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Thesis Is Presented for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy The Internet, Social Media, and Political Outsiders in Post Suharto Indonesia A Case Study of Basuki Tjahaja Purnama Ezmieralda Melissa (21411454) B.Comm.(Bus) (Bond University, Australia) M.A. (The University of Melbourne, Australia) This thesis is presented for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy of The University of Western Australia School of Social Sciences Media and Communication 2019 THESIS DECLARATION I, Ezmieralda Melissa, certify that: This thesis has been substantially accomplished during enrolment in the degree. This thesis does not contain material which has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma in my name, in any university or other tertiary institution. No part of this work will, in the future, be used in a submission in my name, for any other degree or diploma in any university or other tertiary institution without the prior approval of The University of Western Australia and where applicable, any partner institution responsible for the joint-award of this degree. This thesis does not contain any material previously published or written by another person, except where due reference has been made in the text. The work(s) are not in any way a violation or infringement of any copyright, trademark, patent, or other rights whatsoever of any person. The research involving human data reported in this thesis was assessed and approved by The University of Western Australia Human Research Ethics Committee. Approval #: RA/4/1/7931. Third party editorial assistance was provided in preparation of the thesis by Mrs. Gail Harper. ii The work described in this thesis was funded by The Directorate General of Resources of Science, Technology, and Higher Education of the Republic of Indonesia. This thesis does not contain work that I have published, nor work under review for publication. Signature: Date: 31st March 2019 iii ABSTRACT This thesis investigates the role of social media in political communication in Post- Suharto Indonesia. Focusing on the case of the rise and fall of the former Chinese Christian Governor of Jakarta, Basuki Tjahaja Purnama (better known by his Hakka nickname, Ahok), this thesis examines how social media both enables a more diverse and democratic public sphere in Indonesia by making visible non-traditional or outsider politicians, and at the same time reinforces the discourse of the existing power elite. This thesis employs a mixed-method design of textual analysis of social media, participant observations of Ahok’s political campaigning strategies, and content analysis of newspaper articles about Ahok from three campaign periods in 2012, 2014 and 2017. Through this triangulation of methods, this thesis shows that political communication is shaped by intricate interactions between political institutions, media and citizens. Indeed, it is evident that even as social media played a role in Ahok’s rise to power by providing a forum for him to communicate directly to his constituents beyond the constraints of the daily media, it also facilitated the misrepresentation and amplified the spread of the allegations that led to his downfall and arrest for blasphemy. Thus it is evident that social media, in of itself, is insufficient to challenge the dominance of mass media in shaping political opinions, attitudes, and setting agendas, which are still predominantly controlled by the power elite. Moreover, while it is apparent from the rise of political outsiders in the United States and Britain that social media increases the plurality and diversity of the public sphere, the case of Ahok demonstrates that when the function of electoral democracy is distorted by political populism, social media can also contribute to the reproduction of the conditions that perpetuate inequality and dominance. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Thesis Declaration .................................................................................................... ii Abstract ....................................................................................................................... iv Table of Contents...................................................................................................... v List of Tables ............................................................................................................. x List of Figures ........................................................................................................... xii List of Abbreviations ................................................................................................ xiii Explanatory Notes .................................................................................................... xvi Acknowledgement .................................................................................................... xvii CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................ 1 1.1 Indonesian Politics and Media in the Reform Era ..................................... 2 1.1.1 The Fall of the Suharto Government .................................................. 2 1.1.2 The Reform Era ........................................................................................ 6 1.1.3 Oligarchy in the Post-Suharto Era ...................................................... 10 1.1.4 The Rise of Non-Elite Politicians in Post-Suharto Era .................. 12 1.2 Political Outsiders and Politics ....................................................................... 15 1.2.1 Political Outsiders: Definition and Characteristics .......................... 15 1.2.2 Political Outsiders and Social Media Campaigning ......................... 17 1.3 Ahok’s Rise and Fall .......................................................................................... 19 1.3.1 Family and Education Background...................................................... 19 1.3.2 Early Political Career .............................................................................. 20 1.3.3 The Rise as Jakarta’s Governor ............................................................ 22 1.3.4 Participation in 2017 Jakarta Gubernatorial Election and the Blasphemy Case ...................................................................................... 24 1.4 Methods and Structure of the Thesis ............................................................ 30 1.4.1 Methods ...................................................................................................... 30 v 1.4.2 Structure of the Thesis ........................................................................... 32 CHAPTER 2 POLITICAL SYSTEM AND DEMOCRACY IN INDONESIA ............................................................................................................. 36 2.1 The Indonesian Political System Post-Suharto .......................................... 36 2.1.1 Oligarchy and Elite Politics in Indonesia ........................................... 36 2.1.2 Reforms and Changes in Indonesia’s Political System .................... 41 2.1.2.1 The Liberalisation of Political Parties ................................... 42 2.1.2.2 Decentralisation of Power ........................................................ 43 2.1.3 Arche-politics and the Indonesian Political Discourse .................... 45 2.2 New Wave of Democracy, Political Outsiders, and the Rise of Populism ............................................................................................................... 48 2.2.1 The Growth of Political Malaise around the World ....................... 48 2.2.2 Political Outsiders, Populism, and the Politics of Dissent ............. 51 2.3 Identity Politics in Indonesia .......................................................................... 56 2.4 Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 61 CHAPTER 3 THE INTERNET, SOCIAL MEDIA, AND POLITICAL COMMUNICATION IN POST-SUHARTO INDONESIA......................... 63 3.1 The Interplay between Media and Politics .................................................. 64 3.1.1 Defining Political Communication ....................................................... 64 3.1.2 Political Communication and Deliberation ........................................ 66 3.1.3 Political Communication as a Mediated Process .............................. 68 3.2 How the Internet and New Media Change Political Communication ... 71 3.2.1 The Abundance of Information, Transparency, and Immediacy .. 73 3.2.2 Community Formation, Volunteers, and Influencers ...................... 75 3.2.3 Internet Algorithms, Bubble Effect, and Polarisation of Opinion 79 3.3 Politics in the New Media Era ........................................................................ 81 3.3.1 Power Diffusion and Changes in Party Competition ...................... 81 vi 3.3.2 Outsider Identity in Social Media Campaigning ............................. 83 3.3.2.1 Barack Obama’s Presidential Campaigns .............................. 85 3.3.2.2 Jokowi’s Gubernatorial and Presidential Campaigns ......... 86 3.4 Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 89 CHAPTER 4 METHODOLOGY ........................................................................ 91 4.1 Researching Political Communication in the Era of Digital Technology .......................................................................................................... 91 4.2 Combining Participant Observation, Textual Analysis, and Content
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