Notes

INTRODUCTION

I. Haga Toru, Taikun no shisetsu- bakumatsu Nihonjin no Seio taiken (Chiio Koronsha, 1968), pp. 117, 132-3. 2. Fukuzawa, "Datsu a ron," in Fukuzawa Yukichi zenshu, 21 vols. and I supple. vol. (lwanami Shoten, 1958-1971), 10:238-40. Fukuzawa was interested in the political situation of Korea and closely associated with the Korean reformists. In particular, he supported the Korean revolutionary leaders, Kim Ok-kyun and Pak Yong-hyo, who were the central figures of the coup d'etat of 1884. For Fukuzawa on Korean issues, see Seong-rae Park, "Fukuzawa Yukichi on Korea," Journal ofSocial Sciences and Humanities, vol. 45 (June 1977): 33-48; Mitsuoka Gen. "Fukuzawa Yukichi no kokken ron Ajia ron," Sanzenri, no. 34 (Summer 1983): 37-43; Yi Uk-hyong, "Fukuzawa Yukichi no Chosen seiryaku ni tsuite," Sanzenri, no. 5 (Spring 1976): 196-207. 3. Harry Wray and Hilary Conroy, eds, Japan Exmnined: Perspectives on Modem Japanese History (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1983), pp. 369-89. 4. Tominaga Ken'ichi, Nihon no kindaika to shakai hendo - Tyubingen kogi (Kodansha, 1990), p. 411. 5. Amino, Nihonron no shiza- retto no shakai to kokka (Shogakkan, 1993); Amino Yoshihiko and Kawamura Minato, Retto to hanto no shakaishi - atarashii rekishizo o motomete (Sakuhinsha, 1988); Amino Yoshihiko and Kawazoe Shoji, Chusei no kaijin to HigashiAjia (Fukuoka: Kaichosha, 1994) and others. 6. Nishijima, Nihon rekishi no kokusai kankyo (Tokyo Daigaku Shuppankai, 1985). 7. McCune, "The Exchange of Envoys between Korea and Japan during the Tokugawa Period," Far Eastern Quarterly (May 1946): 325. 8. Ibid. 9. Toby, State and Diplomacy in Early Modern Japan: Asia in the Development of the Tokugawa Bakufu (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984; repr., Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1991), p. 22. 10. Yi Chin-hiii and Kang Jae-eun (Chae-on), "Yugamerareta Chosenzo," in Kim Tal-su, Kang Jae-eun, Yi Chin-hiii and Kang Tok-sang, Kyokasho ni kakareta ChOsen (KOdansha, 1979), p. 11. 11. Wang Yi-t'ung, Official Relations between China and Japan, 1368-1549 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1953), p. 4. 12. Sin Hyong-sik, "T' ongil Silla iii taeil kwangye," in Cho Hang-nae, Ha U-bong and Song Siing-ch'ol, eds, Kangjwa Hanil kwangyesa (Seoul: Hyoniimsa, 1994), pp. 139-43; Suzuki Yasutami, "Nihon ritsuryo kokka to Shiragi Bokkai," in Higashi Ajia sekai ni okeru Nihon kodaishi koza, 10 vols., ( Gakuseisha, 1980-1986), 6:254-292. Suzuki argues that relations with Silla were significant for the establishment of the Japanese ritsuryo system, but Japan considered Silla to be a tributary state. 13. Ueda, Kikajin - kodai kokka no seiritsu o megutte (Chiio Koronsha, 1965).

231 232 Diplomacy and Ideology in Japanese-Korean Relations

14. See, Asahi shimbun, 20 May 1994. 15. Tanaka, Taigai kankei to bunka kOryu (Shibunkaku Shuppan, 1982); ed. Nihon zenkindai no kakka to taigai kankei (Yoshikawa Kobunkan, 1987); ChUsei taigai kankeishi (Tokyo Daigaku Shuppankai, 1975); Chusei kaigai kOshOshi no kenkyu (Tokyo Daigaku Shuppankai, 1959); WakO to kango boeiki (Shibundo, 1961). Nakamura, "Muromachi jidai no Nissen kankei," in Nissen kankeishi no kenkyu, 3 vo1s. (Yoshikawa Kobunkan, 1965-1969), 1: 141-202 (hereafter cited as NKSK). 16. Miyake, Kinsei Nitcho kankeishi no kenkyu (Bunken Shuppan, 1986); ''Tokugawa seiken shokai no Chosen shinshi," ChOsen gakuho, 82 (January 1977). 17. Nakao, Zenkindai no Nihon to ChOsen- Chosen tsushinshi no kiseki (Akashi Shoten, 1989, expanded ed. 1993). 18. Tsuda, "Sangoku shiki no Shiragi honki ni tsuite" in furoku "Kojiki oyobi Nihon shoki no shin kenkyii," in Tsuda SOkichi zenshu 28 vols. and 7 supple. vols (lwanami Shoten, 1963-1989), supple. vol. 1:501,510. 19. Naito, "Nihon bunka to wa nanzoya," in Nihon bunkashi kenkyu, 2 vols. (Kodansha, 1976), I: 17, 22-3. 20. Kato, "The Significance of the Period of National Seclusion Reconsidered," Journal of Japanese Studies, vol. 7, no. l (Winter 1981): 85-109. 21. Ibid., 103. 22. Kuwahara, ''The Meiji Revolution and Japan's Modernization," in Nagai Michio and Miguel Urrutia, eds, Meiji ishin: Restoration and Revolution (Tokyo: The United Nations University, 1985), pp. 20-8. 23. Asao, "Sakokusei no seiritsu," in Koza Nihon rekishi, I 0 vols. (Tokyo Daigaku Shuppankai, 1970-1971), 4:59-94. 24. Goodman, Japan: The Dutch Experience (London and Dover: The Athlone Press, 1986). 25. Toby, "Reopening the Question of Sakoku: Diplomacy in the Legitimation of the Tokugawa Bakufu," Journal of Japanese Studies, 3 (Summer 1977): 323-63. Tashiro, "Foreign Relations during the Edo Period: Sakoku Reexamined," Journal of Japanese Studies, 8:2 (Summer 1982): 283-306. 26. Tashiro, Kinsei NitchO tsukO boekishi no kenkyu ( Sobunsha, 1981), p. 29. 27. Fujino Akira, Do no bunkashi (Shinchosha, 1991 ), p. 228. 28. Tashiro, Kinsei NitchO tsuko boekishi, p. 29. 29. Arano, Kinsei Nihon to Higashi Ajia (Tokyo Daigaku Shuppankai, 1988), pp. 29-31. 30. Nakamura, NKSK, 3:465-97. Tanaka, "Sakoku seiritsuki Nitcho kankei no seikaku," ChOsen gakuhO, no. 34 ( 1965). Tanaka stresses that the political reason -to establish Tokugawa Japan's international order- rather than economic and cultural reasons played a significant part to maintain diplomatic relations with Korea. 31. Toby, State and Diplomacy, p. 227. 32. Ibid., pp. 228-9. 33. Ibid., p. 88. 34. Nakamura, "Zen kindai Ajia gaikoshijo no Tokugawa seiken," ChOsen gakuho, no. 45 (1967): 15-16; NKSK, 3:466. 35. Tashiro, Kinsei Nitcho tsuko boekishi, pp. 138-9. Notes 233

36. Key-hiuk Kim, The Last Phase ofthe East Asian World Order: Korea, Japan and the Chinese Empire, 1860-1882 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980), p. 257, holds the same view, stating that "a departure from China's traditional non-interference in Korean affairs" occurred during the mid and late 1870s. 37. Hatada, Nihonjin no ChOsenkan (Keiso Shooo, 1969), pp. 36-41; "Chosen tochi bikaron to teitairon," Rekishi hyoron, 355 (November 1979): 3-7. Kim, '"Kindai Nissen kankei no kenkyii' (Tabohashi Kiyoshi cho) no chojutsu kanko no doki to sono naiyo ni tsuite," Chosen gakuho, 88 (July 1978): 58-9. Since the 1960s this criticism of the colonial view of Korean history has been widely published in Japanese, Korean and English. 38. Edwin 0. Reischauer, John K. Fairbank and Albert M. Craig, East Asia: Tradition and Transformation, rev. ed. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1989), Chapter 12. 39. Hatada, Nihonjin no Chosenkan, pp. 232-3. 40. Kita, "Nissen ryominzoku dogenron," Minzoku to rekishi, vol. 6, no. (1921): 3-70. 41. Fukuda, "Kankoku no keizai soshiki to keizai tan'i," Keizaigaku kenkyu, (1907). 42. Shikata, "Kyiirai no Chosen shakai no rekishiteki seikaku," 1, 2, 3 ChOsen gakuho, no. I (1951): 193-206, no. 2 (1951): 155-73, no. 3 (1952): 119-47. 43. Mishina, Chosenshi gaisetsu (Kobundo, 1940). 44. Kim, "Sankan Sangokujidai no Nihon rettonai no bunkoku ni tsuite," Yoksa kwahak, no. 1 (1963), translated by Chon Chin-hwa, Rekishi hyoron, no. 5, 8, 9 (1964). 45. Yi, Kokaido o ryohi no kenkyu (Yoshikawa Kobunkan, 1972). 46. Asahi shimbun, 18 June 1994. 47. Son, Choson sidae Hanil kwangyesa yfm'gu (Seoul: Jisunguisaem, 1994); "Choson hugi t'alchunghwa ui kyorincheje," in Kangjwa Hanil kwangyesa, pp. 340-74; "Choson sidae kyorin cheje ui punsok kwa ku munjejom," Hanil kwangyesa yon'gu, vol. I (1993): 188-200. Son's view of the dual system of kyorin diplomacy - peer relations with the bakufu and kimi relations with Tsushima-is shared by other Korean scholars. For example, see Chang Sun• sun, "Choson hugi Ilbon ui sogye wisiksilt'ae wa Choson ui taeung• 'Pyonnyejipyo' rul chungsimuro," Hanil kwangyesa yon 'gu, vol. 1 (1993): 82-114. 48. Kang Jae-eun, Chosen no kaika shiso (lwanami Shoten, 1980), pp. 34-5. 49. Ch'oe Yong-ho, "Sino-Korean Relations, 1866-1876: A Study of Korea's Tributary Relations to China," Asea yon'gu, vol. 9, pt. I (1966): 6-7. 50. M. F. Nelson, Korea and the Old Orders in Eastern Asia (N.Y.: Russell Russell, 1945), p. 18. 51. Nakamura, Nihon to Chosen (Shibundo, 1966), pp. 2-3. Martina Deuchler argues the Chinese world order from the Neo-Confucian philosophical point of view. See, Martina Deuchler, "Neo-Confucianism: The Impulse for Social Action in Early Yi Korea," Journal of Korean studies, vol. 2 ( 1980): 71-111 and "Neo-Confucianism in Early Yi Korea: Some Reflections on the Role of Ye," Korea Journal, 15, no. 5 (May, 1975): 12-18. 52. Nakamura, Nihon to Chosen, p. 4. 53. Toby, State and Diplomacy. See particularly Chapter 5. 234 Diplomacy and Ideology in Japanese-Korean Relations

54. Kang, Chosen no kaika shiso, p. 20. Arano, Kinsei Nihon to Higashi Ajia, p. 37. 55. Sin Yu-han, Haeyurok (Kaiyuroku- Chosen tsushinshi no Nihon kiko), trans. and annotated, Kang Jae-eun (Heibonsha, 1974). Pak Chi-won, Yorha ilgi (Netsuka nikki - Chosen chishikijin no Chugoku kikO), 2 vo1s. trans. and annotated, Imamura Yoshio (Heibonsha, 1978). · 56. Takahashi, "Gaiko girei yori mita Muromachi jidai no Nitcho kankei," Shigaku zasshi , 8 (1982): 67-8. 57. Nakane, Shakai jinruigaku- Ajia shoshakai no kosatsu (Tokyo Daigaku Shuppankai, 1987), pp. 10. 58. Ibid., pp. 206-27. 59. Okpyo Moon, "Confucianism and Gender Segregation in Japan and Korea," in Roger Goodman and Kirsten Refsing, eds., Ideology and Practice in Modem Japan (London: Routledge, 1992), p. 206. 60. Inoue Hideo, JisshO kodai ChOsen (Nihon Hoso Shuppan Kyokai), p. 68. 61. Nakai, "The Naturalization of Confucianism in Tokugawa Japan: The Problem of Sinocentrism," Harvard Journal ofAsiatic Studies, 40: I (June 1980): 168. 62. Imatani, Sengoku daimyo to Tenno- Muromachi bakufu no kaitai to oken no gyakushu (Fukutake Shoten, 1992), pp. 14-18. 63. Matsumoto, "Shinkaku Tenno no kodoku," Bungei shunju (March 1989): 96-118. 64. Bagehot, The English Constitution, with an introduction by R. H. S. Crossman, M.P. (London: C. A. Watts & Co., 1964), p. 17, Chapter VI. 65. James DerDerian, On Diplomacy: A Genealogy of Western Estrangement (Oxford, UK: Basil Blackwell, 1987), p. 32. 66. Nicolson, Diplomacy (London: Oxford University Press, 1963), pp. 49, 104-25. DerDerian, On diplomacy, p. 35. 67. SeeDer Derian, On Diplomacy, Chapters Two and Three. 68. Ibid., p. 34. 69. David Jary and Julia Jary, Collins Dictionary of Sociology (London: HarperCollins Publishers, 1991 ), p. 296; Karl Mannheim, Ideology and Utopia: An Introduction to the Sociology ofKnowledge (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd., 1954), pp. 49-96. 70. Fujita, "Kinsei Nihon ni okerujiminzoku chiishinteki shiko- 'senmin' ishiki to shiteno Nihon chiishin shugi," Shiso, no. 832 (October 1993): 106-29. 71. Ibid., pp. 118-20, 128. 72. Rod Hague, Martin Harrop and Shaun Breslin, Comparative Government and Politics: An Introduction, third ed. (Basingstoke, England: Macmillan, 1992), p. 153.

CHAPTER 1

I. Grossberg, Japan's Renaissance: The Politics of the Muromachi Bakufu (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1981), pp. 1-2. 2. Sato, "Muromachi bakufu ron," in lwanami koza Nihon rekishi, 23 vols. (Iwanami Shoten, 1962-1964), 7:44-5,48. 3. Wintersteen, Jr., "The Muromachi Shugo and Hanzei," in J. W. Hall and J.P. Mass, eds., Medieval Japan, (Yale University Press, 1974; repr., Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988), p. 210. Notes 235

4. Lorraine F. Harrington, "Regional Outposts of Muromachi Bakufu Rule: The Kanto and Kyushu," in Jeffrey P. Mass and William B. Hauser, eds., The Bakufu in Japanese History (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1985), p. 67; Wintersteen, "The Early Muromachi Bakufu in Kyoto," in Medieval Japan, pp. 201-9; Grossberg, Japan's Renaissance, pp. 27-39,43-52. 5. Grossberg, Japan's Renaissance, p. 4. 6. Martin Collcutt, Five Mountains: The Rinzai Zen Monastic Institution in Medieval Japan (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1981), pp. 98-102. 7. Grossberg, Japan's Renaissance. 8. Takahashi, "Chosen gaiko chitsujo to Higashi Ajia kaiiki no koryii," Rekishigaku kenkyu, no. 573 (October 1987): 66-76; "Chiisei Higashi Ajia kaiiki ni okeru kaimin to koryii- Saishiito o chiishin to shite," Nagoya Daigaku Bungakubu kenkyu ronshu, shigaku, 33 (March 1987): 175-94. 9. Murai, "Kenmu Muromachi seiken to Higashi Ajia," in Ajia no naka no chusei Nihon, (Azekura Shobo, 1988), p. 95. I 0. Ibid., p. 94. II. Yi Chin-hili, Nihon bunka to Chosen (Nihon Hoso Shuppan Kyokai, 1980). p. 95. 12. Ibid., pp. 99-100. 13. Ibid., pp. 106-9. Kawai, "Muromachi suibokuga to Chosenga," Sanzenri, no.l9 ( 1979): 66-71. They point out particularly the Korean influence on the Japanese painter Shiibun who visited Korea in 1423 and the Korean painter Sumun's arrival in Japan in 1424 and his contribution to the Japanese ink painting school Soga ha. 14. Kang Jae-eun, Genkai nada ni kaketa rekishi (Asahi Shimbunsha, 1993), pp. 16-17. Ueda Takeshi wrote an interesting book on the history and foreign relations of Parhae which has been not revealed in the past. Parhae had a close relationship with Japan for two hundred years from 727. Their trade relations brought expensive furs such as martens, tigers and brown bears to Japanese nobles and Japanese textiles to Parhae, and the embassies engaged in active cultural exchanges by means of classical Chinese poems. The diplomatic relations with Parhae had a significant impact on Japan's cultural advancement during the Nara and Heian periods. See Ueda Takeshi, Bokkaikoku no nazo - shirarezaru Higashi Ajia no kodai okoku (KOdansha, 1992). 15. Zuikei Shiiho, ed., Zenrin kokuhoki (Kokusho Kankokai, 1975), Teichi 6, p. 87; Yonsei University, ed., Koryo sa, 3 vols. and index (Kyon' gin Munhwasa, 1981), kwon 41:12, 1:817-18. Their arrival was recorded in Taiheiki, see "Taiheiki ni mieru koraijin no raicho," in NKSK, 1:203-5. 16. Zenrin kokuhoki, Teichi 6, pp. 87-8; NKSK, 1:221-2. 17. Tanaka Hirorni, "Buke gaiko no seiritsu to gozan zens<> no yakuwari," in Nihon zenkindai no kokka to taigai kankei, p. 49. 18. NKSK, 1:143--4. 19. NKSK, 1:145; Yonsei University, ed., Koryo sa, kwon 133:15!rl6a, 3:872. 20. Koryo sa, kwon 133, in Chugoku Chosen no shiseki ni okeru Nihon shiryo shusei, (Kokusho Kankokai, 1975-) (hereafter cited as NSS), Sangoku Korai no bu, pp. 236, 238-240. 21. Zenrin kokuhoki, Gokomatsu, Meitoku 3, in "the letter in response to Korea," pp. 91-2. 236 Diplomacy and Ideology in Japanese-Korean Relations

22. Takahashi, "Muromachi bakufu no gaiko shisei," Rekishigaku kenlcyii, 546 (October 1985): 16-17. 23. Osa Masanori, "Buke seiken to Chosen ocho," in Inoue Hideo and Ueda Masaaki, eds., Nihon to Chosen no nisennen 1 (Taihei Shuppansha, 1969), pp. 213-14. . 24. T'aejo taewang sillok, kwon 6:5b, 7:10b, 8:lb in Chason wangjo sillok, 48 vols and index (Seoul: Kuksa P'yonch'an Wiwonhoe, 1955-1963), 1:66, 1:78, 1:81 (thereafter cited as CWS); Dai Nihon shiryo (Tokyo Daigaku Shuppankai, 1930), no. 7:2, Oei 2, pp. 191-2, Oei 3, p. 612. 25. Tanaka, WakO to kango boeki, pp. 4-10, provides statistics of wakO recurrence, pp. 11-12 and p. 17. In 1375 the wako's slaughter began and its scale augmented, and sometimes two hundred to five hundred ships raided the Korean coasts. Murai Shosuke imputes the aggravation of the wakO to military confusion of the Kyushu area where the Kyushu tandai Imagawa Ryoshun and the factions of the Southern Court fought fiercely during the 1370s and 1380s, see Murai, Ajia no naka no chiisei Nihon, p. 321. 26. T'aejo taewang sillok, kwon 6:5b, kwon 8:lb in CWS, 1:66, 1:81; Akiyama Kenzo, "Muromachi shoki ni okeru wako no choryii to Kyushu tandai," Rekishi chiri, vol. 57, no. 4 (April 1931): 207. See also Akiyama Kenzo, "Muromachi shoki ni okeru Kyushu tandai no Chosen to no tsiiko," Shigaku zasshi, 42, no. 4 (April 1931 ): 427-68, on the role of the tandai in Korean relations. 27. Kawazoe Shoji, "Kyushu tandai to Nissen kosho," Seinan chiikishi kenlcyii, no. 1, special issue: Kyushu to taigai kankei: 1. Kawazoe, "Muromachi bakufu seiritsuki ni okeru seiji shiso - Imagawa Ryoshun no baai," Shigaku zasshi, 68, 12 (December 1959): 37-66, gives a more detailed study ofRyoshun and the background of his time. 28. NKSK, 1:150. 29. Tamura Hiroyuki, Chiisei NitchO boeki no ken/cyii (Kyoto: Sanwa Shobo, 1967), pp. 358-87. 30. Kim Byong-ha, Yijo chOngi taeil muyok yon 'gu (Seoul: Han' guk Yon' guwon, 1969), see Chapters 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. 31. Sasaki, "Higashi Ajia bOeki ken no keisei to kokusai ninshiki," in lwanami kOzaNihonrekishi, 1:116-17. 32. Similarly, Kim Byong-ha points out that the nature of Korea-Japan trade relations was characterised by Korea's neighbourly approach to control the Japanese pirates, and Japan's pragmatic attitude for trade profit. See, Kim, Yijo chOngi taeil muyok yon'gu, Chapter I. Kim lists three characteristics of the trade between Korea and Japan: neighbourliness, tribute and commerce. 33. Sasaki, "Higashi Ajia b<>eki ken," I 20. Tanaka Takeo, "Chiisei kaigai b<>eki no seikaku," in Nihon keizaishi taikei, 6 vols. (Tokyo Daigaku Shuppankai, 1965), 2:318-20. 34. Tanaka, WakO to kango boeki, p. 4; Taigai kankei to bunka kOryii, p. 373. 35. Murai Shosuke, Chiisei wajinden (Iwanami Shoten, 1993), pp. 34-5, 39. See also Takahashi, "Chiisei Higashi Ajia kaiiki ni okeru kaimin to koryii - Saishiito o chiishin to shite," Nagoya Daigaku Bungakubu ken/cyii ronshii, shigaku 33 (March 1987): 175-94; "Chosen gaiko chitsujo to Higashi Ajia kaiiki no koryii," Rekishigaku kenlcyii, no. 573 (October 1987): 66-76. Notes 237

36. Yonsei University, ed., Koryo sa, kwon 22:23a, 28:40-4la, 1:449, 583-4. The word waegu* appears again in the dialogue between Khubilai and the Koryo king Ch'ungyol Wang (r. 1274-1308) in 1278. NKSK, 1:51-52. Benjamin H. Hazard, "The Formative Years of the Wako, 1223-63," in Monumenta Nipponica, xxii 3-4 (1967): 261. 37. Yonsei University, ed., Koryo sa, kwon 37:21a-b, in 1:751, recorded the beginning of the waegu raid in 1350; kwon 114:16b, in 3:507, the waegu's killings started in 1375. Hazard, "The Formative Years," 277. 38. Yonsei University, ed., Koryosa, kwon 35:10a-b, in 1:709-10; kwon 43:1a, in 1:839; kwon 111: lOa, in 3:425; kwon 114: l3b, 14a-b, in 3:505-6 et passim; Sejong taewang sillok, kwon 46:13a-b in CWS, 3:207. Zenrin kokuhOki, Oei 16, "a letter to Korea," pp. 115-16. See also Ishihara Michihiro, "Wako to Chosenjin furyo no sokan mondai," ChOsen gakuho, 9 (March 1956): 68-9, et passim, studies on Korean captives by wakO and their repatriation to Korea from Japan, Ryukyu and China. 39. Murai, Ajia no naka no chusei Nihon, p. 322. 40. For the repatriation of captives see, Ishihara, "Wako to Chosenjin furyo no sokan mondai" and Naito Shunpo, Bunroku KeichO eki ni okeru hiryonin no kenkyu (Tokyo Daigaku Shuppankai, 1976). These studies demonstrate how Korea strove for its captives' repatriation. 41. Takahashi, "Gaiko girei yori mita Muromachi jidai no NitchO kankei," Shigaku zasshi, 8 (1982): 80. 42. Murai, "Chosen ni daiwkyo o kyiiseishita gishi ni tsuite," in Tanaka Takeo, ed., Nihon zenkindai no kokka to taigai kankei, p. 338; "Chiisei ni okeru Higashi Ajia shochiiki tono kotsii," in Nihon no shakaishi, 1:112. 43. Kim, Yijo chOngi taeil muyok yon'gu, p. 2. 44. Takahashi, "Gaiko girei," 6&-73. 45. Sin Suk-chu, Tanaka Takeo, trans. and annotated, Haedong chegukki (Kaito shokokki- Chosenjin no mita chusei no Nihon to Ryi'tkyu), (lwanami Shoten, 1991), pp. 13-22. • 46. Lee (YI) Ki-baik, Edward W. Wagner, trans., A New History of Korea (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1984), p. 189. 47. Takara Kurayoshi, Ryukyu okoku no kOzo (Yoshikawa Kobunkan, 1987), pp. 14-15. 48. NKSK, 2: 1. 49. See Nakamura, "appendix: Min Taiso no sokun ni mieru taigai kankei jobun," in NKSK, 2:57-70. 50. Ibid., p. 69. However, ambitious emperor Yung-lo (r. 1403-1424) tried to extend his power to the Southern states. The Ming subjugated Annam (Vietnam) in 1413 and adopted its assimilation policy toward Annam, but his interference ended in failure in 1428 due to the nationalism that arose in Annam. After that period China recognised Annam's independence and Annam continued its tributary relations with China for its security. See, Matsumoto Nobuhiro, Betonamu minzoku shoshi (Iwanami Shoten, 1969), pp. 78-83; Stanley Karnow, Vietnam: A History, revised and updated (London: Pimlico, 1994), pp. 115-16. 51. See, Sakuma Shigeo, "Mincho no kaikin seisaku," in Tohogaku, no. 6 (1952): 1-10. 238 Diplomacy and Ideology in Japanese-Korean Relations

52. Ming shih, Chang T'ing-yu et al., eds, 28 vols. (Peking: Chung-hua shu chii, 1974), chiian 91, ping 3, 8:2243; Ming T'ai-tsu shih lu, 8 vols. (T'aipei: Chung-yangyenchiu yiian. Li shih yii yen yen chiu so, 1962), chiian 70,3:1299. 53. Arano, Kinseu Nihon to Higashi Ajia, p. 31. 54. Murai Shosuke, "Chiisei Nihon retto no chiiki kiikan to kokka," in Ajia no naka no chusei Nihon, p. 129. 55. Takara Kurayoshi, Ryukyu okoku (lwanami Shoten, 1993), pp. 81-2. 56. Ibid., pp. 85-6. 57. Sakuma Shigeo, "Mincho no kaikin seisaku," 8. 58. Takara, Ryukyu okoku, p. 105. 59. Ming T'ai-tsu shih lu, in NSS, Minjitsuroku no bu 1, kan 68, p. 8; kan 131, pp. 24-5. 60. Toby, State and Diplomacy, p. 58. 61. Ming T'ai-tsu shih lu, in NSS, Minjitsuroku no bu 1, kan 134, p. 25. 62. ibid., kan 131, p. 24. 63. Tanaka Takeo, "Wako to Higashi Ajia tsiiko ken," in Nihon no shakaishi, I: 161. 64. Zuikei Shiiho, ed., Zenrin kokuhoki, Oei 8, pp. 94-5. 65. Ibid., pp. 96-7. 66. Zenrin kokuhoki, pp. 97-9. 67. Sasaki, "Higashi Ajia bOeki ken no keisei to kokusai ninshiki," in Iwanami koza Nihon rekishi, 7:113. 68. Hayashiya Tatsusaburo, "Chiisei shi gaisetsu," 5:43. Hayashiya points out that compared with the Kamakura bakufu, the income from the chokkatsu ryo (territories of bakufu's direct control) had been drastically reduced. Sato Shin'ichi, "Muromachi bakufu ron," in Iwanami koza Nihon rekishi, 7:8-24, treats the control of shugo and chokkatsu ryo. 69. Tanaka, Wako to kango boeki, p. 55. 70. Sasaki, "Higashi Ajia b<>eki ken," 114. 71. Kenneth A. Grossberg, "From Feudal Chieftain to Secular Monarch: The Development of Shogunal Power in Early Muromachi Japan," Monumenta Nipponica, vol. 1, XXXI, no.1 (Spring 1976): 45-6. 72. Wang Yi-t'ung, Official Relations between China and Japan, /368-1549 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1953), p. 37. 73. Ibid., pp. 3-4. 74. NKSK, 3:339. 75. Zenrin kokuhoki, on the eighth month, Oei 5, pp. 93-4. This letter had not yet manifested that Yoshimitsu was a diplomatic representative of Japan. 76. ChOngjong taewang sillok, kwon I: 12b in CWS, 1: 149. Yoshimitsu was called "Nihon koku daishogun" - a grand chieftain of Japan. NKSK, 1: 15. 77. T'aejong taewang sillok, kwon 8:2a, 8:24a in CWS, 1:301, 1:312. 78. Tanaka Yoshinari, Ashikaga jidaishi (Meiji Shoin, 1923; repr., Kodansha, 1979), p. 82. 79. Dai Nihon shiryo, no. 7, 1:553-4. 80. Tanaka, Taigai kankei to bunka koryu, pp. 51-2. 81. Wakita Haruko, Muromachijidai (Chiio Koronsha, 1985), p. 31. 82. Ibid., p. 33. Imatani, Muromachi no oken, p. 112. 83. Lorraine F. Harrington, "Regional Outposts ofMuromachi Bakufu Rule: The Kanto and Kyushu," in The Bakufu in Japanese History, pp. 66-98. Notes 239

84. Ito Tasaburo, "Shogun Nihon koku o to shosu - sono shiteki igi," Nihon rekishi, no. 60 (May 1953): 2-6; Grossberg, Japan's Renaissance, p. 4. 85. Ashidate Shoji, "Kamakura bakufu no seiritsu ni Tenno wa do kakawatteit• taka," Rekishi Kyoiku Kyogikai, ed., in Nihon rekishi to Tenno (Otsuki Shoten, 1989), pp. 83-4. Nagahara Keiji, "Nambokucho wa oken no rekishi ni donoyona tenkan o motarashitaka," in Nihon rekishi to Tenno, p. 101. 86. Ito, "Shogun Nihon koku o to shosu," 5. 87. Sato, "Muromachi bakufu ron," 43-6. 88. Zenrin kokuhoki, Oei 9, p. 97. 89. Takahashi Kimiaki, "Gaiko shogo Nihonkoku Minamoto oo," Nagoya Daigaku Bungakubu kenkyu ronshu, shigaku, 38 (1992): 240. 90. T'aejong taewang sillok, kwon 8:2a in CWS, I :301 wrote in 1404, for the first time, "The Japanese envoy - Nihon koku o Minamoto no dogi - arrived and offered gifts." 91. Dai Nihon shiryo, no. 7, 6:348. 92. Dai Nihon shiryo, no. 7, 10:258. Hatakeyama Motokuni and Hosokawa Yoritomo suggested that Yoshimochi to reject this offer. 93. T'ai-tsung shih lu, in NSS, Ming shih lu, Minjitsuroku no bu, 1:79. 94. Nakao, Zenkindai no Nihon to Chosen, p. 31. 95. Grossberg, Japan's Renaissance, p. 39. 96. T' ai-tsung shih lu, in NSS, Ming shih lu, Min jitsuroku no bu, I: I 0 1-4; Nakao, Zenkindai, p. 31. 97. Tanaka, "Japan's Relations with Overseas Countries," p. 168. Min Tok-ki, "Chosencho zenki no 'Nihon Koku o' kan- 'Tekirei' teki kanten yori," Chosen gakuho, no. 132 (July 1989): 110. 98. Zenrin kokuhoki, Oei, 16, in "dispatch the letter to Korea," pp. 115-17. 99. T'aejong taewang sillok, kwon 19:9b in CWS, 1:528. 100. Ibid., kwon 21:7b, kwon 22:43a in CWS, .1:576, 1:612. 101. Zenrin kokuhoki, Oei 26, dated 20th of the seventh month, pp. 119-20; other Yoshimochi letters are found in Zenrin kokuhOki, of the fifth month, Oei 29; of the seventh month, Oei 30, of the eighth month Oei 31, pp. 123-6. 102. Takahashi Kimiaki, "Gaiko shogo Nih on koku Minamoto oo," 240. 103. Chosen raio gaishu, in vol. 3 of Chosen tsushin soroku (MS copy, collection Naikaku Bunko, Kokuritsu Kobunshokan); Sejong taewang sillok, kwon 6: 16b in CWS, 2:352 stated that Yoshimochi called himself seii-tai-shogun; Zenrin kokuhoki, in the fifth month Oei 29, p. 123. I 04. Zenrin kokuhOki, in the seventh month Oei 31, pp. 124-5, on the eighth month Oei 31, pp. 125-6, in the third month Oei 32, pp. 126-9 .. 105. Nakao, Zenkindai, p. 32. 106. Ibid. 107. Hsuan-tsung shih lu, in NSS, Ming shih lu, Min jitsuroku no bu, 1:139, 144-145. 108. Takahashi, "Gaiko shogo," 240. 109. Murai Shosuke, "Korai Sanbetsusho no hanran to Moko shiirai zenya no Nihon," in Ajia no naka no chusei Nihon, pp. 168-9. 1 I 0. Mansai juga ni/(ki, in Zoku gunshoruiju hoi, 1-2 (Zoku Gunshoruijii Kanseikai, I 928), 2nd of the seventh month, Oei 26, 1: 156, 23rd of the seventh month, 240 Diplomacy and Ideology in Japanese-Korean Relations

Oei 26, 1: 157; Kanmon gyoki, in zoku gunshoruiju hoi , 3-4 (Zoku Gunshoruijii Kanseikai, 1926), 1st of the eighth month, Oei 26, 3:195; NKSK, 1:266-7. 111. NKSK, 1:267-8. 112. Yamaori Tetsuo, Kami to oken no kosunwrojii (Yoshikawa Kobunkan, 1993), p. 155. Kokushi daijiten, 1:296-7. 113. Nihon shoki, 2 vo1s., Sakamoto Taro, et al., eds., in Nihon koten bungaku taikei, (Iwanami Shoten, 1965-1967), vol. 68, kan 22, Suiko tenno, 2:180--6. 114. Yamao Yukihisa, "Kodai Tenno sei no seiritsu," in Goto Yasushi, ed., Tennosei to minshu (Tokyo Daigaku Shuppankai, 1976), p. 35. 115. Nihon shoki, in Nihon koten bungaku taikei, 2: 186, 190, 194, 200, 201, 204, 205, 208, 230, 232, 238, 328, 349, 363 et passim. 116. Nagahara Keiji, "Ajia no nakano Nihon bunka- 'Nihon bunkaron' hihan no ichi shikaku," in Arano Y asunori, Ishii Masatoshi and Murai Shosuke, eds., Ajia no naka no Nihon shi, 6 vols., (Tokyo Daigaku Shuppankai, 1992-1993), 4:9-10. 117. Kojiki, vol. 27, pp. 177-8. Nihon shoki, kan 67, 1:334-42. 118. Tsuda, "Kojiki oyobi Nihon shoki no shin kenkyii," in Tsuda Sokichi zenshu, supple 1:181-499, et passim. 119. Inoue, JisshO kodai ChOsen, p. 112. 120. Taiheiki, in Goto Tanji and Okami Masao, recension and annotation, 3 vols., Nihon koten bungaku taikei, 36, kan 39, 3:456-8. Murai Shosuke, "Chiisei Nihon no kokka ishiki - josetsu," in Ajia no naka no chusei Nihon, pp. 36-7. 121. Hon'iden Kikushi, "Tennogo no seiritsu to Ajia," in Ajia no naka no Nihon shi, 2:65-9. 122. Nihon shoki, kan 22, Suiko 16, the eighth month, 2:190-1. Nakao Hiroshi, Chosen tsushinshi to Edo jidai no santo (Akashi Shoten, 1993), pp. 154-5. 123. Nakao, Chosen tsushinshi to Edo jidai no santo, pp. 154-5. Nishijima Sadao, Nihon rekishi no kokusai kankyo, pp. 91-5. 124. lmatani, Muromachi no oken. Seventy years ago, Tanaka Yoshinari had already published a book in which he perceived Yoshimitsu's plan to usurp the Tenno system. Tanaka has observed that Yoshimitsu's acceptance of the Ming's suzerainty was part of his preparation to become an emperor. See, Tanaka Yoshinari, Ashikaga jidaishi, pp. 44-76. 125. Tsuda, "Nihon no kokka keisei no katei to koshitsu no kokyiisei ni kansuru shiso no yurai," in Tsuda Sokichi zenshu, 3:439-73. Watsuji, "Kokumin togo no shocho," in Watsuji Tetsuro zenshii, 20 vols. (lwanami Shoten, 1961-1963), 14:315-96. 126. Arano, "Nihon gata ka-i chitsujo no keisei," in Nihon no shakaishi, 1:214. Arano reluctantly defines this Japan's consciousness as ka-i, because he can not find an appropriate expression to describe it. See, Arano, Kinsei Nihon to Higashi Ajia, p. 4. 127. Zuikei Shiiho, ed., Zenrin kokuhoki, pp. 1-13. On Shiiho's personal history, see Tsuji Zennosuke, Nihon bukkyoshi, 10 vols. (I wanami Shoten, 1944-1955), 3:426-9. 128. Zuikei Shiiho, ed., Zenrin kokuhoki, pp. 1-5. 129. Murakami Shigeyoshi, Kokka Shinto (lwanami Shoten, 1970), p. 52. Tsuda, "Iwayuru Ise Shinto ni tsuite," in Tsuda Sokichi zenshii, 9:110. Notes 241

130. Kitabatake Chikafusa,lwasa Tadashi, recension and annotation, Jinno shOtoki, in Nihon koten bungaku taikei, 87:48. 131. Murai Shosuke, Ajia no naka no chusei Nihon, p. 35. 132. Kitabatake, Jinno shotoki, pp. 61, 122-3, 163. 133. Kuroda Toshio maintains that shinkoku thought was consistently bolstered by the political rulers and never became the ideology to liberate the masses. See, Kuroda, Nihon chusei no kokka to shukyo (lwanami Shoten, 1975), p. 327. 134. Haga Koshiro, Chusei zenrin no gakumon oyobi bungaku ni kansuru kenkyu (Kyoto: Shibunkaku Shuppan, 1981), p. 184. 135. Zuikei Shiiho, ed., Zenrin kokuhoki, pp. 100-1. 136. Ibid., pp. 12-13. 137. Tamura Encho, Bukkyo denrai to kodai Nihon (KOdansha, 1986), p. 282. 138. lmatani, Sengoku daimyo to Tenno, pp. 23-51. 139. Zenrin kokuhOki, dated Oei 32 (1425), Eikyo 11 (1439), Kansei I (1460), Kansei 2 (1461), pp. 126, 135, 144, 145.

CHAPTER2

I. Hugh Dyson Walker, ''The Yi-Ming Rapprochement: Sino-Korean Foreign Relations, 1392-1592," (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles, 1971), pp. 213-14. Nakamura, Nihon to Chosen, pp. 76-7. 2. Toby, State and Diplomacy, p. 172. 3. Walker, ''The Yi-Ming Rapprochement," pp. 151,230,316. 4. Yamauchi Hirokazu, "Richo shoki ni okeru tai Min jison no ishiki," Chosen gakuho,no.92(1979):55-83. 5. Kajimura Hideki, Chosen shi- sono hotten (Kodansha, 1977), p. 68. 6. Donald Neil Clark, "Autonomy, Legitimacy, and Tributary Politics: Sino• Korean Relations in the Fall of Koryo and the Founding of the Yi" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Harvard University, 1978), pp. II, 162. 7. T'aejo taewang sillok, kwon 2:0 in CWS, 1:29. 8. For Koryo's relations with Khitan, see Yi Sang-baek, Han'guksa, 7 vols., (Seoul: uryu Munhwasa, 1959-1965), I: 172-206; Kim Yang-gi, Monogatari Kankoku shi, (Chiio Koronsha), pp. 232--6; Lee Ki-baek, A New History of Korea, pp. 124-6. 9. Kim Yang-gi, Monogatari Kankoku shi, p. 238. I 0. Ibid. Andrew C. Nahm, Korea: Tradition & Transfonnation (New Jersey: Hollym, 1988), p. 77. II. This discussion of Taejanggyong came from the following sources. Kim Byong-ha, Yijo chongi taeil muyok yon 'gu, pp. 60-3, Kim discusses Korea's importation of Tripitaka to Japan from the time ofT' aejong period. See, pp. 65-92. Yi Sang-baek,Han'guksa, 2:20~; Kim Yang-gi,Monogatari Kankoku shi, pp. 238-9; Nahm, Korea, p. 78. 12. Yi Sang-baek, Han'guksa, 2:652-9; Lee Ki-baek, A New History of Korea, pp. 161-2. 13. Yi Sang-baek, Han'guksa, 2:659-72. 242 Diplomacy and Ideology in Japanese-Korean Relations

14. Kang Jae-eun, "Zenkindai no Higashi Ajia sekai to Chosen," Sanzenri, no. 33 (Spring 1983): 73. 15. For the social and political climate of this transition period, see Kajimura, Chosen shi, pp. 60-2; Lee, Chapter 8, "Emergence of the Literati," in A New History of Korea. · 16. T'aejo taewang sillok, kwon, 1, in Wu Han-chi, ed., Chao-hsien Lich'ao shihlu chungti Chung-kuo tzuliao, 12 vols. (Peking: Chunghua Shuchii, 1980), 1:107-9. 17. Lee, A New History of Korea, p. 189. 18. Ming T'ai-tsu shih lu, chiian 221, 7:3234-5. 19. T'aejo taewang sillok, kwon, I, in Chao-hsien Lich 'ao shihlu chungti Chung• kuotzuliao,I:II2-I3. 20. Ibid., 1:120. 21. Yun Pyong-sok, "Chong To-jon," in P'yonch'an Wiwonhoe, ed., Han'guk inmul taegye, 9 vols. and 1 supple. vol. (Seoul: Pakusa, 1972-1973), 3:97-114. 22. Chun Hae-jong, Hanjung kwangyesa yon 'gu, p. 52. 23. The Ming emperors generally demanded from Korea eunuchs, virgins, cows and horses. Eunuchs were used for the Ming's administrative posts, virgins for the inner palace and cows and horses for reclamation of the land and military. In return the Ming remunerated the Korean kings with gold, silver, silk fabrics and medical products imported from southern Asia. See, T'aejong sillok, kwon 7:13a-b in CWS, 1:293-4; kwon 15:18Jr.l9a in CWS, 1:436; Sejong sillok, kwon 3:6a in CWS, 2:298 et passim. 24. T'aejong sillok, kwon 11:3a in CWS, 1:347; kwon 17:33a in CWS, 1:486 et passim. 25. NKSK, 1:163. 26. NKSK, 1:163-4. 27. NKSK, 1:164. 28. Morohashi Tetsuji, comp., Daikanwajiten, 13 vols. (Taishiikan, 1955-1960), 9:48. 29. T'aejo taewang sillok, kwon 10: 11 a in CWS, 1:99; Sejong taewang sillok, kwon Ill :29a in CWS, 4:662, manifests that this system started to appease the wako leaders. See NKSK, 1:573--{) for a more detailed article on sujik. 30. NKSK, 1:164. 31. NKSK, 1:164-5; Tanaka, Taigai kankei, p. 33. 32. T'aejong taewang sillok, kwon 28:36b in CWS, 2:43. Yi Won-sik, "Chosen tsiishinshi ni zuikoshita wagaku yakkan ni tsuite," in ChOsen gakuho, no. Ill (1989): 115. 33. T'ongmun'gwanji (Seoul: Kyong'in Munhwasa, 1973), kwon 2, pp. 14-15; Yi Hong-sik, ed., Han'gukSa taesajon, 2 vols. (Seoul: Kyoyuk Toso, 1990), 1:733. NKSK, 3:398. 34. T'ongmun'gwanji, "preface", p. 1. 35. T'aejong taewang sillok, kwon 28:36b in CWS, 2:42. 36. Yi Won-sik, "Chosen tsiishinshi ni zuikoshita wagaku yakkan ni tsuite," 115-17. 37. T'ongmun'gwanji,kwon2,p.I5,kwon1,p.I06;NKSK,3:399,404;Han'guksa taesajon, I :69; Yi Won-sik, "Chosen tsiishinshi," 87-9. For a comprehensive study on ChOphae sino, see Robert Elvin Campbell, "The Pusan Section of Notes 243

the 'Shokai shingo': Study and Translation" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1993). This study examines the linguistic and historical significance of this text, in partiular Korea's interpretation of the Japanese langauge at that time and the nature of the Korea-Tsushima relationship. 38. Kang Sin-hang, "Yijo ch'ungki ihu iii yakhakcha e taehan koch'al," Songgyun 'gwan Taehakkyo nonmunjip, no. 11 (1966): 43-58. 39. Murai, Ajia no naka no chusei Nihon, p. 324. 40. NKSK, 1:165. 41. T'aejong taewang sillok, kwon 14:9b-10a in CWS, 1:407. 42. Sejong taewang sillok, kwon 31 :5b-6a in CWS, 3:3. 43. NKSK, 1:166; Tanaka, Taigai kankei, pp. 33-4. 44. NKSK, 1:314. 45. Wei Chih, vol. 30, pp. 23-4, quoted in M. S. Seoh, "A Brief Documentary Survey of Japanese Pirate Activities in Korea in the 13th-15th Centuries," Journal ofthe Korean Studies, vol. 1, pt. 1 (1969): 26-7. See also NKSK, 1: 311-12 and "Tsushima no rekishi teki ichi" in NKSK, 2: 311-38. 46. M.S. Seoh, "A Brief Documentary," 30. 47. T'aejong taewang sillok, kwon ll:lb in CWS, 1:347. 48. Arano Yasunori, Kinsei Nihon to Higashi Ajia, pp. 169-71. 49. Sejong taewang sillok, kwon 4:la-b in CWS, 2:314-15. NKSK, 1:166-8. For more detail of the Tsushima attack, see NKSK, 1:227-89. 50. Nakao, Zenkindai no Nihon to Chosen, p. 33. 51. Sejong taewang sillok, kwon 4: 13a-14b in CWS, 2:321. 52. Sejong taewang sillok, kwon 4:24a in CWS, 2:326; NKSK, I :253-4. 53. Tongguk yoji sungnam, quoted in NKSK, I :322. 54. NKSK, I :253. 55. NKSK, I :256. 56. Sejong taewang sillok, kwon 7:16a in CWS, 2:369. 57. NKSK, 1:261. 58. Sejong taewang sillok, kwon 7: 19a in CWS, 2:370. 59. NKSK, 1:281. 60. Sejong taewang sillok, kwon 6: 16b in CWS, 2:352. 61. Ibid., kwo 4:21 a in CWS, 2:324. 62. Murai Shosuke, "kaisetsu," in Song Hi1i-gyong, with recension and annotation by Murai Shosuke, Nosongdang llbon haengnok (Roshodo Nihon koroku - Chosen shisetsu no mita chusei Nihon) (Iwanami Shoten, 1987), pp. 295-6. 63. Sejong taewang sillok, kwon 7:17b-18a in CWS, 2:370. 64. Song, Nosongdang llbon haengnok, [137], p. 133; [149], p. 144. 65. Ibid., "postface," p. 187. 66. Ibid, [46], pp. 48-9. 67. Ibid, [46], pp. 49-50. 68. Kanmon gyoki, in Zoku gunsho ruiju hoi, 3-4, 23rd of the fifth month Oei 26, 3: 187; 13th of the eighth month Oei 26, 3:197. Japan believed that the Ming, Korea and the sourthen states tried to invade Japan and Kyotoites were panicked by this information. 69. Song, Nosongdang llbon haengnok, [110], pp. 105-6; Sejong taewang sillok, kwon 10:3a in CWS, 2:410. 244 Diplomacy and Ideology in Japanese-Korean Relations

70. Song, Nosongdang llbon luzengrok, [110]. p. 105; Murai, "kaisetsu," p. 309. 71. Ibid., [110], p. 106. 72. Zenrin kokuhoki, Oei 29, in the letter to the Korean king, pp. 123-4; Oei 32, in the letter of the Korean king to "Nihonkoku denka," pp. 126-7. 73. King Seijon Memorial Society (prepared by), King Seijon: The Great (Seoul: King Seijon Memorial Society, 1970). For Sejong's scholastic achievement, see Yi Sung-nyong, Sejong taewang ui hangmun gwa sasang-luzkcluz dul gwa ku opchOk (Seoul: Asea Munhwasa, 1981 ). 74. King Seijon Memorial Society (prepared by), King Seijon: The Great, pp. 44-9. 75. Yi Sang-baek., Han'guksa, 3:84. 76. Hatada Takashi, et al., Atarashii ChOsenshizo o motomete (Daiwa Shooo, 1992), p. 25. 77. Min Tok-ki, "Chosencho zenki no 'Nihon koku o' kan," 135. 78. P'ing I in Li -chi, quoted in Ibid. 79. Min, "Chosencho zenki no 'Nihon koku o' kan," 136; Han'guk Chongsin munhwa yon'guwon ed., Sejongjo munhwa yon'gu I (Seoul: Pakyongsa, 1982), pp. 237-79. 80. Sejong taewang sillok, kwon 46:16b in CWS, 3:209. 81. Ibid., kwon I 02:11 b-12a in CWS, 4:518. 82. Ibid., kwon 46:16a-b in CWS, 3:208-9. 83. Ibid., kwon 46:13a-b in CWS, 3:207. 84. Ibid., kwon 10:2b in CWS, 2:410. 85. Ibid., kwon 46:13a-b in CWS, 3:207. 86. Ibid., kwon 112:17b-18a in CWS, 4:672; Murai Shosuke, Chusei wajinden (lwanami Shoten, 1993), pp. 61-2. 87. Murai, Chusei wajinden, p. 59. 88. Akiyama Kenzo, "Gores wa Ryiikyiijin de aru," Shigaku zasshi, vol. 39, pt. 3 (1928): 277. 89. T'aejong taewang sillok, kwon 23:35a in CWS, 1:636; Songjong taewang sillok, kwon 105: 18b in CWS, 10:27; Akiyama kenzo, "Gores wa Ryiikyiijin de aru," 277-8.. 90. The following description of regulations came from Nakamura's article in NKSK, 1:175-85. 91. The word toso appeared for the first time in T'aejong taewang sillok, kwon 31: 17b in CWS, 2: I 06. The article that Japanese was given the toso appeared for the first time in Sejong taewang sillok, kwon 2:26a in CWS, 2:288. 92. Sejong taewang sillok, kwon 64:0 in CWS, 3:553. So Sadamori requested Korea to distinguish the form of a letter of permit brought by envoys to protect his right. 93. Haedong chegukki, in "the record of reception; on numbers of ships," p. 241, indicates that all passengers from Japan received the bun'in from the So family; Sejong taewang sillok, kwon 69:22a-b in CWS, 3: 650-1. 94. NKSK, 3:12. 95. Sejong taewang sillok, kwon 105:22a-b in CWS, 4:577-8; Haedong chegukki, in "the annals of Japan, Tsushima daimyo So Sadakuni," p. 210, recorded that in Sadamori' s time the numbers of ships were limited to fifty except in special circumstances and Korea offered 200 sok of rice and beans to Tsushima every year, see alsop. 241. See also, T' ongmun 'gwanji, kyehae yakcho; NKSK, 3:21. Notes 245

96. Osa Setsuko, Chusei Nitcho kankei to Tsushima (Yoshikawa Kobunkan, 1987), pp. 181-2.. 97. Sejong taewang sillok, kwon 22:7a in CWS, 2:561. Waegwan at Naeip'o and Pusanp'o were established to avoid inconveniences of transport. See also "Urasho no seigen to Wakan no setchi," in NKSK, 1:481-98. 98. Kim Ui-hwan, "Fuzan wakan no shokkan kosei to sono kino ni tsuite- Richo no tainichi seisaku no ichi rikai no tameni," ChOsen gakuhO, no. I 08 (July 1983): 112. 99. Toby, State and Diplomacy, p. 7. 100. NKSK, 1:505. 101. Sejong taewang sillok, kwon ll:lb in CWS, 2:420; NKSK, 1:500. 102. NKSK, 1:514-16. 103. Tanaka, Taigai kankei to bunka koryu, pp. 39-40. 104. Tamura Hiroyuki, Chusei NitchO boeki no kenkyu, p. I90, et passim. 105. George F. Kennan, "The Sources of Soviet Conduct," in Foreign Affairs, XXV, no. 4 (July 1947): 566-82, later published in American Diplomacy, expanded ed. (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1951), p. II9. I06. Tanaka, Taigai kankei, p. 222. 107. Osa Setsuko, Chusei Nitcho kankei to Tsushima, pp. I5I-2. 108. Murai Shosuke, Chusei wajinden , p. 84. I 09. Sejong taewang sillok, kw6n 69:5b in CWS, 3:642; Murai, Chusei wajinden, p. 84. 110. Sejong taewang sillok, kwon 71: 13b in CWS, 3:669; Murai, Chusei wajinden, p. 85. Ill. Murai, Chusei wajinden, pp. 85-6. 112. T'aejong taewang sillok, kwon 35: 18b in CWS, 2:207; Murai, Chusei wajinden, p. 103. 113. Songjong taewang sillok, kwon 65:18b-19a in CWS, 9:329. 114. Yi Hyon-jong, Choson chOngi taeil kyosopsa yon'gu (Seoul: Han'guk Yon'guwon, 1964), pp. 3I2-13. 115. Nakao Hiroshi, "Chosen tsiishinshi to Kyo Omi," in Ueda Masaaki and Kang Jae-eun, eds., Nihon to Chosen no nisennen (Osaka: osaka Shoseki, 1985), p. 143. 116. Songjong taewang sillok, kwon 7:12a-b in CWS, 8:526. 117. Songjong taewang sillok, kwon 28:3b in CWS, 9:13. 118. Kim Byong-ha, Yijo chOngi taeil muyok yon'gu, pp. 39-59. 119. Kawakatsu Heita, Nihon bunmei to kindai seiyo- "sakoku" saikO (Nihon Hoso Shuppan Kyokai, 199I), p. 69-70, 83-9. This is an interesting book on economic history comparing Japan's relations with Asia and England (Britain)' s relations with India during the premodern to the modern period. Kawakatsu argues that during premodern times Asia was an advanced region from where Japan and the West imported significant goods such as cotton, silk, spices, dyestuff, pepper, tea, sugar and ceramic wares, and their importation greatly facilitated the modernisation of Japan and Britain in the modern period. 120. Nakao Hiroshi, "Chosen tsiishinshi to Kyo Omi," pp. I44-5. The printing of Daizokyo started during the Sung China period and was introduced to Khitan, Chin and Koryo. However, Japan started printing in the Edo period for the first time and during the medieval period depended on importation. 246 Diplomacy and Ideology in Japanese-Korean Relations

121. On the trip of Sonkai to Korea, Nakamura, see NKSK, 1:729-47. 122. Kanmon gyoki, 7th of the sixth month Oei 30, 3:394; Zenrin kokuhoki, Oei 30, in "dispatch a letter to Korea," pp. 124-5. 123. Sejong taewang sillok, kwon 22:23b in CWS, 2:569; kwon 23: 111>-12b in CWS, 2:577; Nakao, "Chosen tsiishinshi to Kyo Omi," pp. 144-5. 124. Nakao, Zenkindai, p. 38. 125. Ibid. 126. Ibid., pp. 39-40; Haedong chegukki, in "Annals of Japan: The Succession of Koku o," p. 115; Sejong taewang sillok, kwon 94:39b in CWS, 4:384 recorded that So Sadamori informed Korea about the assassination of the shogun and the succession of his young son at the age of twelve. 127. Sejong taewang sillok, kwon 102:6a-b in CWS, 4:515; Songjong taewang sillok, kwon 101 :3a-b in CWS, 9:693-4. 128. Okumura Shoji, "Korai no gaiko shisei to kokka ishiki," Rekishigaku kenkyii, special ed. (1982): 76. 129. NKSK, 1:174. 130. See, Arai Hakuseki, in Arai Hakuseki zenshii, 6 vols. (Kokusho Kankokai, 1905-1907) (hereafter cited as AHZ), 4: 685-92. 131. NKSK, 1:175. See also "Kaito shokokki no senshii to insatsu," in NKSK, 1:339-80. 132. Sin Suk-chu, Tanaka Takeo, trans. and annotated, "Chobing iingjopki, (J. Chohei osetsuki)," in Haedong chegukki, (Kaito shokokki- Chosenjin no mita chiisei no Nihon to Ryiikyii), (lwanami Shoten, 1991), pp. 241-Q8. 133. Yi Chin-hili, Han'guk so-gui Ilbon- Yi Chin-hUi yoksa gihaeng (Seoul: Tonghwa Ch'ulp'an Kongsa, 1986), pp. 47-8. 134. NKSK, 1:628. 135. Sin Suk-chu, Haedong chegukki, pp. 13-14. 136. TheAnnalectofConfucius, translated by ArthurWaley,4thed. (London: 1956), p. 88, quoted in Martina Deuchler, "Nco-Confucianism in Early Yi Korea," 16. 137. Deuchler, "Nco-Confucianism in Early Yi Korea," pp. 12-18. 138. Yi Hyon-jong, Choson chOngi taeil kyosopsa yon'gu, pp. 300-1. 139. Sejong taewang sillok, kwon 85:6a-b in CWS, 4:201-2; Miyake Hidetoshi, Kinsei Nitcho kankeishi no kenkyii, pp. 92-3. 140. Sejo taewang sillok, kwon 2:48b in CWS, 7:100. 141. Takahashi Kimiaki, "Chosen kenshi biimu to Seso no oken," in Nihon zenkindai no kokka to taigai kankei, p. 343. 142. For a more detailed study of kentai no sei , see Chapter 6, "' Kentai no sei seiritsu to breki shiho no kaihen," in Tashiro Kazui, Kinsei Nitcho tsiiko boekishi no kenkyii. 143. Yi Hyon-hiii, "Sejo," inHan'guk inmul taegye, 3:66-75; Takahashi Kimiaki, "Chosen kenshi biimu to Seso no oken," pp. 345-7. 144. Takahashi Kimiaki, "Chosen kenshi biimu to Seso no oken," pp. 348-9. 145. Sejo taewang sillok, kwon 38:29b in CWS, 8:15. 146. Takahashi, ""Chosen gaiko chitsujo to Higashi Ajia kaiiki no koryii," 69. 147. Takahashi," Chosen kenshi biimu to Seso no oken," p. 365. Yi Hyon-jong, "Sin Suk-chu," in Han'guk inmul taegye, 3:175-9. 148. Sejo taewang sillok, kwon 45:35a in CWS, 8:171. 149. Takahashi, "Chosen gaiko chitsujo to Higashi Ajia kaiiki no koryii," 71. Notes 247

150. Conrad Totman, Japan before Perry: A Short History (Berkeley: University of California Press, I98I ), p. 84. 151. See, Amino Yoshihiko, lgyo no oken (Heibonsha, I993), pp. 238-42. 152. Murai Shosuke, "Chosen ni Daizokyo o kyiiseishita gishi ni tsuite," p. 338. 153. Songjong taewang sillok, kwon 7:12a in CWS, 8:526 et passim. 154. Ha, "Choson chOngi i:ii taeil kwangye," in Kangjwa Hanil kwangyesa, pp. 296-8. Ha argues that at the beginning of Choson Korea did not regard the Japanese as barbarians, although Korea considered Japan as culturally inferior. 155. Yonsan 'gun ilgi, kwon 49:9b-10a in CWS, 13:554; Murai, Chusei wajinden, pp. 108-9. 156. Chungjong taewang sillok, kwon 16:55a in CWS, 14:608. I57. Murai Shosuke, Chusei wajinden, pp. I98-200. Arano Yasunori, Ishii Masatoshi and Murai Shosuke, "Jiki kubun ron," in Ajia no naka no Nihon shi, I: 37-44.

CHAPTER3

l. Songjong taewang sillok, kwon I75:I8b in CWS, 10:689. 2. NKSK, I :68I-2. For a detailed description of the revolt, see "Sanpo ni okeru wajin no soran," in NKSK, 1:627-728. Murai Shosuke contradicts Nakamura's statement that Korea did not outlaw all private trade, but prohibited trade of private merchandise (any goods other than the goods offered by envoys). See, Murai, Chusei wajinden, p. I31. 3. Murai, Chusei wajinden, pp. I46-7. 4. Ibid., pp. 216-17. 5. Ibid., p. 217. 6. Myongjong taewang sillok, kwon 12:29a in CWS, 20:48. 7. Murai, Chusei wajinden, p. 220. Fujiki Hisashi, Toyotomi heiwarei to sengoku shakai (Tokyo Daigaku Shuppankai, 1985), p. 230. 8. Mary E. Berry, Hideyoshi, (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, I982), p. I. 9. Arai Hakuseki, Tokushi yoron, kan 3, in AHZ, 3:579. 10. Conroy, "Government Versus 'Patriot': The Background of Japan's Asiatic Expansion," Pacific Historical Review, (February 195I): 3I-42. 11. Jurgis Elisonas, ''The Inseparable Trinity: Japan's Relations with China and Korea," in John Whitney Hall, et al., eds., The Cambridge History ofJapan, 4:266. This article examines the aspects of piracy, trade and war from the early occurrence of the wakO to the aftermath of Hideyoshi' s invasions. 12. Suzuki Ryoichi, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, (Iwanami Shoten, 1654), p. I62. 13. Kobata Atsushi, et al. eds., Nihon shi jiten (Siiken Shuppan, 1959), p. 59. 14. Han Yong-dae, ChOsenbi no tankyushatachi (Miraisha, I992), p. 129. 15. Ibid., p. 127. 16. Yoshida Tamio, trans. and annotation, 4 vols and I suppl. vol. BukO yawa - Maeno ke monjo (Shinjinbutsu Oraisha, I987), 3:146-8, I82-3. The source recorded that Hideyoshi' s brother Hidenaga vehemently opposed Hideyoshi' s invasion. Before Hidenaga's death, he left his will to Rikyii, to carry out his 248 Diplomacy and Ideology in Japanese-Korean Relations

opposition to the invasion. Rikyii resolutely appealed to Hideyoshi to change his mind ("shi no kakugo o motte"), but Hideyoshi did not listen to anyone's opinion. The record reveals that Rikyii was an influential figure politically as well as culturally. See also Han, ChOsenbi, pp. 142-6. 17. Nakao, "Chosen tsiishinshi to Kyo Omi," pp. 146-7. Daijoin jisha zojiki, (Kadokawa Shoten, 1964), kan 67, 114 and 122, testifies to the uprisings of farmers and commoners against the shugo daimyos. 18. Yasutomiki, 3 vols., in Shiryo taisei (Naigai Shoseki, 1936), 6th of the fifth month Kakitsu 3, 1:347; Miyake, Kinsei Nitcho kankeishi, p. 98. 19. Yasutomiki, 19th of the sixth month Kakitsu 3, 1:367. 20. Edwin 0. Reichauer and Albert M. Craig, Japan: Tradition & Transformation, rev. ed., (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1989), p. 78. 21. Dai Nihon komonjo iewake, 8 (Tokyo Daigaku Shiryo Hensansho, 1922), Mori ke monjo 3. no. 903, p. 163. Hideyoshi was overjoyed at the news of the fall of the Korean capital in 1592. The following statement shows his boastfulness. "Shojo no gotoki daiminkoku o utsuwa, yama no tamago o ensurugagotoshi" (To conquer the Ming is something like conquering virgins and like hating the eggs of mountains). 22. Maeda ke monjo, in Nihon shi shiryo shusei (Daiichi Gakushiisha, 1972), p. 160. 23. NKSK, 2:76-7. 24. Matsuda Kiichi and Kawasaki Momota, eds. and trans., Hideyoshi to bunroku no eki- Furoisu "Nihonshi" yori, (Chiio Koronsha, 1974). 25. Suzuki Ryoichi, ToyotomiHideyoshi (lwanami Shoten, 1954), pp. 125, 157-8. 26. Ishihara Michihiro, Bunroku KeichO no eki (Hanawa ShobO, 1963), pp. 15-16. 27. NKSK, 2:85. 28. Sonjo taewang sillok, kwon 21:14b in CWS, 21:437; 21:16a in CWS, 21:438; 21:20b in CWS, 21:440. 29. Sonjo taewang sillok, kwon 21:14b in CWS, 21:437; kwon 22:8b in CWS, 21:446. 30. NKSK, 2:88. 31. Osa Masanori, "Keitetsu Genso ni tsuite- ichi gaiko so no shutsuji to hokei," Chosen gakuho, 29 (1963): 135-47. 32. Sonjo taewang sillok, kwon 23:4a in CWS, 21:458. 33. Sonjo taewang sillok, kwon 23:7a-8b in CWS, 21:460; kwon 23:l3a in CWS, 21:462. 34. Yu Song-nyong, Chingbirok, p. 14. 35. Sonjo taewang sillok, kwon 23: l9b in CWS, 21:466. 36. NKSK, 2:89. 37. NKSK, 2:89. 38. Sonjo taewang sillok, kwon 24:2b in CWS, 21:473. 39. Kim Hak-pong (Song-il), "Haech'arok," 4 in Haehaeng ch'ongjae, ll vols. (Seoul: Minjok Munhwa Ch'ujinhoe, 1974), 1:42. 40. Sonjo taewang sillok, kwon 24:2b in CWS, 21 :473. 41. Yu Song-nyong, Chingbirok, pp. 19, 15. 42. Yi Hong-sik, ed., Han'guksa taesajon, l :303; Miyake, Kinsei Nitcho kankeishi no kenkyu, p. 130. 43. Nakao, Zenkindai no Nihon to ChOsen, p. 53. 44. Ibid., p. 54. Notes 249

45. NKSK, 2:89. 46. Ibid. Oyudono no ue no nikki, in Gunsho ruijii hoi (Zoku Gunshoruijii Kanseikai, 1932-1934), 16th of the ninemonthTensho 18, pp. 336-7;Harutoyo ki, 7th. 15th of the eleventh month Tensho 18, pp. 284-5, 286. 47. Kim Hak-pong (Song-il), "Haech'arok," 3 in Haehaeng ch'ongjae, 1:38-9. 48. Harutoyo ki, 7th of the eleventh month Tensho 18, pp. 284-5; Yu Song• nyong, Chingbirok, pp. 19-20. 49. Yu Song-nyong, Chingbirok, pp. 20-1. It is a record written by Yu Song-nyong ( 1542-1607) during his duty as a high governmental official between 1592-1598, recounted events from the beginning of Hideyoshi's mission to Korea until the end of his invasions in order that this experience should serve as a warning to later generations. His objectives were to teach that Korea's wretched war-tom state overrun by the ferocious Japanese army had been induced by Korea's lack of defence policy against foreign invasions. See, Pak Chong-myong, "kaisetsu," in Chingbirok, pp. 307-8. 50. Zoku zenrin kokuhoki, in Zoku gunsho ruiju (Zoku Gunshoruijii Kanseikai, 1925), kan 881, p. 403. 51. Ibid., p. 404. 52. Kim Hak-pong (Song-il), "Haech'arok," 3, in Haehaeng ch'ongjae, I :37. 53. Zoku zenrin kokuhoki, a letter from "Nihonkoku kampaku Hideyoshi" to "Chosen koku o kakka," dated the eleventh month of Tensho 18 (1590), p.404. 54. NKSK, 2:90. See also Nakamura Hidetaka, "Jinshin waran no hottan to Nihon no 'kado nyiimin' kosho," Chosen gakuhO, no. 70 (1974): 75-120. 55. Kim, "Haech'arok," 4, in Haehaeng ch'ongjae, 1:40. 56. Miyake Hidetoshi, Kinsei Nitcho kankeishi no kenkyii , p. 130. 57. Zoku zenrin kokuhoki, a letter from "Nihon koku kampaku Hideyoshi" to "Chosen koku o kakka," p. 404. 58. Kim, "Haech 'arok," 4, in Haehaeng ch 'ongjae, I :41. 59. Miki Seiichiro, "Kampaku gaiko taisei no tokushitsu o megutte," in Nihon zenkindai no kokka to taigai kankei (Yoshikawa Kobunkan, 1987), p. 78. 60. Yu Song-nyong, Chingbirok, p. 25. 61. Ibid. 62. Lee, A New History of Korea, p. 208. 63. Gregory Henderson, Korea: The Politics of the Vortex (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1968), p. 251. 64. Edward W. Wagner, The Literati Purges: Political Conflict in Early Yi Korea (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1974), p. 122. 65. Kim Pyong-gon, Yijo tangjaeng sahwa (Seoul: Samjungdang, 1967), pp. 9-16. 66. NKSK, 2:111-12. Yu, Chingbirok, pp. 21, 24. 67. Kim Hak-pong (Song-il), "Haech'arok," 3, in Haehaeng ch'ongjae, 1:34-6. 68. Sin Ki-su and Murakami Tsuneo, Jusha Kan Han to Nihon - jukyo o Nihon ni tsutaeta Chosenjin (Akashi Shoten, 1991), p. 206. 69. Nakura Tetsuzo, "Hideyoshi no Chosen shinryaku to shinkoku- bakuhansei shihai ideologii keisei no ichi zentei to shite," Rekishi hyoron, no. 314 (1976): 29; Matsura monjo, in Nihon shi shiryo shiisei, 19th of the sixth month Tensho 15, p. !59. 70. Kitajima Manji, "Toyotomi seiken no taigai ninshiki," in Nagahara Keiji, Inagaki Yasuhiko and Yamaguchi Keiji, eds., Chusei kinsei no kokka to 250 Diplomacy and Ideology in Japanese-Korean Relations

shakai, (Tokyo Daigaku Shuppankai, 1986), pp. 223-39. The following discussion of ( 1)--(3) is summarised from this article. 71. Shimazu ke monjo, 3, 1440 in Dainihon komonjo iewake, vol. 16, pp. 248-9. 72. Zoku zenrin kokuhoki, a letter from "Nihon koku kampaku Hideyoshi" to "Ryiikyii koku o kakka," pp. 402-3. · 73. Zoku zenrin kokuhoki, a letter from "Nihon koku kampaku Hideyoshi" to "Chosen koku o kakka," p. 404. 74. Suzuki Ryoichi has already pointed out Hideyoshi's assertion of "the Child of the Sun." See, Suzuki Ryoichi, Toyotomi Hideyoshi (lwanami Shoten, 1954), pp. 84-8. 75. Morohashi Tetsuji, comp., Daikanwa jiten, 4:1135. The legend was recorded in the ancient Korean history that "Chumong, who was born from a large egg and became the first king of Koguryo, is said to have been conceived by his mother when a ray of the sun passed over her." See Nahm, Korea Tradition & Transformation, p. 25. Lee Ki-baik, New History of Korea, p. 7. 76. lwao Seiichi, ''Toyotomi Hideyoshi no Taiwan seibatsu keikaku ni tsuite," Shigaku zasshi, vol. 38, no. 8 (1927): 752,760. 77. Maeda Sonkeikaku Bunko shozo monjo, quoted in Kitajima, ''Toyotomi seiken no taigai ninshiki," pp. 225-6. 78. Murakami Naojiro, trans. and annotated, "lkoku ofuku shokanshii" in lkoku sosho, 13 vols. (Yiishooo Shoten, 1929), pp. 29-30, 51-4, 59-61. 79. Murakami, "lkoku ofuku shokanshii," pp. 26-8. 80. Ebisawa Arimichi, "Kirisutokyo to Nihon shiikyo to no kosho sosetsu," Kikan Nihon shisoshi, no. 65 ( 1978): 12. 81. Kitajima, ''Toyotomi seiken no taigai ninshiki," 233. 82. Kawaide Takao, ed., Nihon rekishi daijiten, 20 vols. (Kawaide Shobo, 1960), 9:163. 83. Tsuji Zennosuke, ZOtei kaigai kOtsu shiwa, (Naigai Shoseki, 1930), p. 448. 84. See, Zoku zenrin kokuhOki, pp. 438-9. 85. Ibid, p. 438. 86. Kitajima, ''Toyotomi seiken," p. 243. 87. Ibid., pp. 243-4. Tsuji Zennosuke, ZOtei kaigai kotsu shiwa, pp. 338-40. 88. Kitajima Manji, ''Toyotomi seiken no Chosen shinryaku to gozanso," in Kato Eiichi et al., eds, Bakuhansei kokka to iiki ikoku (Azekura Shobo, 1989), pp. 182-3. 89. Kang Hang, Kanyangnok, Pak Chong-myong, trans. and annotation (Kanyoroku - Chosenjusha no Nihon yokuryuki) (Heibonsha, 1984), p. 42. 90. Miki Seiichiro, "Hokokusha no zooini kansuru ichi kosatsu," Nagoya Daigaku Bungakubu kenkyu ronshu, shigaku, 33 (March 1987): 1-15. 91. Murakami, Kokka shinto, pp. 52, 54. 92. Miki Seiichiro, "Hokokusha no zooi," 204; "Kampaku gaiko taisei no tokushitsu o megutte," p. 92. 93. Scott Lash, "Coercion as ideology: the German case," in Nicholas Abercrombie, Stephen Hill and BryanS. Turner, eds., Dominant Ideologies (London: Unwin Hyman, 1990), p. 65. 94. Imatani Akira, Buke to Tenno, pp. 68-9. 95. Ibid., p. 87; Imatani, Nobunaga to Tenno, p. 212. 96. Omura Yiiko, TenshO ki, pp. 113-14, quoted in Berry, Hideyoshi, p. 184. Notes 251

97. Berry, Hideyoshi, p. 187. 98. NKSK, 2:77-8. 99. Ibid; Imatani, Buke to Tenno, p. 102. 100. Kitajima Manji, "Hideyoshi no Chosen shinryaku ni okeru shinkoku ishiki," Rekishi hyoron, no. 438 (October 1986): 28-9. 101. Tsuji Tatsuya, "Dentoteki ken'i no keisho to gekokiijo no genri," in Tenno to shogun, in Nihon no kinsei, 18 vo1s. (Chiio Koronsha, 1991-), 2:44. 102. Imatani Akira, Buke to Tenno, p. 60. 103. Nagahara Keiji, "Tenkanin," in Nihon no shakaishi, 3:226-7. 104. Tsuji Tatsuya, "Dentoteki ken'i no keisho," 2:43-4. 105. Imatani Akira, Buke to Tenno, p. 61. 106. Yamamuro Kyoko, Ogon taiko - yume o enjita tenka bito (Chiio Koronsha, 1992) describes how Hideyoshi managed to use gold for his aims. 107. Nagahara Keiji, "Tenkanin," 3:214-15. 108. Imatani Aikira, Buke to Tenno, pp. 34-42, 56. 109. Suzuki, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, p. 84. 110. Iwata Takeshi, "Sengoku daimyotachi wa naze 'joraku' o mezashitaka," in Nihon rekishi to Tenno, p. 104. Ill. Ibid., pp. 108-9. 112. Tsuji Tatsuya, "Dentoteki ken'i no keisho," 2:32. 113. Imatani, Muromachi no oken, discussed in the first chapter; Nobunaga to tenno, p. 156. 114. Boulding, Three Faces ofPower (Calif.: Sage Publications, 1989), pp. 23-31.

CHAPTER4

I. Chosenkoku goshinbatsu no ninzii cho (Keicho) kan, 1 vol. (collection Tokyo Kokuritsu Hakubutsukan). Osa Masanori, "Buke seiken to Chosen ocho," in Nihon to Chosen no nisennen, p. 233. 2. Yamaguchi Masayuki, "Chosen eki ni okeru hiryonin no yukue - Chosen hiryonin baibai no ichirei," Seikyii gakuso, no. 8 (1932): 140. 3. Sin Ki-su and Murakami Tsuneo, Jusha Kan Han to Nihon, p. 218. 4. Nawa Toshisada, "Wolbong haesangnok koshaku," Chosen gakuho, no. 21, 22 (October 1961): 34. 5. Kim Ui-hwan, Chason t'ongsisnsa ui palchach 'wi (Seoul: Chongiim Munhwasa 1985), p. 165; Naito Sunpo, Bunroku Keicho eki ni okeru hiryonin no kenkyii, p. II. 6. Osa, "Buke seiken to Chosen ocho," p. 225. 7. Lee Ki-baik, A New History of Korea, p. 170. 8. Chosenkoku goshinbatsu no ninzii cho (collection Tokyo Kokuritsu Hakubutsukan). 9. Yi Chun-gol, Chason sidae /lbon kwa sojok kyoryu yon'gu (Seoul: Hong'ikchae, 1986), p. 184. For the detailed account on the plundered books from Korea, see Yi, pp. 144-67. Ekei, an Hideyoshi's vassal, was one of the monks who joined the army for the invasion of Korea. 10. Kitajima Manji, Toyotomi seiken no taigai ninshiki to Chosen shinryaku (Azekura Shobo, 1990), pp. 147-56. 252 Diplomacy and Ideology in Japanese-Korean Relations

11. Sin Yu-han, Haeyurok, p. 243. 12. On the publishing industry of the Edo period, see Konta Yozo, Edo no honyasan - kinsei bunkashi no sokumen, (Nihon Hoso Shuppan Kyokai, 1977). 13. Sin and Murakami, Jusha Kan Han, p. 231. 14. Shiba Ryotaro, Kokyo bojigatakusoro (Bungei Shunjii, 1976) is an interesting account about the abducted Korean potter Sim Su-gwan, harbored by his abductor, Satsuma daimyo Shimazu Yoshihiro. 15. Abe Yoshio, Ri Taikei (Yi T'oegye)- sono kOdo to shiso (Hyoronsha, 1981), p. 97. 16. Abe Yoshio, Nihon shushigaku to Chosen (Tokyo Daigaku Shuppankai, 1965). 17. Willem Jan Boot, The Adoption and Adaptation of Neo-Confucianism in Japan: The Role of Fujiwara Seika and Hayashi Razan (Proefschrift, Rijksuniversiteit Te Leiden, Netherlands, 1982), p. 94. 18. Ibid., p. 97. 19. Hayashi Razan, "Seika sensei gyojo," in Hayashi Razan bunshu, 2 vo1s. (Heian Koko Gakkai, 1918, repr., Kobunsha, 1930, repr., Kyoto Shisekikai, ed., Perikansha, 1979), kan 40; "Seika bunshii," "Seika sensei bunshii," "Bunsho tattoku koryo," and other articles in Kokumin Seishin Bunka Kenkyiisho, ed., Fujiwara Seika shu, 2 vols. (Kyoto: Shibunkaku Shuppan, 1941). 20. Haga, Chusei zenrin no gakumon, pp. 152-3. 21. This book refers to the three published editions of Kanyangnok; Pak Chong• myong, trans. and annotated, Kanyoroku - Chosen jusha no Nihon yokuryuki (Heibonsha, 1984); Yi Ul-ho, trans. and annotated, Kanyangnok, in Han 'guk myonjo taejonjip (Seoul: Taeyang Sojok, 1972); Sin Ho-yol, trans. and annotated, Kang Suun Kanyangnok, in Haehaeng ch'onjae, vol. 2. The last two books include the original classical Chinese text. Pak Chong-myong's edition contains the most comprehensible translation and annotation, and the page numbers of footnotes are from this edition. 22. Mattei Dogan and Dominique Pelassy, How to Compare Nations: Strategies in Comparative Politics, seconded. (Chatham, N.J.: Chatham House Publishers, Inc.,1990), p. 68. 23. Gabriel A. Almond and Sydney Verba, The Civic Culture: Political Attitudes and Democracy in Five Nations (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1963). 24. Sidney Verba, "Comparative Political Culture," in Lucian Pye and Sidney Verba, eds., Political Culture and Political Development (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1965), p. 517. 25. Rod Hague, Martin Harrop and Shaun Breslin, Comparative Government and Politics: An Introduction, p. 91. 26. Pak Chong-myong, "kaisetsu," in Kanyangnok, p. 297. 27. Ibid., p. 305. See also, Chosen Sotokufu Chiisiiin, ed., ChOsenjinmeijisho (Kyoto: Rinsen Shoten, 1972), pp. 1165-6. 28. Abe Yoshio, Ri Taikei- Sono kodo to shiso, pp. 2, 104-5, 110, 116-17, et passim. 29. Ch' oe Yong-hee,lmjin waeran jung ui sahui dongt 'ae- uibyong ul chungsim uro (Seoul: Han'guk Yon'guwon, 1975), pp. 25-6. Notes 253

30. Yi Hong-sik ed., Han'guksa taesajon, 1:73; Sin and Murakami, Jusha Kan Han, p. 39. 31. Ibid. 32. From his days of captivity to the writing of Kanyangnok are in the first part of Kanyangnok, pp. 11-23. 33. Kobata ed., Nihon shi Jiten, p.l78. 34. Sin and Murakami, Jusha Kan Han, p. 71. 35. For kOwa, see Naito Shunpo, "Jinsin Teiyiieki ni okeru iwayuru 'kowa' ni tsuite," Chosen gakuho, no. 37 and 38 (1966): 172-224. 36. Sin and Murakami, Jusha Kan Han, p. 77. 37. Ibid., pp. 123-4. 38. Pak, "kaisetsu," in Kanyangnok, p. 300. 39. Yu Kye, "Preface," in Kanyangnok, p. 6; Yun Sun-go, "Postface," in Kanyangnok, pp. 293-4. 40. Pak, "kaisetsu," in Kanyangnok, p. 301. 41. Kanyangnok, in the colophon, p. 86. Sonjo taewang sillok, kwon 111:9-11 a, kwon 115:14a-b, in CWS, 23:598-9,647-8. The Sillok acknowledged twice Kang Hang's report, but the word from the king was not recorded. Instead the long description of his captivity in Japan and the way he submitted the intelligence to the court was recorded. In this second entry the Royal Secretariat investigated Kang Hang's report which was brought back by the Chinese called Ho Ying-ch' ao, whether it was a veritable record or not, although its content was verified as written by Kang Hang. The Sillok also acknowledged Kang Hang's fortitude and loyalty to his country. 42. Pak, "notes" in Kanyangnok, pp. 86-87; Yi Hong-sik, ed., Han' guksa taesajon, 1:696. 43. Kanyangnok, p. 19-21. 44. Ibid., p. 23. 45. Ibid., pp. 44-5. 46. Ibid., pp. 45-6. 47. Ibid., pp. 46-51. 48. Yu Song-nyong, Chingbirok, p. 291. 49. Sin and Murakami, Jusha Kan Han, pp. 196-7. For the civil examination system and its sellection of bureaucrats, see, Kim Un-t' ae, Chason wangjo hangjongsa (kunsep'yon) (Seoul: Pakyonsa, 1970), pp. 165-89. 50. Kanyangnok, p. 66. 51. Ibid., pp. 69-70. 52. Udagawa Takehisa, Teppo denrai- heiki ga kataru kinsei no tanjo (Chiio Koronsha, 1990), pp. 102, 113. 53. Kanyangnok, pp. 76-7. 54. Ibid., pp. 78-9. 55. Sin and Murakami, Jusha Kan Han, p. 158. 56. Kanyangnok, p. 170. , 57. Ibid., pp. 184-6. 58. Ibid., pp. 132-5. 59. Nakamura, "Wajinjokyo doro" in NKSK, 1:499-516. 60. NKSK, 3:282-3. 254 Diplomacy and Ideology in Japanese-Korean Relations

61. NKSK, 3:283-4. Matsuura Masatada, Chosen tsuko taiki, revised by Tanaka Takeo and Tashiro Kazui (Meicho Shuppan, 1978), kan 5, pp. 183-5. 62. Kanyangnok, p. 55. 63. Ibid., p. 164. 64. Ibid., p. 137. 65. Ibid., p. 177. 66. Sin Yu-han,llbon mungyon chamnok (Nihon bunken zatsuroku), in Kang Jae- eun, trans. and annotated, Haeyurok, pp. 297-8. 67. Maurice Pinguet, La Mort Volontaire au Japon (Paris: Gallimard, 1984). 68. Kanyangnok, pp. 179-180. 69. Ibid., p. 85. 70. Mattei Dogan and Dominique Pelassy, How to Compare Nations, p. 78. 71. Max Weber, Hans H. Greth, trans. anded., with an Introduction by C. K. Yang, The Religion ofChina: Confucianism and Taoism (N.Y.: The Free Press, 1951, repr., The Macmillan Company, 1964), p. xiv. 72. Ibid., pp. 235-6. 73. Fukuzawa Yukichi, "Jiji shinpO ronshii," in Fukuzawa Yukichi zenshu, vol., 8, 9, 10. 74. Iida Kanae, Fukuzawa Yukichi (Chiio Koronsha, 1984), p. 175. 75. Mizoguchi Yiizo and Nakajima Mineo, eds., Jukyo runessansu o kangaeru (Taishiikan Shoten, 1991). See especially pp. 103-203. 76. Ezra F. Vogel, The Four little Dragons (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1991), p. 84. 77. Kaji Nobuyuki, Jukyo towa nanika, (Chiio Koronsha, 1990). 78. Ibid., pp. 27-8. 79. Ibid., p. 53. 80. Deuchler, "Neo-Confucianism in Early Yi Korea," 13. 81. Kaji, Jukyo towa, p. 180. 82. See for example, Yun Shik Chang, "Women in a Confucian Society: The Case of Chosun Dynasty Korea ( 1392-191 0)," Asian & Pacific Quarterly ofCultural and Social Affairs, 14, 2 ( 1982): 24-42; Tomono Kiyofumi, "Ryosai kenbo shiso no hensen to sono hyoka - kinnen no kenkyii o megutte," Rekishi hyoron, no. 517 (May 1993): 56-67. 83. Shimada Kenji, Shushigaku to yomeigaku, (lwanami Shoten, 1967), p. 64. 84. Nihon shoki, kan 10, Ojin tenno, pp. 370-2; Kojiki, 2 in Ojin tenno, p. 192. 85. Kang Jae-eun, "Kan Han to Edo jugaku no hajimari," in Nihon to Chosen no nisennen, p. 110. 86. Kang, ChOsen no kaika shiso, p. 7. 87. Kang, "Kan Han," p. ll2. 88. Thomas Hosuck Kang, "The Making of Confucian Societies in Tokugawa and Yi Korea: A Comparative Analysis of the Behaviour Patterns in Accepting the Foreign Ideology, Nco-Confucianism" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, The American University, 1971), p. 89. 89. Kang, ChOsen no kaika shiso, p. 5. 90. Samguk sagi, Koguryo pongi, sosurim wangjo, quoted in Kang, Chosen no kaika shiso, p. 2. 91. Key P. Yang and Gregory Henderson, "An Outline History of Korean Confucianism," pt. I. Journal ofAsian Studies, 18:1 (November 1958): 84. Notes 255

92. Kang Jae-eun, "Chosen no Jukyo Nihon no Jukyo," Sanzenri, no. 19 (Autumn 1979): 29. 93. Yang and Henderson, "An Outline History of Korean Confucianism," pt. 1, 85-6. 94. Ibid., 86. 95. Martina Deuchler, "Neo-Confucianism: The Impulse for Social Action in Early Yi Korea," Journal of Korean Studies, vol. 2 (1980): 75-6. 96. Ibid., 78. 97. Thomas Hosuck Kang, 'The Making of Confucian Societies in Tokugawa Japan and Yi Korea," p. 92. 98. Ibid., p. 107. 99. Hesung Chun Koh, "Religion, Social Structure and Economic Development in Yi Dynasty Korea" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Boston University, 1959). p. 226. 100. Martin Collcutt, 'The Legacy of Confucianism in Japan," in Gilbert Rozman, ed., The East Asian Region: Confucian Heritage and Its Modem Adaptation (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991), p. 135. 101. Yang and Henderson, "An Outline History," p. 86. 102. Yi Songmu, 'The Influence ofNeo-Confucianism on Education and the Civil Service Examination System in Fourteenth- and Fifteenth-Century Korea," in Wm. Theodore deBary and JaHyun Kim Haboush, eds., The Rise of NeD• Confucianism in Korea (N.Y.: Columbia University Press, 1985), p. 154. 103. Kang, Chosen no kaika shiso, p. 85. 104. Byung T. Hwang, "Confucianism in Modernization: Comparative Study of China, Japan and Korea" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1979), p. 315. 105. Ibid. p. 31. In the recent article Kurozumi Makoto has made a similar comparison with China and Korea. In his view "practical," "functional," "inductive" and "relativistic principles" ofTokugawa Confucianism made it possible to adopt Western theories, more than the case of Chinese and Korean Confucianism. Specifically, Korean Neo-Confucianism was characterised by more "idealistic," "deductive," "ontological," and "absolutistic" elements which caused a strong resistance to Western values. See, Kurozumi Makoto, trans., Herman Ooms, 'The Nature of Early Tokugawa Confucianism," Journal of Japanese Studies, 20, no. 2 (Summer 1994): 345. 106. Abe, Nihon shushigaku to ChOsen, p. 13. 107. Herman Ooms, Tokugawa Ideology: Early Constructs, 1570-1680 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985). 108. Miyazaki lchisada, Kakyo- Chugoku no shiken jigoku (Chiio Koronsha, 1963), pp. 2, 4. 109. Ibid., p. 6. 110. Ibid., p. 208. 111. Kinugasa Yasuki, "Kinsei Nihon no Chosen kan," in, Nihon to Chosen no nisennen 1, p. 255. 112. Yong-ho Ch'oe, "Commoners in Early Yi Dynasty Civil Examinations: An Aspect of Korean Social Structure, 1392-1600," The Journal ofAsian Studies, 33:4 (August 1974): 631. 113. Lee Ki-baek, A New History of Korea, pp. 180-1. 256 Diplomacy and Ideology in Japanese-Korean Relations

114. Ibid. 115. Yi Su-gon, "Formation and Development ofYangban Society," in The National Academy of Sciences, ed.,lntroduction to Korean Studies (Seoul: The National Academy of Sciences, 1986), p. 91. 116. Miyajima Hiroshi, Yangban- RichO shakai no tokken kaiso (Chiio Koronsha, 1995), pp. 211. 117. Arai Hakuseki, "Oritaku shiba no ki," in AHZ, 3:36. 118. Kim Un-t'ae, Choson wangjo hangjongsa, p. 325. 119. Ch'oe Yong-hee, "Imjin waeran," in Kangjwa Hanil kwangyesa, pp. 334-5.

CHAPTERS

1. Asao, "Shogun seiji no kenryoku kozo," in lwanami koza Nihon rekishi, kinsei 2 (1975): 4-6. 2. For the bakufu's legitimation process, see Toby, State and Diplomacy, Chapter 3. 3. Yi Chin-hili, Richo no tsushinshi, (Kodansha, 1976); Edo jidai no ChOsen tsushinshi (Kooansha, 1987); "Korean Envoys and Japan: Korean-Japanese Relations in the 17th to 19th Centuries," in Korea Journal, vol. 25, no. 12 (December 1985): 24-35. Besides these, Yi published numerous articles on Korean-Japanese relations. 4. Yi Won-sik, "Chosen tsiishinshi no iboku," in Eizo Bunka Kyokai, ed., Edo jidai no ChOsen tsushinshi (Mainichi Shinbunsha, 1979); "Edo jidai ni okeru Chosenkoku shinshi no iboku ni tsuite - bokuseki mokuroku," in ChOsen gakuhO, no. 88 (July 1978): 13-47. Yoshida Hiroshi, "Chosen tsiishinshi no kaiga," in Eiw Bunka Kyokai, ed., Edo jidai no ChOsen tsushinshi, pp. 136-53. Yi Chin-hili, "Chosen no gaka to Seikenji," in Edo jidai no Chosen tsushinshi, 1992 ed., pp. 225-33. 5. Kim Ui-hwan, Choson t'ongsinsa ui palchach 'wi, Chapter 6 and 7. 6. Sin Yu-han, Haeyurok, pp. 243-4, et passim. 7. Nakao Hiroshi, ChOsen tsushinshi to Edo jidai no santo, pp. 33, 46. 8. Carol Gluck, Japan's Modern Myths: Ideology in the Late Meiji Period (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985), p. 39. 9. Toby, State and Diplomacy, p. 76. 10. Haga Noboru, Nikkan bunka koryiishi no kenkyu (Yiizankaku, 1986), p. 123. 11. See, NKSK, 3:465-97; Toby, State and Diplomacy, pp. 83-103; Arano, Kinsei Nihon to Higashi Ajia, pp. 5-13, 213-14 and others. 12. NKSK, 3:253. Several scholars have already closely examined Japan's restoring relations with Korea after the Hideyoshi invasions. See, NKSK, 3:253-82. Ronald P. Toby, in Chapter 2, "Post-Hideyoshi Normalization," in State and Diplomacy. Miyake, Kinsei Nitcho kankeishi no kenkyu, pp.I47-85. Son Sling-ch'ol, Chapter I, "Imran hu Hanil kwan'gye iii chaegae," in Kunse Hanil kwan 'gyesa, (Seoul: Kangwon Taehakkyo, 1987); Chapter 3 in Choson sidae Hanil kwangyesa yon 'gu, and others. The discussion of this section is based on these sources. 13. Naifu leyasu sonko Nihon Chosen waboku no shidai (collection Tokyo Kokuritsu Hakubutsukan). Notes 257

14. Matsuura Masatada, Chosen tsuko taiki, kan 4, quoted in Miyake Hidetoshi, Kinsei Nitcho kankeishi no kenkyu, p. 149. See also Toby, State and Diplomacy, p. 30. 15. NKSK, 3:254. 16. Yi Chin-hili, Nihon bunka to ChOsen, p. 142. Toby, State and Diplomacy, p. 26. 17. Yi, Nihon bunka to Chosen, p. 142. 18. Miyake, Kinsei Nitcho, p. 153. 19. Yi Chin-hili, "Chosen tsiishinshi towa nanika," in Chosen tsushinshi to Nihonjin, p. 38. 20. Kang Hang, "Ye Silngjongwon kye sa," in Kanyangnok, pp. 207-11. 21. Nakamura, Nihon to Chosen, p. 203. Toby, State and Diplomacy, p. 28. 22. See NKSK, 2:477-96, in "Chosen eki no furyo Kin Ko (Kim Kwang) no sokan." Nakamura Hidetaka estimates that Kim was repatriated in around the eleventh month of 1603. Toby points out that Yoshitoshi convinced Kim of the need for normalising relations between Korea and Japan. See Toby, State and Diplomacy, p. 28. 23. Sonjo taewang sillok, kwon 157:2a in CWS, 24:432. Miyake, Kinsei Nitcho, p. 153. 24. Sonjo taewang sillok, kwon 160:23b in CWS, 24:463. 25. Hayashi Akira, Tsuko ichiran, Hayakawa Junzaburo, ed., 8 vols. (Kokusho Kankokai, 1913; repr., Osaka: Seibundo Shuppan, 1967), kan 26, Chosen koku bu 2, shiiko shimatsu, 1:313; Miyake, Kinsei Nitcho, p. 153. 26. Miyake, Kinsei Nitcho, p. 153. 27. Nakamura, Nihon to Chosen, p. 203. 28. P'yonch'an Wiwonhoe, ed., Han'guk inmul taegye, 4:180-3. 29. Matsuura, Chosen tsuko taiki, quoted in Miyake, Kinsei Nitcho, p. 150. Toby, State and Diplomacy, p. 30. 30. Sonjo taewang sillok, kwon 187:4a, in CWS, 25:63; Miyake, Kinsei Nitcho, p. 154. 31. Yi Chin-hili, Han 'guk sog-ui llbon, p. 211. 32. Sonja taewang sillok, kwon 187:4a-b, in CWS, 25:63. 33. Kang Jae-eun, "Muromachi Edo jidai no zenrin kankei," Sanzenri, no. 37 (Spring 1984): 35. 34. Kitajima Masamoto, Tokugawa /eyasu (Chiio Koronsha), pp. 179-88. 35. Takahashi "Gaiko shogo Nihonkoku Minamoto bo," 249-51. 36. !shin Siiden, Eiinhon /koku nikki- Konchiin Suden gaiko monjo shusei (Tokyo Bijutsu, 1989), kan 1, p. 72. Ronald P. Toby, State and Diplomacy, pp. 61-3. 37. Miyake, Kinsei Nitcho, p. 152. 38. Sonjo taewang sillok, kwon 187:4a-b, in CWS, 25:63-4. 39. Sonjo taewang sillok, kwon 187:5a-b, in CWS, 25:64; Miyake, Kinsei Nitcho, p. 154. 40. Miyake, Kinsei Nitcho, pp. 156-7. 41. Sonjo taewang sillok, kwon 200:36b-37a, in CWS, 25:221; Matsuura, Chosen tstlko taiki, kan 5, p. 172. Toby, State and Diplomacy, pp. 30-l. 42. Toby, State and Diplomacy, p. 31. Arano, Kinsei Nihon to Higashi Ajia, p. 175. 43. NKSK, 3:265. 44. Nakmura Hidetaka, Nihon to ChOsen, p. 206. Toby, State and Diplomacy, p. 31. 258 Diplomacy and Ideology in Japanese-Korean Relations

45. Takahashi Kimiaki, "Keicho 12 nen no kaito ken sakkanshi no rainichi ni tsuite no ichi kosatsu - Kondo Morishige setsu no saikento," Nagoya Daigaku Bungakubu kenkyu ronshu, no. 92 (March 1985): 93-104. See, Kondo Morishige, Gaiban tsi'lshO, in KondO Seisai zenshu, 3 vols. (Kokusho Kankokai, 1905), I :9-16. . 46. Nakamura, Nihon to ChOsen, p. 206. Toby, State and Diplomacy, p. 31. 47. Yanagawa shimatsu (MS copy, collection Historiographical Institute, Tokyo University). For a brief summary of the Yanagawa family, see Tashiro Kazui, Kakikaerareta kokusho - Tokugawa Chosen gaiko no butaiura (Chiio Koronsha, 1983), pp. 49-54. 48. NKSK, 3:266. Toby, State and Diplomacy, p. 31. 49. NKSK, 3:267. 50. Nakamura, Nihon to ChOsen, pp. 209-10. 51. Matsuura, ChOsen tsukO taiki, vol. 5, p. 174. 52. Matsuura, ChOsen tsuko taiki; vol. 5, p. 175; Gaiban tsusho in KondO Seisai zenshu, 3 vols., I: I 0-12. 53. Miyake Hidetoshi points out in a similar vein that the Manchu's attacks imperiled the Korean state at that time. Miyake, ''Tokugawa seiken shokai no Chosen shinshi," ChOsen gakuhO, 82 (January 1977): I 09. See also Toby, State and Diplomacy, p. 32. 54. leyasu kOmei waboku ChOsen Tsushima soshi (MS copy, collection Tokyo Kokuritsu Hakubutsukan). Nakamura, Nihon to ChOsen, p. 211. See Toby, State and Diplomacy, p. 39-43. 55. Toby, State and Diplomacy, p. 39. 56. Matsuura, Chosen tsuko taiki, kan 5, pp. 183-5; NKSK, 3: 283-4. See also, 3: 291-300, in "Kiyii yakujo no seiritsu." 57. Tashiro, Kakikaerareta, p. 31. 58. James B. Lewis, ''The Pusan Japan House (Waegwan) and Choson Korea: Early-Modern Korean Views of Japan through Economic, Political, and Social Connections" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, the University of Hawaii, 1994 ). In this study the author stresses "relations from the frontier" rather than "relations from the centre" for example the Korean embassies to Edo on which past research has been concentrated. The author's discussion focuses on the economic significance of the Waegwan, the social impact of the Japanese riot and prostitution in Pusan. However, the author views· Choson and Tokugawa relations as "stable," "cordial" and "harmonious" based on the common "Confucian ideal," and thus the germ of nationalism had not yet been planted in East Asia (see, p. 4). This view, also shared by other scholars, overlooks the ideological differences of Japan and Korea which had existed from the premodern period~ Kim Ui-hwan also wrote a detailed examination of the structure and function of the Waegwan during the Tokugawa period. See, Kim, "Fuzan wakan no shokkan kosei to sono kino ni tsuite - Richo no tainichi seisaku no ichi rikai no tameni," ChOsen gakuhO, no. 108 (1983): 111-45. 59. Tashiro Kazui, ''Tsushima han no wakan boeki," in Edo jidai no Chosen tsushinshi, p. 81. 60. Tashiro, Kinsei NitchO tsukO boekishi no kenkyu. 61. Tashiro, ''Tsushima han no Wakan b<>eki," p. 83. Notes 259

62. This discussion of the Tongnaebusa and Tsushima came from, Yi Chin-hili, "Chosen tsiishinshi tow a nanika," in Chosen tsushinshi to Nihonjin, pp. 26-7. 63. Kim Ui-hwan, "Fuzan Wakan no shokkan kosei to sono kino ni tsuite-Richo no tainichi seisaku no ichirikai no tameni," pp. lll-45. 64. Kang Jae-eun, "Muromachi Edo jidai no zenrin kankei," Sanzenri, no. 37 (Spring 1984): 38. 65. Yi Chin-hili, "Chosen tsiishinshi to wa nanika," pp. 27-8. 66. See, "Wajinjokyo doro," in NKSK, 1:499-516. 67. Tashiro, Kakikaerareta, p. 64. Toby, State and Diplomacy, pp. 115-17. For the diary of this trip, see Tashiro Kazui, "Kan'ei rokunen gojokyo no toki Mainichiki," Chosen gakuho, no. 95 (1980): 77-115, "Kan'ei rokunen Tsushima shisetsu no Chosenkoku 'Gojokyo no toki Manichiki' to sono haikei," (1), (2) and (3), Chosen gakuhO, no. 96, 98, 101 (1980, 1981). 68. Kang Jae-eun, "Zenkindai no Higashi Ajia sekai to Chosen," Sanzenri, no. 33 (Spring 1983): 78. 69. ChOsen kOsai shimatsu, 3 vols. (MS copy, collection Naikaku Bunko, Kokuritsu Kobunshokan), vol. l. Dai Nihon gaikO monjo, Gaimusho, comp. (Nihon Kokusai Kyokai, 1936), kan 1, no. 2, pp. 690-l, 692-3. 70. Fujii Tetsuhiro, Nagasaki kaigun deshitsho- 19 seiki tozai bunka no setten (Chiio Koronsha, 1991 ). Fujii argues that the introduction of naval technology from the Dutch in Nagasaki laid the foundation of the modernisation of the Meiji period. 71. Satsuma sent an army of three thousand to conquer Ryukyu under the pretext of Ryukyu's disobedience in supporting the Hideyoshi invasions and for Ieyasu' s entreaty that Ryukyu negotiate strained relations with China after the invasions. See, Toby, State and Diplomacy, p. 45. Takara Kurayoshi, Ryukyu okoku, pp. 69-71. 72. Toby, State and Diplomacy, p. 227, in which Toby argures that the Tokugawa bakufu created its centrality which comprised Japan's "national divinity" and the "Confucian dichotomy of lea and i." See also Arano, Chapter 1, "Nihon no sakoku to taigai ishiki," in Kinsei Nihon to Higashi Ajia, especially, pp. 5-13. 73. Toby, "Reopening the Question of Sakoku," 323. 74. See, Reischauer and Craig, Japan: Tradition & Transformation, Chapter 3; Conrad Totman, Japan before Perry, pp. 137-44; Wakita Osamu, "The Emergence of the State in Sixteenth-Century Japan: From Oda to Tokugawa," Journal of Japanese Studies, 8:2 (Summer 1982): 343-67; John W. Hall, "Feudalism in Japan - A Reassessment," in John W. Hall and Marius B. Jansen, eds, with an introduction by Joseph R. Strayer, Studies in the Institutional History ofEarly Modem Japan (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1968), pp. 15-51. 75. Siiden, lkoku nikki, quoted in Sasayama Haruo, et al., eds., Gunsetsu Nihon shi shiryoshu (Yamakawa Shuppansha, 1989), p. 180. 76. Tokugawa kinreiko, the first six, the second four vols. and one supple. vol. Ishii Ryosuke, ed., (Sobunsha, 1959-1961), the first 6:375-9. Toby suggests "the expulsion of the Catholics" was a way to enhance "bakufu legitimacy." See State and Diplomacy, pp. 96-7. 260 Diplomacy and Ideology in Japanese-Korean Relations

77. Ezo was considered as iiki (foreign regions) distinguishing it from ikoku (foreign countries) such as China, Holland, Korea and Ryukyu. For Japanese relations with Ainu and its control policy, see, Endo lwao, '"Kita no osae no keifu," inAjia no naka no Nihon shi, 2:277-96. The thorough study of Kikuchi Isao stresses the importance of Japan's early modern relations with the northern region and Ainu. See, Hopposhi no naka no Kinsei Nihon (Azekura Shobo, 1991). 78. For this relationshsip between Tsushima and the bakufu, see Arano Yasunori, Kinsei Nihon to HigashiAjia, pp. 217-22; Tsuruta Kei, "Kinsei Nihon no yottsu no 'kuchi' ," inAjia no naka no Nihon shi, 2:297-314. 79. Yi Chin-hiii, Edo jidai no Chosen tsushinshi, p. 33. 80. Matsuda Ko, "Tokugawa jidai no Chosen tsiishinshi," in Nissen shiwa , vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 8-9. 81. Hague, Harrop and Breslin, Comparative Government and Politics, p. 21. 82. The following discussion of the "Yanagawa affair" came from the folJowing sources. Yanagawa shimatsu; Yanagawa Shigeoki kuji kiroku (MS copy, collection Historiographical Institute, Tokyo University); NKSK, 3:481-92; Toby, State and Dipomacy, pp. 76-7; Tashiro, Kakikaerareta kokusho, pp. 124-81; Arano, Kinsei Nihon to Higashi Ajia, pp. 191-216; Son Sung-ch' ol, Ki'mse Hanil kwan 'gyesa, pp. 124-40; Choson sidae Hanil kwangyesa yon'gu, pp. 199-217. 83. Arano, Kinsei Nihon to Higashi Ajia, p. 208. Tashiro, Kakikaerareta kokusho, p. 174. 84. Tashiro, kakikaerareta kokusho, p. 210. 85. See, Ibid., pp. 41-9. 86. Tanaka Takeo, "Edo bakufu no gaiko to Tsushima han," in ChOsen tsushinshi to Nihonjin, pp. 196-7. 87. Arano, Kinsei Nihon to Higashi Ajia, p. 211. 88. Kan 'ei jusan heishinen Chosen shinshi kiroku (MS copy, collection Historiographical Institute, Tokyo University). 89. Toby, State and Diplomacy, pp. 82-3. 90. NKSK, 3:482-3; the letter is in Hayashi Razan bunshu, kan 13, gaikoku shochii, 27th of the twelfth month, Kan' ei 13, 1: 141. However, Toby contradicts Nakamura's theory that the first use of "Taikun" came in late 1636, and points out that this title appeared informally as early as 1610. See Toby, State and Diplomacy, p. 83. · 91. Arano, Kinsei Nihon, p. 213. 92. NKSK, 3: 495-6. 93. NKSK, 3:498; Arano, Kinsei Nihon, p. 214. 94. Toby, State and Diplomacy, p. 84. Miyake, Kinsei NitchO, p. 204. 95. Ishin Siiden, lkoku nikki , kan I, p. 36; 3rd of the ninth month in TsukO ichiran, no. 3, kan 93, Chosen kokubu, 69. 96. Tokugawa jikki, no. 2, kan 17, in Zoku kokushi taikei, p. 368. 97. NKSK, 3:286-7. 98. Nakamura, "Zenkindai Ajia gaikoshi no Tokugawa seiken- 'Nihon koku Taikun' gaiko no seiritsu to sono shiimatsu," ChOsen gakuhO, no. 45 (October 1967); 19 et passim; NKSK, 3:466,563. 99. Toby, State and Diplomacy, p. 88. Tashiro Kazui argues, in a similar vein, that the creation of this title represented state consciousness (kokka ishikl) of Notes 261

early modern Japan and at the same time laid the foundation to the modern international relations, see Tashiro, Kinsei NitchO tsuko boekishi no kenkyu, pp. 138-9. 100. Toby, State and Diplomacy, pp. 228-9. However, in the article published in 1986 Toby distinguishes more clearly between order (chitsujo) and ideology (kannen). In this article he argues that prior to the establishment of the Tokugawa bakufu Japan had not yet rejected "the Chinese world order" ideologically as well as in the sphere of foreign policy. See, Toby, "Kinsei ni okeru Nihon gata ka-i kan to Higashi Ajia no kokusai kankei," Nihon rekishi, no. 463 (December 1986): 43-59. 101. Arano, Kinsei Nihon, pp. 213, 217. 102. Fujimura Michio, ''Taikun gaiko taisei no ronri- Meiji zenki gaiko shiron josetsu," Nagoya Daigaku Nihon shi ronshu, vol. 2 (1975): 381; Toby, State and Diplomacy, pp. 57, 59. 103. Hayashi Razan, Hayashi Razan bunshu, kan 12 in the letter of "Daiminkoku ni tsukawasu," dated Keicho 15, 1:130. Toby also examines this letter as an "unacceptable form" to the Chinese standard. See, State and Diplomacy, pp. 59-60. 104. Ibid., kan 22, 1:250. 105. Toby, State and Diplomacy, pp. 61-3 discusses the process of the bakufu's rejection in 1621. 106. Nakura Tetsuzo, "Bakuhansei shihai ideorogii to shiteno shinjushiigo shiso no seiritsu - kokka kannen no seiritsu o jiku to shite," Rekishigaku kenkyu, special issue (December 1974): 85; "Ikoku ofuku shokanshii," in Murakami Naojiro, trans. and annotated, lkoku sosho (Yiishodo Shoten, 1929), pp. 26-8. Toby also discusses Nakura's view on Japan's divinity in State and Diplomacy, p. 217. 107. Nakura, "Bakuhansei shihai," 85; "Hai Kirishitan bun," in Ebisawa Arimichi, recension and annotation, Nihon shiso taikei (lwanami Shoten, 1970), 25:420-1. 108. Fujino Tamotsu, Tokugawa bakkaku (Chiio Koronsha, 1965), p. 70. 109. Ibid., p. 72. 110. Kokushi daj!iten, 11:689. 111. W. J. Boot, ''The Adoption and Adaptation," pp. 198-9. 112. Ooms, Tokugawa Ideology, pp. 72-80. 113. Abe, Nihon shushigaku to Chosen, pp. 159-60. Ooms, Tokugawa Ideology, p. 105. Kate Wildman Nakai argues, in a similar vein, that Razan united Confucianism with Shinto. See, Nakai, "The Naturalization of Confucianism in Tokugawa Japan: The Problem of Sinocentrism," Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, 40:1 (June 1980): 157-99. 114. Tokugawa jikki, Keicho 18, 26th of the third month, quoted in Takahashi Miyuki, "Hayashi Razan no shinto shiso," Kikan Nihon shisoshi, no. 5 (1977): Ill 115. Hayashi Razan bunshu, kan 69, 2:833-6; Takahashi Miyuki, "Hayashi Razan no shinto shiso," 113. 116. Nakura, "Bakuhansei shihai,": 89-90. See, Hayashi Razan, Shinto denju, Taira Shigemichi, recention and annotation, in Nihon shiso taikei, vol. 39 (Iwanami Shoten, 1972). 117. Hayashi Razan, Shinto denju, in Nihon shiso taikei, 39:45. 262 Diplomacy and Ideology in Japanese-Korean Relations

118. Ibid., p. 12, quoted in Nakai, 'The Naturalization of Confucianism in Tokugawa Japan," 160. 119. Hayashi Razan, "Tosho Dai-shinkun nenpu no jo," in Hayashi Razan bunshii, kan 48, 2:558. 120. Idem, "Jingi hoten jo," in Hayashi Razan bunshii, kan 48, 2:558. 121. Max Weber, Guenther Roth and Claus Wittich, eds., 2 vols., Economy and Society : An Outline of Interpretive Sociology (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978), 1:36-7, 262-6. 122. Joseph M. Kitagawa, On Understanding Japanese Religion (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1987), p. 139. 123. Murakami, Kokka shinto, p. 50. 124. Ibid., p. 52. 125. Ibid. 126. Murakami, Kokka shinto, pp. 52-4. 127. Ibid., p. 59.

CHAPTER6

1. Kajimura Hideki, Chosen shi no wakugumi to shiso (Kenbun Shuppan, 1982), p.16. 2. For relations with Yiian, see Lee, A New History of Korea, pp. 156-8. Lee also examines the northern invasions during the Koryo period (918-1392) in "Northern Invasions and Korean Resistance," Korea Journal, vol. 4, no. 7 (July 1964). 3. Watanabe Manabu, "Richo koki 'jidai korin' shiso no henoo katei shoko," Musashi Daigaku Jinbun gakkai zasshi, vol. 9, no. 3 (1978): 46. 4. Son Sung-ch'ol, Kunse Hanil kwan'gyesa, p. 212. 5. Son argues in a similar vein that Korea's cultural superiority complex and its military inferiority chose the tributary sadae diplomacy, thereby containing the structure of ideological hwa-i consciousness and realistic dealing in its diplomacy. See Son, Kitnse Hanil kwan'gyesa, pp. 241-2. However, Son terms this Korea's centrality "sochunghwa" (small centrality) and this Korea's "ethnocentric" consciousness confronted with Japan-centred consciousness which was characterised by its "military power" and the existence of the "Tenno." See, Son, Choson sidae Hanil kwangyesa yon'gu, pp. 229-30; "Choson hugi t'alchunghwa ui kyorincheje," in Kangjwa Hanil kwangyesa, pp. 367-70; "Choson sidae kyorin cheje ui punsok kwa ku munjejom," Hanil kwangyesa yon'gu, vol. 1 (1993): 195-7. 6. Tsukamoto Tetsuzo, ed., Shisho (YiihOdo Shoten, 1921), pp. 236-7; W. A. C. H. Dobson, Mencius: A New Translation Arranged and Annotated for the General Reader (London: Oxford University Press, University of Toronto Press, 1963), p. 14. 7. Hans J. Morgenthau, Politics among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace, fifth and revised ed. (N.Y.: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1978), p. 183. 8. Myongjong taewang sillok, kwon 17:9b--10a in CWS, 20:218. 9. Kajimura, ChOsen shi no wakugumi, p. 9. Notes 263

10. Kajimura, Chosen shi no wakugumi, pp. 5-6. Similarly, Lee Ki-baek argues that sadae diplomacy is one way to supplement the weakness of the ruling class for ruling people and against the opposing factions. Lee, "Sadae juiii ron iii chaegomt'o," Sasanggye, kwon 13, no. 6 (1965): 275. 11. 1\ajimura, ChOsen shi no wakugumi, p. 7. 12. Oshibuchi Hajime, "Shinsho ni okeru Shin Sen kankei to Samjondo no hibun," Shirin, vol. I3 (1928):14, 30 et passim. 13. Pak Ch'ung-sok, "Richo koki ni okeru seiji shiso no tenkai- tokuni kinsei jitsugakuha no shii hobo o chiishin ni," I Kokka gakkai zasshi, in kan 88 9, 10 (1975): 519-37. 14. Ibid., 520, 533-4. 15. Ibid., 523. 16. Lee Ki-baek, "Sadae juiii ron iii chaegomt' o," 272. I7. Walker, ''The Weight of Tradition: Preliminary Observations on Korea's Intellectual Response," in Yung-hwan Jo, ed., Korea's Response to the West (Michigan: The Korea Research and Publications, Inc., I97I), p. I4. 18. Yi Hong-sik, ed., Han'guksa taesajon, I:II06. Pak Tae-sun, "Yonsan'gun" in Han'guk inmul taegye, 3:83-92. Yi Sang-baek, Han'guksa, 3:536-42. 19. Suk Choi, "The Factional Struggle in the Yi Dynasty of Korea, I575-I725," I, Koreana Quaterly, vol. 7, no. l (Spring I965): 86. 20. This discussion came from Suk Choi, ''The Factional Struggle in the Yi Dynasty of Korea," pp. 80, 85-90; Yi Hong-sik, ed., Han'guksa taesajon, I: I92; Yi Sang-baek, Han'guksa, 4:2-6; Yun Hak-jun, Chosen no shigokoro• "shijo" no sekai (KOdansha, I992), pp. I83-4. 21. Suk Choi, ''The Factional Struggle," 86. 22. Lee, A New History of Korea, p. 215. 23. Ch'oe Yong-sik, "Kwanghaegun," pp. 23-5. 24. Immanuel C. Y. Hsii, The Rise of Modem China (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, I970), p. 21. For Nurcachi's offer to defend Korea, see Ura Yasukazu, "Minmatsu Shinsho no Senman kankeijo ni okeru Nihon no chii," I, Shirin, vol. 19, no. 2 (Aprili934): 25-9. 25. Ura, "Minmatsu Shinsho," 29. 26. Ibid., 31. 27. Hsii, The Rise of Modem China, p. 23. 28. Kwanghaegun ilgi, 3 vols. (T'aebaeksan sako chungchopon) (Seoul: Kuksa P'yonch'an Wiwonhoe, I99I), kwon 130:IIa, 3:I48. 29. Kwanghaegun ilgi, 3, in WuHan-chi, ed.,Chao-hsien Lich'ao shihlu chungti Chung-kuo tzu liao I2 vols. (Peking: Chunghua Shuchii, I980), chiian 49, 8:3016-I7. 30. Iwami Hiroshi, "Shlncho no Chiigoku seifuku," in lwanami Koza sekai rekishi, 29 vols, I supple. and index (lwanami Shoten, I969-I974), chiisei 6, I2:I29-34. 31. Lee, A New History of Korea, p. 215. For a detailed description of Korea's surrender to the Manchu army, see Inaba Iwakichi, Chapter 5 in Kokaikun jidai no Mansen kankei (Kokusho Kankokai, I976). Inaba argues that the surrender was the plan of K wanghaegun which was substantiated from Queen Kim's message for K wanghaegun' s disloyalty and crime after his dethronement. See 264 Diplomacy and Ideology in Japanese-Korean Relations

Inaba, Kokaikun jidai, pp. 186-8. Kwanghaegun ilgi, (T'aebaeksan sako chungchopon), kwon 136:13a, 3:235. 32. Inaba Iwakichi, Kokaikun jidai no Mansen kankei, pp. 247-8. 33. Kwanghaegun ilgi, (T'aebaeksan sako chungchopon), kwon l61:la, 3:423. 34. Udagawa Takehisa, Teppo denrai- heiki ga kataru kinsei no tanjo (Chiio Koronsha, 1990). Udagawa argues that teppo was transmitted by wakO, but not by the Portuguese who came to Tanegashima in 1543 which has been held by historians. 35. Kwanghaegun ilgi, (T'aebaeksan sako chungchopon), kwon l43:7b-8a, 3:285; Ura, "Minmatsu Shinsho," l, 33-4. 36. See, Yu Song-nyong, Chingbirok, 37. Sonjo taewang sillok, kwon 36:20b, in CWS, 21:661. 38. Sungjongwon ilgi, 126 vols and Kojon 14 vols (Seoul: Kuksa P'yonch'an Wiwonhoe, 1961-1977), no. 21 (lnjo/6/4/23), 1:959. See also, Nakamura, NKSK, "Chosen eki no toko washo Kim Ch'ung-son," in vol. 2. 39. Sok nanjung chamnok, Minjok Munhwa Ch'ujinhoe, ed., (Seoul: Taehan Kongronsa, 1977), kwon l :40b (K wanghaegun 1214), p. 211; Ura, "Minmatsu Shinsho," l, 36. 40. Kwanghaegun ilgi, (T'aebaeksan sako chungchopon), kwon l42:l0a, 3:277; Ura, "Minmatsu shinsho,"p. l, 37. 41. Sungjongwonilgi, no. l (lnjo l/3/14), 1: 2-3; Inaba, Kokaikunjidai, pp. 231-5. Inaba points out that as this historical source was written by the government officials of the Soin faction, it is difficult to give a fair treatment of Kwanghaegun's dethronement, but the king was a victim of the factional strife. 42. Suk Choi, 'The Factional Struggle," no. l, 90. 43. Lee, A New History of Korea, p. 215. 44. Iwami Hiroshi and Taniguchi Kikuo, Dento Chiigoku no kansei (KOdansha, 1977), p. 119. At that time munitions of the Manchu army was still antiquated. It was the K' ang-hsi emperor's time that he undertook to advance the cannon from missionaries at the beginning of the Rebellion of the Three Feudatories. See, E. T. Hibbert, K'ang hsi: Emperor of China (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., 1940), pp. 110-15. 45. Injo taewang sillok, kwon 2 in Chao-hsien lich'ao shihlu chungti Chun-kuo tzu liao, chiian 53, 8:3301. 46. lnjo taewang sillok, kwon 15:30a; 46b, in CWS, 34:171, 179; Ura. "Minmatsu Shinsho," 40-l. 47. lnjo taewang sillok, kwon 15:60a; 62a, in CWS, 34:186, 187; Ura, "Minmatsu Shinsho," 42. 48. Chosenshi, 36 vols. and index. (Keijo: Chosen Sotokufu, 1933), no. 5, 2: 118; Ura, "Minmatsu Shinsho," pp. 43-4. 49. Tashiro Kazui, "Kan'ei rokunen (Jinso 7, 1629), Tsushima shisetu no Chosenkoku 'Gojokyo notoki Manichiki' to sono haikei," I, Chosen gakuhO, no. 96, (1980): 90. 50. lnjo taewang sillok, kwon l5:54b; 55a in CWS, 34: 183; kwon l6:38b in CWS, 34:208; Ura, "Minmatsu Shinsho," 43-5. 51. Injo taewang sillok, kwon 4:2lb, kwon 5:24b, in CWS, 33:579,601. 52. Ibid., kwon 4:21b, inCWS, 33:579. Notes 265

53. Ibid., kwon 5:48b, in CWS, 33:613. 54. Ibid., kwon 6:46b, in CWS, 33:637. 55. Matsuura, ChOsen tsuko taiki, kan 6, p. 222. 56. Ibid.; "Ho Choro Chosen monogatari tsuketari Yanagawa shimatsu" in Kaitei Shiseki shuran (Kondo Kappansho, 1902), 16:572. 57. Ura, "Minmatsu Shinsho," 48. 58. Jnjo taewang sillok, kwon 20: 18b in CWS, 34:322; Tashiro, "Kan'ei rokunen," 1, 92-3. 59. Sugimura Uneme, Tashiro Kazui, rev., "Kan'ei rokunen gojokyo no toki Mainichiki," ChOsen gakuho, no. 95 (1980). 60. Yanagawa Shigeoki kuji no toki Ho Choro narabini Matsuo Shichiemon e otazune nasare uke kotae no chO. (So collection, Historiographical Institute, Tokyo University); Tashiro, "Kan'ei rokunen (Jinso 7, 1629), Tsushima shisetsu no Chosenkoku 'Gojokyo no toki Manichiki' to sono haikei," 2, 68. 61. Tashiro, "Kan'ei rokunen (Jinso 7, 1629), Tsushima shisetsu no Chosenkoku 'Gojokyo no toki Manichiki' to sono haikei," 3, 83. 62. Ibid., 103. 63. Ibid., 106. For the Tokugawa Bakufu intelligence-gathering in the turmoil of seventeenth-century East Asia, see Toby, State and Diplomacy, in Chapter 4. 64. Ibid., 108; Tsushima sent messengers in 1634, 1636, 1637, 1645, 1647, 1648, and 1649 (lnjo 27th year). 65. Hsii, The Rise of Modern China, p. 24. 66. The word originally means the Jurchens and shifted to mean barbarians in general. See, Yi Hong-sik, ed., Han'guksa taesajon, 1:1132. 67. Injo taewang sillok, kwon 5, in Chao-hsien Lich 'ao shihlu chungti Chun-kuo tzu liao, chiian 56, 9:3547-9; 3572-7. Yi Sang-baek, Han 'guksa, 4:100. 68. lnjo taewang sillok, kwon 5, in Chao-hsien Lich 'ao shihlu chungti Chun-kuo tzuliao, chiian 56, 9:3593. 69. Kang, Chosen no kaika shiso, p. 20. 70. NKSK, 3:618-620, in "Shin Taiso no Chosen seibatsu ni kansuru komonjo." NKSK, 3:607-22. Nakamura Hidetaka finds that these twelve conditons of the Ch'ing emperor were an important primary source that had regulated relations between the Ch'ing and Korea for more than two hundred years. 71. NKSK, 3:500. 72. NKSK, 3:501; lnjo taewang sillok, kwon 34:39b; 34:39b-40a, in CWS, 34:681. Silngjongwon ilgi, no. 56 (lnjo 15/3/20), 3:628. Ura Yasukazu discusses the details of this condition on Japan beween the Manchus and Korea and he finds the Manchus' strong interest in Japan and persistent desire to realise its article, see Ura, "Minmatsu Shinsho no Senman kankeijo ni okeru Nihon no chii," 2, Shirin, vol. 19, no. 3 (July 1934): 125-6. 73. Koryo sa, kwon 26; Koryo sa chOryo, kwon 18, in NSS, Sangoku Korai no bu, pp. 70, 268. 74. Injo taewang sillok, kwon 35:4la in CWS, 34:712; NKSK, 3:505, 511. 75. Injo taewang sillok, kwon 36:7b, 36:8a-b, in CWS, 35:4-5. 76. NKSK, 3:505. 77. Sungjongwon ilgi, no. 63 (lnjo 16/1124), 3:992; NKSK, 3:505. 78. Siingjongwon ilgi, no. 70 (lnjo 17/8/4, 17/8/9, 17/8/12,13), 4:379, 385-6, 388-91; Tach'ing T'aichung Wenhuan ti shihlu, 2 vols., (T'ai-pei: T'ai-wan 266 Diplomacy and Ideology in Japanese-Korean Relations

Huawen Shuchii, 1964), chiian 48:26--9,2:821-3, recorded the informations given at that time. NKSK, 3:505--6,531. 79. lnjo taewang sillok, kwon 36:26a-b, in CWS, 35:13-14; Ura, "Minmatsu Shinsho," pp. 2, 128-9. 80. NKSK, 3:531. 81. Injo taewang sillok, kwon 39:22b-23a-b in CWS, 35:74-5. 82. Tach'ing T'aichung Wenhuan ti shihlu, chiian 50:10-11, 2:837-8. 83. lnjo taewang sillok, kwon 39, 1-la in CWS, 35:63; CIWsenshi, no. 5, 3:62-5. 84. NKSK, 3:531. 85. NKSK, 3:531; lnjo taewang sillok, kwon 40:27a-b in CWS, 35:89-90. 86. NKSK, 3:532. In 1643 (Kan'ei 20, Injo 20) Shogun Iemitsu requested the dispatch of the Korean embassy to congratulate the birth of his heir the fourth shogun Ietsuna. On this occasion the Korean king gave various offertory objects scuh as Daizokyo and the bronze bell. See, Otaki Haruko, "Nikko to Chosen tsiishinshi, "pp. 166--7; Toby, State and Diplomacy, pp. 102-3. 87. lnjo taewang sillok, kwon 33:6b-7a in CWS, 34:640. 88. NKSK, 539, 547-8. 89. Pibyonsa tUIIgnok, 28 vols, (Seoul:Kuksa P'yonch'an Wiwonhoe, 1959-1960), no. 7 (lnjo 20/3/24), 1:549-50. 90. lnjo taewang sillok, kwon 43:13a in CWS, 35:133; NKSK, 3:539. 91. NKSK, 3:539. 92. lnjo taewang sillok, kwon 44:41 b-42a in CWS, 35:168. 93. NKSK, 3:539-540. 94. lnjo taewang sillok, kwon 44:41b-42a in CWS, 35:168. 95. lnjo taewang sillok, kwon 48:8b-9a, 16b in CWS, 35:296--7; Pibyonsa tUIIgnok, no. 11 (lnjo 25/2/21, 3/26), 1:875--6, 895; NKSK, 3:543-4; 96. Hyojong taewang sillok, kwon 2:18a, kwon 1:33a in CWS, 35:396, 381; Chosenshi, no. 5, vol. 3, p. 348. 97. Ura, "Mimatsu Shinsho," pp. 2, 135. 98. This section came from the discussion of Hsii, The Rise of Modem China, pp. 28-39; Chin Shun-shin, Chugoku no rekishi, 6 vols. (Heibonsha, 1986, repr., Kodansha, 1991), 6:460-84. 99. Hyonjong taewang kaesu sillok, kwon 28:la, in CWS, 38:176. Kanda Nobuo has examined Korea's unstable political situation at the time of the revolt of the Three Feudatories, see "Sanpan no ran to Chosen," Shundai shigaku, 1 (March 1951): 60-75. · 100. Hyonjong taewang kaesu sillok, kwon 28:8a, in CWS, 38:179; Sukchong taewang sillok, kwon 1:24a-b, in CWS, 38:218-19; kwon 11:26b, in CWS, 38:521; Kanda, "Sanpan no ran," 62. 101. Hyonjong taewang sillok, kwon 22:18b, in CWS, 37:67; Sukchong taewang sillok, kwon 1:24a, in CWS, 38:24; Sukchong taewang sillok, kwon 3:13a-b, in CWS , 38:255; Kanda "Sanpan no ran," 67-8. 102. Hayashi Gaho and Hayashi Hoko, comp., Ka'i hentai, 3 vo1s. (Toyo Bunko, 1958), 1:135-8. 103. Hae-jong Chun, "Sino-Korean Tributray Relations in the Ch'ing Period," in The Chinese World Order, pp. 107-9. Toby, State and Diplomacy, p. 145. 104. Toby, State and Diplomacy, p. 156. 105. Noh Hee-bang, "Communication Systems during the Choson Dynasty, 1392-1910," Korea Journal, vol. 25, no. 10 (October 1985): 44-53. Notes 267

106. Lee Ki-baik, "Northern Invasions and Korean Resistance," Korea Journal, vol. 4, no. 7 (July 1964): 16. 107. Ibid., 18. 108. Kang Jae-eun, Chosen no kaika shiso, p. 20. 109. Chosenshi, no. 5, vol. 3, pp. 163-4, 226-7; Yi Hong-sik, ed., Han'guksa taesajon, I :300; Kang Hye-t'aek, "Kim Sang-bon," in Han 'guk inmul taegye, 4:71-82. 110. Chosenshi, no. 5, 3:239; Kim Yong-dok, "Sohyon seja," in Han'guk inmul yaegye, 4:33-44. Ill. Yamaguchi Masayuki, "Shoken seshi to Adamu Shiiru (Adam Schall)• Chosen Kirisutokyoshi kenkyii sono 4," Seikyu gakuso, vol.l, no. 5 ( 1931 ): 101-11; Yun, Chosen no shigokoro, p. 206. 112. Kaizuka Shigeki, Chugoku no rekishi, 3:81-3. 113. Yamaguchi, "Shoken seshi," 115-16. Chosenshi, no. 5, 3:222. 114. Kim Yong-dok, "Sohyon seja," in Han' guk inmul taegye, 4:42-4; Chosenshi, no. 5, 3:235, 239-41. The discussion of the relationship between King lnjo and Sohyon and his family also came from, Yi Kung-ik, Yollyosil kisul (Seoul: Kyongmunsa, 1976), kwon 27, pp. 560-613; Yun Hak-jun, Chosen no shigokoro, pp. 201-2. 115. Chosenshi, no. 5, 3: 268, 293. 116. Yi Sang-baek, Han'guksa, 4: 22-4; Chosenshi, no. 5, 3:390,397,418-19. 117. This discussion of Hyojong' s campaign against the Ch' ing and its consequence came from Yi Kung-ik, Yollyosil kisul, kwon 30, pp. 670-91; Yun, Chosen no shigokoro, p. 205-7. 118. Yi Hong-sik, ed., Han'guksa taesajon, 1:847-8; Kim Kyu-song, "Song Si• yol," in Han'guk inmul taegye, 4:205-7. 119. On Song Si-yol's political life and the development of anti-Ch'ing theory, see Yi Un-sun, Chason hugi tangjaengsa yon'gu (Seoul: Ilchokak, 1988), pp. 31-9. 120. Song Si-yol, Songja taejon (the Compendium of Master Song's work), kwon 5, "Kich'uk pongsa," quoted in Kang, Chosen no kaika shiso, pp. 25-7. 121. Kajimura Hideki, Chosen shi no wakugumi to shiso, p. 24. Miura Kunio argues that Song Si-yol embodied the pride and zeal of Korea's "eastern country of ours" by protecting Neo-Confucian orthodoxy after the Manchu invasions. See, Miura Kunio, "Orthodoxy and Heterodoxy in Seventeenth• Century Korea: Song Siyol and Yun Hyu," in The Rise ofNeo-Confucianism in Korea, p. 415. 122. Kajimura, Chosen shi no wakugumi, p. 26; Song Si-yol, Songja taejon, 8 vols., (Seoul: Pokyong Munhwasa, 1985), appendix, kwon 18:37-8,40-1. 123. Sukchong taewang sillok, kwon 1:24a-b, 26a, in CWS, 38:218-19. 124. Ibid., kwon 8:9a, in CWS, 38:405. 125. Kang, Chosen no kaika shiso, p. 36; Song Si-yol, Sonja taejon, kwon, 5, "Kich'uk pongsa," "Chongyu pongsa," 1:183-99, 1:199-211. 126. Mano Senryii, Shushi to 0 Yomei- shin jugaku to daigaku no rinen, (Shimizu Shoin, 1984), p. 97. 127. In Bito Masahide's view the ideology of "revere the emperor and expel the barbarians" was formulated differently in Japan which was associated with Japan's early modern society. See Bito Masahide, "Sonno joi shisho," in lwanami koza Nihon rekishi kinsei 5, pp. 46-50. 268 Diplomacy and Ideology in Japanese-Korean Relations

128. Anthony D. Smith, The Ethnic Origins ofNations (N.Y.: Basil Blackwell, 1986), pp. 47, 50, 55. 129. Hague, Harrop and Breslin, Comparative Government and Politics, p. 94.

CHAPTER 7

1. Osa Masanori, "Nissen kankei ni okeru kiroku no jidai," Toyo gakuho, vol. 50 (1968): 70-124. 2. Ibid., 71-2,117-20. 3. See, Katagiri Kazuo, "Sakokujidai ni motasaretakaigaijoho," Nihon rekishi, 249 (February 1969): 83-98. 4. Minamoto Ry0en, "Chugoku, Chosen, Nihon no jitsugaku no hikaku," Kan, vol. 8, no. 5-6, (1979): 124; Kang Jae-eun, Chosennojoi tokaika (Heibonsha, 1977), p. 13. 5. Kaizukuka Shigeki, Chugoku no rekishi, 3 vols. (lwanami Shoten, 1970), 3:66; Lawrence D. Kessler, K'ang-shi and the Consolidation of Ch'ing Rule, 1661-1684 (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1976), p. 117. 6. Kaizuka, Chugoku no rekishi, 3:63; Silas H. L. Wu, Passage to Power: K'ang• hsi and His Heir Apparent, 1661-1722 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1979), p. 31. In fact, K'ang-hsi's decision of the "use both Chinese and Manchus was based on several factors. Intermarriage and other forms of sinicization were beginning to blunt Manchu-Chinese cultural differences." See, Kessler, K'ang-hsi and the Consolidation, p. 121. 7. Kim T'ae-jun, "18 seiki no Seoul to Peking," Shinika, (Feb. 1991): 36, 40. Kim Key-hiuk observes that "During 245 years from 1637 to 1881, a total of 435 special embassies and missions were sent to China." See Kim Key-hiuk, The Last Phase ofthe East Asian World Order: Korea, Japan and the Chinese Empire 1860-1882, p. 6. 8. William Safire, Safire's Political Dictionary (N.Y.: Random House, 1968), pp. 603-4. 9. Arai Hakuseki, "Oritaku shiba no ki," in AHZ, 3:57-8. When Arai Hakuseki started to serve the bakufu, he learnt of the bakufu' s financial problems from Ogiwara Shigehide. Shigehide maintained that the recoinage of old coins was the only solution to overcome financial problems. 10. Miyazaki Michio, "Arai Hakuseki," in Nihon rekishi gakkai, ed., Nihon jinbutsu sosho, (Yoshikawa Kobunkan, 1989), pp. 149-50, 189. Ogiwara's foreign policy began in 1695 (Genrok 8). 11. Kate Wildman Nakai, Shogunal Politics: Arai Hakuseki and the Premises of Tokugawa Rule (Cambridge, Mass. and London: Harvard University Press, 1988), p. 14. 12. Tokugawa Jikki, kan 23 ( 1/Genroku 4 ), in Zoku Kokushi taikei, vol. 12 (Keizai Zasshisha, 1902-1903), p. 365. Nakai, Shogunal Politics, p. 32. 13. Tokugawajugodai shi, Naito Chiso, ed., 12 vols. (Hakubunkan, 1892-1893), Hoei 6, 6:240; Miyazaki, Arai Hakuseki, pp. 179-80. 14. Miyazaki, Arai Hakuseki, p. 178-9. Notes 269

15. Arai Hakuseki, "Oritaku shiba no ki," inAH4 3:112. Hakuseki complained that after the three years of Ienobu's reign, Japan's economy was still unchanged. He was told that it was due to the expenses incurred by the restoration of the shogunal residence and the Korean embassy. 16. "Nagasaki shinrei," Shotoku 5, 11th of the first year, in Ishii Ryosuke, ed. Tokugawa kinrei ko , I 0 vols. and 1 supple. vol. (Sobunsha, 1959-1961 ), no. I, 6:417-18. 17. Arai Hakuseki, "Oritaku shiba no ki," inAHZ, 3:119. 18. Arai Hakuseki (Kinmi), Minamoto no Kinmi homei kyoyu Chosen shikyaku saku. (MS copy, collection Nakayama Bunko, Tokyo Toritsu Chiio Toshokan). Miyazaki Michio, Arai Hakuseki no kenkyu, enlarged ed. (Yoshikawa Kobunkan, 1969), pp. 49-53. 19. Miyazaki Michio, Arai Hakuseki joron, enlarged ed. (Yoshikawa Kobunkan, 1976), pp. 37-9; Arai Hakuseki no kenkyu, pp. 45-8. 20. Arai Hakuseki, "Kokusho fukugo kiji," in AHZ, 4:695-6. 21. Ibid., p. 702. 22. Arai Hakuseki, "Chosen heishi kogi," 26th of the second month Shotoku 5, in AHZ, 4:683; Hakuseki's position caused the dispute with the Korean embassy of 1711 when the embassy protested over the posthumous title of the Korean king, Hakuseki fiercely rejected their claim declaring that "I swear on my life that I will not accept Korea's demand," in "Oritaku shiba no ki," inAHZ, 3:84. 23. Arai Hakuseki, "Kokan hitsudan," in AHZ, 4:727. Miyazaki argues that Hakuseki heard from a Korean that when K'ang-hsi, emperor of the Ch'ing, suggested that his prince be adopted by Korea, Korea tried not to be involved in this matter and refused indirectly his offer on the grounds that Korea had an agreement with Japan. Arai Hakuseki, "A letter to Sakuma DOgen," Kyoho 8, quoted in Miyazaki Michio, Arai Hakuseki joron, p. 39. 24. This view is shared by Kamigaito Ken'ichi, Amenomori Hoshu- Genroku Kyoho no kokusaijin (Chiio Koronsha, 1989), pp. 130--1. 25. Arai Hakuseki, "Koshitsii wakumon," in AHZ, 3:394. 26. Nakai, Shogunal Politics, p. 196. 27. Arai Hakuseki, "Chosenkoku Shinsho no Shoshikikoto," in AHZ, 4:671-2, quoted in Lee Yong-hee, "The Spiritual Aspect of Korea-Japan Relations: A Historical Review of Complications Arising from the Consciousness of Peripheral Culture," Social Science Journal, vol. 3 (1975): 35. 28. Lee Yong-hee, "The Spiritual Aspect of Korea-Japan Relations," 35. 29. Arai Hakuseki, "Chosen heishi kogi," inAHZ, 4:683, quoted in Lee Yong- hee, "The Spiritual Aspect of Korea-Japan Relations," 35. 30. Arai Hakuseki, "Oritaku shiba no ki," in AHZ, 3:27. 31. Ibid. 32. Arai Hakuseki, "Homei kyoyu Chosen shikyaku," inAH4 4:661-2. 33. Arai Hakuseki, "Kokusho fukugo kiji," in AH4 4:715. 34. Arai Hakuseki, " Homei kyoyu Chosen shikyaku, "AH4 4:663. 35. Arai Hakuseki, "Oritaku shiba no ki" in AH4 3:81. 36. Katsuda Katsutoshi, Arai Hakuseki no rekishigaku (Koseikaku, 1939), pp. 293-5. 37. Bito, "Sonno joi shiso," pp. 66-7. 38. Ibid. 270 Diplomacy and Ideology in Japanese-Korean Relations

39. Nakai, Shogunal Politics, p. 190. 40. Ibid., Chapter 8, 10, 11, and 12. In these chapters Nakai examines Hakuseki' s justification of the restoration of the title against other criticism and his own view about shogunal rule. 41. Takahashi, "Gaiko shogo Nihon koku Minamoto oo," 6-7. Takahashi analyses the nature of the title "Nihon koku Minamoto" and points out that shoguns did not assert themselves as the head of Japan using its title, although it had been used to represent Japan in its foreign relations for a long time. 42. Arai Kinmi (Hakuseki), Chosenkoku shinsho no shiki no koto. (MS copy, collection Naikaku Bunko, Kokuritsu Kobunshokan); in AHZ, 4: 671. 43. Nakai, Shogunal Politics, pp. 182-183. 44. Arai Hakuseki, "Oritaku shiba no ki," in AHZ, 3:38. 45. Arai Hakuseki, ''Tokushi yoron," kan I, inAHZ, 3:399--460. 46. Bito, "Sonno joi shiso," pp. 66-7. Arai Hakuseki, ''Tokushi yoron," kan 1, in AHZ, 3:460. For Hakuseki, the decline of the imperial institution started with the regent (sessho) politics at the enthronement of young Seiwa Tenno in 858, and after the appearance of Ashikaga Takauji the imperial court remained in name only and the dominance of the buke polity was established. See also, Nakai, Shogunal Politics, pp. 184-5. 47. Arai Hakuseki, "Oritaku shiba no ki," in AHZ, 3:104. 48. Arai Hakuseki, "Kokusho fukugo kiji," in AHZ, 4:701. Nakai, Shogunal Politics, pp. 215-19. 49. Kamigaito, Amenomori Hoshu, p. 119. 50. Amenomori Hoshii, "Koku o shugo ron," in Gaiban tsii.ryaku. (MS copy, collection Nakayama Bunko, Tokyo Toritsu Chiio Toshokan). It is also compiled in Yamaguchiken Kyoikukai, ed., Yoshida Shain zenshu, 10 vols. (lwanami Shoten, 1936), 8:247. Hoshii sent one formal and one informal letter to Hakuseki in the third month of 1711. 51. Ibid., 8:242-50; Nakai, Shogunal Politics, pp. 228-30; Kamigaito, Amenomori Hoshu, p. 121. 52. Ibid., 8:251. 53. Kamigaito, Amenomori Hoshii., p. 125. 54. Amenomori Hoshii, ''Taiho setsu," in "Kisso bunshii", vol. I, in Hoshu bunshU, Amenomori Hoshu zensho, 4 vols. (Osaka: Kansai Daigaku Shuppan Kohobu, 1980-1982), 2:14; Kamigaito, Amenomori Hoshu, p. 125. 55. Kamigaito, Amenomori Hoshu, p. 126. 56. Amenomori Hoshii, ''Taihosetsu," 2: 15-16. 57. Amenomori Hoshii, "Bukoku ron," in "Kisso bunshii," vol. I, in Hoshu bunshu, Amenomori Hoshu zensho, 2:23--4. 58. Kamigaito, Amenomori Hoshu, p. 126. 59. Tsuda Sokichi, "Nihon no kokka keisei no katei to koshitsu no kokyiisei ni kansuru shiso no yurai," in Tsuda Sokichi zenshu (lwanami Shoten, 1963), 3:439-73. Watsuji Tetsuro, "Kokumin togo no shocho," in Watsuji Tetsuro zenshii (lwanami Shoten, 1962), 14:315-96. See also Tsuda and Watsuji's theory on the Tenno, Akasaka Norio, ShOchO Tenno to iu monogatari (Chikuma Shobo, 1990),pp.20-75. 60. "Kyoho yonen kigai Chosen raichoki," in Chosen shinshi raichOki. (MS copy, collection Naikaku Bunko, Kokuritsu Kobunshokan). Notes 271

61. Arai Hakuseki, "Oritaku shiba no ki," inAHZ, 3:115. Hakuseki wrote of his affection for Ienobu and Ienobu's trust for Hakuseki in several parts of this autobiography. 62. Ibid., 3:123-31. 63. Tokugawajikki, no. 5, in Zoku kokushi taikei, kan 13, p. 537. 64. Akasaka, Shocho TenniJ, pp. 214-15. 65. He was called Togoro, later Nobukiyo and Hakuyo as names received upon reaching adulthood and Hoshii as his pen name. Kamigaito Ken'ichi, Amenomori Hoshu; Ito Oshiro, "Amenomori Hoshii iji," Rekishi chiri, vol. 16, no. 5, (1910):452-6. A biographical novel was written by Tai Yukiko, Tsushima monogatari - Nikkan zenrin gaiko ni jinryoku shita Amenomori Hoshu (Kogensha, 1991). Hoshii's collection of works is published as Amenomori Hoshu zensho, 4 vols. 66. Sin Yu-han, Haeyurok, pp. 318-19. 67. Kamigaito,Amenomori Hoshii., pp. 15-16. Hakuseki wrote in "Oritaku shiba ni ki" about his grandfather who received a set of carved chopsticks as a reward for his meritorious deeds in the battle and who treasured them for the rest of his life. Hakuseki' s father is also described as having an unyielding bushi spirit and manners. See, "Oritaku shiba ni ki," inAHZ, 3:3-14, et passim. 68. Matsudaira Sadanobu, "Uge no hitogoto," in Nihonjin no jiden, 23 vols. and 2 supple. vols. (Heibonsha, 1980-1982), supple. vol. I, pp. 291-2. 69. Nakai Chikuzan, "Sooo kigen" kan 4, in Nihon keizai taiten, Takimoto Seiichi, ed., 54 vols., (Keimeisha, 1928-1930), 23:420. 70. Hakuseki presented his paper on the diplomacy of Korea just before leaving office. In this statement, he expressed the view that one-way traffic of the envoys was unreasonable. See Arai Hakuseki, "Chosen heishi kogi," in AHZ, 4:682. See also Toby, State and Diplomacy, p. 42. 71. See, Miyazaki, Arai Hakuseki no kenkyu, Part 2, Chapter 1, "Seiyo kibun no seiritsu" and Chapter 2, "Sairai igen no seiritsu." 72. Sugita Genpaku, Ogata Tomio, recension and annotation, Rangaku kotohajime, (lwanami Shoten, 1959), pp. 156-8; "Rangaku kotohajime saihan no jo," in Fukuzawa Yukichi zenshu, 19:769-71. 73. Yi Chin-hiii, Edo jidai no Chosen tsushinshi, p. 274. 74. Sin Yu-han, Haeyurok, p. 246. 75. Yi, Edo jidai no Chosen tsushinshi, p. 274. Tokugawa Japan also witnessed censorship for heterodox ideology such as the 1630s policy banning books on Christianity, and Matsudaira Sadanobu's "Ban on Heterodoxy" in 1790. However, the severity of censorship was much more lenient than in Korea. 76. Sin Yu-han, Haeyurok, pp. 120-2. Yi, Edo jidai no Chosen tsushinshi, pp. 297-300. 77. Sin Yu-han, llbonmungyon chamnok, pp. 297-300. 78. Kang Jae-eun, Chosen kindaishi kenkyu (Nihon Hyoronsha, 1970), pp. 1-2; ChOsen no kaika shiso, p. 49. 79. Pak Ch'ung-sok, "Richo koki ni okeru seiji shiso no tenkai- tokuni kinsei jitsugakuha no shii hobo o chiishin ni," Kokka gakkai zasshi, kan 88, I I, I2 (1975): 632. 80. For the four stages ofthe fomation and the development of "Practical Learning," see Kang Jae-eun, Chosen no kaika shiso, pp. 44-5. However, according to Ch'on Kwan-u, the development of"Practical Learning" is divided into three 272 Diplomacy and Ideology in Japanese-Korean Relations

periods; the Preparation Period, 1550-1650; the Development Period, 1650-1750; the Flourishing Period, 1750-1850. See, Ch' on Kwan-u, Tanaka Akira, trans., Kankoku shi eno shin shiten (Gakuseisha, 1976), pp. 74-6; Han'guksa ui chaepalgyon (Seoul: Ilchokak, 1974), pp. 96-185; Michael C. Kalton, "An Introduction to Silhak," Korea Journal, 15, no. 5 (May 1975): 31-3. Kang argues that from 1801 (a dissolution period of "Practical Learning" and a preparation period of the "Enlightenment thought" (kaehwa sasang*, kaika shiso) at the beginning of the nineteenth century) "Practical Learning" declined due to the severe suppression of Western learning, and he hypothesises that if "Practical Learning " had kept flourishing until the middle of the nineteenth century, Korea's reaction to the Western impact would have been largely different. See, Kang, Chosen no kaika shiso, p. 65. 81. Michael C. Kalton, "An Introduction to Silhak," 33. 82. Han Woo-gun, Yijo hugi ui sahoe wa sasang (Seoul: Uryu Munhwasa,l961), pp. 145-6. 83. Kang,Chosen no kaika shiso, p. 47. 84. M. S. Seoh, "Yi Ik ( 1682-1763): An Eighteenth-Century Korean Intellectual," Journal of Korean Studies, vol. I, pt. 1 (July/December 1969): 14. 85. See Ha U-bong, Choson hugi sirhakcha ui llbongwan yon'gu (Seoul: Iljisa, 1989), pp. 55-93. 86. Yi Ik, "IIbon ch'ungui," in Songho-Saesol, 2 vols. (Seoul: Kyonghui Ch'ulp'ansa, 1967), vol. 1, 3, "Insamun," p. 602. 87. Yi Ik, "Piye oejok," in Songho-Saesol, vol. 1, 3, "Insamun," pp. 360-1; Ha, Choson hugi sirhakcha , pp. 83-4. 88. Ha, Choson hugi sirhakcha , p. 55. 89. Arai Hakuseki, "Kokan hitsudan," in AHZ, 4:725-31. 90. Sin Yu-han, Haeyurok, p. 305; Kang Jae-eun, "Chosen tsiishinshi to Tomono ura," in Edo jidai no Chosen tsushinshi, pp. 108-10. 91. An Chong-bok, "Sanghon sup'il, Ilbon hakcha," in Sunam sonsaeng munjip, vol. 13. Ha, Choson hugi sirhakcha, pp. 129-31; Kang, "Chosen tsiishinshi to Tomono ura," p. 102. 92. An Chong-bok, "Sanghon sup'il, Ilbon hakcha,"; Ha, Choson hugi sirhakcha, p. 132. 93. Michael C. Kalton, "ChOng Tasan' s Philosophy of Man: A Radical Critique of the Neo-Confucian World View," Journal ofKorean Studies, no. 3 ( 1981 ): 3. 94. Chong Ta-san, "Simunjip," in Yoyudang chOnso , 20 vols., (Seoul: Yogang Ch'ulp'ansa, 1985), no. 1, vol. 12, 2:280-2; Ha, Choson hugi sirhakcha, p. 202; Imamura Yoshio, "Chong Yag-yong to Nihon no jusha," Sanzenri, no. 16 (Winter 1978): 86-94. Ha and Imamura point out that many works of Jinsai, Sorai and Shundai were referred to in Ta-san's Nona kogumju. 95. Ha, Choson hugi sirhakcha, pp. 230-2. However, Imamura Yoshio has observed that Chong included two quotations from Jinsai's Rongo kogi, 41 quotations from Sorai's Rongo cho and 98 quotations from Shundai's Rongo kokun gaiden and Ron go kokun. See, Imamura, "Chong Yag-yon to Nihon no jusha," 89. Ha argues that this difference arises from Imamura's incorrect comparison of their works. 96. Imamura, "Chong Yag-yon to Nihon no jusha,": 89-93. Imamura analyses Ta• san' s interpretation of these Confucianists. Notes 273

97. Chong Ta-san,"Simunjip," no. 1, so, 10, in Yoyudang chOnso, quoted in Imamura, "Chong Yag-yon to Nihon to jusha," 93. 98. Imamura, "Chong Yag-yon to Nihon no jusha," 93. 99. Chong Ta-san, "Ilbonron 1," in "Simunjip," no. I, vol. 12, in Yoyudang chOnso, 2:280-2. Ha U-bong also cited this source as Ta-san's important recognition of Japanese Confucianists. See, Ha, Chason hugi sirhakcha, p. 221. 100. Ibid., "Ilbonron 2," 2:282-3; Ha, Chason hugi sirhakcha, pp. 202-3. 101. Kang, Genkainada ni kaketa rekishi, pp. 147-8. 102. Kang Jae-eun, "Chosenjitsugaku ni okeru hokugaku shiso-kindai kaika shiso no hoga," Shiso, (December 1969): 55; Chosen no kaika shiso, p. 58. 103. An Pyon-t'ae, Chapter 2 in Chosen shakai no kozo to Nihon teikoku shugi, (Ryiikei Shosha, 1977). 104. Yi Sang-baek, Han'guksa, 4:5(r62. Lee Ki-baek, A New History of Korea, p. 223. 105. Kang "Chosenjitsugaku ni okeru hokugaku shiso," p. 79. 106. Hae-jong Chun, "Sino-Korean Tributary Relations in the Ch'ing Period," in J. K. Fairbank, ed., The Chinese World Order, p. 91. I 07. Fujitsuka Chikashi, Fujitsuka Akinao, ed., ShinchO bunka toden no kenkyu - Kakei Doko gakudan to Richo no Kin Gendo (Kokusho Kankokai, I 975), pp. 6-8. 108. Ibid., p. 802; Yongjo taewang sillok, kwon 54:20a, in CWS, 43:32. 109. Kang, "Chosenjitsugaku ni okeru hokugaku shiso," 59-60. II 0. Pak Chi-won, Yorha ilgi, 2 vols. Imamura Yoshio, trans., (Heibonsha, 1978), 1:167-70. Ill. Pak Che-ga, "Pukhakui," in Yi Sok-ho, ed., Han'guk myonjo taejonjip (Seoul: Taeyang Sojok, 1972), pp. 281-3. 112. Mateo Ricci, "Chiigoku Kirisutokyo fukyoshi 1," in Kawana Kohei, trans. and Yazawa Toshihiko, annotated, DaikOkaijidai sosha, (lwanami Shoten, 1982), 24 vols., pt. 2, 8:618. 113. Hong Tae-yong, "Yon'gi- Yup'omundap," in TamhOnso, 2 vols. (Seoul: Kyon'gin Munhwasa, 1969), oejip kwon 7, 2:269-81. Ch'on Kwan-u, Kunse Chosonsa yon'gu (Seoul: Ilchokak, 1979), pp. 367-78. Kang, "Chosen jitsugaku ni okeru hokugaku shiso," 61. 114. Kang, Chosen no kaika shiso, p. 81. 115. Pak Che-ga, "Tonggangnam Cholgang sangbakui," in "Pukhakui oebyon," in Han'guk myonjo taejonjip, p. 398. I 16. Ibid., p. 397. 117. Idem., "Pukhakui, naebyon, pae," in Han' guk myonjo taejonjip, pp. 302-4. 118. Idem., "Pyong'o sohoe" in Pukhakui, Yi lk-song, trans. (Seoul: Uryu Munhwasa, 1971), pp. 221-2. 119. Chong Ta-san, "Kiunnon 3," in "Simunjip," vol. 11 in Yoyudang chOnso, 2:224-5. 120. Fujitsuka Chikashi, Shincho bunka toden no kenkyii, p. 8. 121. NKSK, 3:346. 122. Fujitsuka, Shincho bunka toden no kenkyu, pp. 136-44. 123. Yi Won-sik, "Chosen Junso shinmi Tsushima no honichi ni tsuite-Tsushima ni okeru Nikkan bunka koryii o chiishin ni," Chosen gakuho, 72 (1974): 42-43. 274 Diplomacy and Ideology in Japanese-Korean Relations

124. Arano Yasunori, "Chosen tsiishinshi no shiimatsu," Rekishi hyoron, 355, (November 1979): 73. 125. Kasuya Ken'ichi, "Naze Chosen tsiishinshi wa haishi saretaka," Rekishi hyoron, 355, (November 1979): II, 15, 17.

CONCLUSION

1. Morgenthau, Politics among Nations, pp. 92-103. 2. Walker, "The Yi-Ming Rapprochement: Sino-Korean Foreign Relations, 1392-1592," p. 51. Walker argues that mythological factors have been neglected in history and Korea's "the Tan' gun myth" had a significant influence on the people. 3. Gramsci, Selections from the Prison Notebooks, Quintin Hoare and Geoffrey Nowell Smith, eds. and trans. (N.Y.: International Publishers, 1971), pp. 5-8. 4. Almond and Vema, eds., The Civic Culture Revisited (Calif.: Sage Publications, Inc., 1989), p. 29. 5. Hwang Sin, "Kyorin kihaeng- Ilbon wanghwan ilgi," Seikyu gakuso, no. 11, pp. 25, 27. 6. Cho Myong-byon, "Pongsa Ilbon simungyonnok," in Haehaeng ch'ongjae, 10:58-60. 7. Nakai, Shogunal Politics, p. 346. 8. Sato Nobuhiro, Maebo Hiroshi, recension and annotation, "Kondo hisaku," in Ando Shoeki /Sato Nobuhiro, Nihon shiso taikei, vol. 45, p. 426. 9. Aizawa Seishisai, Shinron, in Imai Usaburo, et al., eds, Mitogaku, Nihon Shiso Taikei, vol. 53, p. 50. Toby also found that in Shinron Aizawa aimed to centralise Japan in the same manner which TokugawaJapan strived. Toby, State and Diplomacy, p. 244. 10. This discussion of ideology and movement of wijong ch'oksa came from Kang Jae-eun," Yi Hang-no ni okeru eisei sekija shiso- Western impact to sakoku joi no ronri," in Iinuma Jiro and Kang Jae-eun, eds., Kindai ChOsen no shakai to shiso (Miraisha, 1981), pp. 37-66; ChOsen kindaishi kenkyu, pp. 308-18. 11. Yi Hang-no, Hwasojip, kwon 3, quoted in Kang, "Yi Hang-no ni okeru eisei sekija shiso," p. 61. . 12. Lee, A New History of Korea, p. 271; Kang, Chosen kindaishi kenkyu, pp. 315-16. Appendices

APPENDIX 1. KOREAN EMBASSIES TO THE MUROMACHI BAKUFU AND HIDEYOSHI

Year Shogun Korean King Ambassador Purpose of Embassy

1398 Yoshimochi T'aejo Pak Tong-chi Response envoys, suppression of wako 1404 Yoshimochi T'aejong Yo ui-gye Response envoys 1406 Yoshimochi T'aejong Yun Myong Response envoys 1410 Yoshimochi T'aejong YangYu Response envoys, condolences on the death of Yoshimitsu 1420 Yoshimochi Sejong Song Hui-gyong Response envoys 1423 Yoshikazu Sejong Pak Hui-chung Response envoys 1424 Yoshikazu Sejong Pak An-sin Response envoys 1428 Yoshinori Sejong Pak So-saeng Condolences on the death of Yoshimochi, congratulations on the succession of Y oshinori 1432 Yoshinori Sejong YiYe Response envoys 1439 Yoshinori Sejong Ko Tuk-chong Neighbourly relations, suppression of wako 1443 Yoshimasa Sejong Pyon Hyo-mun Condolences on the death of Yoshinori, Congratulations on the succession of Yoshikatsu 1590 Hideyoshi Sonjo Hwang Yun-gil Congratulations on the unification of Hideyoshi

Compiled from Nakao Hiroshi, "'lnryoken nichiroku' ni miru 'Korai' kiji to 'Nihon koku o shi' no seikaku," Kyoto Geijutsu Tanki Daigaku kiyo, Uryu, no. 15 (1992):14 and "Chosen tsushinshi to Kyo Omi" in Nihon to Chosen no nisennen, p. 140. Note: the embassies which arrived in Kyoto, which met a shipwreck on the way were omitted. For Korean embassies to the Tokugawa Bakufu, see Ronald P. Toby, State and Diplomacy in Early Modern Japan: Asia in the Development of the Tokugawa Bakufu, pp. 36-7 and Miyake Hidetoshi, Kinsei Ajia no Nihon to Chosen hanto, pp. 261-2.

275 276 Diplomacy and Ideology in Japanese-Korean Relations

APPENDIX 2. KOREAN ENVOYS TO TSUSHIMA DURING THE MUROMACHI PERIOD

Korean king Years of reign Number of enyoys

T'aejo 7 7 Chongjong 2 1 T'aejong 18 19 Sejong 32 16 Munjong 2 Tanjong 3 4 Sejo 14 4 Yejong 1 Songjong 25 5 Yonsan'gun 12 1 Chungjong 39 1 Injong I Myongjong 22 I Sonjo 22 1 Total 200 62

Compiled from Yi Hyon-jong, Clwson chOngi taeil kyosopsa yon'gu, p. 3I2. The years of Sonjo is before the invasions of Korea by Hideyoshi.

APPENDIX 3. THE DIPLOMATIC TITLES OF THE MUROMACHI SHOGUNS TO KOREA

shogunal title era name (year) sources (year)

Nihonkoku Minamoto Yoshimochi T'aejong kwon 2I, II (14I1) Nihonkoku Minamoto Yoshimochi Japanese era name Sejong kwon 6 , 1 (l4I9) Nihonkoku Minamoto Yoshimochi Oei 29 (1422) Zenrin vol. 2 Nihonkoku Dosen Oei 30 (1423) Zenrin vol. 2. · Nihonkoku ho SanbOdeshi Dosen Sejong kwon 22 , 5 (I423) Nihonkoku Dosen Oei 31 (1424) Zenrin vol. 2, Sejong kwon 26,6 (1424) Nihonkoku Dosen Sejong 28, 7 (1425) Nihonkoku Dosen Oei (I428) Zenrin vol. 2. Nihonkoku Minamoto Yoshinori Ryoshii (1440) Zenrin vol. 2. Nihonkoku o Minamoto Yoshinari Cheng-t'ung (I447) Sejong kwon 120, 30 (I448) Nihonkoku Minamoto Yoshinari Sejong kwon I27, 32 (I450) Nihonkoku Minamoto Yoshimasa Sejo kwon 3, 2 (1456) Appendices 277

Nihonkoku Minamoto Yoshimasa Zenrin vol. 2 (1456) Nihonkoku Minamoto Yoshimasa Zenrin vol. 2 ( 1456) Nihonkoku Minamoto Yoshimasa Ryoshii (1466) Zenrin vol. 2. Nihonkoku Minamoto Yoshimasa Ryoshii (1470) Zenrin vol. 2. Nihonkoku Minamoto Yoshimasa Ryoshii (1472) Zenrin vol. 2. Nihonkoku Minamoto Yoshimasa Ryoshii (1474) Zenrin vol. 2. Nihonkoku o Minamoto Yoshimasa Songjong kwon 140, 13 (1482) Nihonkoku Jusangii Dokei Ryoshii (1486) Zenrin vol. 3. Nihonkoku Minamoto Yoshitaka Yonsan'gun kwon, 21, 3 (1497) Nihonkoku Minamoto Yoshitaka Meio, 8 (1499) Zoku Zenrin, Kanrin. Nihonkoku o Minamoto Yoshizumi Ryoshii (1503) Zoku Zenrin Nihonkoku Minamoto Yoshizumi Ryoshii (1503) Kanrin Nihonkoku Minamoto Yoshiharu Chungjong kwon 48, 18 (1523) Nihonkoku o Minamoto Yoshiharu Tenbun 1 (1542) Ikoku shukkei

Compiled from Takahashi Kimiaki, "Gaiko shogo Nihonkoku Minamoto bo," Nagoya Daigaku Bungakubu kenkyu ronshU, shigaku 38 (1992): 248. Note: T' aejong-T'aejong taewang sillok, as follows. Zenrin-Zenrin kokuhoki. Zoku Zenrin-Zoku Zenrin kokuhoki. Kanrin-Kanrin koro shu. Cheng-t'ung is the Ming era name. Ryoshii (the name of the star signifying the year), otherwise the Japanese era names were used.

APPENDIX 4. THE DIPLOMATIC TITLES OF IEYASU, HIDETADA ANDIEMITSU

Self-Professed Title Era Name (Year) Addressed Country Nihonkoku Minamoto leyasu Ryoshii (1599) Patanni (present• day southern part of Thailand) Nihonkoku Minamoto Ieyasu Keicho 6 (1601) Luzon Nihonkoku Minamoto leyasu Keicho 6 (1601) Annam Nihonkoku Minamoto leyasu Keicho 7 (1602) Patani Nihonkoku Minamoto leyasu Keicho 7 (1602) Luzon Nihonkoku Minamoto Ieyasu Keicho 7 (1602) Luzon Nihonkoku Minamoto Ieyasu Keicho 7 (1602) Annam Nihonkoku Minamoto Ieyasu Keicho 8 (1603) Kampuchea (Cambodia) Nihonkoku Dainagon Minamoto Hidetada Keicho 8 (1603) Luzon Nihonkoku Minamoto Ieyasu Keicho 8 (1603) Annam Nihonkoku Minamoto leyasu Keicho 8 (1603) Kampuchea Nihonkoku Daishogun Minamoto Ieyasu Keicho 9 (1604) Annam Nihonkoku Jiiichii Minamoto Ieyasu Keicho 10 (1605) Annam Nihonkoku Minamoto Ieyasu Keicho 10 (1605) Kampuchea Nihonkoku Minamoto Ieyasu Keicho 10 (1605) Kampuchea Nihonkoku Minamoto leyasu Keicho 11 (1606) Kampuchea 278 Diplomacy and Ideology in Japanese-Korean Relations

Nihonkoku Minarnoto leyasu Keicho 11 (1606) Kampuchea Nihonkoku Minamoto leyasu Keicho 11 (1606) Patani Nihonkoku Minamoto leyasu Keicho 11 (1606) Champa Nihonkoku Minamoto Ieyasu Keicho 11 (1606) Annam Nihonkoku Minamoto Ieyasu Keicho 11 (1606) Siam Nihonkoku Minamoto Ieyasu Keicho 11 (1606) Dendan Nihonkoku Seii taishogun Minamoto Hidetada Keicho 12 (1607) Luzon Nihonkoku Minamoto Hidetada Ryoshii (1607) Korea Nihonkoku Minamoto Ieyasu Keicho 13 (1608) Luzon Nihonkoku Minamoto Ieyasu Keicho 13 (1608) Luzon Nihonkoku Minamoto Ieyasu Keicho 13 (1608) Kampuchea Nihonkoku Seii taishogun Hidetada Keicho (1608) Luzon Nihonkoku Minamoto Ieyasu Keicho 13 (1608) Luzon Nihonkoku Minamoto Ieyasu Keicho 13 (1608) Kampuchea Nihonkoku Seii taishogun Hidetada Keicho (1608) Luzon Nihonkoku Minamoto Ieyasu Keicho 13 (1608) Luzon Nihonkoku Minamoto Ieyasu Keicho 13 (1608) Kampuchea Nihonkoku Seii taishogun Hidetada Keicho (1608) Luzon Nihonkoku Minamoto leyasu Keicho 13 (1608) Luzon Nihonkoku Minamoto Ieyasu Keicho 13 (1608) Kampuchea Nihonkoku Minamoto leyasu Keicho 13 (1608) Kampuchea Nihonkoku Minamoto Ieyasu Keicho (1609) Luzon Ninonkokushu Minamoto leyasu Keicho 14 (1609) Holland Nihonkoku Minamoto Ieyasu Ryoshii 14 (1609) Luzon Nihonkoku Seii taishogun Hidetada Keicho 15 (1610) Spain Nihonkoku Minamoto Ieyasu Keicho 15 (1610) Siam Nihonkoku Minamoto leyasu Ryoshii (1610) Kampuchea Nihonkoku Minamoto leyasu Keicho 16 (1611) Luzon Nihonkoku Minamoto leyasu Keicho 17 (1612) Nueva Espana (Mexico) Nihonkoku Seii tashogun Hidetada Keicho 17 (1612) Nueva Espana Nihonkoku Seii taishogun Hidetada Keicho 17 (1612) Goa Nihonkoku Minamoto Ieyasu Keicho 17 (1612) Goa Nihonkoku Minamoto Ieyasu Keicho 17 (1612) Luzon Nihonkoku Minamoto Ieyasu Keicho 17 (1612) Holland Nihonkoku Minamoto leyasu Keicho 18 (1613) England Nihonkoku Minamoto Ieyasu Keicho 18 (1613) Luzon Nihonkoku Minamoto Ieyasu Ryoshii (1617) Korea Nihonkoku Minamoto Hidetada Genwa 7 (1621) Siam Nihonkoku Minamoto Hidetada Genwa 9 (1623) Siam Nihonkoku Minamoto Iemitsu Ryoshii (1624) Korea Nihonkoku Minamoto lemitsu Kan'ei 2 (1625) Annam Nihonkoku Minamoto Iemitsu Kan'ei 6 (1629) Siam Nihonkoku Minamoto Iemitsu Kan'ei 13 (1636) Korea

Compiled from Takahashi Kimiaki, "Gaiko shogo Nihonkoku Minamoto bo," Nagoya Daigaku Bungakubu kenkyii ronshii, shigaku 38 (1992): 249-51. Note: The letter of Iemitsu in Kan'ei 2 (1625) to Annam was not dispatched. Bibliography

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Abahai, 177, 184 on sakoku, 7, Abe Yoshio on definition of ka-i, 240n on Japanese invasions of 1592 and 1597, on establishment of "Great Prince," 157 108-9 Articles of 1512~79, 83 Aizawa Seishisai Articles of 1609,69, 122, 145-6 Shinron (New Thesis), 228 Asai Nagamasa, 209 Ajiki (Achiki), 127 Asano Nagamasa, 89 Akamatsu Hiromichi, 113, 120 Asao Naohiro Akamatsu Mitsusuke, 21, 48, 72 on sakoku, 6 Akechi Mitsuhide, 87 on Tokugawa shoguns, 136 Almond, Gabriel, A. Ashikaga bakufu, 3 on civic culture, II 0, 225 missions to China, 32-3 Amaterasu omikami, see Sun Goddess missions to Korea, 34-5,60 Amenomori Hoshii, 56, 105,221 see also "King of Japan," envoys of as Neo-Confucian scholar, 207 Ashikaga Mochiuji, 48 diplomacy and thought of, 209-10 Ashikaga shogunate on imperial institution, 206-9 political and economic power, 21-2 on national polity, 206-9 Ashikaga Takauji, 21 refutation of "King of Japan," 205-7 Ashikaga Yoshiaki, 21, 104 theory of royalism, 207 Ashikaga Yoshiakira Amino Yoshihiko, 2 diplomatic mission from Koryo, 25 An Chong-bok Ashikaga Y oshiharu, 40 on Japanese Confucianists, 214 Ashikaga Y oshihisa, 78 An Kil-sang, 25 Ashikaga Y oshimasa, 21, 45 An Pyon-t'ae, 10 emergence of a diplomatic ideology, 35, Ankokuji Ekei, 115 47-8 Annam (Vietnam), 13, 226, 237n Higashiyama culture, 22 Anp'yong Taegun, 77 Ashikaga Y oshimi, 78 Arai Hakuseki, 74, 104-5, 121, 152, 159, Ashikaga Yoshimitsu, 21, 22, 32, 34, 37, 44, 221,224 47, 63, 85, 102, 141, 155,202-3, as pioneer of Western learning, 21 0 240n association with Korea, 201-2 acceptance of Chinese suzerainty, 3, 18, bakufu economy, 269 33-4,36,38 dispute with the Korean embassy over as buke leader, 35-6, 43-4 the posthumous title, 269n "King of Japan," 33-4, 37-8, 47 institution of "King of Japan," 198, 202, Kitayama culture, 22 204-5,207 with gozan monks, 35, see also Five on Nagasaki trade, 198 Mountains on "nine and five transformations," 205 Ashikaga Yoshimochi, 43,60 on decline of the imperial institution, foreign policy with the Ming, 38-9,41 270n letter to Korea, 39-40 on Tokugawa Confucianists, 134 Ashikaga Yoshinori, 21, 22, 45,65 on Toyotomi Hideyoshi, 84 emergence of a diplomatic ideology, 35, reforms of. 20. 195-206,208-9,221 47-8 three principles, 198-9, 202 restoration of diplomatic relations with view of Korea, 199-202 the Ming,40 see also "King of Japan" Ashikaga Yoshizumi, 40 Arano Y asunori Asuka culture, 3, 25 on hwa-i consciousness in Korea, 13 Azuma kagami, 46

299 300 Diplomacy and Ideology in Japanese-Korean Relations bakufu Chinese centrality, 8 academy, 197,216 see also Chinese world order and hua-i power of, 20 Chinese emperor, see "Son of Heaven" battle of Komaki Nagakute, I 03 Chinese suzerainty, 8 Berry, Mary E. Korea's acceptance of, 49 on Toyotomi Hideyoshi, 84 see also Chinese world order, "King of Bito Masahide Japan," "Serving the Great" on Hakuseki's "King of Japan," 202 relations on Hakuseki's Tokushi yoron, 205 Chinese World Order, 2, 8, 20, 31, 85, 87, on "revere the emperor and expel the 99,223,226 barbarians," 267n concept of, 12 Board of Rites, 59, 148 concept of Mencius, 168-9 Bonrei, 72 on four barbabrians, 187 Book of Rites, 64 see also "Son of Heaven" Boot, Willem Jan Ch'ing China, 20, 31, 49,107, 133, 136, 155, on adoption of Confucianism in Japan, 109 157,167,171,173, 18(}-94, 196,200, Board of War, 117 211-12,214,217,229 Border Defence Council, 114, 135, 175, 178 Chingbirok, 249n Boulding, Kenneth E. see also Yu Song-nyong on three types of power, 105 Chiphyonjon (Jade Hall, Palace of Boxer, C. R., 6 Scholars), 63-4 Buddhism, 14, 126-7, 130, 132, 151, 160 Cho Kyong, 184, 214 Fujiwara Seika, 109 Cho Myong-byon on view of Japan' military strength, 225 introduction to Japan, 3 Cho Tae-ok, 152 Korea's denunciation of Buddhism, 129 Ch'oe lk-hyon, 228-9 Koryo Korea's, 52, 128-31 Ch'oe Myong-gil Sejo' s faith, 77 on kyorin diplomacy, 183 subversive influence of, 132 Choi Suk "Theory of the Three Kingdoms," 46 on proclamation of crown prince, 172-3 buke diplomacy, see warrior diplomacy Ch'on Kwan-u buke gaikii, see warrior diplomacy on development of "Practical Learning," bukeleaders, 15,36,47, 100,102,104-5 271-2n use the authority of the imperial court, 44 Chong Hui-duk, 107 buke polity, 48, 99, 101, 195,221 see also Wolbong haesangnok Bukii yawa-Maenoke monjo, 86 ChOng In-hong, 172 bun'in, 67, 69, 146, 244n Chong Mong-ju, 25 bushi, 14,210, 225 ChOng To-jon, 54 bushido, 163 ChOng Yag-yong (Ta-san), 195,213 Butoku ron, 208 on Japanese Confucianists, 214-16 on trade with the Ch'ing, 219 Cha'ae Che-gong, 216 Chongjo King, 213,216-17 Chamen, 219 Chongwongun Prince, 172, 177 Cheju Island (T'arnna), 23, 42, 189 see also lnjo King Cheng Ch'eng-kung (Koxinga), 185 ChOphae sino, 56, 242-3n Ch'eng-tsu Emperor, 39 Ch'oryan waegwan, 195 Ch'eng-tzu, 228 see also Japan House Ch'ien-lung Emperor, 217,220,227 "chosen people" (senmin), 17 Chin, 191 Chosen tsuko taiki, 143 invasions of, 167 ChOsen tsU.rhinshi, see embassies, Ch'in t'ien chien, 218 Choson Korea, 34-5, 54, 70, 106, 110, Chin Uiro, 62 13(}-1, 173,176,192,224 China establishment of, 49-50 in the Tokugawa diplomatic order, 15(}-2 defeat by the Ch'ing, 167 see also Ch'ing China and Ming China see also Yi Songye Index 301

Choson kyongguk chOn (Administrative Conroy, Hilary Code of Choson), 54 on Japan's expansionism, 85 Chason t' ongsinsa, see embassies, cotton,71,221 Chason wangjo sillok, 61, 66, 79, 195 cultivation of, in Japan and Korea, 71-2 Christianity, 6, 132 Christians daijo tenno (abdicated emperor), 38 Chinese Christians to Korea, 188 dajodaijin, 36 edict of 1639, 195 Daijosai, 209 expulsion of, 96-7, 151, 158-9 Daizokyo, see Tripitaka Koreana Korean captives, 107 Datsu a nyu o, I, 125 Chu Hsi see also Fukuzawa Yukichi li ch'i theory, 111, 126 Datsu a ron, 1 nationalism, 129, 191-2, 228 Dazai Shundai, 214-15 Neo-Confucian doctrine, 126, 190 Defend Orthodoxy and Reject Heresy, 170, orthodoxy,228 191, 193, 227-9 philosophy, 129 denka, 78,92,203 sealed letters of 1162 and 1180, 191 Derian, James Der summary of, 205 on diplomacy and diplomatic culture, 16 see also Neo-Confucianism Deuchler, Martina on Confucianism, 129, 233n Chu Yiian-chang, 31-2,35,52 diplomacy on establishment of Ming China, 3~ 1 concept of, 16 on "the Record of Ancestral diplomatic culture, 16 Instructions," 31 diplomatic ideology, see hua-i, hwai, ka-i Chungjong King, 83 ideologies ChUngjong kyorinji, 195 Dogan, Mattei Chiizan King, 32 on definition of political cultrue, 110, 125 civil service examination system, 51, 64, Doi Toshikatsu, 156 117, 13~1. 133-4,211-12,215 "D0sen,"40 adoption of, in China and Korea, 133 "Dragon-Tiger General," 173 adoption of, in Japan, 134 Dutch civilised-barbarian, see hua-i, hwa-i, ka-i Protestant, 151 Clark Donald N. Dutch Learning, 6, 130, 21~11 on Ming T'ai Tsu with Korea, 50 clay images (haniwa), 3 "edict for the abrogation of piracy," 84 Cocks, Richard, 151 "Edict of Peace," 100 communication envoys, 35 Eikyo no ran (revolt of Kanto kanrei), 48 see also embassies Elison, George, 6 Confucianism, 14-15, 161,226,228 embassies during Sejong's rule, 64-5 embassy of 1590,86-94 ethics, 123, 127 embassy of 1711, 152,214,222 Fukuzawa Yukichi's criticism, 125 embassy of 1748, 225 introduction to Japan, 3, 127-8 embassy of 1811,219-21. introduction to Korea, 128 Korean embassies (missions) to Japan, 4, Max Weber's criticism, 125 7,65,71,86, 137,144-5,152, principle ofye(li, rei), 12. 13,64-5,75. 155,168,183-4,193,211,213 82,124,135,193,223 Korean embassies to Peking, 7, 18~. socialisation of, 125 193,196,217 see also Neo-Confucianism Korean embassy to Tsushima, 202, 210, Confucianists 219-21 status of, in Japan, 134 on Hakuseki's reforms, 199 "Conquer Ch'ing Argument," 171, 1~2. Ryukyuan embassies to Japan, 7 216,218,229 Emishi, see Ezo "Conquer Korea Argument," see seikan ron enlightened thought (kaehwa sasang), 221 302 Diplomacy and Ideology in Japanese-Korean Relations envoys gosanke, 199 communication, 35 Gozan, see Five Mountains reponse, 71 Gramsci, Antonio returning and repatriation, 144 on roles of intellectuals, 224 see also embassies Great Prince, 138, 154-5, 157-8, 161, 164, Erudite Examination, 133 166,203-4,209 ethnocentrism, 17, 193 diplomacy, 6, 8, 19, 106, 136, 167, 187 cultural consciousness, 8 diplomatic order, 58, 92, 105, 153 see also hua-i, hwa-i, ka-i ideologies "Greater East Asia Co-prosperity Sphere," I Ezo,42,260n Grossberg, Kenneth A. on Tokugawa diplomatic order, 150-2, on Muromachi Japan, 21,23 164 Ha U-bong factional strife, see factionalism on Korea's view of Japan, 78-79, 247n factionalism Hachiman gudokun, 42 Korean, 93, 131, 173 hado. 12,207-8 Five Mountains, 22, 26, 35, 45-{), 48, 64, Haech'arok, 93 108-9, 128, 154 see also Kim Song-il Foreign Language Institute (Sayogwon), Haedong chegukki. 30, 44, 57,73-7, 146, 55-{) 195 forgery of state letters, 138, 143-5, 154-5 Haehaeng ch 'ongjae, 61, 225 Frois, Luis Haeyurok. 13, 108,211 on Hideyoshi, 87 Hakata, 26-7, 58, 85 Fuchii, 148,220 Hakuhii culture, 25 Fujita Yiiji Han shu. 55 on ethnocentric thought, 17 hang go wae (permanent residents in Fujiwara Seika, 109-10, 115, 120, 127-8, sam'po), 68 140 hangwae(Korea's appeasement policy Confucian influence on, 19 against wako), 54 Fukko Shinto, 163 Hankanfu, 200 Fukuda Tokuzii see also Arai Hakuseki on Korean history, 9 Hanyang (Hansong), 54, 87, 121, 148-9, Fukushima Masanori, 87 178-9 Fukuzawa Yukichi Hasukinoe on Confucianism, 125-{) on Japan's defeat, 42 on Dutch Learning. 211 Hatada Takashi on Korea, 231 n on distorted view of Korean history, 9 on Western learning, I Hattori Shisii on sakoku, 6 Gaiban rsilsho, 143 Hayashi Eiki, 155 see also Kondo Morishige Hayashi family gekokujo (supplanting one's superior), 21, as shogunal political adviser, 197 78, 100, 104, 106, 115 Hayashi Jussai, 220 genji, 102 Hayashi Nobuatsu, 205,209-10 Genpei kOtetsu no shiso, 102 as "Rector of the University," 198 see also genji, heishi Hayashi Razan (Diishun), 109, 155-{), Genyii Seidii, 39 158-9,205,214,224 Gidii,46 letter to Ming China, 157-8 ginseng, 178 on Shinto, 160-1 Go-Daigo Emperor, 33 "heaven-designated" emperor, 173 on Kemmu Restoration, 37, 43, 45, 162 Heika, 78 Gojokyo no toki Mainichiki. 179 heino bunri(separation of the warrior and Goodman, Grant K. peasant classes). I 03, 117 on Dutch Learning, 6 heishi. 101-2 Index 303

Henderson, Gregory Imhaegun Prince, 172 on Korean factionalism, 93 Imna (Kaya), 10, 42 heteronomy, 8, I I, 15, 170 imperial institution (Japan's), 15, 43-4 HoSon, 89 see also Japanese emperor Holland Inaba Iwakichi on Tokugawa diplomatic order, 150-2 on Korea's surrender to the Manchus, Honda Masazumi, 156-7 263n Hong Hiii-nam, 182-3 on Kwanghaegun, 174, 264n Hong Tae-yong, 213,218 Injo King, 168, 177-80, 182-4, 189 hop'ae (identification tag) system, 173 intelligence gathering Hosa bunko, 108 Kang Hang's, 111-25 Hosokawa Katsumoto, 78 Korea's, 61, 185-6 Hsiao P'ai-ya, 51 Tokugawa bakufu's, 195 Hsiian-te Emperor, 34 Ise Masachika, 71 hua-i Ise Shinto, 45, 162 consciousness, 7, 44 Ishihara Michihiro ideology,45, 162-3,193-4,216,224 on Toyotomi Hideyoshi, 87 order, 105 Ishin Siiden, see Konchiin Siiden see also Chinese world order Iteian rinbansei, 154 Hung-wu Emperor, see Chu Yiian-chan Ito Jinsai, 214-15 hUngni waein (Japanese private traders), 55, Ito Tasaburo 57,67 on Muromachi polity, 37 hwai-i, Korea-centred, 17 itowappu system, 141 consciousness, 7, 13, 14, 149-50,229 Iwao Seiichi ideology, 11, 137, 166, 168, 171, 186, onsakoku, 6 192, 196,211,218,224 world view, 20, 227 Japan-centred ka-i ideology, order, Hwang Byung T. consciousness, see ka-i on Tokugawa Neo-Confucianism, 131 Japan House, 68, 121-2, 137, 146-8, 177-8, Hwang Sin 195,219,245n on Japanese emperors, 225 Japanese emperor, 15, 23, 42, 91, 156, 184, Hwang Yun-gil, 89 204-5 Hyojong King, 171, 184, 189-90, 229 authority, 18, 20, 48, 78, 99, 104,221, Hyonjong King, 52, 190 225,227 ideology, 41, 137-8, 193,221 ideology in Shinron, 228 definition of, 17, Ill order to subjugate rebels, 48 Hideyoshi 's, 99 symbolic Emperor system, 44 with diplomacy, 194 system,43 Ii Naotaka, 155 title of Tenno, 43 /jo chbnrang, 93 with Hideyoshi, 100-1, 102-4, 136 Iki, 78 Japanese invasions of 1592 and 1597, 103, on wako, 27 107-8, 112, 136, 138, 141, 143, 145, ikki (uprisings), 21, 86 173-4,180,212,214 ikko, 132 see also Toyotomi Hideyoshi Ilbon mungybn chamnok, 211 Japanese missions Ilbonron (Views of Japan), 214-16 to China, 3 Imagawa Ryoshun, 26, 33, 236n to Korea, 3 see also, Kyushu tandai see also embassies Imamura Yoshio Japanese revolt of 1510, 79, 82-3, 247n on Chong Yag-yon, 272n Jiji shinpo, 125 Imatani Akira Jingii Empress, 42, 63, 101, 200, 210 on buke leaders, 104 Jinno shOtoki, 45-6, 162 on Japan's imperial system, 15,43-4 see also Kitabatake Chikafusa 304 Diplomacy and Ideology in Japanese-Korean Relations

Jiroki. 42 Keiju, 72 joraku, 104 kenchi (cadastral survey), 103, 117 Jurchens, 19, 66, 78, 124 "kentai no sei," 76 see also Ch'ing China Kigai yakujo, see Kakitsu Articles Jurakudai, 85, 90 Kang Hong-nip General, 174-6 jushoku(giving a professional title), 4 K'ang-hsi Emperor, 217, 264n jushokunin, 74, 122, 146 Kanghwa Island, 177, 182, 229 see also sujik Kanghwa treaty with Japan, 229 jutosho nin, 67 kango, see tally trade kanseitei setsu, 95, 98, 250n kado nyumin. 91 kanrei, 29, 73 Kaegyong, 54 kapsin chbngbybn, I kaekwae, see sasong waein Kato Hidetoshi, 5 Kaempfer, Engelbert, 150 Kato Kiyomasa, 121 ka-i. Japan-centred, 17 Kawai Masatomo consciousness, 6, 34-5 on ink painting, 24, 235n ideology, 7, 13, 137, 153, 158, 163, 193, Kawakatsu Heita 227 on Japan's economic relations, 245n world order, 7, 14, 150 Keene, Donald, 6 kai-kin, see maritime prohibition Keitetsu Genso, 69, 88-90, 122, 140-1, Kaitai shinsho, 211 144-6, 154 Kaji Nobuyuki Kemmu shikimoku, 21 on Confucianism, 126 Kennan, George F. Kakitsu Articles, 67-8 on containment policy, 69 Kakitsu no hen, 48 Khitan kakka,92,202 invasions of, 51, 167 kampaku, 10,87,89,102-3,155 KiCh'ol,52 diplomatic order, 19, 94,98-9, 105, 153 kigai yakujo, see Kakitsu Articles see also Toyotomi Hideyoshi KihakuGenpo, 121,149,154,179 Kanenaga Prince, 32,71 kika (naturalisation), 3 Kang Hang, 19, 109, 110-25, 134-5, 137, Kim Byong-ha 140,220,225,253n on relationship between King of Korea on Saisho Shotai, 98 and Japan, 29 Kang Hong-nip General, 174 on Korea-Japan trade relations, 236n K'ang-hsi Ernepror, 185, 190-1, 196,227, Kim Cha-jom, 189 268n,269n Kim Chip, 189 Kang Jae-eun (Chae-on), 10, 13 Kim Chong-hili (Wandang), 213,220 on Neo-Confucian orthodoxy, 191 Kim Ch'ung-son, 175 on Practical Learning, 272 Kim Hyo-won, 93 Kang Kam-ch'an, 51 Kim 1gyo, 220 Kang Sa-jun, 140 Kim II Kang, Thomas H. envoys from Koryo, 25,51 on introduction of Neo-Confucianism, Kim Key-hiuk 129 on China's non-interference policy, 233n Kang U-song, 56 on Korean embassies to China, 268n Kan'in house, 202 Kim Kwang, 140, 257n Kanyangnok, 19, 109-24, 135, 252n Kim Ok-kyun, I, 231n see also Kang Hang Kim Pu-sik, 4-5 Kakitsu Articles, 67 Kim Queen (Inmok Taebi), 172, 176 Kakitsu no ran, 21 Kim Sang-hon, 188-9 kakka, 92 Kim Sok-hyon, 10 kapcha sahwa, 172 Kim Sok-pok, 114 katanagari (sword hunt), I 03, 117 Kim Song-il, 89 Kato Kiyomasa, 68, 87 on kampaku, 90-1 Index 305

Kim Ui-hwan Koryo,43,51,54,73,75,Il7, 130,156,219 on the distorted view of Korean history, demise of, 53 9 dynasty, 4, 49, 53, 76, 128 on Japan House, 258 Korybsa, 28 on Korea's culture in Tsushima, 137 Koshitsu, 200 Kim Yong Koshitsu wakumon, 200 envoys from Koryo, 25, 51 kowa, see surrendered Japanese kimi(control and restrain) relations, II Kozankoku, see Xaiwan "King of Japan," 39-40,43,48, 103, 105, Kublai Khan, 181 143-4. 154-5-156 kuge,36, 102 envoys of, 18, 23, 34, 35, 64, 71, 74, 77, authority, 78 88-9, 122, 141 diplomacy of, 25-6, 39 Wao, 43 Kumaso,42 Yoshimitsu's, 33, 38, 43,47 Kumazawa Banzan, 163, 197 see also Arai Hakuseki 's institution of kundo, I47 "King of Japan" "Kung Hsien Wang, " 38 Kinoshita Jun'an, 201, 206 Kuroda Nagamasa, 68, 121 Kita Sadakichi Kuroda Toshio on Nissen doso ron, 9 on shinkoku thought, 241 n Kitabatake Chikafusa, 45-6, 162 Kurozumi Makoto see also, Jinno shotoki on Tokugawa Confucianism, 255n Kitajima Manji Kuwahara Takeo, 5 on three categories of Hideyoshi' s kwa!/o. see civil service examination system documents, 94-7 Kwanghaegun King, 145, 172-77 Kitano Mandokoro, I 0 I on "serving the great" faith, 175 with the Ming government, 174 Kiyohara Naritada, 87 Kyogoku Masatsune, 71 Kiyu yakclw. see Articles of 1609 Kyongguk taejon (National code), 75,204 Kiyrt yakujo. see Articles of 1609 Kyongsangdo, 60 Koga Seiri, 220 kyorin, see neighbourly relations Koguryo,3,42,51, 128,170 Kyushu tandai, 26, 29, 33, 57,67 immigrants from, 24 C. Koh, H. Laws for the Imperial Houses, I 04, 136 on Korean Neo-Confucianism, I29-30 Laws for the Military Houses, 136 Kojiki. 42-3,98, 127,224 Lee Ki-baek Kojong King, 28, 52 Korea's relations with the northern kOkoku shikan, 15 barbabrians, 187 koku11aku, see National Learning on sadae diplomacy, 263n kokujin (men of the province), 104 on sadae principle, 171 Konchiin Siiden, 156, 159 legitimacy, I53 edict of the bakufu, I 51 Lewis, James B. Kondo hisaku, 228 on Japan House and Tokugawa relations Kondo Morishige, 143 with Korea, 258n Kongmin Wang King, 49,51-3 Li-chi, see Book of Rites Konishi Yukinaga, 68, 89, 121 licensed tally trade, see tally trade Korea Literati (Sadaebu), 216 a~ tributary state, 226 Liu li ch'ang, 196 intelligence-gathering, 182, 185-6 loyalists (bakumatsu samurai), 36 on Tokugawa diplomatic order, 150-2, LiiYiian 164 Ming envoy to Japan, 39, 62 Korea-centred hwa-i ideology, order, Lun-yu (Analects), 127 consciousness, see hwa-i karin. see neighbourly relations McCune, George M. Karin shuchi. 56 on early modern Korea-Japan relations, 2 306 Diplomacy and Ideology in Japanese-Korean Relations

Maeda Toshiie, 138 Miyake Kanran, 152 Malacca Miyazaki Michio occupation of, 80 on Arai Hakuseki, 199 Manabe Akifusa, 197 Mongol's invasions Manchu invasions of 1627 and 1636, 118, to China, 167, 192 170,177-80,189,211-12 to Japan, 41, 162, 181 see also Manchus see also Yiian dynasty Manchus, 174-7, 179, 196 Morgenthau, Hans J. Mannheim, Karl on balance of power in the Chinese on theory of ideology, 17 world order, 169 Mansenshi, 9 on politics and power, 223 maritime prohibition, 7, 31-2, 83, 183 Mori Terumoto, 119 Matsudaira Nobutsuna, 155 Motoda Eifu, 112 Matsudaira Sadanobu, 210 munin, see bun'in Matsuzaki Kendo, 220 Munjong King, 73 Marxist Murai Shosuke, on theory of ideology, 17 onwak0,28-9,236n Matsumae domain, 151, 164 Murata Juko, 85 Matsumoto Seicho Muro Kyiiso, 152, 197 on Japanese emperor, 15 Muromachi Matsuura, 78 cultures, 22 on wako. 27 diplomacy and ideology, 41 Matsuura Kasho, 205 kingly power, 22, 136 Meiji Restoration, 41, 43, 149-50 shoguns, 18 Meitoku no ran, 36 see also Ashikaga bakufu, Ashikaga Mencius, 228 shogunate Metallurgical technology, Korean, 84 Miki Seiichiro Nabeshima Naoshige, 87 on Hideyoshi's shinkoku thought, 99 Naeip'o, 57, 68, 70, 79 on kampaku diplomatic order, 92 Nagasaki, 149-50, 184, 186, 227 Military Examination, 133 at Dejima, 147 Mimana Nihon fu, lO Hakuseki' s edict, 198 Minamoto Yoritomo, 124 in Tokugawa diplomatic order, 151 Ming China, 31,34-5,49-50,80,88,92, intelligence gatherings in, 195 107, 110, 122, 136, 139, 153, 156, naval technology, 259n 157, 167-8. 173-4, 176-7, 180, 182, on Sirhak scholars' view, 219 187, 190, 194, 196 trade in, 6, emperors' demand from Korea, 242n Naito Konan letter to Japan, 141 on Korea, 5 trade,37 Nakai Chuikuzan, 210 with Hideyoshi, 88, 91,97-8 Nakai, Kate Wildman see also Sino-Japanese relations on Hakuseki's "King of Japan," 202-3 Ming loyalist movement, 181, 185 on Razan's Confucianism, 26ln Mishina Akihide on Tokugawa bakuhan system, 226 on Korean history, 9-10 on Tokugawa Confucianism, 15 Mito Nakamura Hidetaka discourse, 229 on concept of the Chinese world order, 12 ideologues, 193 on Hakuseki's Confucian ideas, 204 MiuraKunio on Japanese-Korean relations, 4, 7, 8 on Song Si-yol, 267n on Korea's demand for Japan, 143 Miyake Hidetoshi on Sirhak scholars, 195-6 on Korean diplomacy, 4 on Taikun diplomatic order, 8, 156-7 on Korea's diplomatic attitudes toward on twelve conditions of the Ch'ing Japan, 142 emperor, 265n Index 307

Nakane Chie Noh Hee-bang comparative analysis of Asian societies, on Choson's communication systems, 14 186 Nakao Hiroshi Northern Learning, 191,212-13,217-19 on distorted Japanese view of Korea, 4 Nosongdang //bon haengnok, 61 Namban, 124 see also Song Hi\i-gyong Nambokucho, see Southern and Northern Nurhachi, 136, 171, 173, 177 Courts Namhan-san, 182 Oda Nobunaga, 21, 36, 78, 84-5, 87, 100, National Learning, 130,210,216,228 102--4,132,209 national seclusion, see sakoku Oda Nobuo, 103 Nationalism, 226 odo, 12. 207-8 see also hua-i, hwai, ka-i ideologies oe i ki mi. 55, 73-6, 80, 83, 146 neighbourly relations, 73 see also wai i chi mi diplomacy, II, 28-30, 38,49-50,56,59, Oei no ran, 36 61,65, 75-6,80,92,135,167-71, Ogasawara Tadakata, 220 176, 182 Ogimachi Tenno, 104 on Tokugawa "goodwill and Ogiwara Shigehide, 197-8, 268n neighbourliness," 138 Ogyii Sorai, 197,214--15 nenrei hassiishi, 147 Old Doctrine (Naron) faction, 212,217 Neo-Confucianism, 53, 108-9, 127-8, Omi province, 209-1 0 130-4, 160, 163, 191-3,212,217,224 Onin War, 21, 48, 68, 78,85-6 adoption in early Choson, 76 Ooms, Herman, 160 adoption in Japan, 127-8 on Tokugawa Neo-Confucianism, 132 Opium War, 8 adoption in Korea, 128-9 Orandafosetsusho, 195 comparisons in Japan and Korea, orangkae, 50, 180, 187 129-32, 134 Oritaku shibano ki, 200, 271n in politics, 222 Osa Masanori Tokugawa, 130, 132 on "period of record," 195 see also Confucianism Ouchi Yoshihiro, 26, 27, 36 nichirin no ko (Child of the Sun), 95, 99 on Korean trade, 34 Nicolson, Harold Ouchi Yoshitaka, 72, 227 on diplomacy, 16 Ozu, 112-14 Nihon gaishi. 228 "Nihonju sango," 33 Paekche,3, 10,42,127-8,170 "Nihon koku denka," 48 immigrants from, 24 "Nilwn koku kampaku," 203 Pak Che-ga, 195,213, 218-19 "Nihon koku Minamoto," 40, 48, 63, 102, PakChi-won, 13,195,213,218 143,155,166,203,205,207,209, Pak Chung-sok 221, 270n on "serving the great" principle, 170--1 Yoshimochi's 39--40 Pak Myongbu, 155 Nilwn koku o, see "King of Japan" Pak Si-hyong, 77 "Nihon koku o Minamoto no dogi," 34 Pak So-saeng, 72 "Nihon koku o shin Minamoto," 33 Pak Tae-gi\n, 145 "Nihon koku shu," 143, 156--8 Pak Tong-chi, 34-5 "Nihon koku Taikun," see Great Prince Pak Yong-hyo, 231n Nilwn shoki. 5, 42-3, 98, 127, 224 Palman Taejang, 52 Nikko Toshogii (Shrine), 162-3, 183--4 Parhae, 51 Ning-po Japan's relations with, 25, 235n revolt at, 80 peasant uprisings, 86 Nishijima Sadao see also ikki on Japanese history, 2 Pelassy, Dominique Nissen dc)soron, 9 on definition of political culture, II 0. "Nissen ryominzoku dogenron," 9 125 308 Diplomacy and Ideology in Japanese-Korean Relations

Perry roju. 179, 197, 199,209 arrival in 1853, 220 Ricci, Matteo, 188,218 Philippines, 94, 96 ritsuryo system, 14,42-3,98, 23In "piao," 32 legal code, 3 Pibyonsa, see Border Defence Council Ruiju kokushi, 46 Pibyonsa tungnok, 114, 195 ryoshu, 40, 62 Pinguet, Maurice Ryukyu, 13,23,66, 78,94,96,219,226 on Japanese culture, 123 annexation of, 3, 182 pirates, see wako embassy to Edo, 184 "policy of equality," 216 on Tokugawa diplomatic order, 150-2, political culture 164 definition of, II O-Il on trade, 27, 31-2 Pongnim Prince, 189 unification of, 30 Portugal on Hideyoshi's letter, 96-97 sadae, see "serving the great" relations Practical Learning, 20, 130, 191, 195-6, sadae-kyorin diplomacy, 30, 167-71 211-22,225,229 see also neighbourly relations, "serving on development of, 271-2n the great" relations private academies, 216 saikensen, 122, 146 Pukhak, see Northern Learning Sairai igen, 211 PukhakUi, 218 Saisho Shotai, 97-8, 115 Pukin (North Men) faction, 172 sakaya-doso (sake breweries-money Pusan, 120, 145, 147-9 lenders), 22 Pusanp'o,57,68, 70,79 sakoku, 1,5, 7, 15,137,149-50,227 Pyon Hyo-mum, 73 misleading image of, 6 Pyon Hyop, 88 "Sakoku sei no seiritsu," 6 Samguk sagi, 4 RaiSanyo,228 Samjondo, 180 raku 'ichi rakuza (free markets and guilds), sam'po (three ports), 57,68 103 sanbanshi, 148 rangaku, see Dutch Learning sangwae, see hungni waein Rangaku kotohajime, 211 sankin kotai (alternate attendance), 138 "Rank Land Law," 53 sanpo no ran, see Japanese revolt of 1510 "Record of Reception," 74, 146 Sansom, G. B., 6 "Record of the So Family," 179 sasong waein, 55, 57,67 "Red Banner bandits," 52 Sato Nobuhiro, 228 reforms Sato Shin' ichi conceptoL20, 196 on Ashikaga Yoshimitsu's investiture, 37 Registrar General of Monks, 45, 98 on Muromachi shogunal authority, 22 Reischauer Edwin 0. Satsuma domain, 16, 150-1, 164 on Korea, 9 annexation of Ryukyu, 3, 164, 259n repatriation of prisoners of war, 139-40 Sayogwon, see Foreign Language Institute response and communication envoys, see Schall, Adam von Bell, 188 envoys, embassies seclusion, see sakoku "returning envoy," 61 seii-tai-shOgun, 36, 39-40, 44, 101, 138 "revere civilisation and expel the Ashikaga Yoshimochi's, 39 barbarians" seikan ron, 9, 149 China's, 192 saikensen no teiyaku, 67 Korea's, 191-3 seimin kyodo, 91 see also hua-i ideology, hwa-i ideology seiwa genji, 101 "revere the emperors and expel foreigners," Sekigahara 192-3,227 battle of, 138-9 "revere the Japanese Emperor and expel the sekisho (Toll barriers), 103 bakufu," 45 Seiyo jijo. I Index 309

Seiyo kibun. 211 Sino-Japanese Treaty of 1871,2-3 Sejo King, 48, 58. 7I, 73,75-7,80 Sino-Korean relations, 169,220 Sejong King, 18, 21, 40, 48,57-8,60,63-8, see also "serving the great" relations 73,80 Sino-Korean trade, 186 sengoku daimyos, 2I, 78, 84, 86, 98, I04, Sinocentric world order, see Chinese world 124, I32 order Sen no Rikyii, 85--{i, 247-Sn Sirhak, see Practical Learning "serving the great" relations small centrality, II diplomacy, 30, 49, 53-4, 65, 135, 167- small (civilised) centre, 170, 223, 226 71, 176, 182 consciousness, 30, 48, 50-I, 65--{i, 77, Mencius's thought, 168-9 79, 192 principle, 50, 169 ideology, 13, 19,80 Shen-yan, 188 Smith, Anthony, D. Shiba Yoshimasa, 39 on ethnocentrism and ethnicism, 193 Shikata Hiroshi so family, 57-s, 66-7,69,74, 79, ss. 105, on Korean economy and society, 9 119, 122, 139, 141, 143, 146, Shih chi, 55 153-4, 178,244n Shimai Soshitsu, 89 So Sadakuni, 70 Shimakawa Takumi, 145 So Sadamori, 58--{iO, 68, 70, 76, 244n, 246n Shimazu Y oshihisa, I 00 So Sadashige, 57, 69 shinkoku, 96-7 So Shigemoto, 70 ideology, 41, 46, 94, 98, 105--{i, 158, So Yoshikatsu, 149 163-4 So Yoshinari, 149, 154, 178 shiso, 5, 44 So Yoshishige, 88, 139 thought, 16, 18-19, 41, 43, 48, 97, 99, So Yoshitoshi, 86,88-90, 120, 138-41, 144 105,158,224 So Yoshizane, 186, 195 Shinron (New Thesis), 228 Sobuk (Little North) faction, 172 Shinto, 14, 19, 97, 15I, 224 social class see also shinkoku bakuhan system, 134 Shizuki Tadao, 150 sogye, 67 Sho Nei Prince, 93 so-hwa. see small (civilised) centre Sho Shin King, 21 Sohyon Crown Prince, 184, 188-9 shoen, 21 Soin-Noron factions, 217 shokei, see sogye Sokin, 27,67 Shokokuji, 35 sokka, 203 Shotoku Prince Son Munik, 140, 142 on "Seventeen Article Constitution," 42 "Son of Heaven," 20, 31, 43, 73, 91, 102, Shiibun, 72 144, 155, 204 shugo daimyos, 18, 21, 29, 33-4, 38, 71 Son Silng-ch'ol, 11 shuinsert trade, see tally trade on dual system of kyorin diplomacy, Shun Ti Emperor, 52 233n Silla Korea, 3, 5, 10, 24, 42-3, 73, 128, 133, on Korea's small centrality, 262n l70,200,23In on "serving the great" diplomacy, 168 Sim Su-gwan, 252n Song Chun-gil, 189 Sin ChOng-nam, 114 Song Hiii-gyong, 56, 60, 62-3, 65 Sin Suk-chu, 30, 57, 73-5, 77 Song Si-yol, 189-92 on expeditions of Jurchens by, 44 on sealed letters of 1649 and 1657, 191 see also Haedong chegukki Song-ho school, 213 Sim Ui-gyom, 93 see also Yi Ik Sin Yu-han, 13, 108, 123, 209, Sonjo King, 89-90, 113-14, liS, 131, 142, on Arai Hakuseki' s literary capacity, 214 172-3, 175 on view of Japan, 211-12 Songjong King, 69, 70, 73, 78 see also Haeyurok sonno joi, see "revere the emperor and expel Sino-Japanese relations, 2, 156-9,227 foreigners" 310 Diplomacy and Ideology in Japanese-Korean Relations soroku, see Registrar General of Monks Tanaka Takeo Southern and Northern Courts, 37, 43, 45, on Murontachi foreign relations, 4 47, 78, 162 on Sejong' rule, 69 unification of, 36 on Tokugawa international order, 232n Southerners (Namin) faction, 212,216, 217 Tanaka Yoshinari Spain on Ashikaga Yoshimitsu, 240n on Hideyoshi's letter, 96--7 tandai, see Kyushu tandai Ssu-ma Kuang, 204-5 T'ang China, 3, 24-5,42,51 Siiden, see Konchiin Siiden, Tanjong King, 73 Sugimura Uneme, 121, 149, 179 taritsusei shikan, 8, 9, 10 Sugita Genpaku, 211 Tashiro Kazui Sui China, 133 on creation of "Taikun," 260-ln Suika Shinto, 163 on sakoku, 6--7 sujik, 55, 241n on Taikun diplomatic order, 8 Sukchong King, 195 Tenno. see Japanese emperor Sumeramikoto, see Japanese emperor Tennosei ideology, 137-8 Sun Goddess, 41 Tenpyo culture, 25 Sung China, 35, 191-2 teppo, 175 Sungjongwon, 1 13, 140 introduction to Japan, 264n Sungjongwon ilgi, 195 Three Feudatories surrendered Japanese, 113, 118, 175, 178 revolt of, 185--6 Suyang Taegun, 77 T'ien chu t'ang, 196 see also Sejo King To ]usetsusho, 195 Toby, Ronald P. Tachibana Tomontasa, 140, 143 on distinction between order and Taebuk (Big North) faction, 172, 177 ideology, 261n Taejanggyong,see Tripitaka Koreana on Japan's foreign relations in early T'aejo King, see Yi Songye modem eastern Asia, 2 T'aejong King, 49, 56--60, 63, 66, 80 on ka-i ideology, 13 Taemado, see Tsushima on sakoku and Taikun diplomacy, 7-8 Taewon'gun, 229 on Shinron, 274n Tahai Manchu officer, 176 on State and Diplomacy in Early Modern taigi meibun, 129, 132 Japan, 6--7 Taiheiki, 42 on Taikun diplomatic order, 156--7 Taiho law codes, 42 on "the expulsion of the Catholics," 259n Taiho setsu, 207 on the first use of "Taikun," 260n Taika Reforms, 42 on Tokugawa centrality, 259n taiko, 102 Todo Takatora, 112 Taikun, see Great Prince Tojin yashiki, 147 Taira Narutsure, 182 Tojo shishu. 201 Taira no Kiyomori, 35 Tokugawa censorship, 271 n Tairano Mankei, 27 Tokugawa Hidetada, 136, 141, 144-5, 153, tairo, 198 !56 Taiwan, 94-6, 185 Tokugawa Iemitsu, 153, 159, 178, 184, Takahashi Kimiaki 266n on Korea-centred political order, 29 Tokugawalenari,210 on Muromachi Japan, 14,26 Tokugawalenobu, 196--205,208-9 on state Jetter, 143 Tokugawa Ietsugu, 196,210 Takantatsuzuka ancient tomb, 3 Tokugawa Ietsuna, 184, 266n tally trade, 34, 40, 68, 84-5, 141, !57 Tokugawa leyasu, 36, 102-3, 119, 139-43, tamjoksa, 140-1 145,153 T'amna, see Cheju Island Tokugawa Japan's restoring relations with Tamura Hiroyuki Korea, 138-46, 163-4, 255n on Sejong's rule, 69 Tokugawa political and social structure, !50 Index 311

Tokugawa Tsunatoyo (lenobu), 201,205 Uich'on Monk, 52 Tokugawa Tsunayoshi, 132, 198 Ura Yasukazu on "compassion for Jiving things," 197 on Manchus' interest in Japan, 265n on Genroku culture, 197 Tokugawa Y oshimune, 196 Verba, Sydney Tokushiyoron,200 on civic culture, 110, 225 tokusosen, 79, 122, 146 Vogel, Ezra F. T' ongmun 'gwanji (Records of the Office of on Confucianism, 126 Interpreters), 56, 195 Tongnaebusa (chief of office in Pusan), Wa (Japanese state), 2 147-8 Waegwan, see Japan House Tongguk yoji sungnam (Augmented Survey waegu, see wakO of the Geography of Korea), 59 waein (Japanese), 66, 78 Tongpyonggwan. 121, 148 Korea's view, 66 t'ongsinsa, see communication envoys, Wagner, Edward W. embassies, envoys on Literati Purges, 93 toraijin. 3 wai i chi mi. 55, 74, 83 tosho, 4, 67, 146, 244n Wajin jokyo doro, 68 "tosho daigongen," 36 Wakisaka Anto, 220 toso, see tosho wak0,4,23,25-7,29,34,39,51,54-5, Toyotomi Hidetsugu, 108 57--{)1,66,69,72, 75,89, 107,237n Toyotomi Hideyori, 142 history of, 28, 236n Toyotomi Hideyoshi, 36, 73, 78, 82, 84, 90, wakii-like conditions, 80, 83-4 98, 119, 132, 136, 138, 140, 142, Walker, Hugh D., 224 153 on Choson-Ming relations, 49 on "serving the great" foreign relations, as buke leader, 101-3 invasions of Korea, 4, 18, 248n 171 on "the Tan'gun myth," 274n letter to Korea, 92, 95 Wang Chien-kung, 114 Tripitaka Koreana, 24, 26-8, 35, 39, 52, 61, Wang-in (Wani), 127 72,76-7, 108,245n,266n Wang Yang-ming, 130, 163 Tsuda Sokichi "war of abduction," 107 on Japanese emperor system, 44, 208 "war of pottery," 108 on Kojiki and Nihon shoki, 42 warrior diplomacy, 4, 24-5, 33, 37, 48 on Korea, 4-5 beginning of, 29 Tsushima, 16, 23, 57, 58--{)0, 62-3, 67, 69, Watsuji Tetsuro 78-9, 119, 121, 136, 138-9, 142-3, on Japanese emperor system, 44, 208 149-51, 164, 177-9, 182, 184, 195, onsakoku, 6 223,244n "Way of the King," 207 fabrication of state letters, 143 see also ado Korea's attack on, 41, 44, 58 "Way of the Overlord," 207 missions to Korea, 3 see also hado on wako, 27 Weber, Max t'uhwawae, 54 on Confucianisnm, 125-6 Tung-i Ch 'uan (Record of Eastern on ideology and legitimacy, 161 Barbarians), 57 Wei Chih, 57 Westerners (Soin) faction, 176-7 udaijin (minister of the right), 104 wijong ch 'oksa, see Defend Orthodoxy and Ueda Masaaki Reject Heresy, on immigration from China and Korea to Wintersteen, Prescott B. Jr. Japan, 3 on Muromachi bakufu, 22 Ueda Takeshi Won Kyun, 117 on Parhae, 235n Wonjong King, 181 312 Diplomacy and Ideology in Japanese-Korean Relations

Wu San-kuei General, 185, 190 on suppression of wakO attacks. 29 Yi Sun-sin Admiral, 117 xenophobic sentiments, 20, 227 Yi T'oegye, 90, 108, Ill, 131, 137 see also "revere civilisation and expel the Yi Tok-hyong, 88, 140 barbarians," YiWon,60 "revere the emperors and expel Yi Won-ik, 172 foreigners" Yi Won-sik on ink paintings and calligraphy, 137 yain. see Jurchens Yi Yulgok, Ill, 131, 190 yakkan, see yokkwan Yin and Yang. 208 Yamaga Soko, 163, 197 Yo Ugil, 144-5 Yamana Sozen, 78 yokkwan,56, 147-8,184-5 Yamana Ujikiyo, 36 Yokoi Shonan, 112 Yamato (Japanese state), 3, 42 Yomp'o, 57, 70,79 Yamauchi Hirokazu Yongch'ang Taegun Prince, 172 on early Choson and Ming relations, Yon'gi, 218 49-50 Yongjo King, 213,216-17 Yamazaki Ansai, 112, 163 Yonsan'gun King, 172 Yanagawaaffair, 145, 153-4, 161, 164,167 Yorha ilgi, 13,218 Yanagawa Kagenao (Toshinaga), 122, Yoshida Shinto, 99, 162 144-5, 153 Yoshida Shoin Yanagawa Shigenobu, 89, 91, 139, 144,.153 on Amenomori Hoshii, 207 Yanagawa Shigeoki, 144, 154, 156, 183 Yoshikawa Koreteru, 163 Yanagisawa Yoshiyasu, 198 Yoshikawa Shinto, 163 Yang, C. K. Yu Hyong-won, 212,216 on Max Weber, 125 Yu Jong (Song'un Taesa), 140, 142 Yang Yu Yu Kye, 114 envoy to Yoshimochi, 39 Yu Song-nyong Japanese interpreter, 56 Chingbirok. 21 5, 249n yangban, 14,50,53,93-4, 127,133-4,170, on Korea's military skills, 175 212,216,224 on Ming China, 92 Yao and Shun emperors, 205 Yu Yong-gyong, 143 Yayoi period, 3 Yiian dynasty, 52, 167 ye, see Confucianism with Koryo Korea, 181 Yejo, see Board of Rites see also Mongol's inva~ions Yi Chin-hili Yun ln-bo, 55-6,65 on Korean embassies to Japan, 137 Yun Lady, 172 on Korean history, 10 Yun Sun-go, 113 on Muromachi Japan, 23-4 Yun Sun-ji, 184 Yi Hang-bok, 172 Yun Tu-su, 140 Yi Hang-no, 228-9 Yung-lo Emperor, 21, 38, 49,226-7 Yi Hyon-sang, 220 on Annam, 237n Yi I-ch'om, 172 Yutani Yasuhiro, 88 Yilk,212-14,216,218 on Japanese emperor, 214 Zekkai Chiishin, 25, 35, 98 YiKwal on letter to the Ming, 46-7 revolt of, 118, 178 Zen monks, 18, 22, 35, 97, 109, 154, 224 Yi Kwi, 179 see also Five Mountains Yi Myon-gu, 220 Zenrin kokuhoki, 44, 47-8, 98 Yi Song-gye ZuikeiShiiho,35,44-8,97-8,224 as founder of Choson, 30, SO, 52-4 on shinkoku ideology, 46