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LIMA's JAPANESE-PERUVIANS, 1936-1963 by Benjamin Dumontier

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LIMA's JAPANESE-PERUVIANS, 1936-1963 by Benjamin Dumontier Between Menace and Model Citizen: Lima's Japanese-Peruvians, 1936-1963 Item Type text; Electronic Dissertation Authors DuMontier, Benjamin John Publisher The University of Arizona. Rights Copyright © is held by the author. Digital access to this material is made possible by the University Libraries, University of Arizona. Further transmission, reproduction or presentation (such as public display or performance) of protected items is prohibited except with permission of the author. Download date 26/09/2021 18:06:45 Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/10150/628046 BETWEEN MENACE AND MODEL CITIZEN: LIMA'S JAPANESE-PERUVIANS, 1936-1963 by Benjamin DuMontier __________________________ Copyright © Benjamin J. DuMontier 2018 A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of the DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY In the Graduate College THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA 2018 3 STATEMENT BY AUTHOR This dissertation has been submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for an advanced degree at the University of Arizona and is deposited in the University Library to be made available to borrowers under rules of the Library. Brief quotations from this dissertation are allowable without special permission, provided that an accurate acknowledgement of the source is made. Requests for permission for extended quotation from or reproduction of this manuscript in whole or in part may be granted by the copyright holder. SIGNED: Benjamin J. DuMontier 4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Thanks to my adviser, Dr. Jadwiga Pieper-Mooney, for her advice and encouragement through the years, as well as for looking over multiple drafts for the dissertation. Her support has taken many forms, including the numerous letters of recommendation she has written. I also appreciate my committee members, Dr. Michael Brescia and Dr. Kevin Gosner. They gave invaluable feedback on this, and I am thankful for their reminders to take the “pauses that refresh” and especially all those H-Net announcements they sent my way. I want to acknowledge the late Dr. Bert Barickman who inspired me to continue my graduate studies in Latin American history. There are several “gatekeepers” in Lima, Peru, who were so essential in helping me navigate the complex, multifaceted “Nikkei” community in the capital. I am grateful to Alberto Kohatsu, editor of the Peru Shimpo, for allowing access to his newspapers—copies that were not readily available anywhere else in Lima. As well, to my friends Margarita Moromisato, the late Fr. Manuel Kato, the Tagata family (Daniel and Marta, who was “more Japanese” than most, in her words!), all of whom provided irreplaceable contacts for the oral histories that shaped my dissertation. I also cannot forget the Asociación Peruana Japonesa. If I omit someone it is my error, partly conditioned by time. Dr. Daniel Masterson, author of The Japanese in Latin America with Sayaka Funada-Classen, gave me invaluable advice and guidance on where and what to research in the U.S. archives. His encouragement was a blessing. Thanks as well to the History Department, my colleagues and fellow teaching assistants who gave me a lot of encouragement and advice. (Also, to Elena Stauffer and our past secretaries for making the maze of paperwork easy to understand!) I especially acknowledge Lucia C. for being a partner in bringing truth to power and for being a tireless reviewer. I also want to include the other intrepid members of our writing group (Alex and David) who kept us motivated to keep writing. Then, to Annie Morphew, Rachel Small, Amado Guzmán, Juan Diego Marroquin and others who commiserated in the old basement of the Social Sciences Building, the T.A. lounge that became the “eminent” domain of history graduate students. To Chris Yutzy, who started the same year as I did and heard many concerns. Lisa Munro was instrumental in helping me edit many sections; I can’t imagine the finished product without her guidance and work. To my grandmother, godmother, and the many others who believed in me as I went from a religious course of studies (seminary in Paraguay) to a “secular” form of working in archives and creating historical works. Last but certainly not least, I thank my parents, Bruce and Clare, who have provided me with so much spiritual and material support during my lifetime. Their openness has informed my thinking; their faith, hope, and charity have enabled me to pursue my vocation as a historian. 5 DEDICATION: Dedicated to my father and mother, my grandmother “Margie” Williams, and the MTA. 6 CONTENTS ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………………………………………….…………….7 INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………………………………….………..8 CHAPTER 1: The Limits of “Mutual and Reciprocal Advantages”: Negotiating Japanese Identity and Anti-Japanese Law in Diplomatic Encounters, 1935-1939……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………32 CHAPTER 2: Stopping the Press: Framing the Saqueo of May 1940……….…..……..…..72 CHAPTER 3: “Only in Wartime Could We Get Away with this…”: Ethnicity and Security in the Deportation of Japanese Peruvians to the United States……123 CHAPTER 4: Life after Wartime: Constructing the Racial Identities of “Japanese- Peruvians” in Lima after the Second World War…………………………………….………..168 CONCLUSION……………………………………………………………………………………………………190 BIBLIOGRAPHY……………………………………………………………………………………………………………...…197 7 ABSTRACT The Japanese-Peruvian community in Lima, Peru used different understandings of race to assert its role in the country. This dissertation examines the changing racial and ethnic characterizations of Japanese residents in Peru between 1936 and 1963. Using archival research and oral histories this dissertation traces the category of “enemy alien” in Peruvian policy, a racial and legal category which overlapped with global conversations about anti-Asian “yellow peril” fears. This analysis pays close attention to one national context – Peru—and takes a long view on nation-state policies that influenced the lives of immigrants. In this context, I argue that understandings of race among Japanese-Peruvians had to do with the placement of Japan in global politics—and were not uniformly negative, depending on the historical moment. Peruvian officials formed their political agenda – and the subsequent treatment of Japanese- Peruvians –not solely in response to U.S. policies and interests in national security. Instead, domestic policies in the 1930s and actions by Japan abroad shaped the changing ways of addressing Japanese-Peruvians before, during, and after World War II. After the war, however, the Japanese-Peruvian community developed their own survival strategies amid changing national and global designations for their racial and political identities. They exploited the racial ambiguity that newspapers, government policies, and Peruvian laborers had towards Japan to claim new citizenship rights. This dissertation uses oral histories to trace how changing international political relations – and war – affected the efforts of immigrants to create a new homeland. 8 Introduction: Between Menace and Model Citizen: Lima's Japanese-Peruvians, 1936-1963 The Japanese of Peru are the second-largest Japanese population in all South America; they held that designation from 1934 until the end of the twentieth century.1 From the beginning of their immigration to coastal sugarcane plantations to fulfill field-labor contracts, they encountered different local responses, ranging from acceptance to vilification. To escape their legal vulnerability on the plantation and the violence they experienced from Peruvian coworkers, they began an exodus to coastal urban centers like Lima around 1910.2 There, they hoped to earn more money by trading in urban commerce. They also hoped for greater security, forming communities of kinship; they invited others from their respective Japanese and Okinawan provinces.3 They succeeded in constructing new class identities as middlemen, small-business owners who served the larger Peruvian population.4 Before Peru’s President Gen. Óscar Benavides banned Japanese immigration in 1936, Lima’s colonia, the neighborhoods of the greatest number of Japanese, had become one of the largest areas of immigrant groups in the capital.5 Sponsorship by Peru’s so-called aristocratic republic (which ended in 1919), gave way to officially-sanctioned discrimination by military juntas, such as that of General Benavides 1 Dan Masterson with Sayaka Funada-Classen, The Japanese in Latin America, (University of Illinois, 2004), 70. 2 Ayumi Takenaka, “Japanese in Peru: History of Immigration, Settlement, and Racialization,” in Latin American Perspectives, Vol. 31, No. 3, East Asian Migration to Latin America (May, 2004, p 77-98), 92. 3 Ignacio López-Calvo and Fernando Iwasaki, The Affinity of the Eye: Writing Nikkei in Peru (University of Arizona Press, Tucson, AZ, 2013), 69. 4 Reed Ueda, Crosscurrents: Atlantic and Pacific Migration in the Making of a Global America, (Oxford University Press, 2016), 88. 5 C. Harvey Gardiner, The Japanese and Peru: 1875-1973 (University of New Mexico Press, 1975), 37. See also 38, Table 7. An inspection report counting 5,866 employed males in Lima illustrated that hiring women from Japan was rare; employed females in Lima only totaled 9 in Peru’s census. 9 in 1933. In the years preceding World War II, Japanese communities encountered increasing paternalism, xenophobia, and, eventually, the classification of “enemy alien.” Their alienation from the state made them subject to widespread vigilante violence, confiscation
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