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Tadata, Citation and Similar Papers at Core.Ac.Uk Brought to You by CORE View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by FHS Brage Defence and Security Studies Manuscripts is a peer-reviewed monograph series published Guidelines for contributors appear on page three by the Norwegian Institute of Defence Studies of the cover. in Oslo. It provides in-depth studies of topics which Subscription include all aspects of defence policy, security Defence and Security Studies is published 4 relations in Northern Europe and the Trans- times a year. Subscribers to the series automati- atlantic and Eurasian area, military and civilian cally also receive the Oslo Files on Defence and crisis operations, as well as relations within and Security series of studies aimed more towards the between security actors such as NATO, the EU general public. Oslo Files on Defence and Security and the UN. publishes articles in Scandinavian languages or The series welcomes contributions from histori- English 6–8 times a year. ans, political scientists, scholars of international relations and war/security studies, as well as Subscription rates scholars from other disciplines or practitioners Institutions: NOK 600 in the above mentioned fields. Individuals: NOK 300 It aims to reach an audience of academic re- searchers, defence and foreign affairs analysts, Single issues can be obtained subject to avail- politicians, diplomats, journalists, as well as ability. Prices are subject to change without others with a special interest in this field of notice and are available upon request. research. To subscribe or order single issues, please contact Editor: Anna Therese Klingstedt Norwegian Institute for Defence Studies (e-mail: [email protected]) Skippergata 17c P.O. Box 890 Sentrum Editorial Board N-0104 OSLO, Norway Dr Kristina Spohr-Readman, London School of Phone +47 23 09 77 00 Economics Fax + 47 23 09 77 49 Dr Maria Strömvik, University of Lund e-mail: [email protected] Dr Henning-André Frantzen, The Norwegian Army The Norwegian Institute for Prof. Rolf Hobson, Norwegian Institute for De- Defence Studies fence Studies. The Norwegian Institute for Defence Studies is an independent institute administratively Advisory board attached to the Norwegian Defence University Prof. Wilhelm Agrell, University of Lund College. The Institute conducts independent Prof. Mats Berdal, King’s College London research on Norwegian security and defence Prof. Beatrice Heuser, University of Reading policy, military concepts and theory, Dr Johnny Laursen, University of Aarhus international conflicts and cooperation and Dr Joseph Maiolo, King’s College London transatlantic relations. The Consultative Prof. Helge Pharo, University of Oslo Board for Defence Studies assists the Institute Prof. Kimmo Rentola, University of Turku in developing and conducting research Dr Tomas Ries, Director, Swedish Institute of programmes. The Board is composed of International Affairs representatives from the defence establishment Prof. Patrick Salmon, Chief Historian, Foreign and the University of Oslo. and Commonwealth Office, London Director: Professor Rolf Tamnes. Prof. Emeritus Krister Wahlbäck, University of ISSN: 1504-6532 Umeå and Ministry for Foreign Affairs, Stock- ISBN: 978-82-91571-12-6 holm Prof. Øyvind Østerud, University of Oslo. Norwegian and Danish defence policy A comparative study of the post-Cold War era Contents page Introduction 5 Explaining the difference 9 Sources 13 International military operations 14 The long lines 17 Defence policy 1720–1949 17 The Cold War 22 The armed forces during the Cold War 25 After the Cold War 29 Armed forces reform 1990–94 29 Gulf War I and the Balkan Wars 34 The Baltic states 39 Defence reforms after the Bosnian War 40 In the aftermath of 9/11 47 Afghanistan and Iraq 47 Defence reforms 2002–08 52 Understanding the 1990−2008 difference 58 The impact of geopolitics 61 The security environment of the 1990s 62 Reforms in the 21st century 67 Weapon procurement 71 The impact of geopolitics 73 The impact of leadership 75 Decision-making structures 76 Denmark: the “dynamic duo” 76 page Norway in the 1990s: continuity 80 Norway after 2000: change 84 The importance of leadership 88 The impact of strategic culture 91 Denmark: reinventing itself 92 Norway: a humanitarian superpower 94 War, risk perception and sovereignty 97 Lingering strategic tasks 98 The significance of strategic culture 100 The impact of military culture 103 Different experiences in the 1990s 104 Personnel policies 108 Different responses to internationalisation 112 The effect of military culture 117 Conclusion 119 Geopolitics, leadership, strategic and military culture 120 The present and the future 123 Final remarks 125 Bibliography 127 Norwegian Intitute for Defence Studies Norwegian and Danish defence policy A comparative study of the post-Cold War era This study argues that in the field of defence policy, Norway and Denmark pursued markedly different paths in the post-Cold War era. Investigating the period 1990–2008, the study demonstrates Norwe- gian reluctance to get involved in the growing number of international military operations after the Cold War, initially doing so only with low- risk support units. Denmark, however, welcomed the new international paradigm whereby the armed forces were employed actively in the ser- vice of the country’s foreign policy. Embracing expeditionary deploy- ment at an early stage, Danish units were frequently among the few abstracWestern t forces to take part in actual combat operations abroad. The study identifies four key reasons for this difference. Firstly, Den- mark’s geopolitical situation allowed it to focus on distant threats, while Norway’s remained tied to threats closer to home. Secondly, Nor- wegian leaders were generally satisfied with the Cold War defence pol- icy, while the Danish leadership actively sought a break with the past. Thirdly, Danish strategic culture brought with it a reappraisal of the util- ity and morality of utilizing force, while Norway remained committed to the traditional Nordic view. Finally, while Danish military culture was easily adapted and receptive to the new post-Cold War expeditionary mission, the Norwegian Armed Forces remained more comfortable with their historically defined territorial defence tasks. Key Words: Norwegian defence, Danish defence, international military opera- tions, geopolitics, leadership, strategic culture, military culture ISSN 1504-6532 • ISBN 978-82-91571-12-6 © Norwegian Institute for Defence Studies [email protected] – www.ifs.mil.no List of abbreviations CSCE Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe DIB Danish International Brigade ESDP European Security and Defence Policy FIST Norwegian Army High Readiness Forces FRY Federal Republic of Yugoslavia IFOR Implementation Force IRF Immediate Reaction Forces KFOR Kosovo Force LANDJUT Allied Land Forces Schleswig-Holstein and Jutland MTB Missile Torpedo Boat NCO Non-commissioned Officer NORDCAPS Nordic Coordinated Arrangement for Military Peace Support PRT Provincial Reconstruction Team PSO Peace Support Operations SFOR Stabilisation Force SHIRBRIG Multinational Standby High Readiness Brigade for United Nations Operations UNPROFOR United Nations Protection Force Introduction Norway and Denmark are two countries with a great many similari- ties. The two states share a common Scandinavian language and cul- ture, very similar democratic political systems, a generous welfare state, and even membership in the same military alliance. For many non-Scandinavians the two states may appear almost politically and socially indistinguishable. However, even very similar countries can sometimes develop marked differences in particular sectors of society. This study will argue that defence policy is one such sector. After the Cold War Norway was reluctant to get involved in international mili- tary operations, and initially did so only with low-risk support units. Denmark, however, wholeheartedly embraced expeditionary deploy- ment of its Armed Forces, and Danish units were frequently among the few Western forces to take part in actual combat. In the two dec- ades that have passed since the end of the Cold War, Norwegian and Danish defence policies have therefore differed significantly. Images can provide a powerful insight into similarities and differ- ences. Two snapshots of Norwegian and Danish post-Cold War military operations may serve in this case to illustrate some of the differences. The first is from the Bosnia and Herzegovinan city of Tuzla, April 1994, just a few years after the collapse of the Soviet empire. Danish Leopard 1 main battle tanks are engaged in a regular battle with Bosnian Serb forces, possibly killing as many as 150 Bosnian Serbs.1 If the Danes need medical aid, Norwegians medics stand ready to assist; if they need medical evacuation Norwegian helicopters are available to fly them out; if they need logistical support the Norwegians can provide it.2 The Norwegians provided support, but unlike the Danes 1 Lars R. Møller, Operation Bøllebank: Soldater i kamp (Copenhagen: Høst & Søns Forlag, 2001), 276–299. 2 For background on the Norwegian contributions to the international military engage- ment in the Balkans in the 1990s, see Jacob Børresen, Gullow Gjeseth, and Rolf Tam- nes, Allianseforsvar i endring: 1970–2000, vol. 5, Norsk forsvarshistorie (Bergen: Eide Forlag, 2004), 208–216. 6 Defence and Security Studies 1-2010 they did not fight. The Danes did battle; the Norwegians were “in the rear, with the gear”. The second is from Afghanistan,
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