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UC Irvine UC Irvine Electronic Theses and Dissertations Title Educated into Violence: The Colonial Origins of Separatist Rebellion Permalink https://escholarship.org/uc/item/8vw019fk Author Mendoza, Mary Anne San Mateo Publication Date 2020 Peer reviewed|Thesis/dissertation eScholarship.org Powered by the California Digital Library University of California UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, IRVINE Educated into Violence: The Colonial Origins of Separatist Rebellion DISSERTATION submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in Political Science by Mary Anne San Mateo Mendoza Dissertation Committee: Professor Jeffrey Kopstein, Chair Associate Professor Sara W. Goodman Assistant Professor Heidi Hardt 2020 © 2020 Mary Anne San Mateo Mendoza DEDICATION For Angelyn Mendoza, who has been my main source of comforting pasta, never-ending lipstick, and pep talks into the wee hours of the night just to get me through all of these pages; For Jai Dave, who came into this madness late but didn’t let the prospect of it scare him off and instead fit into all the parts of my life so seamlessly that it still doesn’t feel real; For my Model UN alumni family who celebrated every triumph with dim sum and always understood when I needed some time away from our brunch bunch to get work done (Go Leos!); For Juli Minoves-Triquell, who sparked my interest in academia by his example of what a professor can do and for becoming such a valued mentor, colleague, and friend; For Misbah Hyder and Shauna Gillooly, who made sure that I took care of every part of me and gave proper space for everything even when I didn’t want to do it; For Mary Isaac, who reminds me so much of myself when I started this program and whose hard work and determination will ensure that she goes farther than it seems; For my mother and my lola, who made sure that I focused on the positives when everything felt like a negative, even when they weren’t sure what exactly I was doing for work but always knew that I would probably be home late; For my professors at La Verne who believed in me since day one, knowing that I would be able to do this long before I ever thought about trying; For Patricia Hatfield, who helped a scared freshman realize that “you wouldn’t be here if you didn’t belong here,” For all the immigrants who give up so much so that their first-generation children can have better opportunities and for Filipinx-Americans who don’t think a PhD is “for people like us.” It is. And lastly… For eight-year-old me who used to “play office” and make up fake reports to do for “work,” never realizing that one day she would have the privilege of an actual office with maybe more work than should be allowed. You did it. Now you get to make sure that so many more who come after you will, too. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF FIGURES v LIST OF TABLES vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS vii VITA viii ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION ix INTRODUCTION 1 Variation in the Onset of Separatist 1 Rebellion in Southeast Asia Terminology 6 Argument 8 Literature Review 10 Research Design 18 Dissertation Outline 26 THEORY 28 Introduction 28 Theorizing About the Onset of 32 Separatist Rebellion Literature Review 38 Conclusion 58 CHAPTER 3: Colonialism and Administration 59 in the Philippines and Burma Introduction 59 Colonialism in the Philippines 63 American Control over the Philippine 66 Islands American Colonialism in Mindanao 80 World War II and Philippine 88 Independence British Control over Burma 90 British Colonialism over the Karen 102 World War II and Independence in 105 Burma Conclusion 108 CHAPTER 4: Colonial Education and 110 iii Minority Identity Formation In the Philippines and Burma Introduction 110 A Tale of Two Colonial Education 114 Policies Colonial Education in the Philippine 120 Colony Shallow Education Policies for the 123 Muslim Minority Shallow Education Policies and 141 Muslim National Identity British Education of the Burmese 142 Colony The Burman Majority and British India 145 The Karen Minority and Baptist 146 Missionaries Penetrative Education Policies and 168 Karen National Identity Conclusion 169 CHAPTER 5: Assessing the Onset of 174 Separatist Rebellion in the Philippines and Burma Introduction 174 Debates on Muslim Nationalism 176 Muslim Nationalism in the Philippines 179 Muslim Attitudes Regarding Philippine 202 Independence Karen Rebellion in Burma 205 Karen Apprehension Regarding 212 Burmese Independence Addressing the Shan Case 216 Conclusion 221 CONCLUSION 223 Dissertation Summary 224 Extending the Logic of Early and Late 226 Seceders Theoretical Consideration 238 Future Work 243 BIBLIOGRAPHY 246 APPENDIX A 260 APPENDIX B 261 APPENDIX C 262 iv LIST OF FIGURES Page Figure 1 Rebellion in Southeast Asia 2 Figure 2 The Process of Colonial 9 Education Policy and Onset of Separatist Rebellion Figure 3 The Process 32 Figure 4 Process of Penetrative 36 Education Policies Figure 5 Process of Shallow Education 36 Policies Figure 6 Effects of Colonial Education 118 Policy Figure 7a and 7b Excerpts from the 137 Maguindanao Primers Figure 8 Map of Indonesia 227 v LIST OF TABLES Page Table 1 Duration of Ethnic Conflict 3 By Region Table 2 Duration of Ethnic Conflict in 4 Southeast Asia Table 3 Southeast Asian States 21 Table 4 Southeast Asian State 22 Pathways to Independence Table 5 Indicating Separatist Rebellion 24 Table 6 Addressing the Shortcomings 57 in Mechanisms Linking Education and Violence Table 7 American Presidents During 75 the Philippine Colonial Period Table 8 Payments to Datus from the 82 Kiram-Bates Treaty Table 9 Racial Constitution in Burma, 97 1901-31 Table 10 Karen Anglo-Vernacular 152 Schools Table 11 Karen Vernacular Schools 153 Table 12 Schools and Total Enrollment 153 of the Special Classes vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Countless hours went into this dissertation. But none of that happened in a vacuum. Good coffee fuels quality work. Out of all the coffee shops in Southern California, nothing comes close to the love and support of the people at Cactus Coffee. If everyone had their version of a Southeast Asia Research Group (SEAREG), academia would be a much better place. There are not enough words to express my gratitude for it. I am grateful to the archives that provided information for my research, especially the digitized forms that made remote access possible. These archives exist because people believed in the value of learning from history. There are many archives across the United States, the Philippines, and Spain which I utilized, some of which include: Archivo General de Indias; Manuscript Division at the U.S. Library of Congress; Hoover Archives at Stanford University; Southeast Asian Library at UC Berkeley; Rare and Manuscript Collections at Cornell University; Bentley Historical Library at the University of Michigan. Several institutions at UCI provided grants: the Political Science Department; the School of Social Sciences; the Center for Asian Studies; and the Center for Global Peace and Conflict (CGPACS). CGPACS, in particular, always welcomed my budding research agenda with constructive feedback, helping me feel confident that I was getting somewhere. My committee has provided countless hours of support for my work and my well-being. To all three, thank you for the things you did for me, especially that about which I didn’t know. Jeffrey, you took me on even when I had a long way to go. I knew I was learning when our meetings started to last longer than 5 minutes (all it took was a puzzle!). You warned me many times that I was taking the harder path, but you still let me do it. This dissertation is not at all what I thought it would be. It’s much better thanks to the work you asked of me. Sara, I struggle to convey how grateful I am to you for helping me realize that I could finish this program on my own terms. I always felt like you were in my corner (with multiple backup plans!) and shared your network with me. Thank you for being so invested in me, as a person and as a scholar. Heidi, I like to think that we started our journeys at UCI together. You have been a thorough and proactive mentor since my first quarter at Irvine. My work ethic is all the better because of your examples. UCI’s Political Science Department has been another home to me for the last 6 years. Leaving it, especially in the midst of a pandemic, is bittersweet. There are several people in our department who extended so much kindness to me: Andrew Hallak, Claudia Cheffs, Mary McThomas, Michael Tesler, Dorie Solinger, Russ Dalton, Bob Uriu, Carole Uhlaner, Erin Lockwood, Simone Chambers, Kevin Olson, Cecilia Lynch, and Davin Phoenix. Lastly, I am grateful to have colleagues who became friends. Where else can you walk into a room at work and be greeted with hugs? Thank you for always responding, even when I messaged after midnight: Benjamin Raynor, Tauhid Bin Kashem, John Emery, Marcos Scauso, Connor Strobel, Nathan Chan, Sargis Karavardanyan, Nathan Cisneros, Isabel Gonzales, Stacey Liou, Steven Tarango, Mia Much, Boyun Kim, Katelyn Kelly, and Mirette Morcos. vii VITA Mary Anne San Mateo Mendoza 2014 B.A. in Political Science; International Studies – University of La Verne 2014-20 Teaching Assistant - School of Social Sciences, University of California, Irvine 2015-18 Research Assistant - Depart of Political Science, University of California, Irvine 2016 Honorable Mention – Pre-Doctoral Fellowship, Ford Foundation 2017 Pedagogical Fellowship - Division of Teaching Excellence and Innovation, University of California, Irvine 2017 Senior Pedagogical Fellow - Division of Teaching Excellence and Innovation, University of California, Irvine 2017 M.A.