of law does not give states a free hand to Agreement between the United States of America and the interfere with the rights of those in their jurisdiction. European Union on the protection of personal information Governments will always need to demonstrate that relating to the prevention, investigation, detection, and the measures they have taken to counter threats to prosecution of criminal offences, https://eur-lex.europa. eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A32016D0920, national security have been justified in the light of accessed on 12.03.2021. the text of the Convention and the interpretations 7 2000/520/EC: Commission Decision of 26 July 2000 of the two Community courts by its judgments. pursuant to Directive 95/46/EC of the European Parliament

92 June, 2021 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University and of the Council on the adequacy of the protection provided – London Reference for a preliminary ruling – Processing by the safe harbour privacy principles and related frequently of personal data in the electronic communications sector – asked questions issued by the US Department of Commerce Providers of electronic communications services – General (notified under document number C(2000) 2441) Official and indiscriminate transmission of traffic data and location Journal L 215, 25/08/2000, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal data – Safeguarding of national security – Directive 2002/58/ content/en/ALL/?uri=CELEX%3A32000D0520, accessed EC – Scope – Article 1(3) and Article 3 – Confidentiality of on 12.03.2021. electronic communications – Protection – Article 5 and Article 8 Judgment of the Court (Grand Chamber) of 15(1) – Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European 21 December 2016. Tele2 Sverige AB v Post-och telestyrelsen Union – Articles 7, 8 and 11 and Article 52(1) – Article 4(2) and Secretary of State for the Home Department v Tom TEU Case C-623/17, http://curia.europa.eu/juris/document/ Watson and Others. Requests for a preliminary ruling from the document.jsf?text=&docid=232083&pageIndex=0&doclan Kammarrätten i Stockholm and the Court of Appeal (England g=RO&mode=lst&dir=&occ=first&part=1&cid=6063852, & Wales) (Civil Division). Reference for a preliminary ruling accessed on 12.03.2021. - Electronic communications - Processing of personal data 13 https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/RO/TXT/?uri= - Confidentiality of electronic communications - Protection - CELEX:62018CC0511, accessed on 12.03.2021. Directive 2002/58/EC - Articles 5, 6 and 9 and Article 15(1) 14 Case of Klass and others vs. Germany, 1978, para. - Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union - 34 and next, https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng#{%22dmdocn Articles 7, 8 and 11 and Article 52(1) - National legislation - umber%22:[%22695387%22],%22itemid%22:[%22001- Providers of electronic communications services - Obligation 57510%22]}, accessed on 13.02.2021. relating to the general and indiscriminate retention of traffic 15 Case of Amann vs. Switzerland, 2000, https://hudoc. and location data - National authorities - Access to data - echr.coe.int/eng#{%22itemid%22:[%22001-58497%22]}, No prior review by a court or independent administrative accessed on 13.02.2021. authority - Compatibility with EU law. Joined Cases C-203/15 16 Case of Rotaru vs. Romania, https://hudoc.echr.coe. and C-698/15, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/RO/ int/fre#{%22itemid%22:[%22001-148906%22]}, accessed TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:62015CJ0203&from=EN, accessed on 13.02.2021. on 12.03.2021. 17 Case of Kennedy vs. UK, 2010, para. 151; Case 9 Directive 2002/58/EC of the European Parliament and of Rotaru vs. Romania, 2020, para. 52; Case of Amann vs. of the Council of 12 July 2002 concerning the processing of Switzerland, para. 50; Kruslin vs. France, 1990, para. l27; personal data and the protection of privacy in the electronic Case of Malone vs. UK, 1984, para. 67 and 68; Case of communications sector (Directive on privacy and electronic Leander vs. Sweden, 1987, para. 51, etc. communications), https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/ 18 Case of Rotaru vs. Romania, http://legislatie.just.ro/ RO/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32002L0058&from=ENhttps:// Public/DetaliiDocumentAfis/25965, accessed on 13.02.2021. eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/RO/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX: 32002L0058&from=EN, accessed on 12.03.2021. 10 Tele2 Sverige AB (C 203/15), para. 109. REFERENCES 11 Ibidem, para. 110. 12 Judgment of the Court (Grand Chamber) of *** Decizia 2000/520, O.J. L 215/7 (2000), 6 October 2020 La Quadrature du Net and Others v Premier https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal content/en/ALL/?uri= ministre and Others Requests for a preliminary ruling from CELEX%3A32000D0520 the Conseil d’État (France) and Cour constitutionnelle (Belgium) Reference for a preliminary ruling – Processing *** Decizia Consiliului (UE) 2016/920, din of personal data in the electronic communications sector – 20 mai 2016, privind semnarea, în numele Uniunii Providers of electronic communications services – Hosting Europene, a Acordului dintre Statele Unite ale service providers and Internet access providers – General Americii și Uniunea Europeană privind protecția and indiscriminate retention of traffic and location data informațiilor personale referitoare la prevenire, – Automated analysis of data – Real-time access to data – Safeguarding national security and combating terrorism investigație, detectare și urmărirea penală a – Combating crime – Directive 2002/58/EC – Scope – infracțiunilor, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal- Article 1(3) and Article 3 – Confidentiality of electronic content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A32016D0920. communications – Protection – Article 5 and Article 15(1) *** Directiva 2002/58/CE, din 12 iulie 2002 – Directive 2000/31/EC – Scope – Charter of Fundamental privind prelucrarea datelor personale și protejarea Rights of the European Union – Articles 4, 6, 7, 8 and 11 and Article 52(1) – Article 4(2) TEU Joined Cases C-511/18, confidențialității în sectorul comunicațiilor C-512/18 and C-520/18, http://curia.europa.eu/juris/ publice (Directiva privind confidențialitatea și document/document.jsf?text=&docid=232084&pageIndex= comunicațiile electronice), https://eur-lex.europa. 0&doclang=RO&mode=lst&dir=&occ=first&part=1&cid=6 eu/legal-content/RO/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:320 166350 and Judgment of the Court (Grand Chamber) of 6 02L0058&from=EN. October 2020 Privacy International v Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs and Others Request for *** Directiva 2006/24/EC privind reținerea a preliminary ruling from the Investigatory Powers Tribunal datelor generate sau prelucrate în legătură cu

June, 2021 93 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University furnizarea de servicii de comunicații electronice Ausloos J., The Right to Erasure in EU Data accesibile publicului sau a rețelelor de comunicații Protection Law, Editura Oxford University Press, 2020. publice și de modificare a Directivei 2002/58 / CE, Bîrsan C, Convenția europeană a drepturilor https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/? omului. Comentariu pe articole, Edition 2, C.H. uri=uriserv%3AOJ.L_.2006.105.01.0054.01.ENG Beck Publishing House, 2010. &toc=OJ%3AL%3A2006%3A105%3ATOC. Bradford Anu, The Brussels Effect. How the *** Hotărârea Curții (Marea Cameră), din European Union Rules the World, Editura Oxford 21 decembrie 2016, Tele2 Sverige AB (C 203/15) University Press, 2020. v Post-och telestyrelsen, și Secretarul de Stat al Deleanu I., „Accesibilitatea şi previzibilitatea Departamentului de Interne (C 698/15) împotriva legii în jurisprudenţa Curţii Europene a Drepturilor Tom Watson, Peter Brice și Geoffrey Lewis, https:// Omului şi a Curţii Constituţionale a României”, eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/RO/TXT/PDF/?ur Dreptul no. 8, 2011. i=CELEX:62015CJ0203&from=EN. Duminică R., Criza legii contemporane, C.H. *** Hotărârea Curții (Marea Cameră), din Beck Publishing House, Bucharest, 2014. 21 decembrie 2016, Tele2 Sverige AB (C 203/15), Solove D., Schwarts P., Privacy Law paragraful 109. Fundamentals, Edition 4, Publishing House of *** Hotărârea Curții (Marea Cameră), din 6 International Association of Privacy Professionals octombrie 2015, C-362/14 Maximillian Schrems împotriva Data Protection Commissioner, http:// (IAPP), 2017. curia.europa.eu/juris/liste.jsf?num=C-362/14. http://curia.europa.eu/juris/document/ *** Hotărârea Curții (Marea Cameră), din 8 document.jsf?text=&docid=232084&pageIndex aprilie 2014, C-293/12 și C-594/12 Digital Rights =0&doclang=RO&mode=lst&dir=&occ=first& Ireland, EU:C:2014:238, http://curia.europa.eu/ part=1&cid=6166350și cauza C-623/17 Privacy juris/liste.jsf?num=C-293/12. International, lahttp://curia.europa.eu/juris/ *** Rezoluţia Parlamentului European, document/document.jsf?text=&docid=232083&p din 12 martie 2014, referitoare la programul de ageIndex=0&doclang=RO&mode=lst&dir=&occ supraveghere al Agenției Naționale de Securitate =first&part=1&cid=6063852 (NSA) a SUA, la organismele de supraveghere https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng#{%22itemid din diferite state membre și la impactul acestora %22:[%22001-58497%22]} asupra drepturilor fundamentale ale cetățenilor UE și asupra cooperării transatlantice în materie https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng#{%22dmdocnu de justiție și de afaceri interne (2013/2188(INI)), mber%22:[%22695387%22],%22itemid%22:[%2 https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/RO/TXT/P 2001-57510%22]} DF/?uri=CELEX:52014IP0230&from=RO. http://legislatie.just.ro/Public/DetaliiDocume [Council of Europe], Manual de legislație ntAfis/25965 europeană privind protecția datelor, Agency for https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/fre#{%22itemid% Fundamental Rights of the European Union, 2014. 22:[%22001-148906%22]}

94 June, 2021 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University

UKRAINE BETWEEN PEACE AND WAR WITH RUSSIA

Ilie-Răsvan DUMITRU, PhD Candidate*

After the Crimean Peninsula was invaded and the amplification of conflicts in South-Eastern Ukraine, it has become obvious that Russia’s policy is concentrated on preserving its influence and strategic control over the decisions and political directions taken by the States from the former Soviet bloc. To understand the consequences of the Russian-Ukrainian war on the West, as well as to anticipate and counteract a possible future evolution of similar events not only in geopolitical risk states such as Moldavia, but also even in NATO members such as the Baltic countries, Romania or Bulgaria, it is worth paying attention to the geopolitical consequences of the loss of Crimea and the South-Eastern provinces by Ukraine. The article analyses the reason, mechanisms and stakes behind the Russian-Ukrainian war, from both a geopolitical and historical perspective. To understand the way in which different hybrid instruments can be used by the Russian Federation to influence the States in its proximity and, in particular, how their combination leads to effective satisfaction of the aims, it is useful to assess and address the systemic risks and vulnerabilities of States in the concerned areas of Russia and the West in recent years.

Keywords: Ukraine; Russian Federation; Crimea; Russian-Ukrainian war; hybrid warfare; limited warfare; maskirovka.

Ukraine is a sovereign state in the Eastern years. Since the end of the 18th century, most of Europe, the second largest on the continent, after the ethnic Ukrainian territory has been embedded Russia, with an area of 603,634 km². The capital in the Russian empire, the western regions of city of Kiev is located on the Dnieper River, in the this territory (Galicia and Transcarpathya) being North-Central of Ukraine. It is bounded by Belarus absorbed by the Austro-Hungarian Empire. to the North, Russia to the East, the Azov Sea and The fall of the Tsarist Empire (1917) allowed the Black Sea to the South, Moldavia and Romania Ukraine’s independence from 1917 to 1920. During to the South-West and Hungary, Slovakia and 1921-1991, Ukraine was a republic of the Soviet Poland to the West. The Kerch Strait, connecting Union. Thus, a completely independent Ukraine the Azov Sea with the Black Sea, separates Ukraine was only born at the end of the 20th century, after from Russia in the South-East region. long periods of successive domination of the Ukraine’s history is a complex one, its origin Polish-Lithuanian kingdom, Poland, Lithuania, starting from the establishment in the 9th century Grand Duchy of Moscow, Russia and the USSR. At of the first Eastern Slavic state called Kievan the collapse of USSR in 1990-1991, the Ukrainian Rus’. In the 10th and 11th centuries, it became SSR legislature declared sovereignty (July 16, the largest and strongest state in Europe. Since the 1990) and then absolute independence (August 24, 11th century, weakened by many internal conflicts 1991). The independence was confirmed by popular and the invasions of Mongols tribes, Kievan Rus’ approval in a plebiscite on December 1, 1991, with has been incorporated into the Grand Duchy of the dissolution of the USSR. Lithuania and later into the Polish-Lithuanian State Ukraine’s short history points out that the union. In the middle of the 17th century, following current Ukrainian territory has been occupied by internal riots against Poles, a new Ukrainian various countries over the centuries, the borders state called the Cossack Hetmanate emerged, and being changed several times. Some regions that are managed to remain autonomous for more than 100 currently part of Ukraine belonged in the past to other countries such as Austria, Poland, Moldavia or Russia. The modern territory of Ukraine hosts *”Carol I” National Defence University a variety of ethnic groups (Ukrainians, German, e-mail: [email protected] Polish, Russian, Ruthenic, Tatars or other ethnic group) and religious (Catholics, Greek Catholics,

June, 2021 95 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University

Lutherans, Russian orthodox, Jews, Muslims or Located on the northern shore of the Black Sea and other confessions). During the peak of the USSR, on the western coast of the Azov Sea, Crimea is an intensive policy of forced migration of the almost an island being connected to the continent population was pursued, the ethnic Ukrainians only by a strip of land of about 5-7 km wide dropping from 77% in 1959 to 73% in 1991. This represented by the Isthmus of Perekop. A large part trend of ethnic depopulation reversed after Ukraine of the natural boundary separating the continental regained independence, reaching at the beginning region of Ukraine (Herson) from the Crimean of the 21st century to account for more than three- Peninsula is characterized by a geographical set of quarters of the country’s population. The Russians interrelated lakes and lagoons on the west coast of continue to be the largest minority, although they the Azov Sea. currently occupy less than a fifth of the population. In addition to the continental link through The rest of the population includes: Belarusians, the Isthmus of Perekop, Crimea is linked to the Moldavians, Bulgarians, Poles, Hungarians, Hencesk district of the Herson region through Romanians, Roma (gypsies) and other groups. The bridges crossing the Chohar and Henicesk Straits. ethnic group represented by the Crimean Tartars, The eastern end of the peninsula, represented by who were deported by force to Uzbekistan and Krasnodar region, is made through Kerci Strait, other Central Asian republics in 1944, began to connecting the Black Sea with the Azov Sea, being return in large numbers to Crimea after 1989; at 3-13 km wide. the beginning of the 21st century, they were one of With little human and economic potential, only the largest minority groups that were not Russian. 1,967,200 inhabitants in 2014, the peninsula does Ukraine’s importance for the West increased not have the political force to play a geopolitical with the importance granted by Russia to this role on its own, but, together with a great power, state. The inability of the West to comprehend it becomes of great geostrategic importance for all the significant role of Ukraine in tempering the the surrounding regions. This was also the reason expansionist policy of Russia created the grounds for the historical dispute, among the great powers, of the Russian-Ukrainian conflict emergence. Crimea being regularly taken over by successive This is not the case for Kremlin too, the Russian administrators (Greek, Romanian, Byzantine, decision-makers considering that the Eurasian Mongols, Turkish or Russian) through bloody wars. Union is not complete without Ukraine1. Thus, the Like in the past, today’s Crimea is a region torn Russian policy, especially after 2000, turned to the apart by the interests and geopolitical competition reconversion of Ukrainian geopolitical status by between the current great powers, the European reconsidering it as a buffer zone between the West Union, Russia, the US and China. and the Russian Federation, in its membership of From a geostrategic point of view, I believe that the Eurasian space. As the annexation of Crimea Ukraine is the natural hinterland of the Crimean to the Russian Federation, through its abusive Peninsula; therefore, through its geographical occupation in 2014, caused a surprise to the position, as a country that includes the northern Western governments, it reflected either a poor shores of the Black Sea, Ukraine is predestined understanding of the nostalgic Russian spirit of the to rule over this region. But history shows us historical greatness under the leadership of Peter that the geostrategic interests of the great powers the Great, of Catherine the 2nd or Alexander the have determined that several times strategic 1st, or an unacceptable underestimation of Russian important territories were disconnected from their ability to reinvent and revive the warrior spirit of geographical connections, entering under the the old Cossacks. influence of neighboring powers (Transnistria, An area of strategic interest, both for the South Ossetia, Abkhazia, and so on) or colonial Russian Federation and for the West, is the Crimean empires (Gibraltar, Singapore, the Panama Canal, Peninsula; a land of 27,000 km2, extending into Gdansk, and so on). the Black Sea, which has been the gateway for To understand why some strategically the Greeks, Romanians, Byzantine, Mongols and positioned territories have presented great interest Turks, to the northern Black Sea lands and to for the major powers, we have to analyze the very the vast fertile land of the North European plain. essence of the theory of geopolitical pivots. For one

96 June, 2021 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University of the founders of the Ukrainian2 geopolitical forces, The opinion of the Anglo-Saxon geopolitical which has faced the extremely important problem school, through its representative and founder5, of defining Ukraine’s geographical borders, its supported the Heartland theory, whereby the geopolitical importance lies in its expansion into the geographical region of Ukraine is considered one Black Sea, in close proximity to the Middle East. of the most important territories in the world. In This geographical reality makes it into a real bridge his view, the geostrategic importance of the world between the West and the East. The importance of is given by the interior of Eurasia, considered the this region is not recent, as it has been discovered hub of Heartland, of which Ukraine is also part. since the Hellenistic period, the Greeks being the Mackinder claimed that inner Asia and eastern first to establish commercial ports located on the Europe (the heart) had become the strategic center northern Black Sea coast. The Romanians continued of the ”World’s Island” as a result of the relative the Greek trade policy, followed by Byzantine and decline of maritime power against land power Italian republics. In fact, the Venetian commercial and the economic and industrial development in empire has been strengthened at the expense of trade Southern Siberia6. Mackinder did not give a precise in the Mediterranean and the Black Sea, bringing definition to Ukrainian territory, but he identified an important contribution to the development this region of Eastern Europe as a fertile ground of regions located at north of the Black Sea. The for expanding the world powers over which Anglo- region’s geostrategic potential has generated Saxons should have thought, in order to be able to misunderstandings between the Ottoman and the preserve a balance between the powers fighting for Tsarist empire, intensely disputing their supremacy the control of Heartland. over Crimea. From the end of the 16th century to In the 1900s, when the Heartland theory was the 20th century, no less than 12 Russian-Turkish3 released, the World’s Island population represented wars were held, each side seeking to increase the almost 90% of the world’s population7. The World’s political and economic influence on the peninsula. Island covered a large territory composed of: Europe, At the beginning of the 20th century, Ukraine Asia and Africa, which also had similar proportions was seen as a communication hub to which all the in the world economy. It included demographic, shipping routes between Asia and Europe converge. commercial and colonial empires such as: England, Ukraine’s geographical position on the northern France, Russia, Austria-Hungary, Japan, China, Black Sea coast, linked it to Russia’s expansion Spain, Portugal, Germany, the Ottoman Empire route to the Balkans and the entry area of European or Italy. According to Mackinder’s theory: ”Who influences to the Caucasus, Iran and Turkmenistan. rules Eastern Europe commands Heartland; Who Thus, an independent Ukraine protected a number rules Heartland commands the World’s Island; Who 8 of nations in Eastern Europe and neighboring rules the World’s Island commands the World” . Based on his observations, Mackinder concluded areas of Asia from Russian imperialist expansion that the majority of the world’s population lived and became a strategic stabilizing factor. Rudnicki in the Eurasian and African land region and the concluded that the main direction to be followed control over this ”world’s island” would lead to by the future state, in order to build independent a possible global dominance. This island could Ukrainian statehood, had to be on the Black Sea be best controlled from the pivot (heart) area, direction, on a north-south axis, which was meant to which would guarantee food self-sufficiency for unite two different cultural elements: Cossacks and the country that dominates the region, and the 4 Galicians . According to him, positioning on this protection of the permeability of the pivot area at vertical axis was a constructive Ukrainian response sea by controlling access to the Black Sea would to the Russian policy of treating the Ukrainian provide a formable defensive barrier9. The pivot area as a buffer zone for the Eurasian region and area was only vulnerable to ground attacks through as an area of own influence and expansion for the the plains in Eastern Europe, which points out that German policy aiming at the Middle East. The this region included a part of Ukraine, particularly focus on this vector was a Ukrainian geopolitical the Crimean Peninsula. strategy to prevent its division into Eastern and Another successor of the Anglo-Saxon Western power areas. geopolitical school is Z. Brzeziński, one of the most

June, 2021 97 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University important theorists of contemporary globalism. analysis argues the German influence exercised Creator of geopolitical pivots’ theory, he pays in Eastern Europe, based on the principle of so- particular attention to Ukraine, reconsidering the called ”productivism” theories. In the view of the importance of this state through its important German geopolitical school, Ukraine was to join geographical location and the effects of potential the ”German productive area”, to become a buffer political instability on geostrategic behavior. As zone of Western civilization, a space for German a geopolitical hub, Ukraine can allow access to expansion in the Middle East and hydrocarbon strategic areas or can provide a defensive shield deposits in the Caucasus, Germany’s agricultural for an important actor or even a region. For this and resource base, an agricultural and industrial reason, an important aspect of America’s global region (the so-called ”ancillary economy”) and a geostrategy, whose interests are represented by cheap but qualified reservoir of workforce. Z. Brzeziński, is the identification and protection of An ardent contestant of Z. Brzeziński’s theory the States (including Ukraine) that play the role of and, in particular, of the entire Anglo-Saxon geopolitical pivots. ”Ukraine, – an important new geopolitical school of today is Alexander Heli area on the Eurasian chess table, is a geopolitical Dughin12, who also has the status of Putin’s personal hub, because the very existence of an independent adviser. In its view, Ukraine is an essential state Ukrainian state is helping to transform Russia. for the establishment, consolidation, imposition Without Ukraine, Russia ceases to be a Eurasian and expansion of the Eurasian Union. Dughin has empire: it may still try to achieve imperial status, repeatedly stressed13 that Ukraine is entering the but it would then be a predominantly Asian final phase of its independent political existence. empire, constantly drawn into ruined conflicts From a geopolitical point of view, he considers that with the recently sovereign nations of Central Ukraine’s stability and unity has been fragile from Asia, that would not reach an agreement on the the very beginning of its existence, and is now loss of independence and would be supported by entering the final phase of its independent political colleagues from Islamic countries in the south. [...] existence. Dughin believes that, in fact, Ukraine If Moscow, however, regains power over Ukraine, unites two nations with diametrically opposed along with fifty-two million citizens, huge natural policies. A Christian nation – the ”East”, which resources and access to the Black Sea, it will has a common destiny with the Great Orthodox automatically regain the possibility of becoming Russia. The second nation - the ”zapadniacki” a powerful empire that connects Europe and Asia - which lives in a past linked to the Polish state together”10. and the Austro-Hungarian monarchy, with a pro- In the 1920s, the German geographer Karl Western cultural and political orientation. He Haushofer used the geopolitical theory, proposed warns that if the two nations succeed in reaching an by the Swedish political analyst Rudolf Kjellen in agreement between them, establishing a balance- 1905, to support Germany’s invasion of neighboring sharing consensus between Europe and Russia, States, which he regarded as an ”expansion”. and not joining NATO and the EU, Ukraine will K. Haushofer is the creator of the term ”Lebensraum”, be able to maintain its independence and survive meaning the German influence and the way in as a single political body. Dughin is a supporter of which the Slavic East was organized, which was the Eastern Europe Sea project, by reconsidering to be under the exclusive sphere of influence of and reorganizing Heartland, also considering that Nazi Germany. The geopolitical theory was used without Ukraine, Russia appears to be insufficient to justify a state actor’s attempts to expand on the both in space-strategic, demographic or political basis of his own needs. Haushofer claimed that terms14. Practically all geopolitical analyses point densely populated countries such as Germany out that Ukraine is connected to Russia, the latter should be allowed and should have the right to being vulnerable, incomplete and without the expand and acquire the territory of less populated geostrategic potential of Ukraine’s territory, with a countries. Ukraine included in Western structures. A Western The outline of Ukraine’s ethnographic and Ukraine, which can also host a NATO naval territorial area can be found in Fryderyk Neumann’s base, is unacceptable to Russian politics, as it is book ”Mittleuropa”, published in 191511. Neumann’s perceived as a direct threat to the security, stability

98 June, 2021 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University and integrity of the state and the entire Russian of Crimea annexation and the Southeast region of tradition. Ukraine. In this respect, Russia has supported the In this geopolitical context, Russia appears to separatists in these regions, which led to a more be an undeniable leader of the Eurasian integration widespread amplification of the conflict. Ukraine structures representing materialized versions of the has thus become a safe victim of the great powers’ Dughin ideology. The Eurasian Community and geopolitics, due to the interests and political now the Eurasian Economic Union are the means confrontations between Russia, the EU and the US. to strengthen the Russian regional leadership and As a result of the conflicts that have been triggered imperial renaissance, considered the means to on its territory, I believe that Ukraine is trapped counterbalance Western influence, the main task of in the struggle of the Russian system for survival, the Russian leadership being to ensure Ukraine’s as well as the inability of the West to protect the membership in such organizations. international legal space. Due to international circumstances, generated Changing Ukrainian state borders, by annexing by the growing economic competition, Ukraine has the Crimean Peninsula, and fueling this conflict, by found itself in the middle of geopolitical turbulence maintaining tensions in the southeastern Ukrainian arising from the chain of competition between the regions hosting a major Russian and pro-Russian great powers. In other words, it is in the middle community, was a challenge by which Russia has of a competition cyclone, geopolitical gravity shaken the Western world and the global order in and civilization rupture caused by its position at general. The conflict in Ukraine opened a new page the crossroads between the West and East, which of Russian foreign policy, its international relations gives it a status of a victim of geography. Today and the formation of security strategy. Russia’s we see an increased competition for influence in reaction was forced by the transformation of the Eurasia through the collision of two integration political regime in Ukraine, which was taken as a European paradigms (market economy, democracy, challenge to its status and a geopolitical threat from Western civilization) and Eurasian (oligarchic the United States. authoritarianism, corruption and autocratic According to most Western and local military administrative power). analysts, Russia, taking advantage of the uncertainty Considering Moscow’s policy of recovery of and lack of Western reaction, is trying to ”freeze” the Russian Sea and the fact that it sees NATO the conflict, forcing the emergence of separatist expansion to the East as a real threat to the security regions identical to those in Georgia or the of the Russian state and identity, all States with a Republic of Moldavia, or to end it under favorable common border with Russia, having a pro-Western conditions, that would guarantee the preservation attitude, are condemned to be reconsidered and of Russian cultural identity in Southeast Ukraine become buffer zones for it. In this respect, in the last by officially confirming the Russian language as the years, Russia led a propaganda for the determination second official language of the state. These aspects of Ukraine’s political factors to give up the Euro will guarantee that Kiev will no longer join NATO project and finally opt for Russian Eurasian. Such and the EU in the future, weakening the Western political pessimism was reinforced in 2013 by the rigidity that Kremlin is feeling acutely. refusal of president of that time, Viktor Ianukovici Despite the fact that Ukraine claims to be a to sign the Ukraine-EU Association Agreement, geopolitical bridge between Europe and Eurasia, largely due to promises of economic support from it primarily fulfills the role of a strategic border the Russian Federation. between the EU and Russia. Speaking about Russia’s After V. Ianukovici’s withdrawal as President geostrategy, I believe that Ukraine is the last bastion of Ukraine, following the Euromaidan protests in the way of Western democracies, for Kremlin and in the winter of 2013, Russia lost its main means Russia itself. By supporting the Ukrainian conflict, of maintaining Ukraine under its geopolitical Russia is trying to stop the expansion of the EU influence15. After his flight to Russia and and NATO to the east, to maintain its influence following the events in Ukraine, which followed in Eurasia. For Kremlin, Ukraine represent only the takeover of power by a pro-Western political one piece on the great geopolitical chess board, elite, Kremlin started to implement the scenario in confrontation with the USA, along with other

June, 2021 99 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University playing pieces such as Syria, Iran or Venezuela, LGBT categories and the integration of religious its victory in the Ukrainian war being perceived as minorities. The information warfare promoted another US defeat. by Kremlin in the Ukrainian war, exceeds the Russia’s hostile actions in Ukraine have propaganda which promotes various veridical intensified the interest of military strategists in realities, aiming by aggressive and insistent the concept of hybrid warfare. For many Western propaganda, at the creation of parallel realities that analysts, the ”hybrid” concept represent the easiest alter or influence Ukraine’s foreign policy, security way to describe the complexity and combination of and defence decisions16. The alternative realities tools and methods used by the Russian Federation promoted in this conflict, through a subversive during the annexation of Crimea, as well as support propaganda that perverted the objective truth, for separatist groups in eastern Ukraine. Whether it pursued and follows the distortion of the perception is argued or not, in the plan and with the means of a target audience. of any geopolitical faith, ideology or strategy, the The manipulation of the Russian, Ukrainian Russian-Ukrainian hybrid warfare is the natural or pro-Russian Western collective mind shall way of imposing power relations, by persuading be carried out in the visible, concerted, planned, Kiev to accept the Kremlin’s conditions and integrated and step-by-step spectrum by achieving vision for a system designed to guarantee Russia’s the following objectives: advantages and dominance. • Direct promotion of Russia, of its leaders What stands out in the conflict in Ukraine and its official narratives that are presented in in relation to the hybrid warfare is the focus a nationalist, patriotic, conservative, grandiose on non-military methods and, in particular, on historical light, loyal to the Russian spirit and the information warfare, which is essential for Orthodox Christian values; Russia’s successful campaign in Crimea in 2014. • The increase of uncertainty, the amplification The Russian strategy included and includes a of dilemmas, the subtle inoculation of false traditional combination of conventional (classic truths. This is achieved by subtle propaganda military actions) and unconventional (undercover that generates emotions, by activating centers operations) combat techniques, but also support of personal sensitivity. The purpose is to extract for political protests, economic constraints, cyber from the population a mass of maneuver that has a operations, all complemented and supported by an weakness and appetite for conspiracy theories, and intense and aggressive campaign of disinformation. practices suspicion as a rule and is highly critical to At tactical level, the electronic war (EW), the any element of internal decision or construction; psychological war and cyber sabotage, also found • The identification of the common enemy, in the Russian-Georgian conflict in 2008, have through the construction of which the cohesion and diminished the capacity of Ukrainian authorities the preservation of the unity of the Russian society, to respond, while wider media manipulation and around the leaders is imprinted; exploitation techniques have diluted the boundaries • Building a mood based on fears and between truth and lie, creating alternative realities uncertainties. This objective overcomes the for observers who agreed to the Russian press’s preparation of moods, the conditioning of reactions position on the events. and the activation of certain previously conditioned Russia has used intensive information and reflexes at one time; propaganda operations to influence and shape • Construction of a human instrument that public perception, exploiting existing societal can be activated at the right time. At this stage vulnerabilities, undermining the perceived are identified, recruited and ready for activation, legitimacy of the Ukrainian state, and weakening the losers, supporters, contestants, useful idiots, government and state institutions. In Ukraine, support groups and maneuvering masses. The Russian propaganda has adapted to exploit most important part of this component is the conservative, Orthodox and nationalist feelings, identification, selection, training and conditioning aimed at increasing the opposition to the integration of persons convinced of alternative narratives, with the rest of Europe, by speculating the high by rewriting perceptions from the individual level of cultural conservatism, strong opposition to mind. They are prepared to become conscious

100 June, 2021 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University manipulators, obedient disinformers, consenters of out ”special recognition” missions (acquiring the information warfare. information about major economic and military Planning the information warfare was carried installations and either destroying them or taking out on three levels: global, regional and local. them out of action; carrying out punitive operations Thus, against the background of the deterioration against rebels, conducting propaganda; training of Russian life and the internal economic situation, insurgents’ detachments and so on), in order to Russian authorities withdrew, being able to distract undermine the political, economic and military both Western population as well as Ukrainian and potential and the morale of a probable or real Russian ones from social problems, relying on enemy. In Crimea, little green men were deployed exploiting the nostalgic thesis of Russia’s special to take control of public institutions, government characteristics. In this respect, the spiritual center institutions, and important infrastructure objectives. of the Orthodox Church is promoted as a last To legitimize Russian action, Spetsnaz forces Orthodox defence against a hostile environment facilitated and supported the arming of the separatist represented by the depraved West17. In addition, militia. After the surprise caused to the west by the attention is distracted from all domestic problems shock of the Crimean invasion, the Russian hybrid and tensions in Russia by promoting the obedient aggression against Ukraine has slowly but surely media and propaganda, which attempts to show turned into an interwar training phase. Thus, the that US policy is moving toward the isolation Russian-Ukrainian conflict has become an internal and destruction of Russian sovereignty. Thus, one war based on the civil conflict that has been of the main components of Russian policy is the triggered and fueled from the outside, in which an creation of an enemy to help build the confidence aggressor participates insidiously and secretly by and cohesion of the society surrounding the regime subversive troops and local militias, as well as by and the leader. ”volunteer formations”, groups of foreigners and However, popular and political support for mercenaries. Throughout this time, by promoting the escalation of the conflict in Ukraine should intense black propaganda, the Russian government be seen as an attempt by the Russian elite to promoted uncertainty and confusion, repeatedly keep Putin’s authoritarian system in the face of denying Russia’s involvement in the conflict. recession and imposed sanctions. Successful Other instruments and techniques of hybrid Europeanization and prosperity of Ukraine would warfare have been used to demoralize, demotivate question the effectiveness of anti-democratic and intimidate Ukrainian troops. They included regimes, extrapolating the effect on many post- large-scale military exercises with conventional Soviet countries, including Russia. The fiasco of troops on the Ukrainian border, cyber-attacks on the successful transformation strategy in Ukraine Ukrainian government systems, electronic war that would serve as a clear example of the democratic disrupted Ukrainian media stations, a diplomatic revolt of a large Orthodox country for Russian offensive and intense media to undermine the society. Therefore, Russia’s limited military legitimacy of the new Ukrainian government. intervention in Ukraine is primarily aimed at The ultimate aim of this type of ”war” is to apply preventing pro-Western reforms in Kiev. We can psychological pressure to cause the collapse of also assume that Russia’s strategy is aimed at the target state from within, so that the political economic collapse, the withdrawal of popular objectives of the conflict can be achieved without support and the administrative collapse of Ukraine, a fight – identical to the area of strategic abilities not through large-scale open military intervention found in Sun Tzu’s Art of War. and the subversion of the state challenge, but at Many of the methods and tools used by increasing the dissatisfaction of the population and Russia in the Ukrainian conflict date back to the removing the pro-Western authorities. Soviet era by the application of Maskirovka18 The use of special troops was obvious in the (disguising, camouflage, diversion or military 2014 conflict, although their engagement is not a deception). Maskirovka uses methods of actions/ new strategy in Russian military thinking. Known intentions camouflage, denial of actions/intentions, as Spetsnaz units, these forces were once designed, manipulation and disinformation, which are in the second half of the 20th century, to carry executed during war as well as during peace. In the

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21st century, ICT progress increased the efficiency is due to the fact that a possible sabotage of it and scope of Maskirovka, allowing the Russian does not cause significant economic losses only government to use state-scale media propaganda to Ukraine, but also threatens the energy security and disinformation19. They have been used to of European countries. Thus, the hybrid warfare in support the government’s foreign policy in Russia Ukraine is becoming global. Taking advantage of and to lead a more effective ”information warfare” the Ukrainian state’s total dependence on Russian against Ukraine and the West. The efficiency of the energy, in all energy sectors, after the annexation information warfare promoted by Kremlin is given of Crimea and the escalation of fights in south- by the post-truth culture of the 21st century, which eastern Ukraine, Kremlin launched the energy directly influences those who fall victims to the attacks against it, using the energy factor in a followers of disinformation. Thus, virtual space three-dimensional format: political, economic and is becoming a real battlefield aimed at inoculating information. alternative realities into the minds of the victims. The political dimension ‒ Russia uses energy Russian Maskirovka is taking advantage of an policy as a tool to achieve its foreign policy ever-expanding ecosystem in which people confuse objectives. Since 2015, the Russian government false news with the real ones, even more as they has been insistently supporting the termination of are promoted and amplified through social media the Russian-Ukrainian transit contract, the Russian and the Internet. The cascade effect by which the gas transit route to Europe through Ukraine will misinformant becomes disinformant is exactly be closed as of 201920. At the same time, Russia what the Russian trolls are after to pervert the truth announced the promotion of several possible and promote alternative realities. projects for the delivery of Russian gas to Europe, One of Russia’s preferred means, extracted bypassing the Ukrainian route (North Stream 2, from the hybrid toolbox used in the Ukrainian war, South Stream, Turkish Stream). is the energy lever. In general, Western experts and Economic dimension ‒ in April 2014, Russia analysts agree that the energy war is a phenomenon unilaterally established a price of 485 dollars of the post-Soviet space, Russia using energy policy per thousand cubic meters for gas supplied to with great preference to keep the former Soviet Ukraine, while European countries bought the gas Union countries under its influence. In fact, given on average with 360 dollars per thousand cubic the Kremlin’s appetite for this exotic instrument, it meters21. Since June of the same year, Russia has would be wrong to believe that this strategy cannot stopped gas deliveries to Ukraine22. At the same be applied to other EU or NATO Member countries. time as the natural gas deliveries were stopped, In this respect, based on Ukrainian experience, I about 80% of the coal mines, in the Donbas and believe that one of the hybrid instruments that Donetsk mining basins, in the area controlled Kremlin uses to force the regime from Ukraine is the by the Russian separatist forces, were taken out energy component. In fact, in recent years, Russia of operation, while the railways and bridges has used the gas resource intensively as an energy were destroyed. The impossibility of supplying weapon against EU members. As an example, we coal from occupied Ukrainian regions has led can recall the reduction in oil supply for the Czech to an energy crisis on the eve of the 2014/2015 Republic in 2008, in order to sanction Prague heating season23. In order to avoid energy lack because it signed an agreement on the deployment and emergency situations, power cuts have been of the US missile defence radar on its territory; in implemented for the people of Ukraine and some 2007, Russia sanctioned Estonia by suspending energy-consuming enterprises have started to work oil and coal deliveries for a month, stating that it overnight, the Ukrainian Government seeking coal is a logistical problem; in 2015, Russia reduced suppliers worldwide. The lack of coal has become a oil transit through Lithuanian ports by 20%, long-term challenge for Ukraine’s energy security, without explaining the reason. Taking advantage affecting the functioning of Ukraine’s entire energy of huge hydrocarbon resources, Russia is using system. After the annexation of Crimea, Moscow it as an energy tool to achieve geopolitical goals. gained control of Ukrainian oil facilities located In the Russian-Ukrainian war, Russia’s particular in the administrative region of Crimea. According attention to critical Ukrainian energy infrastructure to the statements of the Ukrainian Ministry of

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Energy and Coal Industry, after the annexation of of a military alliance with an impressive nuclear the peninsula, the costs of energy installations in arsenal. The great armies of the parties, bearing Crimea, including offshore reserves, were estimated in mind the risk of an escalation of the military at $300 billion24. As a result of this aggression, conflict, have not moved against each other, their Ukraine has not only lost the energy installations capacities being held in reserve and diplomatic on the territory of Crimea, but also the control over communications continued throughout the conflict. the oil fields of the Black Sea continental area. Out It is certain that NATO did not want and did not of these natural gas deposits, a volume of 2 billion have the necessary levers to get directly involved cubic meters has been appropriated by Russia every in the fight, but had to consider whether and how year. it could get involved. This involved assessing The information dimension – Energy has Russian targets, advising Ukraine on how to react become a Russian propaganda tool through which and examining the implications for any conflict that it creates psychological information pressure on may arise between Russia and a NATO member in Ukrainian society and the global community in the future. general. Moscow has repeatedly accused Kiev of unauthorized extraction of transit gases destined for Conclusions European consumers at the beginning of the conflict After the illegal annexation, Crimea has become in Crimea. The purpose of the false accusations was an important outpost for Kremlin’s policy; from this to denigrate Ukraine’s image in the eyes of Western region Russia can undisturbed use its influence in partners, being described as an untrustworthy the warm waters of the Black Sea, the Mediterranean supplier in their eyes and, respectively, to cultivate and the Middle East. With maritime access to these distrust in Ukrainian authorities. Transformation in areas, Russia is maintaining and intensifying the the energy market and reform of Ukrainian national tensions in Libya and Syria, demonstrating its energy policy have often been used by pro-Russian ability to destroy all Western projects related to organizations as an information opportunity for stabilization, energy security or economic security. critical assessment of government action and All this strategy, which also demonstrates Russia’s acceleration of social psychosis25. inability to build something sustainable globally, is At the same time as Russia’s hybrid instrument intended to impose Russia as a global player that in the Ukrainian war was used, the conflict counts in determining the direction of geopolitical developments have reanimated the issue of limited challenges between the West and the players from war. The concept of limited war has an even longer the Middle East and MENA States. history than that of crisis management, but it has After the invasion of the Crimean Peninsula and become visible with the emergence of nuclear the escalation of conflicts in Southeast Ukraine, it weapons that have introduced in the equation the has become clear that Russia’s policy is focused on zero stake of an armed conflict. The concept is preserving its influence and strategic control over based on the idea that the warriors may opt not to the decisions and political directions taken by the fight at full capacity, so that a conflict does not gain States from the former Soviet bloc. Kremlin has in intensity or extend in space and time. This is adopted several strategies to maintain control over different from the acceptance of those natural limits former regions, by attracting States to Eurosiatic imposed by resources and geography, and also from alliances and unions (for example, Belarus), by the circumstances in which a strong state uses only facilitating frozen conflicts in certain separatist limited forces to deal with opponents with lower regions disconnected from the state of origin (e.g. capabilities. Complete victories can be achieved Ahazia, South Ossetia, Transnistria, Nagorno against lower opponents with limited effort. In order Karabakh) or in cases deemed to be of extreme to be a ”limited war”, the limits must be accepted necessity, by enclosing and annexing regions of the by both parties. This is exactly the situation in the States of origin (for example, Crimea). All these Ukrainian war, where the confrontation has turned strategies have a common catalyst: the Russian into an inter-state war with high stakes, in which minority. In countries where there is no significant one of the party is a great nuclear power and the Russian minority but which has a geostrategic other is under the protective, soft-power-type wing interest to the Russian Federation, it adopts other

June, 2021 103 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University non-conventional or hybrid strategies, usually more acutely in pro-Western countries, but which below the detection limit, using hybrid instruments are not part of the EU or NATO, such as Ukraine, such as black propaganda, energy, diplomatic, Georgia, Moldavia, Azerbaidjan, the use of similar cyber, information policies or corruption of leaders. tactics or elements of such tactics could also be The confrontation between Russia and the extended against existing members of NATO or West, which led to the Russian-Ukrainian conflict, the EU. has raised important questions about NATO’s In order to be able to understand the effects credibility as a guarantee of European security. of the Russian-Ukrainian war on the West, as The successful deployment of hybrid instruments well as to anticipate and counter a possible future in Ukraine demonstrated the complexity of the next evolution of similar phenomena, in countries with generation war led by Russia. Instead of engaging a geopolitical risks such as Moldavia, but even classic military invasion into Ukraine, which would NATO members such as the Baltic countries, have led to unprecedented sanctions for the Russian Romania or Bulgaria, it is worth paying attention Federation, it adopted an insidious and subversive to the geopolitical consequences of the loss of strategy, which consisted in a mix of ingeniously Crimea and southeastern provinces by Ukraine. mixed instruments and tactics that facilitated For the Russian Federation, the Crimean Peninsula the achievement of the Kremlin’s political goal. is a convenient basis not only for the Black Sea, So, in annexation of Crimea, Russia deployed but also for launching military operations in the special military and paramilitary forces, sustained Mediterranean Sea and the Middle East. In fact, information campaigns, media propaganda, cyber the economic potential of the Middle East, and and electronic aggression, economic, energy or the competition for resources that has caused a political constraints. The geopolitical problem problem between the interests of the major world that the West will have to address is how NATO powers such as the United States, China and Russia, could react to similar developments, especially has turned it into the most important geostrategic if the aggressed state could be a member of the regions on the ground. Alliance. Russia’s ability to implement hybrid and The strategic takeover of the peninsula by subversive tactics makes redundant the need to use the Russian Federation led, among other things, conventional means of war. to a decrease in Ukrainian military capacity in The West’s dilemma is whether the hybrid the Black Sea, with Russia taking over control of aggression of the Russian Federation against NATO maritime trade routes to the Bosporus. The access Member States can be anticipated and can trigger to Transnistria with subordinate Crimea would a response from the Alliance by removing the allow Russia to become stronger in the Black Sea threshold of action against it. It is therefore important basin, finally, bringing Turkey back from the US to study Russia’s strategy of using hybrid tactics influence and create the conditions for solving with the aggression in Georgia or Ukraine as case alternative sources and supply routes to Europe by studies. To understand how different instruments strengthening its position in the Caspian region in can be used by the Russian Federation to influence the future. the States in its proximity and, in particular, how The annexation of Crimea has automatically their combination leads to an effective satisfaction changed the poles of power in territorial waters and of the aims, it is useful to assess and address the waters belonging to Russia’s exclusive economic systemic risks and vulnerabilities of States in the zone, which in the Azov Sea means the blockade of disputed areas of Russia and the West in recent Ukrainian ports by Russia. The annexation has led years. It is clear that this is not only relevant for to the restriction of Ukraine’s access to important the States at the borders of the Russian Federation, trade routes, to Crimea ports, access to oil and globalization and fierce competition for resources gas resources from the Black Sea continental area and influence, reversing on other States in various under the control of Russian trainers. Ukraine’s alliances, economic and military organizations exploitation of these deposits would have or unions with the affected States. I believe that guaranteed energy independence for a long time, although the effects associated with the hybrid which would have diminished Russia’s ability to tactics carried out by Russia are naturally felt much control Ukrainian politics. From a military point

104 June, 2021 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University of view, Russia’s takeover of Crimea has allowed www.files.ethz.ch/isn/139619/1942_democratic_ideals_ Kremlin to increase Russian military potential in reality.pdf, accessed on 05.04.2021. this area, which is at the border with the European 9 https://www.britannica.com/place/heartland, accessed on 05.04.2021. Union and NATO, creating military pressure on 10 Zbigniew K. Brzezinski,.1928 (reed 1997), The Ukraine, the Middle East and Eastern Europe. grand chessboard: American primacy and its geostrategic From geostrategic point of view, Russia’s imperatives / Zbigniew Brzezinski.-1st ed., p. 46, https:// presence in Crimea, control of Transnistria, www.cia.gov/library/abbottabad-compound/36/36669B789E fueling separatist emotions in eastern Ukraine and 857AC4F3445EA646BFFE1_Zbigniew_Brzezinski_-_The_ Grand_ChessBoard.doc.pdf, accessed on 05.04.2021. strengthening the military alliance with Belarus, 11 https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/ enclaves Ukraine by condemning it to a forced concept_of_mitteleuropa, accessed on 05.04.2021. change of political direction. Ukraine’s fundamental 12 Russian philosopher, founder of the current called problem is that it does not belong to any military neo-Eurasianism, political scientist, sociologist, professor at bloc, this unfavorable circumstance causing it to Lomonosov University in Moscow, leader of the International Eurasian Movement. be able to rely only on its own forces in the event 13 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1PPuRIC9fok, of a threat. The red line represented by Crimea - http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FBrQDCpTtFs, http:// Transnistria - Belarus - Kaliningrad strengthens www.youtube.com/watch/v=01W6v_0wfc, accessed on the Russian Federation’s position toward NATO, 06.04.2021. allowing Russia to launch a military offensive 14 Aleksandr Dughin, Multipolar world theory, People’s University of Chișinău, 2014, p. 191. against Alliance member states, from several 15 Oleg Kondratenko, Ukraine as a Geopolitical Priority directions at the same time. of the Russian Federation, Universitatea Națională de Aviație, The success of the annexation of Crimea Kiev, Ucraina, 16/2016, pp. 101-116, https://www.ceeol.com/ has brought a propagandistic victory to Western search/article-detail?id=623548, accessed on 21.05.2021. supporters who sympathize with Russia’s politics. 16 Iulian Chifu, Oazu Nantoi, Information warfare. Aggression type-model, I. C. Brătianu Institute of Political Understood as lumen ex oriente, it is perceived as Science and International Relations Publishing House of the a defender of traditional Christian values, of the Romanian Academy, Bucharest, 2016, pp. 5-7. family and of a healthy moral marriage between a 17 Mihai-Cristian Stancu, „The information war. Case man and a woman, in front of the modern views study: The role of «Russia Today» to cover the mission of the man promoted by the institutions of the carried out by the Russian Federation in Eastern Ukraine, between May 2014 and February 2015”, ”Carol I” National European Union. Defence University No. 4/2019, p. 50. 18 https://globalnews.ca/news/4260938/russia-strategy- NOTES: maskirovka-military-politics-putin/, accessed on 21.05.2021. 1 Wojciech Łysek, ”Crimeea in great powers foreign 19 https://warisboring.com/maskirovka-is-russian- policy: bordeland-conflict-destabilization”, Polskie Towarzystwo secret-war/, accessed on 21.05.2021. Geopolityczne, 11/2015, pp. 37-53, https://www.ceeol.com/ 20 https://www.digi24.ro/stiri/externe/rusia/vladimir- search/viewpdf?id=497802, accessed on.21.05.2021. putin-ameninta-din-nou-europa-cu-arma-energetica-exista- 2 Stepan Rudnicki (1877-1937), member of the Ukrainian riscul-ca-tranzitul-gazului-prin-ucraina-sa-se-intrerupa- Academy of Sciences, German historian, geographer and 1217137, accessed on 08.04.2021. philologist. 21 https://www.bursa.ro/rusia-a-crescut-pretul-gazului- 3 1568-1570, 1676-1681, 1686-1700, 1710-1711, 1735- pentru-ucraina-la-485-dolari-pe-1000-metri-cubi-60404323, 1739, 1768-1774, 1787-1792, 1806-1812, 1828-1829, 1853- accessed on 08.04.2021. 1856, 1877-1878, 1914-1918. 22 https://www.economica.net/rusia-ameninta-din-nou- 4 Michal Siudak, ”Geopolityczne Wizje Krymu I ucraina-cu-sistarea-furnizarii-gazelor_93764.html, accessed Ukrainy”, Przeglad Geopolityczny 18, p. 88, https://www. on 08.04.2021. ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=494566, accessed on 23 https://www.economica.net/ucraina-trebuie-sa-cum 05.04.2021, pere-carbune-de-la-rusia-pentru-a-trece-cu-bine-iarna-minis 5 Halford Mackinder (1861-1947). trul-energiei_91326.html, accessed on 08.04.2021. 6 https://www.britannica.com/biography/Halford- 24 https://worldview.stratfor.com/article/energy-instru Mackinder, accessed on 05.04.2021. ments-hybrid-warfare, accessed on 08.04.2021. 7 L. Diaconescu, ”Island of the World - Moving the 25 Recent reports about the Italian company Eni’s World Strategic Center from Heartland to the Indian Ocean”, intention to drill shale gas exploration wells in Ukraine have Romanian Journal of Political Geography, 22 (1), 22 (1), p. 2. been accompanied by an explosion of critical publications 8 Right Honourable Sir Halford J. Mackinder, Democratic on environmental issues, comparing shale gas production Ideals And Reality – A Study in the Politics of Reconstruction, to the Chernobyl disaster. The announcement of the supply NDU Press, Defence Classic Edition, 1942, p. XVIII, https:// of fuel for Ukrainian nuclear power plants by the American

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Westinghouse Electric Company also provoked critical Maior George, Sergei Konoplyov, Strategic comments in the expert environment and the promise of a knowledge in the extended area of the Black Sea, ”second Chernobyl”. RAO Publishing House, Bucharest, 2011. Siudak Michał, ”Geopolityczne Wizje Krymu REFERENCES I Ukrainy”, Przegląd Geopolityczny 18. Stancu Mihai-Cristian, „The information war. Brzezinski Zbigniew K, The grand chessboard: Case study: The role of «Russia Today» to cover American primacy and its geostrategic imperatives the mission carried out by the Russian Federation in (reed. 1997) Basic Books, A Member of the Perseus Eastern Ukraine, between May 2014 and February Books Group, 1st ed., 1928. 2015”, ”Carol I” National Defence University Chifu Iulian, Oazu Nantoi, Information war. No. 4/2019. Typing the model of aggression, Publishing House https://www.britannica.com/biography/Halfo of the Institute of Political Science and International rd-Mackinder https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/ Relations I.C. Brătianu of the Romanian Academy, article/concept_of_mitteleuropa Bucharest, 2016. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1PPuRlC9fok Diaconescu L., ”Island of the World – Moving http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FBrQDCpTtFs the World Strategic Center from Heartland to the http://www.toutube.com/watch/v=0IW6v_0wfc Indian Ocean”, Romanian Journal of Political https://globalnews.ca/news/4260938/russia- Geography, 22 (1), 2020. strategy-maskirovka-military-politics-putin/ Dughin Aleksandr, Theory of the multipolar https://warisboring.com/maskirovka-is-russi world, People’s University, Chișinău, 2014. an-secret-war/ Kaplan Robert, Revenge of Geography, Litera https://www.digi24.ro/stiri/externe/rusia/ Publishing House, Bucharest, 2019. vladimir-putin-ameninta-din-nou-europa-cu-arma- Kondratenko Oleg, Ukraine as a Geopolitical energetica-exista-riscul-ca-tranzitul-gazului-prin- ucraina-sa-se-intrerupa-1217137 Priority of the Russian Federation, National https://www.bursa.ro/rusia-a-crescut-pretul- Aviation University, Kiev, Ukraine, 16/2016. gazului-pentru-ucraina-la-485-dolari-pe-1000- Łysek Wojciech, ”Crimea in great powers metri-cubi-60404323 foreign policy: bordeland-conflict-destabilization”, https://www.economica.net/rusia-ameninta- Polskie Towarzystwo Geopolityczne, 11/2015. din-nou-ucraina-cu-sistarea-furnizarii-gazelor_ Mackinder J. Halford, Democratic Ideals And 93764.html Reality ‒ A Study in the Politics of Reconstruction, https://worldview.stratfor.com/article/energy- NDU Press Defence Classic Edition, 1942. instruments-hybrid-warfare

106 June, 2021 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University

THE CHARACTER OF INTERDEPENDENCE BETWEEN ISR STRUCTURES FOR LAND UNITS AND THOSE OF AIR AND NAVAL UNITS

Lt.Col. Valeriu Adrian JIANU, PhD Candidate*

Connecting ISR structures from Land Units with ISR structures of Air and Naval units, represents a real challenge, for assuring the whole information cycle in a flexible, robust, and complex architecture in order to create a common known image and to assure support for the commander of the Joint Forces Group in taking the best decisions. The importance of achievement interconnection between ISR structures at all level of hierarchy and from all categories of forces is determined by impredictibility of operational environment, and the necessity of shortening response time during decisional process.

Keywords: intelligence; reconnaissance; surveillance; Land Forces; Air Forces; Naval Forces; Joint Forces Group.

The constantly changing operational of this is the Gulf War in which the Multinational environment, technological developments and Coalition was organized from structures belonging unprecedented ISR means made us analyze the to all means of confrontation, constituted in a group possibility of using ISR capabilities in a timely, of joined forces. prioritized manner, in an optimal ISR architecture, The synchronization of means of gathering to obtain as much information as possible in support information from all categories of forces and from of operations, but also to avoid overcrowding with all hierarchical levels is an important part of the irrelevant, outdated or inaccurate information. ISR process. The data and information received ISR collection capabilities can operate in all from an ISR collection medium in the LF can be operational environments, and can be characterized supplemented with products received from the as terrestrial, airborne, naval, space, cybernetic, other means of collection within the NF or AF. environmental. 1 Starting from the definition of ISR architecture According to the Explanatory Dictionary of that represents ”the totality of organizations, the Romanian language, interdependence means processes, relationships and systems that connect ”the connection and mutual conditioning between the collection elements, databases, services, processes, things, phenomena, etc.”2. Currently, the applications, analysis structures and beneficiaries effective cooperation of sensors of the Land Forces in an operational environment”4 we can understand with the sensors of the Air Force and the Naval that the interrelation and the inter-connectivity of Forces, can determine the increase of efficiency of all sensors in LF, NF and AF, is a subsystem of the joint operations, by achieving a common objective, entire architectural information system. in a clearly determined space and period of time. Moreover, we can say that the applicability The execution of military operations in the of the principles of ISR architecture management land, air and naval confrontation environments (inter-connectivity, flexibility, compatibility, allows ”simultaneous interception of targets and mission adaptation, centralized control)5 is common achievement of the recognized common image”3. to all ISR structures in the Land Forces, Naval The experience of the latest conflicts shows that Forces and Air Forces. the success of military operations is determined by Unlike the specialized collection capabilities in the participation of at least two categories of forces. Land Forces (HUMINT, OSINT, IMINT, GEOINT, None of them can win alone. An eloquent example ACINT, MASINT)6, in the Naval Forces we find OSINT, IMINT, SIGINT, RADINT, water location *”Carol I” National Defence University capabilities that include coastal and wide systems, e-mail: [email protected] capabilities on CBRN situation, research capabilities within the Marine Regiment and the Naval Group

June, 2021 107 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University of Special Operations Forces7. Moreover, through they do not take the risk of crew losses, they can the Joint Doctrine for Intelligence, Surveillance transmit photos and recordings in almost real time, and Reconnaissance, we can complete the list they can be used several times, they are operated with collection capabilities such as CYBERINT, from the ground, but they must be included in the TECHINT, EW, MPE8. air control system. Both aerial platforms depend We can observe that, in accordance with on weather conditions. the Romanian doctrine, there are some similar The UAS control station can be installed on collection capabilities, which can determine a high land, naval and air forces; it ensures the planning degree of cooperation, but also different collection and execution of missions, implements the capabilities that can generate a complete volume communications system, ensures the processing, of information and implicitly a ”comprehensive” exploitation and dissemination of information to overview at meeting level. beneficiaries12. From a doctrinal point of view9, collection Naval platforms can provide images both from systems can be arranged on the ground, on aerial/ the marine environment and from coastal or port space platforms and on maritime platforms. areas and these can complement the ”recognized Electronic and infrared surveillance, electronic common picture”. Naval platforms can be with optical and radar research and surveillance are human crew on board or without human crew common to all three collection systems in the Land, on board. Naval platforms without human crew Air and Naval Forces. on board can be surface, semi-submersible, or Moreover, the collection systems arranged underwater (autonomous or remotely controlled by on the aerial platforms have hyper spectral and an operator). The mobile aerial platforms may be multi spectral imaging equipment as well as the launched from ships with human crew on board13. detection of magnetic anomalies. On the other The supervision of the operations area by hand, collection systems arranged on naval sensors ensures the informational supremacy over platforms include acoustic detection means, such the opponent as well as the possible adaptation of as ground collection systems. Human capabilities the operations to complex situations, of the mode (HUMINT) capabilities are obviously specific to of action, but especially of the imposition of one’s ISR structures in the Land Forces. own will14. From the perspective of IMINT (Imagery According to specialists in the field15, Intelligence)10 the platforms carrying sensors surveillance by observation of air, land and naval (image capture and analysis) are terrestrial, airborne space is performed for the execution of the mutual and naval. exchange of data and information by identifying From a terrestrial point of view, we can talk and reporting the main characteristics of land, air about static platforms (lighthouses, towers or even and naval means, as well as the modalities of action higher gazebos), which are marked and visible to and of executed maneuvers. ensure area air management, but nevertheless have Also, the landing places of the sea and air low visibility possibilities. We can also talk about landing elements, used by the opponent of the mobile platforms, less known and called unmanned CBRN means, are determined, the evaluation ground vehicles (UGVs), which can provide short- of anti-aircraft strikes is performed, as well as distance images; these are not expensive, but can the observation and reporting of meteorological be easily captured, or may be damaged during the phenomena and climate changes in the area of mission. operations. On the other hand, the aerial platform11 can The exchange of information between ISR be with or without human crew on board. Crewed structures of Land Forces and ISR structures of platforms can fly at high altitudes, over long Air Force obviously contributes to the mutual distances, with very good autonomy and can support of the two categories of forces in the transmit photos, recordings and data in almost real joint operation. However, for the efficiency of air time, but they have the disadvantages of the risk support against the opponent and for the success of of losing crew members and are very expensive. joint operations, a number of factors must be taken Unmanned platforms have the advantage that into account16 such as weather conditions, terrain,

108 June, 2021 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University tactical rules of joint operation areas, difficulties applicability in aerial surveillance and detection of encountered during ground transport, the existence moving bodies in terrestrial, maritime and aerial of airports in the area of joint operations. environments”. In order to carry out the air denial operation on The ISR Structures of Land Forces may some targets (usually fixed) from the depth of the cooperate with the ISR Structures of Naval and adversary combat layout, an operation that requires Air Force in the field of open source information deliberate planning, ISR structures from the Land (OSINT). Open source information can be Forces can infiltrate the adversary combat layout. complementary to other collection disciplines, can After infiltration, they can provide vital information confirm certain data, can significantly contribute about the adversary such as command points, to the joint preparation of operational environment elements of logistics system, sectors, phase lines, information (JIPOE). as well as the effects of blows on the adversary At a joint level, OSINT can provide information (battle damage assessment). about the adversary capabilities, intentions, The infiltration of ISR elements from Land locations, characteristics of the environment Forces into the depths of the opponent’s combat from the social, political, economic, military and layout can be achieved both with the support of cultural point of view in which the operation takes Naval Forces and with the support of Air Force. place. Also, by monitoring all open sources, ISR Infiltration with the support of the Naval Forces structures specialized in OSINT can contribute to is carried out with the help of surface ships or by the identification of indices and the issuance of immersion, and infiltration with the help of the Air warnings about threats to the security environment. Force is carried out by parachuting or landing. At the same time, they can contribute to the Both processes have advantages and targeting process (identification and prioritization disadvantages depending on many factors such of targets), as well as to the evaluation of losses in as: operation type, adversary disposal, time and operation and avoidance of collateral damage19. fighting area. Moreover, the ISR structures of In this sense, the speed of collection and Land Forces are obliged, in my opinion, to have transmission of information by ISR structures and specialized personnel such as paratroopers, divers especially the dissemination to the beneficiary and specialized personnel for the elementary is important. Coordination is accomplished navigation necessary for landing in both hostile through Intelligence Requirement Management and less hostile areas. and Collection Management (IRM&CM), so that Within the ISR system of the Naval Forces, information collected from open sources by ISR the processing, integration and dissemination to structures in the Land Forces can reach both the Air authorized beneficiaries of the ”recognized unique Force and the Navy in a timely manner and vice naval image” is carried out through the Integrated versa. Black Sea Research and Observation System For the mutual connection of sensors in LF, AF (SCOMAR).17 The system can ensure the transfer of and NF in terms of unclassified information, certain information to all the hierarchical levels (strategic, Internet networks can be used such as: World Wide operative and tactical) from the Naval Forces and, Web, Deep Web, Dark Web. if necessary, to other categories of forces from the On the World Wide Web the connection is made Romanian Army. using a standard code called HTML/Hyper-text Through this system, situational awareness Mark-up Language. On the Deep Web the network is achieved both from a naval and aerial point of content is not accessible through standard common view, as well as for avoiding strategic surprise and search engines, includes private sites, involves ensuring indices and early warning. The system subscribing and registering operators. The Dark ensures the exchange of information regarding the Web is a component of Deep Web, it is intentionally identification of partners/opponents, the discovery hidden and only accessible through encrypted of surface ships and submarines, air targets but also networks20. the situation in the electromagnetic spectrum. Another means of interconnection could be According to some military specialists18, radar, a tactical secured data network, called Internet lidar and sonar represent sensors with ”the highest Protocol/IP. In NATO, it is called the NATO

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General Communications System (NGCS) which distribute”, we can avoid the appearance of vital consists of NATO systems and subsystems at all information that will be much delayed. hierarchical levels. For securing the network and I believe that we need to train more together, avoiding sharing to unauthorized persons, NGCS experience more information exchange, and is accessorized with an encryption device to limit understand, as history has shown countless times, access to information, called a ”boundary protection that a decision made today (even if is not the device”21. best) is much more valuable than a decision taken A system used within NATO that proves its tomorrow but too late. effectiveness today through theatre of operations, The experience can be gained by intensifying which can be used by ISR structures is ”Blue Force joint exercises between ISR structures belonging Tracking”. This assures the connection of all ”blue to all categories of forces in the Romanian Army, forces” in an area of operations, is interoperable and increase cooperation, interconnection and why not, can provide a complete picture of the disposition of even of mutual trust. its own and allied forces and contributes decisively to the avoidance of fratricide. NOTES: In the American doctrine22 we find the concept 1 I.A.-1.5 Joint Doctrine for Information, Surveillance of ”Distributed Common Ground System” (Army/ and Research, Bucharest, 2017, p. 38. 2 Romanian Explicative Dictionary, accessed on DCGS-A). The system provides decision makers 05.04.2021. with the ability to receive data and information 3 Cristian Stanciu, The physiognomy of military from the field but also to send messages, tasks, operations in the contemporary security environment, ”Carol I” information to all sensors in the area of operations. National Defence University Publishing House, Bucharest, The system also meets the information requirements 2016, p.70. 4 I.A.-1.5, Ibidem, p. 43. at all hierarchical levels. 5 I.A.-1.5, Ibidem, p. 39. In the future, it is necessary to adhere to a 6 SMFT-20, Manual for the use of SRI elements in the common data link management strategy within Land Forces, Bucharest, 2019, p. I-3. NATO (NATO Bi-Strategic Commanders Data) 7 F.N.-1.3, Doctrine for operations of the Naval Forces, Link Management Strategy/Bi-SC DLMS). Bucharest, 2012, art. 30. 8 I.A.-1.5, op.cit, p. 15. This is useful in order to improve automatic link 9 I.A.-1.5, Ibidem, pp. 10-11. management, to reduce duplication of information, 10 I.A.-2.6, Doctrine of support with military information to design a common message format, to standardize obtained by exploiting IMINT images, Bucharest, 2013, p. 36. reporting23. 11 I.A.-2.6, op.cit., p. 37. 12 SMAp-2 Military Manual for the use of unmanned aircraft systems (UAS) in the Romanian Army, Bucharest, Conclusions 2021, p. 8. The interconnection of ISR structures of Land 13 I.A.-2.6, Ibidem, p. 46. Forces with the ISR structures of the Air and Naval 14 Radu D. Ghica, ”Typology of missions in the Forces, can be essential in the information support conditions of the new operational environment at the beginning of the Joint Forces Group and can contribute of the 21st century”, CSSAS, Policies and strategies in conflict management, ”Carol I” National Defence University decisively to the success of any operation. Publishing House, Bucharest, 2008, p. 39. I believe that it is necessary to continue in this 15 F.A.1.1.3.2. Manual on the organization and execution direction of research, because it has represented, of surveillance by observation of air and ground / maritime represents and will represent a real challenge space in the General Staff of the Air Force, Bucharest, 2011, for the coming future. We have to admit that p. 8. 16 F.A./Av-2, Air Fleet Combat Manual, Bucharest,2010, the interconnectivity to all sensors is difficult to p. 24. realize. The topic is a reason for debate not only 17 F.N.-1.3, Doctrine for Operations of the Naval for the Romanian Army but also for other NATO Forces, Bucharest, 2012, art. 9. member armies. 18 Petru Pîrjol, The architecture of the airspace Working with information in a collaborative surveillance system. Structural and functional dynamics, ”Carol I” National Defence University Publishing House, environment, with a high level of interconnection, 2020, p. 37. with obeying two principles that have become 19 I.A.-1.7 Doctrine for open source information, classic, ”the need to know” and ”the need to Bucharest, 2020, p. 15.

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20 I.A.-1.7, Ibidem, p. 27. *** I.A.-2.6, Doctrine of support with military 21 FA-1.2, Doctrine on air defence and ground-based information obtained by exploiting IMINT images, missile defence, Bucharest, 2020, p. 17. 22 FM 2.0. Intelligence, Headquarters, Department of Bucharest, 2013. the Army, Washington DC, 2004, p. I-23. *** IGEO-1, Instructions on geospatial support 23 FA-1.2, Ibidem, p.18. in the Romanian Army, Bucharest, 2020. *** SMAp-2 Military Manual for the use of REFERENCES unmanned aircraft systems (UAS) in the Romanian Army, Bucharest, 2021. *** AJP- 2.7 Allied Joint Doctrine for *** SMAp-74, Doctrine of operations in Reconnaisannce and Surveillance, 2009. cyberspace, Bucharest, 2020. *** AJP-3.2 Allied Joint Doctrine for Land *** SMFT-20, Manual for the use of SRI Operations, 2016. elements in the Land Forces, Bucharest, 2019. *** AJP-3.3 Allied Joint Doctrine for Air and Space Operations, 2016. *** Romanian Explicative Dictionary, *** F.A.1.1.3.2., Manual on the organization dexonline.ro and execution of surveillance by observation of air Ghica Radu D., ”Typology of missions in the and land/maritime space in the Air Force General conditions of the new operational environment Staff, Bucharest, 2011. at the beginning of the 21st century”, CSSAS, *** F.A.1.2., Doctrine on ground-based air Policies and strategies in conflict management, and missile defence, Bucharest, 2020. ”Carol I” National Defence University Publishing *** F.A./Av-2, Manual for the combat of the House, Bucharest, 2008. air flotilla, Bucharest, 2010. Pîrjol Petru, The architecture of the airspace *** FM 2.0. Intelligence, Headquarters, surveillance system. Structural and functional Department of the Army, Washington DC, 2004. dynamics, ”Carol I” National Defence University *** F.N.-1.3, Doctrine for operations of the Publishing House, Bucharest, 2020. Naval Forces, Bucharest, 2012. *** I.A-1.5, Joint Doctrine for Information, Stanciu Cristian, The physiognomy of Surveillance and Research, Bucharest, 2017. military operations in the contemporary security *** I.A-1.7, Doctrine for open source environment, ”Carol I” National Defence University information, Bucharest, 2020. Publishing House, Bucharest, 2016.

June, 2021 111 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University

PROMPT PHYSICAL AVAILABILITY OF THE MILITARY ‒ CONCEPTS, PRINCIPLES, COMPONENTS

Lt.Col.Sup.Instr. George-Florin BĂIŢAN, PhD*

Endurance (the ability to sustain activity), strength (the ability to overcome endurance) and motor skills (the functional application of force and endurance to react operatively to stimuli in the form of effective movement) are essential features for the physical performance of the military and, on a larger scale, for their success in the military system. Prompt physical availability is the ability to meet the physical requirements of any service or combat situation, in order to fulfill the mission or continue the fight until victory is achieved. Looking ahead, the multi-field approach in military operations identified the need for the military to be constantly physically prepared so that they would be available to fight in extreme environments of dispute and difficulty. Both tactical and physical training will remain a key component of combat training, and military physical education specialists must find solutions to integrate physical training into tactical field training exercises.

Keywords: prompt physical availability; concepts of training; physical training; workout; military physical education.

The military physical education system creates spectrum operations (combat, stability and support for the military the daily opportunity to hone or peacetime operations) place a special emphasis on their motor skills and abilities necessary for the the qualities, skills and motor skills of the military, accomplishment of missions. The specific physical components on which largely depends the final training is rooted in the principles of sports training victory or even the lives of combatants. To march and its general methodological requirements, long distances with cargo (equipment and combat designed to build an athletic military, including armament) equipped to travel a varied terrain and training activities that directly support the combat fight effectively on arrival in the battlefield, to lift tasks of the entire spectrum of operations. and transport heavy objects, to drive high-speed The general objective of the training program military vehicles on rugged terrain, to storm enemy of prompt physical availability is to prepare soldiers positions by sprinting and crawling long distances, who are physically able to perform their own tasks to jump or climb certain obstacles, to dig trails, to or missions, both during physical training and fill sandbags or to remove residual materials, and to in real combat situations. To achieve this goal, make a quick move several hours without a break ‒ physical activities in the training program must all these acts of war and many more require prompt address the following aspects: the development of physical availability from the military. sufficient strength to perform the necessary tasks and adequate endurance to sustain activity over a General aspects of prompt physical long period of time, the development of adequate availability to the military muscle tone, correcting and maintaining an optimal ”Physical training aims to satisfy the physical body weight and improving certain basic motor requirements of the armed struggle from the skills and utility-applications that are essential perspective of the military for the performance of for the safety of personnel and for effective duties or missions received”1. The physical training performance in combat. of the military has evolved over time based on Military leaders around the world have always interdisciplinary scientific approaches (military recognized that the effectiveness of the military and civilian) in the field of physical education. depends largely on their physical condition. Full- This historic research as well as contemporary concepts influence the scheduling of physical activities in the army. Physical training programs * ”Ferdinand I” Military Technical Academy must be designed to meet the training objectives of e-mail: [email protected] the military, the subunit/unit and, by extension, the army. Even if there are similarities with the physical

112 June, 2021 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University training programs in civilian life, in the military • Cross training ‒ is a method of fitness that system the specifics of the fight and the dangers of involves several different types of exercise, which the profession require a different approach. This will be rotated in different ways during the program approach can be called prompt physical availability of a week or during a training session. It does not (DFP) and refers to the quality or condition of the have to be very intense because, in essence, it is military to be permanently physically trained, about combining workouts that will support each integrating old training concepts, such as: other and require more muscle groups, improving • Low intensity training ‒ is a program of agility and facilitating participation in a variety cardiovascular exercises in which the military of recreational sports. Cross-training limits the performs aerobic activity at a low to moderate stress that occurs on certain muscles, as different intensity for a long and continuous period of time. activities use the muscles in slightly different ways. Once the intensity is reached, the exercise can In addition, Cross Training reduces boredom and continue as long as the soldier can maintain his keeps the military motivated; 2 heart rate in a prescribed training area (a level at • Push-pull training ‒ generally refers to which the heart is trained, but not exhausted), and strength training sessions centred around muscle his energy continues to be available; groups that perform similar actions, alternating • Tempo training ‒ is a comfortable run, for a between agonist and antagonist muscles. Thus: longer period of time (20-30 minutes), at a pace the ”pull” training will train the muscles of the set for a certain distance or at a certain level of upper back, biceps and forearms, while the ”push” perceived effort for a certain time3. It is simply the training will train the muscles of the chest, triceps level of effort at which the body is able to eliminate and shoulders. This training session should also an amount of lactic acid (a byproduct of burning include a training session for the lower limbs and carbohydrates) equal to that produced. This means abdomen, thus creating one of the most effective that the sensations of heavy legs or weak arms will programs for increasing muscle mass; no longer be installed. If this type of training is • performed intermittently, then it will be similar to ”Upper-lower” training ‒ refers to strength interval training; training sessions in which the major muscle • High Intensity Interval Training ‒ is based on groups of the upper body are worked alternately, in a fundamental principle: the alternative repetition separate sessions, then those of the lower part. This of a short period of high intensity resistance will allow you to perform workouts on successive training with a longer recovery period. It can be days, as there is no overlap between the required performed using traditional exercises that stimulate muscles in two consecutive workouts. This type of aerobic effort (running) or relying mainly on training offers an opportunity for diversity, because intensive use of muscles in various regions of the the military is not limited to certain muscle groups body (plyometric exercises). In addition to the fact for each training, but can choose from a wide range that it contributes to improving the health of the of exercises. Thus, they can perform completely military, interval training creates a superior state of different exercises in each workout, a variety that well-being among those who perform it, who want will help them stay involved and avoid boredom; • to practice this type of training in the future; ”agonist - antagonist” training (Superset) ‒ • Circuit training ‒ is a popular and very is a form of strength training in which two opposing effective training method over time, an excellent muscle groups are worked, moving quickly from way to improve cardiovascular capacity and one exercise to another, without taking a break muscular endurance. It will raise the heart rate and for rest between sets (at most one short rest for keep it high throughout the circuit due to short hydration). Supersets can be used as a way to do recovery periods, large muscles worked at the same more exercise in a limited amount of time, because time and a combination of exercise that requires the by not pausing, the muscles that have been required whole body. Circuit training is an excellent choice in a series of exercises will recover during the for the physical training of the military, especially next set in which they are not involved. Supersets if the training time is short, if they get bored quickly focus on endurance (as well as skill), as the lack of or if they do not like to train alone, things that make physical recovery between sets can be extremely it ideal for group training in a limited space; challenging.

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Principles of prompt physical availability or injury hazards that the military may face5. The of the military correct progression of the basic parameters in The DFP principles of the military are the development of the effort and the variety of accuracy, progression and integration. These exercises used will evolve from the initial phase, principles ensure that the military can accurately to the improvement phase. The training performed perform all the physical exercises, motor skills and in the initial phase of physical training will create abilities contained in the structure of a physical a basic physical condition, which the military will training program. They will progress physically use to progress safely to higher levels of operational and form their combat skills specific to each physical capacity. Therefore, it is important to weapon/service and military specialty much faster. remember that the ability to move will require a From a psychological point of view, the principles consistent review of the basics before and after of DFP will develop the ability to work in a team, each progress to a higher level. discipline, self-control, will support the automatic The principle of integration focuses on the fulfillment of duties in difficult situations and will activities and physical exercises performed by initiate an instinctive response to orders given by the military to enable them to fight and achieve commanders. victory. The army prepares the military and its Accuracy refers to the fact that precise units to fight and win, using a specific list of movement depends on the structural and functional combat skills needed by all soldiers (regardless capabilities of the body, adequate mobility and of rank, weapon or military specialty). These are suppleness, tolerance to bear extra weight, body a collection of individual motor skills related to composition and connection of the brain to muscles. the ability of a soldier to shoot with all categories All these motor patterns will allow the military of weapons, to walk in various terrains, to survive to learn what the standard is and to perceive the in extreme conditions and dangerous locations, to difference between right and wrong techniques. communicate with other soldier partners, to provide The quality of the movement is as important as the first aid in case of need, etc. The motor skills needed high weight, the number of repetitions performed in a fight are those group skills designed to teach a or the speed of execution and the formation of unit to react and survive in various tactical combat motor skills of the movements will develop through situations. Being regularly supported by military repeated executions and through the deliberate physical education specialists (by training), all practice of physical activities. commanders must ensure (by testing) that their Repetition, using mental images, can help soldiers can perform all these skills. refine precise movement patterns without exerting Soldiers who follow these principles will special physical effort. The principle of precision become more physically prepared, as this is not a ensures the development of perception and recreational fitness recipe. This physical training awareness of body position in space (”the ability aims to develop physical capacity to support all to feel, without visual participation, through deep military specialties and combat-specific tasks. sensitivity, movements passively imprinted on Once the military achieves a high level of physical various body segments”4), to improve training training in the initial phase, they must continue to parameters, evaluation results and performance in build this basic training, along with the physical the field. development of the military in accordance with Progression refers to the proper dosage of the essential requirements of the mission to be physical effort, taking into account its fundamentals fulfilled. (volume, frequency, intensity and complexity) This doctrine (consisting of the three principles and the type of exercise needed to progressively of DFP) integrates physical training with non- stress the body, without causing the process called physical training (areas that integrate with the overtraining. Its purpose is to develop physical fitness plan). The objectives of the training must take capacity to support the mastery of professional into account the ability of the military to perform and combat-specific tasks. Pregnancy analysis physically and mentally demanding activities (in includes the physiological requirements of the environments with extreme variations of heat, pregnancy and the potential performance problems cold and humidity) at the same time as carrying

114 June, 2021 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University heavy personal protective equipment. The recovery When a soldier has to lift a weight of 50 kg program between training sessions must be trained, and his maximum force is 150 kg (this refers to measured and scheduled, and military physical the largest load he can handle at a time9), this education specialists must manage all obstacles that effort is relatively easy. His high level of muscle arise in the way of achieving the objectives (over- strength will allow him to use relatively less effort training or stagnation of the level of performance). to complete the task, thus conserving his energy Consequently, military training sessions must take for the next effort. The same weight will be much place at regular intervals, determined by the peak of heavier and the effort much more intense for the phase of adaptation of their body to the requests someone whose maximum strength is 75 kg. The of the previous meeting6. closer the weight of the material to be handled to the maximum force of a soldier, the greater the risk Components of prompt physical availability of injury. The leaders of the activities must differ of the military and individualize the physical training program The set of military physical education exercises of the military in order to improve the absolute used to get in good physical shape is usually workload and to avoid the occurrence of injuries. divided and measured into parts. They have often Those who will understand and apply the concept been labelled as components that have evolved of maximum strength by quantifying the physical with advances in exercise science and technology. training sessions starting from its value, will strictly The military must train in all components of fitness individualize the trainings in accordance with the in order to meet an infinite range of operational requirements of the mission to be performed. challenges and physiological requirements. The prompt physical availability of the Structural requirements are physical and military must include in particular the following cognitive characteristics that underlie increased components: muscular strength, functional work capacity. They allow the increase of work muscular hypertrophy, muscular endurance, capacity through the systematic participation in aerobic endurance, anaerobic endurance and physical training sessions, which create: a healthy muscular power. body composition (the ratio between fat and muscle Muscular strength is the amount of force that mass), an optimal ratio between weight and height, a a muscle or group of muscles can generate through high bone density (strong bones), a flexibility good the tension they exert during muscle contractions. statics (which will also help improve balance and coordination), a fast reaction time and an improved Examples of exercises and situations when perception of body position and movement. In short, muscular force is mainly used: hanging on the the military needs these structural requirements fixed bar with the arms flexed and the chin above to begin training and complete as many duties as the bar (minimum time of 20 seconds), pushing possible. ”The success of the forces engaged in from lying with the dumbbell, kneeling with the the conflicts depends to a large extent on the value dumbbell at the nape of the neck, straightening of the motor performance and the level of mental with the dumbbell or extracting a wounded soldier qualities of the personnel serving the armament, through a tower hatch. However, the most useful equipment and fighting technique”7. way to measure muscle strength is the 1RM test The physical training system must be designed (a maximum repetition) which determines the so that the military can progress through training maximum weight that a soldier can handle. (regular and gradual in intensity and complexity) The high levels of force that are reached that will develop to the maximum their mental during missions can certainly be achieved without toughness8 and combat skills. Some may achieve maneuvering maximum weights endangering the higher individual levels of performance, inspiring others to want the same, but the maximum bodily integrity of the military. In fact, specialists physiological functional capacity of the entire must take into account the results obtained by subunit (ease of performing physical tasks in daily the military in the 1RM test and set tasks for life) is the aspect that must be met. It is primarily subordinates, so that they use about 80-90% of their interested in a commander, not the outstanding values. In this sense, the formula for calculating the performance of a single soldier. value of a maximum repetition can also be used:

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1RM = (0.033 x number of repetitions performed (over two minutes), depending on the functional x value of handled weight) state of the cardiovascular system (which provides + Value of handled weight. oxygen and nutrients to the muscles). Although aerobic training is low intensity, a large volume Therefore, regular testing to determine the without proper dosing (series, repetitions, weight, maximum value of muscle strength is important frequency) can cause overtraining. If the same to monitor progress and to modify the physical rhythm is maintained, the large loads transported training program according to individual needs. during aerobic activities tend to change the fitness ”The level of development of this quality, together component from aerobic to anaerobic. The military, with the resistance in particular, directly conditions regardless of their level of physical training, will their capacity for effort, an essential factor in the begin to slow down when carrying heavy loads, successful fulfillment of the entrusted missions which will significantly reduce the effect of aerobic and, at certain moments, in the very survival of the training and increase the risk of injuries. Examples combatant or his comrades”10. of aerobic efforts by the military: running in various Functional muscle hypertrophy (”usable terrain and fast long-distance travel, marches, muscle pathway”) is a complex process of patrols, etc. increasing muscle size, which can be achieved Anaerobic endurance refers to the ability to through specific (hypertrophic) training in which sustain intense, short-term physical activity (about sessions of developing muscle strength and one minute). At this type of effort, the muscles muscular endurance are combined. The term with rapid contraction are the biggest contributors. functional refers to the fact that the military must The fuel for this type of intense exercise is derived train so that they can perform physical activities mainly from energy sources that are already present at the highest possible level, both in the military in the body (such as the breakdown of glycogen environment and in everyday life. To trigger muscle into monosaccharide’s, such as glucose). Anaerobic hypertrophy, the military should use moderate endurance is finite and is therefore associated with and heavy loads (between 65 - 85% of 1RM), a complete fatigue. The high level of anaerobic higher number of repetitions/training, short breaks resistance is essential for the transport of heavy between sets of exercises and a variety of speed of loads. Examples of anaerobic efforts made by the movement. military: sprints, jumping over various obstacles, Muscular endurance is the ability of a muscle lifting weights, hand-to-hand combat with or or muscle group to sustain an effort (to repeatedly without individual weapons, rapid movement perform contractions against a force) for a long carrying a heavy weight, etc. ”Increasing physical period of time. It refers to the number of repetitions and mental demands, specific to the modern in a single exercise that a soldier can perform without battlefield, make endurance a particularly important having to stop for rest. The greater the muscular factor by which the military can overcome the endurance, the greater the number of repetitions early onset of fatigue, both intellectually, sensory, that the military can perform. Examples include: emotional and physical”12. lifting and placing materials in a truck, loading a Muscular power is the ability to move a cannon with projectiles or performing calisthenics weight (including body weight) as fast as possible exercises at the fixed bar. In combination with (applying force over time). Muscle strength is the aerobic and anaerobic endurance, muscular result of both strength and speed requirements endurance is needed to withstand the transport of imposed by performing an activity, which can be heavier and heavier loads, in varied terrain, over described as the rate of work per unit time. The long distances and at higher speeds. The counter- duration of training for the development of muscle time buoyancy test11, part of the half-yearly strength is measured in seconds (or fractions of a assessments in military physical education, is a test second) and is characterized by maximum effort. often used to measure the muscular endurance of Specific training will include explosive strength the upper train. exercises (4 - 6 repetitions/series) performed with Aerobic endurance is the ability to activate difficulty or resistance and followed by long rest large muscle groups for a longer period of time intervals. If practiced consistently in training, they

116 June, 2021 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University can improve the physical performance needed physical activities for several years, avoiding the to carry out combat actions and reduce the risk risk of injuries caused by physical overload, in of military injuries during activities involving order to improve the motor skills necessary for explosive movements of force, speed and power fighters (however complex they may be), should be with rapid acceleration. Examples of activities the ultimate goal in creating a physical availability in which muscular power is used: throwing hand to the military. grenades at a distance, long jumps over obstacles, evacuating the wounded, pushing a vehicle stuck in NOTES: the mud, etc. 1 G.C. Ciapa, Physical training of the Romanian Army soldiers in modern conflicts, ”Carol I” National Defence University Publishing House, Bucharest, 2018, p. 56. Conclusions 2 https://www.romedic.ro/ritmul-cardiac-in-timpul-antr Things that the military focuses on tend to have enamentelor-fizice-0C34797, accessed on 05.05.2021. a positive effect on their career trajectory. When the 3 https://www.andreirosu.org/2014/04/elucidarea-mister military learns to pay more attention to their health ului-alergarii-in-tempo, accessed on 06.05.2021. and fitness, the condition of the body will be better 4 https://www.revistagalenus.ro/dictionar-medical/kine stezie, accessed on 20.04.2021. and their level of physical training will be higher. 5 https://muhaz.org/universitatea-din-bacu.html?page They are able to create new neural pathways and, =7, accessed on 21.04.2021. implicitly, new habits that will change their ways 6 https://www.escalada.verticon.ro/antrenament/princi of reacting, deciding and behaving. pii.htm, accessed on 24.04.2021. In military structures where the choice of a 7 A.D. Pelmuș, Development of the motor capacity of the military personnel, Publishing House of the Technical- healthy lifestyle is appreciated and encouraged, its Editorial Center of the Army, Bucharest, 2021, p. 118. members have a greater capacity for self-control 8 It refers to any set of positive attributes that help a needed to make the right choices. When the military soldier cope with difficult situations. 9 ”1RM” (one maximum repetition). learns to focus on positive events, they are more 10 M.C. Istrate, ”Strength – a driving quality with an likely to overcome negative moments, which we all essential impact in the military activity”, Bulletin of ”Carol I” tend to see first. In order to successfully physically National Defence University No. 3/2020, Bucharest, p. 210. prepare a subunit, the military physical education 11 Female soldiers will perform floats with knee support specialist must have the ability to give three times (semi-floats). 12 A.D. Pelmuș, op.cit., p. 69. more positive/appreciative feedback than negative/ critical feedback. REFERENCES The military has their own perspective on physical education, consisting of personal life *** FM 7-22, Army Physical Readiness history, lived emotional experiences and received Training, Headquarters, Department Of the Army, education. Changing perspectives requires Red Bike Publishing, 2013. deliberate hard work, both on their part and on the *** FM 7-22, Holistic health and fitness, part of commanders and specialists in the field of Headquarters, Department Of the Army, Washington military physical education, to guide the training, DC, 2020. teaching and mentoring of the physical training of *** Military Physical Education Regulations, the military. Focusing on DFP concepts, principles, Army Technical-Editorial Center Publishing House, and components can have a positive impact on the Bucharest, 2013. military’s vision of the military organization. Andrei I., The importance of physical training I believe that the modern obsession with in the military training process, ”Carol I” National performing training sessions with a constantly high Defence University Publishing House, Bucharest, intensity and rapid development of excessive muscle 2015. mass in order to have a beautifully proportioned Băițan G.F., Physical training of the Romanian body is detrimental to health and normal life. There Army soldiers in the context of NATO integration, are many lessons learned from the experience of ”Carol I” National Defence University Publishing previous generations that we need to keep in mind, House, Bucharest, 2019. especially the true meaning of military physical Ciapa G.C., Physical training of the Romanian education. The systematic performance of effective Army soldiers in modern conflicts, ”Carol I”

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National Defence University Publishing House, methodical elements, Risoprint Publishing House, Bucharest, 2018. Cluj-Napoca, 2007. Istrate M.C., ”Strength – a driving quality https://www.romedic.ro/ritmul-cardiac-in- with an essential impact in the military activity”, timpul-antrenamentelor-fizice-0C34797 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University https://www.andreirosu.org/2014/04/eluci No. 3/2020, Bucharest. darea-misterului-alergarii-in-tempo Pelmuș A.D., Development of the motor https://www.revistagalenus.ro/dictionar- capacity of the military personnel, Publishing medical/kinestezie House of the Technical-Editorial Center of the https://muhaz.org/universitatea-din-bacu. Army, Bucharest, 2021. html?page=7 Pop N.H., Zamora E., Increasing muscle https://www.escalada.verticon.ro/antrenam- volume and strength ‒ theoretical, practical and ent/principii.htm

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CONSIDERATIONS REGARDING BUILDING MOTOR SKILLS SPECIFIC TO MILITARY PHYSICAL ACTIVITIES

Col.Adv.Instr. Alin PELMUȘ, PhD*

In its first part, the article addresses issues related to the concept, characteristics and typology of motor skills. Subsequently, some evaluations related to the mechanism of building motor skills are revealed and their stages highlighted, insisting on the methodical ones. Throughout the article, opinions are also expressed about the complexity of the motor skills training process applicable in the military system and their special importance in combat training.

Keywords: motor skills; military training; formation; consolidation; improvement; complexity.

The sphere of skills is not limited only to motor The formation of motor skills is a conditioned activity. Most of the skills we use on a daily basis reflex activity, based on the repetition of include elements performed on the background of the interaction between different excitations operations previously formed in school or family. In (kinesthetic, visual, auditory, etc.) transmitted to everyday human activities we encounter intellectual, the cerebral cortex in the same order and with the sensory, work, artistic, sports skills etc. same intensity. The reflexes thus acquired unify Therefore, skills are ways of action, execution the components of the action, establishing a chain techniques in various activities that, consolidated of multiple and complex connections between and improved through multiple repetitions, become analyzers, sensitive and motor areas of the cortex, automated components of these activities. Military systematically organized by means of the second training is the process in which a lot of skills are signaling system. needed, the motor ones occupying a special place. From the multitude of definitions of motor Regarding motor skills, their problem is widely skills encountered in the literature, Whiting’s treated in the literature, being devoted to numerous approach seemed to me the most conclusive and studies. In order to elucidate the problem of complete: ”... a series of complex and intentional motor skills, there are still difficulties due to their motor actions, involving a chain of sensory, central treatment from several points of view, nuanced and and motor mechanisms that by the learning process interpreted according to the authors’ specialty, as has become organized and coordinated, so that follows: physiological, psychological, pedagogical, they allow the achievement of objectives, with sports or physical education theory. maximum security”1. Motor skills are human motor actions, which From this point of view but also from the occur and are formed throughout individual life, considerations of most authors, it is found that through conscious and systematic exercise. They motor skills are seen as behaviors aimed at are formed either as a result of human evolution achieving certain goals through minimal energy or as a result of participation in organized training expenditure and can be acquired only after processes, as is military physical education. Unlike practice, which leads to increased perfection of the especially organized training processes (physical movements performed, their realization with ease education, sports training, military training, etc.), in and precision. life practice can often acquire wrong motor skills as In the superior phase of acquiring motor a mechanism of execution, which are subsequently skills, when we can speak of perfection (or ”motor difficult to remedy. excellence”, a term encountered in the field of physical education and sports), certain complex sensations are formed, which are expressively *”Carol I” National Defence University called ”senses” (we can talk about the sense of the e-mail: [email protected] ball, the sense of the racket or paddle, the sense of water or snow, the sense of the bar, etc.)2.

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Therefore, motor skills are a process that c) Depending on the level of participation includes both practice and other means of a of the nervous system in their formation and complex psycho-pedagogical nature. Psychologist capitalization: Mihai Epuran highlights the following main • proper motor skills, which are performed characteristics of motor skills: they are part of human very often (dynamic stereotypes, such as elements voluntary conduct, gaining ease and accuracy and technical procedures specific to gymnastics, based on voluntary effort; they are included in skating, platform jumping, etc.); various ”movement families”, belonging to clearly • perceptual-motor skills, in which the defined motor behaviors; they are integrated into environment influences their formation and ”movement systems” as simpler units; they act as capitalization (specific skills of skiing, „oina”, systems that have corrective feedback, every time baseball, shooting, etc.); when in their execution inaccuracies intervene; they • intelligent-motor skills, in which the imply an increased capacity for fine differentiation competing partners and opponents influence their of movements, based on sensory-perceptual formation and, especially, their capitalization information; even if they are executed in variable (skills specific to sports games, combat sports, conditions, they have a relative stability, which fencing, etc.)4. determines their imposition in the motor behavior In the military training process, the mentioned (it is important that the skills are formed correctly categories of motor skills are learned in the activity from the beginning, as the subsequent correction is of physical education and sports, but the complexity very difficult); they cover all the particularities of of military actions involves the formation of a the subjects who perform them, so that, at higher wide range of skills, such as: basic motor skills levels of learning and application, one can discuss and utility-applications adapted to the battlefield ”style”; their building process is conditioned by (march, running in various terrain, throwing certain objective and subjective factors (skills, grenades, crawling with weapons and equipment, motivation, attitude, ambience and educational 3 climbing various obstacles in the field, climbing conditions, self-esteem capacity, etc.) . steep slopes, transporting specific equipment and In the literature we find many criteria according materials or injured people, jumping in length, to which the types or categories of motor skills are depth, height, etc.) ; motor skills specific to military established. From the multitude of criteria, for this branches and specialties; perceptual-motor skills article we chose the following: (firing with different types of weapons being a skill a) Depending on the level of automation: that must be acquired by all soldiers); intelligent- • basic motor skills. They are fully automated, motor skills (we meet them, mainly, in the training being made up of a chain of phasic movements, process for close combat, with or without the which are repeated in the same sequence (cyclic weapons and equipment) etc. movements such as walking, running, swimming, Therefore, we can say that motor skills are cycling, etc.); the qualitative characteristics of learned motor • complex motor skills. These are partially acts and actions. The formation of motor skills automated, consisting of basic skills and some non- automated or incompletely automated movements (in some cases reformation or reconstruction) (skills in sports games and other branches or acyclic is the fundamental goal of physical education, sports such as gymnastics, combat sports, jumping, sports training, physical therapy or other socio- throwing, etc.); professional fields, including, as we have seen, b) Depending on the finality of use: obviously military training. • basic and utilitarian-applied motor skills The main physiological mechanisms – are used mainly in everyday life in human and processes involved in the formation and development, but also for the practice of sports consolidation of motor skills are the phenomena / application tests (walking, running, jumping, of development and strengthening of temporary throwing, catching, crawling, climbing, escalation, connections, irradiation, concentration and traction-pushing, transport weights / objects etc.); induction of fundamental nervous processes • motor skills specific to sports branches (excitation and inhibition). Following the (specific technical elements and procedures). continuous organization and systematization of

120 June, 2021 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University nervous processes, a dynamic stereotype is formed. According to the methodology of physical The leader’s instructions and assessments during education and sports, motor learning is achieved the exercises complete and clarify the sensations, through the following stages with their main perceptions and representations of the soldier, objectives: the knowledge and the image about the action, • the initiation stage (”primary learning”) mobilize him and direct his effort to achieve the laying the technical foundations for the execution most accurate executions. of that movement. The main specific objectives of The building and consolidation of motor skills this stage are: the formation, through explanation is done gradually, through numerous repetitions. and demonstration, of a representation on the skill The process of forming and perfecting the dynamic to be learned; formation of a cursive rhythm of stereotype that underlies motor skills goes through execution; disassembly of that skill, if possible several stages. The time required to develop this and if necessary, into component elements that are stereotype and each stage differs from individual practiced analytically separately; the prevention to individual or from one motor action to another, of typical execution errors or their correction. depending on: the complexity of the movements Predominant for this initial stage is the volume of that are part of the skill to be learned; previous physical effort; motor experience of the performer; the level of • the stage of consolidating the motor skill, development of the required motor qualities; the which has as main objectives the following: the level of development of coordination capacity; completion of the technique of execution of the the interest, the motivation of the participants movement, in accordance with the optimal spatio- temporal characteristics; creating the premises for in the respective action, which determines the the execution of the skill in various conditions, by concentration of attention, the conscious-active strengthening the temporal ties, as a result of the fact participation, the mobilization, all supported by the that it is practiced in relatively and predominantly effort of will. constant/standardized conditions; correction, with Regarding the stages of motor skills formation, priority, of possible individual execution errors. It the literature in the field presents their number is the phase of increasing the role of the intensity of and name differently, depending on the field that the physical effort, of the control or self-control of treats them, even if, analyzing them carefully, these the execution level; all lead to the same conclusions. In this sense, I • the stage of improving the motor skill. The chose to briefly present, without describing them, main objectives in this stage are: to increase the the psychological and physiological stages of the number of variants of execution of the respective formation of motor skills and, in more detail, the skill, by performing the specific technical procedures stages from a methodological point of view. at a higher level; practicing it in conditions as Thus, psychology presents four stages (phases) varied as possible and similar to those encountered of the formation of motor skills, as follows: in real life, mainly in competitive sports activities; the initial stage, in which the performer orients the inclusion of the respective skill in a series of other motor skills and the execution of the resulting himself and becomes familiar with the action; combinations with ease, fluency, precision and the stage of acquiring each element of the action; efficiency. The specificity of this stage is given the stage of unifying the elements of the action by the complexity of the physical effort, which acquired separately; the automation stage. From a intervenes with a substantial contribution to the physiological point of view, in the formation and achievement of the proposed finalities6. consolidation of motor skills, we distinguish the Within the process of forming motor skills, following stages: that of unnecessary movements especially those with military specifics, transfer that are performed in a rude manner, without phenomena are identified, the previously acquired coordination; the stage of movements performed skills influencing favorably or unfavorably the in accordance with the purpose of the action, but elaboration of new ones. The favorable or positive through excessive muscle contractions; the stage influence is called transfer, and the unfavorable or of actual acquisition, fixation and stabilization of braking influence is called interference (negative motor skills5. transfer).

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The transfer occurs when there are common watercourses with military equipment and weapons; or similar elements between the skills previously crossing mountain slopes, winter or summer, with formed and those being acquired. The transfer and without skis and other specific equipment, etc. cannot be limited to the simple mechanical In this manner, combat training sets its actions association between the identical elements of on the results obtained from the instructional the old and new skills, but must be the result of process of military physical education and sports, a process of analysis and synthesis, of conscious and this activity, in turn, studies the structures of all generalization of the motor experience. In order training actions, the nature and duration of efforts to favor this process, the military must be helped to be made, the environment and place of missions by explanations, as precisely as possible, able to in which the military is involved. highlight the similarities and differences, to outline In conclusion, motor skills, aptitudes and exactly the structure, nature and characteristics of knowledge are acquired following an extensive the elements that make up the new action. training process oriented and scientifically With regard to the negative transfer, the conducted to achieve the proposed objectives. ”loan” overlaps, replacing a new non-acquired The development of a vast baggage of motor element with a known element with another motor structure. In this case, the process of developing skills and mental abilities, in accordance with the new skill is difficult, slowed down. Negative the requirements of modern military conflicts, is transfer or interference may also occur from a new, becoming increasingly important. The mental consolidating asset to an old one that has not been stress caused by the multitude of demanding factors sufficiently fixed. specific to the operational environment, as well as Given that we are dealing with the absence the decrease in physical effort capacity cannot be of physical exercises or their repetition at long removed, but their effects can certainly be reduced intervals, there is certainly a weakening of motor by forming skills necessary to perform the full skills, a loss of accuracy and ease in performing range of missions in which the military is engaged. component movements. This phenomenon is due to In other words, the success of the forces engaged the inhibition that acts in the sense of extinguishing in military conflicts depends to a large extent on the temporary connections, the motor skills being the value of the motor performance and the level conditioned reflexes with a lower degree of stability. of mental qualities of the personnel serving the Regarding the skills formed against the armament, equipment and combat technique. background of defence reflexes, which abound The aptitude-motor level represents the essential in the military environment (skiing, swimming, element of the operational value of the military combat sports, etc.), cases of forgetfulness or structures in the composition of the army. complete loss are very rare, even impossible. This aspect is explained in terms of the fact that the NOTES: second signalling system (the basis for the building 1 A. Dragnea et al., Physical education and sports – theory and didactics, FEST Publishing House, Bucharest, of verbal and logical thinking about the world 2006, p. 130. around, the imagination in human memory) has 2 Gh. Cârstea, Theory and methodology of physical the opportunity to update temporary connections in education and sports, AN-DA Publishing House, Bucharest, the absence of practical executions. Although the 2000, p. 17. character of automation is lost, under the control 3 https://pregatirefizica.wordpress.com/2017/06/13/ deprinderile-motrice, accessed on 08.05.2021. and guidance of consciousness, the movements 4 Gh. Cârstea, op.cit., pp. 71-72. can be performed with relative ease and precision. 5 http://educatie-fizica.ro/invatarea-motrica-formarea- As we mentioned, in the military environment, deprinderilor-motrice, accessed on 08.05.2021. basic motor skills such as walking, running, 6 Gh. Cârstea, op.cit., pp. 70-71. jumping, throwing, weightlifting, climbing, etc. are transformed into specific utilitarian-applicative REFERENCES skills, as follows: crossing the different paths with obstacles; lifting and transporting weights Bota A., Kinesiology, Didactic and Pedagogical (materials and equipment); close combat; crossing Publishing House, R.A., Bucharest, 2007.

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Cârstea Gh., Theory and methodology of Pelmuș A.D., Development of the motor capacity physical education and sports, AN-DA Publishing of the military personnel, Publishing House of the House, Bucharest, 2000. Army Editorial Technical Center, Bucharest, 2021. Dragnea A. et.al., Physical education and sports https://pregatirefizica.wordpress.com/2017/06 /13/deprinderile-motrice ̶ theory and didactics, FEST Publishing House, http://educatie-fizica.ro/invatarea-motrica- Bucharest, 2006. formarea-deprinderilor-motrice Epuran M., Motor skills and psychism in bodily https://www.academia.edu/17334296/Invata activities, FEST Publishing House, Bucharest, 2011. rea_deprinderilor_motrice

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HAND-TO-HAND COMBAT WITH OR WITHOUT PORTABLE ARMAMENT ‒ FUNDAMENTAL ELEMENTS FOR THE TRAINING OF THE MODERN MILITARY

Lt.Col.Sup.Instr. George-Florin BĂIŢAN, PhD*

Despite technological advances, hand-to-hand combat with or without portable armament remains a necessity in the contemporary operating environment, especially given the ambiguity of urban warfare and the close and regular interaction of the military with various adversaries (combatants or non-combatants) a wide range of situations in which force is used. Being a commitment between two or more people, in a confrontation in which ammunition is not used; training the military on hand-to-hand combat seems an important component that the military must consider in the physical preparation of the military for future conflicts. Cultivating courage to increase self-confidence is one of the most important benefits that hand- to-hand combat training can have. In a tense situation, having trained fighting skills in this regard can mean the difference between opening fire and escalating conflict, on the one hand, and avoiding disputes through a self-control approach to the factors that cause pain and fear, on the other hand.

Keywords: hand-to-hand combat; portable weapons; technical procedures; specific training; physical training; military physical education.

Hand-to-hand combat consists of a physical self-confidence. With the formation of these skills confrontation, simultaneously between two or comes the understanding of controlled aggression more soldiers, empty-handed or using portable and the ability to stay focused during a constraint. weapons (without ammunition) or equipment such The training program to strengthen the skills of as: pistol/submachine gun, pistol, bayonet, shovel hand-to-hand combat with an opponent will also small infantry, etc. The training of motor skills in include a harder component of specific physical the military in this mixed form of martial arts must training, which is, at the same time, both physically be one of the fundamental components of modern exhausting and mentally demanding. The general military training models. It is about the ability of a objectives of these types of training must include, soldier to think about his next move, being aware in addition to educating the entire basic or specific of the conditions or environmental changes that motor qualities specific to self-defence, and building have occurred and considering the procedure he personal courage, self-confidence, self-discipline could use against his opponent. and ”body spirit”1. The military must be prepared to use different The training of the military to fight hand- levels of force, given that the intensity of a conflict to-hand, with or without the portable armament can only change in a few moments. Many military provided, is carried out in order to form action operations (such as peacekeeping missions or skills specific to the situations that arise during evacuation of non-combatant civilians or non- the fighting, as well as during the performance of essential military personnel) will be carried out independent combat missions the firearm of the using intentionally fewer weapons and ammunition. individual weapon cannot be used. In these situations, if an unexpected confrontation occurs, mastering hand-to-hand combat procedures General aspects regarding the specific with and without portable weapons can save the preparation for hand-to-hand combat lives of the military, because the automation of these with or without the portable armament provided motor actions also helps to develop courage and A recent study found that the US military, which conducted missions to theaters of operations *”Ferdinand I” Military Technical Academy in Iraq and Afghanistan (between 2004 and 2008), e-mail: [email protected] reported (19%) that they had used a technical process at least once, of hand-to-hand combat, in

124 June, 2021 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University a variety of circumstances and contexts (during required to cross this space, the angle and pace of the handling of prisoners, crowd control or access the attack4. To control the fight, the fighting soldier to the base of people at the checkpoint, etc.). This must control the distance between himself and the supports previous research that has shown that, opponent; despite technological advances, hand-to-hand • physical balance – refers to the ability of the combat has remained a persistent aspect of modern military to maintain balance and remain in a stable warfare.2 upright position; At the base of all self-defence techniques there • joint techniques – a military fighter must are some essential elements, which any soldier use his body parts to create an advantage, using must apply to defeat an opponent in hand-to-hand techniques aimed at blocking or twisting the combat. Their progressive and systematic learning opponent’s limbs at the joints. Using joint levers, will instill in the military some fundamental aspects a soldier can reach a dominant position over an on which self-defence is based, such as: enemy with a much heavier body weight. • calm attitude and mental balance – during a A specific training program for hand-to-hand fight a soldier must keep his ability to think lucidly combat with or without portable armament should and must not allow fear or anger to control his be especially designed to train as many soldiers as actions; possible, to become effective fighters, in the shortest • situational awareness – things that often possible time and in the safest way possible. In happen around the military that are involved in a this regard, several general safety measures and hand-to-hand combat could have a direct impact on precautions must be taken: the end result of the fight. This principle refers to • technical combat procedures should be the efficient use of existing objects in the vicinity learned and strengthened in a certain order, (so-called ”weapons of opportunity”3) or to gradually assimilated from simple to complex, receiving possible helps from other soldiers joining and those considered more dangerous (as well as the fight; combinations) should be trained after the military • suppleness technique – a soldier cannot rely has become familiar with the dynamics of general on the assumption that he is bigger and stronger techniques. This will result in fewer serious injuries than his opponent. Therefore, he should never try caused by more dynamic movements; to oppose the enemy by a direct attempt at force. • the training of the military must always The use of the opponent’s force, by applying be carried out under the proper supervision of a articulation techniques and dodges made by pivots, qualified instructor, as the technical procedures can be a way and a fighting strategy to overcome a involved have a potential danger; superior force; • most workouts should be performed on a soft • support base – refers to the adoption of a combat surface (such as a grassy or sandy area), stable body position, from which to move quickly thus reducing stress on the joints of the lower limbs in attack or defence (depending on the situation). In (such as the ankles and knees); general, a military man must maintain the stability • strangulation (suffocation by choke) is the of his body by lowering his center of gravity and best way to end a fight and the most effective way increasing his support base; to immobilize an opponent in just a few seconds. • dominant position of the body – refers to the These procedures are safe enough to apply to positioning of the body of the fighting soldier in training just like on the battlefield; relation to his opponent. When fighting, before • joint dislocations – to get an enemy out of applying any technique to take the opponent out battle, attacks must be directed against his larger of battle, a vital principle is to gain and maintain joints (such as the elbow or shoulder). These joints control over the enemy by maintaining a dominant are very painful long before their injury occurs, body position (especially in ground combat); which allows the military to train by practicing • optimal combat distance – each technical technical procedures in conditions very close to procedure has a distance from the opponent from the real ones, without a significant risk of injury. which it must be initiated in order to have the Exceptions are attacks on the wrist (which is very highest efficiency, taking into account the time easily injured) and on the knee (twisting it becomes

June, 2021 125 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University painful when it may be too late). Therefore, these • reinforce the details of each technique and attacks should be learned very carefully and should provide constructive feedback (justified and not be allowed in sports competitions, but rather anchored in a certain context), using occasional used only in a real confrontation with an enemy; humor to motivate the military, but avoiding • blows are those powerful and effective denigrating or offending them; attacks carried out on the enemy, with part of the • to ensure that the materials used for training body or with the portable armament provided, in are present in sufficient quantities for all military order to destroy him and capture his weapon. These personnel, that the training areas are well maintained are an important part of an overall fighting strategy and that there are no dangers of injury; and can be very effective in a confrontation, as it • prepare theoretically and practically before often puts the opponent in an unfavorable situation. all training sessions, conducting training sessions During training, blows can be practiced using of at least four hours per week, in order to maintain various protective equipment (helmets, bustiers, a high level of qualification; shins, vests, dental / genital protections, etc.) to • to train a competent sports instructor among ensure the prevention of serious injuries. Military the military (for each platoon level subunit) and to training should continuously focus on situations encourage their training, even outside of working that may arise in a real battle. hours; Vocational training is the key to success • to improve the performance of the military, in training the military to fight hand-to-hand with providing clear directions of work; or without portable weapons. Military physical • to require all military personnel to observe education instructors / teachers must be physically strict discipline. trained and extremely skilled in demonstrating The safety of the military must be the main and putting into practice the technical elements. concern of the military physical education instructor Confidence, enthusiasm and assessment of technical / teacher and his / her assistants. In this regard, skills are essential to succeed in teaching hand-to- the best safety measures are constant checking hand combat techniques. The military instructor’s and surveillance. In order to prevent injury to the assistants (sports or military instructors designated military, the military physical education instructor by him to assist him in the instructive-educational / teacher should consider and process the following process) must also be properly trained to participate safety measures for all military personnel before in the supervision and demonstration of technical conducting specific hand-to-hand combat training procedures. Given these aspects, the selection of with or without portable armament, as follows: sports instructors is a first step in establishing an • all practical training sessions must be closely effective training program. and constantly monitored; so never leave a group In order to perfect the different hand-to-hand unattended; techniques, it is necessary to make an uninterrupted • systematically acquaint the military with effort, to reach the instinctive application of the each procedure through a complete explanation movements and to teach others how to execute and demonstration before they attempt the them safely. The following responsibilities of movements; military physical education instructors/teachers are • do not allow the military to exceed their the core of the planning and execution of training duties or violate the instructions received; for the formation of hand-to-hand combat skills • during the stages of learning or improving with or without portable armament5: certain combinations of technical procedures, the • achieve maximum efficiency with minimal training partner must not resist, in order to allow effort, working continuously to reduce unnecessary their correct assimilation by the practitioner; explanations, movements and activities. Training • ensuring an adequate space between the must be simplified without compromising its military during all practical works (at least content, efficiency or safety; 9 meters2 is recommended for each pair of military); • to increase the level of sportsmanship by • checking the soldiers for emptying their developing mobility and flexibility, as well as by pockets, removing all jewelry and personal controlling and managing stress; identification6, before training begins;

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• blows to vital points (such as: head, neck or face and who will keep a minimum distance of 3 groin area) should only be simulated, not executed. meters from the other groups. The military may use light blows on other vulnerable The bayonet assault procedures offer the areas (such as the abdominal area), but must be commander a unique training opportunity, allowing careful at all times during the execution; the military to put into practice the motor skills of • the military must know how the physical handling the portable armament in the conditions touches are performed and what are the verbal of a simulated fight. To increase realism, it is signals to indicate to the partner when to stop recommended to create a fighting atmosphere by performing certain technical combat procedures using pyrotechnic effects and by simulating the real (strangulation, dislocation, fixation, etc.); sounds of war. The training objectives of bayonet • the military must perform the warm-up assault procedures include: program and stretching exercises at the beginning • consolidation / improvement of hand-to-hand of the practical sessions; combat skills with or without portable armament; • learning and practicing falls will be done • developing the capacity to act in complex before making the designs or reaping; conditions of effort with the application of • in order to avoid injuries, the soldier to be procedures and counter-procedures specific to disarmed must not keep his finger inside the trigger attack and self-defence; guard; • increasing the level of physical training of • when practicing the procedures for disarming the military as a result of the aggressive execution the opponent who attacks with the bayonet, the of technical procedures; military must keep it in its holster (whether or • developing strength, speed, coordination and not it is mounted on the weapon) or use rubber accuracy; bayonets; • carrying out realistic physical confrontations, • the surface where the workouts are carried out in conditions similar to those encountered on a must have a safety buffer zone, of at least 3 meters battlefield, using the portable weapons provided; from the surrounding walls or objects, in particular • the development of the will and the increase for workouts involving throwing or fighting on the of the psychic resistance to the military, necessary ground. It must be inspected for any foreign objects aspects in a hand-to-hand combat; that may cause injury; • providing opportunities for subunit • putting and removing the bayonet is performed commanders to develop their own command, only at the command of the activity leader; command and control system. • weapons and materials should be placed on Before starting training, the military must be the ground when the military is given explanations prepared for the physical demand that will follow. or demonstrations; In this sense, the execution of a warm-up program • the training area should be a flat surface that will gradually increase the heart rate and internal does not become slippery when wet; body temperature, and stretching will prepare the • left-handed soldiers should be put to work ligaments and tendons for training, thus reducing with each other to prevent injuries when certain the chances of injury. After this initial warm- complex movements are performed; up, the simulation of movements in the technical • when the weather is bad, gloves should be procedures of hand-to-hand combat can be used to worn in combat training attire. continue and diversify the warm-up. This allows An advantage of specific hand-to-hand combat the maximum use of training time, combining part training with or without the portable armament of the warm-up with building muscle memory and provided is that they can be performed almost perfecting basic techniques. anywhere, with little preparation of the training A well-executed demonstration of hand-to- area. A flat, grassy field, in the open air, without hand combat techniques by a professional teacher obstacles on it, is suitable for these training sessions. / instructor in the field is crucial for the military to The instructors will use as working groups the succeed in learning, and unconvincingly presented pairs of two soldiers, established according to their movements can immediately destroy the credibility height and weight, who will be positioned face to of the training. In this sense, in order to be effective,

June, 2021 127 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University taking into account the size of the subunit to be the most important control measure that a business trained, ”the demonstration must be performed at leader can have after starting the training program the model level either by the specialist (also called is a means to stop the action (this can be a simple direct demonstration7) or by another soldier from the whistle, whose audible signals must be clear and training group, whose technical training allows it easy to be heard by all the military). to do so (also called mediated demonstration8)”.9 In order to show and explain a certain process, Basic hand-to-hand combat techniques military physical education instructors / teachers with and without portable weapons must use a sequential demonstration, dividing Basic hand-to-hand combat techniques with the technical execution into several steps, so that and without portable armament can be classified the military can clearly see how the movement into the following five broad categories: ground is performed from beginning to end. Sequential combat, grounding, striking, weapon handling, execution gives the military a way to observe and dominant position control. the mechanics of each technical process. This The basic techniques of ground fighting teaching method allows the instructor to explain in are built on a fundamental understanding of the detail what the sequence of movements is, while dominant body position, which should be the main the instructor’s assistants can move freely on the goal of most specific training, before moving on spot among the practicing military, intervening (if to the more difficult techniques of sitting. On the necessary) to correct execution errors. ground it is the place where the technique can be When the instructor becomes confident that most easily used, not taking into account too much the soldiers who are being trained have become the size and strength of the opponent. adept at sequentially performing a technical Before applying any disarmament or killing procedure, he must proceed to complete it. technique, the soldier must first gain and maintain Gradually increasing the speed of execution to that a dominant body position, which will allow him used in combat (which does not always mean very to defeat an opponent stronger than himself. To fast), the military will notice how effective each become a competent fighter, it is fundamental to technical procedure is. This will produce a sense always appreciate what this dominant position of security that will allow them to develop a clear in combat is, because it depends on the many mental image of the principles behind the technique technical combat procedures existing in martial and give them confidence in their ability to apply arts. If a decisive attack technique is performed technical procedures during a real confrontation. from a dominant position and fails, the military Training pillows and personal protective can simply try again, and if it is performed from a equipment (helmet, waistcoat, shin guards, etc.) position other than the dominant one and fails, this are recommended for use in training, as they will usually mean defeat. protect training partners, even when the blows Dominant body positions will be learned / are performed with maximum force. Although consolidated / perfected on the ground, in order blows are a very important part of a hand-to-hand and according to priority, these being encountered fight, they are not the most effective way to end a in the technical procedures of immobilization fight. In training, instructors should encourage the (fixing) and strangulation most used in martial aggressive spirit of the military so that they feel arts. In order to better understand these procedures, the effectiveness of hitting techniques and develop at this stage they are mastered as well the ways their hitting strength. out of an immobilization or strangulation and During hand-to-hand training, the leaders the movements that lead to the end of the fight of the activity must maintain control throughout (repeated blows in vital areas, dislocation of joints, it. It is very easy for an unruly soldier to go etc.). After the military has advanced in acquiring beyond the regulatory limits imposed, especially the basic elements of ground combat, they will when he becomes frustrated by his poor training. systematically teach other complex ground fighting Therefore, it is recommended that he knows what techniques (possible combinations and chains with is expected of him and what the repercussions are other known procedures), important in the training for committing inappropriate actions. In this sense, of competent fighters.

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Before learning the techniques of bringing the Arm strokes (with the fist or elbow) must be opponent to the ground, the military must know performed in combinations to be effective and must some basic rules to annihilate the shock caused by be practiced to become automatic, especially in the body contact with the ground, to have a ”smart fall” stress of a fight. Particular attention should be paid (the impact with the ground to be minimized). Each to withdrawing the arm after each shot, always fall that is repeated (forward, backward, sideways reaching a defensive position, as the opponent can - left/right) is an opportunity for the training counterattack at any time. During hand-to-hand partner to perfect various grounding procedures. combat, the simplest and most effective kicks are These elements must always be ”refreshed” before the low ones, as the military is usually burdened training, which is easily done by introducing them with boots and combat equipment. The degrees of into the sequence of preparation of the body for joint mobility and muscle flexibility of the military effort. are usually low during a hand-to-hand combat with In order to have control of a fight you have to an opponent, being subjected to additional high control the distance between you and your opponent, stress. Therefore, they need to rely on raw motor this being much more dangerous when he is at a skills and strokes that do not require complicated distance. Therefore, the goal in a confrontation movements or much prior training. is to avoid this interval, and when you train, the Effective handling of portable weapons can main goal should be to instill the courage to reduce provide a significant advantage during a fight. this distance to take a convenient grip or to hit the For the military to be well trained in their use opponent. Most ways of taking the ground involve there must be connectivity between strengthening making shots on the opponent, these being included the technical procedures of armed and unarmed in competitive fighting techniques in various styles combat. As the military progresses in the training of martial arts, but in a real fight, all of them know program, the portable handgun combat techniques no bounds (throwing, harvesting, overturning, must merge with the other technical elements of etc.). If you have difficulty gaining control over hand-to-hand combat learned, producing a fighter the enemy, a good technique is to push him back capable of performing a range of technical and against a wall first. tactical combinations. In most cases, blows to the arm or foot are not an In most combat situations, the individual effective way to quickly end a fight (except for those weapons and hand grenades are the only weapons a applied to vulnerable points of the body). However, soldier has at hand. In any case, in some scenarios, they are encountered in most hand-to-hand combat, the military must fight the enemy in narrow areas and the military must know and master the optimal (trenches), closed spaces (building rooms) or in distance from the opponent (”refers to the approach places where they are present and non-combatants. required for the most effective use of a technique, In these situations, when you run out of ammunition executed at the correct angle of impact with target or do not have time to reload the weapon, the bayonet area”)10. It is important to remember that, while can be the ideal weapon to capture the enemy. The you are in the opponent’s range, you are prone to a military must immediately and instinctively use counterattack on his part. appropriate technical procedures, depending on the The key to developing effective hitting situation and the weapons at hand. skills is to understand the optimal distance that The principles used in skirmish combat with is recommended to be taken from an opponent, the portable armament provided (usually the knowing the effective techniques based on this submachine gun with bayonet-dagger mounted) distance and controlling the transition between are similar to the principles of knife fighting, various intervals. The technical procedures will be using the same angles of attack and similar body taught individually, even if they will almost never movements. The principles of synchronization and be used in this way. They must be approached as distance remain paramount, the main difference part of an ensemble (as part of a general combat being the greater distance provided by the length of strategy), taking into account that an effective the weapon. It is necessary for the soldier to fight hit is not something that can be taught / learned hand-to-hand with the portable armament provided, overnight. using the biomechanics of his whole body (not

June, 2021 129 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University just the upper train) encountered in all technical any hesitation in its handling can mean death. The procedures and to develop the mental attitude soldier must attack the opponent in a constant that he will survive the fight. He must constantly assault, until he is eliminated or disarmed and evaluate every moment of a fight to determine his captured. At the same time, he must be careful options and advantages/disadvantages over his to take advantage of any area of ​​the opponent’s opponent. body left uncovered. If there are no such areas, Even if the equipment is always improved the military must create one using counterattack and the combat tactics is constantly revised, procedures, respecting the following principles: the firepower only will not always be enough to • the attack must be made on the vulnerable annihilate the enemy. He will often remain in his points of the body (face, neck, chest, abdomen or place of defence until he is determined to engage groin area); by force in a close, skirmish battle. The role of • both in training sessions and in a real fight, the military, especially in the final phase of the the soldier who uses a bayonet weapon must use assault, remains relatively unchanged. Its mission an aggressive battle cry; it will instill a sense of is to get closer to the enemy’s position and get confidence in one’s own abilities and will intimidate him out of the fight, this being the ultimate goal of the opponent; any individual training. The handling of portable • the ability to fight instinctively using a bayonet weapons during hand-to-hand combat is one of weapon is formed to capitalize on the agility and the final means in the action taken in an assault to combat technique of the soldier (precisely learned defeat an opponent. movements should not be a stress factor during The bayonet is a weapon available to any training). soldier, being silent and recommended for use Hand-to-hand combat with the portable during infiltration missions at night when silence armament provided is learned in the following must be maintained or when the situation does sequence: attack (guard) and relaxation (rest) not allow loading or reloading the pistol (lack of positions, movements (forward/backward step, ammunition or blocking the weapon). Despite forward / backward jump), turns (change of front), the limitations, the bayonet has many other non- stabbings, blows, defences and disarmament; combat utilitarian uses (sounding mines, cutting and as the procedures are mastered, they will be vegetation or wires, etc.), and is a means of training combined into complex exercises.11 to raise the morale of combatants and increase the In order to survive in battle, the military must aggressiveness of fighters. be able to cope with any unforeseen situation. Their To become a good fighter with portable weapons, ability to use any nearby object to be transformed a soldier must be in very good physical and mental into a weapon, in a situation of life and death, is shape. A well-designed physical training program limited only by their ingenuity and inventiveness. will increase the military’s chances of surviving The following materials that are accessible to a skirmish with an opponent. Improving mental most soldiers can become weapons for attack, alertness will increase the ability to quickly detect counterattack or defence against an opponent: small and repel an opponent’s attack, no matter which infantry shovel, Kevlar helmet, radio antennas, direction it comes from. Traits such as aggression, pens / pencils, various ropes, sticks, stones, sand accuracy, balance and speed are essential in both or liquids thrown in the eyes of the enemy, etc. training and real fighting situations. They will A soldier cannot rely on the fact that every develop the confidence, coordination, strength and physical confrontation with an opponent will start resilience of the military, qualities that a fighter from a dominant position. Therefore, in order to with portable weapons must have. Hand-to-hand survive, he must master the basic techniques of combat techniques can undergo slight technical getting out of a deficient position, followed by changes depending on the morph functional taking control of his battle plan. When an unarmed features of the human body, as long as they become soldier faces an opponent armed with a knife, he more efficient. must be mentally prepared for the likelihood of The bayonet (held in the hand or mounted on a being severely cut, which is lower if the fighter is weapon) is an effective weapon if used aggressively; well trained in defending against knife attacks.

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Most hand-to-hand combat on the battlefield tactical situation) so that the appropriate motor will involve more fighters, and whether there actions come naturally from them, respecting the are more comrades or enemies or whether some rules of engagement that give the military a clear parties are armed or not, the military should fight understanding of the appropriate actions. according to a well-established plan and general Every military man should have theoretical strategy. The fundamental truth of hand-to-hand knowledge and motor skills on technical hand-to- combat is that the winner will always be the one hand combat procedures with or without portable whose comrades appear first with a weapon. Given armament, as a situation can change in a split second. the modern equipment that has emerged and the Skirmish combat is common in contemporary complicated tactical scenarios (and taking into military operations, which justifies the priority in account the two seconds available to make life and training these skills in the military. They will be death decisions), the military must be permanently used in a variety of tactical environments, providing armed with practical and viable solutions. an excellent example of the need for military The most common mistake when fighting and adaptability in modern warfare. being part of a team is to get into a confrontation without having devised a tactical plan. Failure to NOTES: do so will result in uncoordinated actions, and 1 In martial arts, body and spirit are never considered teamwork will often fail. Only through practice separate, but viewed as two inseparable elements in the will the military be given the necessary confidence perfection of Kai Chi Do (movement meditation). (in themselves and in their colleagues) and will the 2 Peter R. Jensen, Hand-to-Hand Combat and the Use ability to think and act together be developed, under of Combatives Skills: An Analysis of United States Army the conditions of stress during a hand-to-hand fight Post-Combat Surveys from 2004-2008, Center for Enhanced with opponents. Performance, United States Military Academy, 2014. 3 https://urbansurvivalsite.com/weapons-of-opportuni ty-use-everyday-objects-self-defence, accessed on 08.03.2021. Conclusions 4 D. Masciotra, E. Ackermann & WM. Roth, “Maai”: In order to achieve their objectives, hand-to- The Art of Distancing in Karate-Do Mutual Attunement in hand combat training sessions with or without Close Encounters, Journal of Adult Development, no 8 portable armament must be included in a / 2001, pp. 119-132. complex training program. The proper choice 5 [Headquarters, Department of the Army], Combatives, and implementation of the mastered technical Field Manual No. FM 3-25.150, Washington DC, 2009, p. 21. 6 https://lege5.ro/gratuit/gmztkojsgy/semnul-personal- procedures must be instinctual, which can only be de-identitate-regulament?dp=gyzteojrgq4do, accessed on achieved by integrating hand-to-hand combat into a 12.03.2021. scenario. The process of developing the scenario is 7 When the subunit is the size of a platoon or smaller. a difficult and demanding one, the military having 8 When the subunit is the size of a company or larger. to be aware of the fact that the war is hard, and the 9 G.C. Ciapa, Romanian Army servicemen’s physical reality of training for war is just as harsh. training in modern conflict, ”Carol I” National Defence Training the military in the proper use of University Publishing House, Bucharest, 2018, p. 80. skirmish techniques involves detailed planning of 10 https://frkt.ro/resurse/arbitru-de-karate-shotokan- kumite-rules, accessed on 29.03.2021. training sessions by a military physical education 11 Regulation of military physical education, Publishing specialist, as the risk of accidents must be mitigated House of the Technical-Editorial Center of the Army, by controlling both the scenario and the conduct Bucharest, 2013, art. 57. of the exercise itself. When planning a scenario that includes hand-to-hand combat with or without REFERENCES the portable armament provided, several factors must be taken into account. A detailed and well- *** Regulation of military physical education, thought-out scenario will tell the military what Publishing House of the Technical-Editorial Center type of technical procedures are most appropriate, of the Army, Bucharest, 2013. depending on the mission to be performed. It must [Headquarters, Department of the Army], be explained to the military in detail (the events Combatives, Field Manual No. FM 3-25.150, leading up to the scenario, as well as the immediate Washington DC, 2009.

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Andrei I., The importance of physical training experiences of hand-to-hand combat”, International in the military training process, ”Carol I” National Journal of Stress Management, 21, 2014. Defence University Publishing House, Bucharest, Jensen Peter R., Hand-to-Hand Combat and 2015. the Use of Combatives Skills: An Analysis of United Băițan G.F., Physical training of the Romanian States Army Post-Combat Surveys from 2004-2008, Army soldiers in the context of NATO integration, Center for Enhanced Performance, United States ”Carol I” National Defence University Publishing Military Academy, 2014. House, Bucharest, 2019. Masciotra D., Ackermann E. & Roth WM., Ciapa G.C., Physical training of the Romanian ”«Maai»: The Art of Distancing in Karate-Do Mutual Attunement in Close Encounters”, Journal Army soldiers in modern conflicts, ”Carol I” of Adult Development no. 8 / 2001. National Defence University Publishing House, Larsen M., Modern army combatives: battle- Bucharest, 2018. proven techniques and training methods, El Dougherty M.J., Guide to Unarmed Special Segundo, CA: Cruz Bay Publishing, 2013. Forces for Skirmish Combat, Skirmish Combat https://lege5.ro/gratuit/gmztkojsgy/semnul- Techniques from the Best Military Units in the personal-de-identitate-regulament?dp=gyzte World, MAST Publishing, 2014. ojrgq4do Jensen Peter R. & Wrisberg C. A., ”Performance https://frkt.ro/resurse/arbitru-de-karate-shoto under acute stress: A qualitative study of soldiers’ kan-kumite-rules

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COMMON VALUES OF THE MILITARY ORGANIZATION AND OF THE FIELD OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

Lt.Col.Sup.Instr. Marius Constantin ISTRATE, PhD Candidate* Col. (ret) Prof. Ion BĂLĂCEANU, PhD**

The military organization, due to its fundamental role in defending and maintaining the sovereignty and security of any state in the world, has undergone a natural evolutionary process. In this process man plays the main role. Thus, the continuous transformation to which the military organization was and is still subjected to, being permanently conditioned by the constantly changing threats and challenges, was achieved simultaneously with human evolution, under the impact of all discoveries and technologies developed and implemented by it. In this article, we will analyze two important areas of human activity, military organization and sports, focusing on finding common values for the two areas and generating relevant answers to the question: Is a sports team equivalent to a military structure?

Keywords: military organization; physical education and sports; common values; connections.

The fulfillment of the specific missions of education process that systematically capitalizes on the military organization is based on a unitary all forms of collective or individual activity, which process, very complex training, in which all its takes place in order to train, develop and maintain component elements (theoretical, tactical, technical, motor capacity, contributing to improving physical psychological, etc.) have well-established roles, and mental health of army personnel”2, and by being closely linked and interdependent. The key practicing physical activities, man develops on all element that makes the connection between all levels, their benefits being unanimously recognized these components of the military training process both by specialists in the field and by the medical is, of course, the human resource. Therefore, world. simultaneously with the structural, conceptual and methodological transformations to which Historic aspects of the connection the military organization is subjected, the main of military education with physical emphasis must be on the development of human education and sport resources, on finding viable solutions for the training There has always been an indissoluble link and instruction of valuable fighters, capable of any between the military organization and physical sacrifice, with qualities, skills, abilities and practical education, the two being institutions whose activities skills needed to meet challenges of any kind. Thus, have been permanently intertwined and even in order to fulfill the main mission of the military confused. The interference between the military organization, ”achieving supremacy and victory organization and the field of physical education in any type of armed confrontation”1, we consider and sports, a field that includes a wide range of that the modernization and reform of the current systematic activities of physical training, physical military physical education system is one of the education and sports competitions, goes down in most viable and easily accessible solutions, taking the mists of time, to ancient times, especially in into account the fact that military physical education Greek civilization, which was very concerned is ”a fundamental component of the instruction / with the cultivation of physical and moral beauty, virtues, followers of competitions, the cult of city heroes, heroes - winners of the Olympic Games or *”Carol I” National Defence University winners on the battlefields3. e-mail: [email protected] The connection between the military **”Carol I” National Defence University organization and the field of physical education e-mail: [email protected] also results from the fact that, in the past, there

June, 2021 133 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University were significant periods of time when all disputes nations as a whole, thus succeeding in introducing were resolved by force, armed conflict, and the this discipline into curricula and thus contributing strength and physical endurance of fighters was to the education of the younger generation which decisive, tipping the balance of the final victory represents the future of any nation. to one side or the other. Therefore, the military In our country, too, physical education developed commanders were always interested in the training with the contribution of career soldiers: General and physical condition of the soldiers they had Dr. Carol Davila, officers Justin Mărginean and available. Moreover, with a few exceptions, kings, Virgil Bădulescu, supported by His Royal Highness emperors or rulers of different cities, state entities Prince Carol and the military commanders of those or even empires of those times had to prove that times (General Grigore Crăiniceanu – Minister they were strong, that they completely mastered the of War, General Constantin Herjeu – Chief of the technique of weapons, their attitude and qualities General Staff, etc.). Of all those who militated being the psychological factor that determined the and participated directly in the development of armies to sometimes follow even to the ultimate this activity, the founder of the modern system of sacrifice. They prove that, throughout history, physical education in our country, unanimously throughout its development, physical education recognized, is General Virgil I. Badulescu. He, in has had a military and political determination and addition to the deeds of bravery he performed with thus, has been highlighted by a strong military mountain troops in the First World War (he founded character, integrating perfectly into the training and commanded the first battalion of mountain process necessary for training and the conduct of troops in the Romanian Army at the head of which, the war. he won resounding victories in the battles of Cosna Gradually, with the development of modern and Cireșoaia4), dedicated his entire career and life society, at the end of the eighteenth century and the to physical education. beginning of the nineteenth century, the transition The contribution he had to the development was made from empirical exercises, not very of this activity is impressive: he brought and organized, to complete physical education systems, implemented in the education system of our country organized on a scientific basis and on general one of the most complete physical education systems pedagogical conceptions adapted to the political at that time, namely the Swedish model; participated realities and social characteristics of the states of directly, coordinated and led the establishment of that period. Basically, by setting up specialized the first bodies and institutions specialized in this institutions in this field Gymnastics ( Society field Military( School of Fencing and Gymnastics in 1799, respectively the Institute for Military – 1913, National Office of Physical Education – Gymnastics in 1804 in Copenhagen – Denmark, 1922, National Institute of Physical Education –the the Royal Gymnastics Institute in Stockholm – first university institution–1922 , Military Institute Sweden in 1813, the Durdan Institute in Paris in of Physical Education – 1929); he was the initiator 1817, the Amateur Athletic Club from London – of the first project for what would become the first England in 1866) they signed the birth certificate law of physical education in Romania, the Law for of the modern system of physical education. The physical education – 1923 and later, he contributed vast majority of those who, through their work to its improvement which was transformed in 1929, and efforts, reformed this activity, came from the into the Law of physical education; effectively military organization or had a close connection contributed to the development of the material base with it (Spanish Colonel Don Francesco Amoros and the construction of the first facilities specific y Ondeano in France, Friedrich Ludwig Jahn to this activity (the first stadium in Romania - the in Germany – participant in the liberation war ONEF stadium, the ONEF training ground, the as a volunteer in the Prussian army, Franciscus sports complex and the swimming pool in the Nachtegall in Denmark – professor and director of Eforie resort, etc.); he wrote the first specialized the Institute for Military Gymnastics, etc.). These instructions, manuals and regulations, edited the illustrious promoters of physical education fully first physical education magazine ”Izvor de energie” understood the fundamental role that good physical in 19215 and had a truly remarkable contribution to training plays in the development of societies and the development of scientific research in this field.

134 June, 2021 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University

Thus, eloquent for the connection between his two person in charge is well trained before starting passions, namely military organization and physical the activity by the physical education teacher, education, he said: ”In all times and everywhere respectively by the subunit commander in the case these two notions have been mistaken one for the of the military organization, throughout the activity other and could not be separated from each other also bearing the responsibility for its development without taking a step backwards or representing a in good and safe conditions. danger”6. There is also a similarity between respecting the In conclusion, the historic aspects presented in rules of employment in the case of military actions, the first part of our study highlight the need and rules provided in International Humanitarian Law importance of physical education and sports and and sports fair play, both promoting a fair relationship military education, the two areas having historical between combatants: respect for fundamental connections, intertwining and complementing each human rights, cultivating respect for oneself and other, both helping to achieve educational goals opponents, compliance with laws, regulations and to obtaining beneficial results for the human and customs, as well as setting clear limits during being. the conduct of these activities. Moreover, in sports activities we find most of the elements Is a sports team the equivalent of a military characteristic of military art, military tactics, forms structure? of action specific to conducting military operations After this period of beginnings, of searches and such as attack, defence, counterattack, harassment, settlements, the physical education system followed through which the military seeks to successfully its natural course, nowadays reaching a high level complete combat missions and athletes achieve of development, the research and promotion of goals. performance and competitive ones. this field no longer being the exclusive prerogative A sports team is equivalent to a military of the military. However, the influence due to structure. Thus, the choice of a good strategy by the military origin of physical education and the the commander (coach or manager in sports), its specific elements of this origin will not disappear, permanent adaptation according to the opponent’s and the link between the military factor and the response, as well as the observance exactly by physical education system will last forever. In the military (players) of the tactical plan, are other words, and in the context of our research, solid premises for victory. Moreover, both on the between the military organization and the specific battlefield and in the sports arena, the fighters field of physical education and sports there are constantly aim to dominate their opponent, to many similarities and common elements, starting knock him to the ground, to defeat him. The major with the organization of activities and reaching the difference is that unlike sports confrontations, at the common values that​​ both promote. end of which opponents stand up and shake hands Within the physical education class, which and congratulate each other, in the case of military represents the ”main organizational and functional confrontations, things are not the same, many of unit of the instructive-educational process”7, the the fallen no longer having a chance to get up. way of organizing and carrying out the activity kept The specific activities of this field, in addition the typical military character. Thus, the workings to biological purposes, positively influence in line in threes, in line in a row, in columns one by the psychological and social sphere, educate one, etc., as well as the positions, front movements the character traits and will of individuals and front and training exercises with which the (courage, firmness, ambition, honesty, emulation, physical education lesson usually begins are perseverance) and their social qualities (team spirit, largely the same as in military training. The same commitment, solidarity, tolerance, camaraderie). characteristics of the coat of arms wear part of the All these qualities and traits of individuals enhance terminology and commands used by the teacher or the specific values​​of the military organization, such instructor during the physical education class. as body spirit and cohesion, increase the morale The organization of the activity in workshops and motivation of the military, essential elements is another common element, each workshop being for success in combat. In military structures where coordinated by a person in charge (instructor). This the degree of cohesion is high, the military fights

June, 2021 135 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University and coordinates much better, is trained to high NOTES: standards, cooperates and coordinates very well, 1 A. Pelmuș, Military physical education – past, present and perspectives, ”Carol I” National Defence University does not give up mentally so easily and endures Publishing House, Bucharest, 2019, p. 5. 8 stress for a long time . 2 *** Military Physical Education Regulations, Army The fundamental role that the activities specific Technical-Editorial Center, Bucharest, 2013, p. 7. to the field of physical education and sports have 3 A. Petrache, Sport and the Army, Military Publishing House, Bucharest, 2013, p. 11. within the military organization is underlined in 4 C.F. Nicolescu, Forgotten pages from the history the Concept of physical education and sports in of physical education, Encyclopedic Publishing House, the Romanian Army. Thus, ”military physical Bucharest, 2014, p. 33. 5 P. Dungaciu, Virgil Bădulescu, founder of ANEFS, 120 education is the starting point of the entire process years since his birth, Library of the National Academy of of preparation for combat, the pivot of the other Physical Education and Sports, Bucharest, 2002, pp. 6-9. components of training, which determines the 6 D. Bâsceanu, Army and sport, Military Publishing performance of the military in carrying out combat House, Bucharest, 1997, p. 31. 9 7 *** Military Physical Education Regulations, Army missions and the efficiency of peacetime activities” . Technical-Editorial Center, Bucharest, 2013, p. 10 8 http://www.resboiu.ro/coeziunea-la-grup-si-spiritul- Conclusions de-corp/, accessed on 02.03.2021. 9 *** The concept of physical education and sports in Throughout history, military education and the Romanian Army, General Staff, Bucharest, 2016, p. 8 physical education and sport have evolved together, inextricably linked, as two intertwined areas, REFERENCES sometimes confused because both concepts had multiple similarities and promoted similar values; *** Military Physical Education Regulations, Throughout its development, physical education Army Technical-Editorial Center, Bucharest, 2013. has had military and political determinations, has *** The concept of physical education and been highlighted by a strong military character, sports in the Romanian Army, General Staff, integrating perfectly into the training process Bucharest, 2016. necessary for training, planning and conducting war; Bâsceanu D., Army and sport, Military It is unanimously acknowledged that the field Publishing House, Bucharest, 1997. of physical education and sport is one of the most Dungaciu P., Virgil Bădulescu, founder of important components of lifelong learning, with a ANEFS, 120 years since his birth, Library of the special contribution to the training and education National Academy of Physical Education and of people of all ages, in their growth, personal Sports, Bucharest, 2002. development and professional completion; Nicolescu C.F., Forgotten pages from the The activities of the field of physical education history of physical education, Encyclopedic and sports contribute to the amplification and Publishing House, Bucharest, 2014. consolidation of the values ​​of the military organization, Pelmuș A., Military physical education – as well as to the education and improvement of the past, present and perspectives, ”Carol I” National physical and mental qualities of the military; Defence University Publishing House, Bucharest, The military origin of physical education 2019. and the specific elements of this origin will not Petrache A., Sport and the Army, Military disappear, because the connection between the Publishing House, Bucharest, 2013. military system and the physical education system http://www.resboiu.ro/coeziunea-la-grup-si- will last forever. spiritul-de-corp/

136 June, 2021 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University

June, 2021 137 Bulletin of ”Carol I” National Defence University

Editor-in-Chief Laura MÎNDRICAN Editor Irina TUDORACHE Editorial Assistant Florica MINEA Proof-Reader Mariana ROŞCA Sub-editor Gabriela CHIRCORIAN Cover Andreea GÎRTONEA

ISSN (on line) 2284-9378

ISSN (print) 2284-936X L 2284-936X

The publication consists of 138 pages.

”Carol I” National Defence University Publishing House Bucharest, no. 68-72 Panduri Street, sector 5 e-mail: [email protected] Phone: 319.48.80/0215; 0453

138 June, 2021