Information to Users

INFORMATION TO USERS

This manuscript has been reproduced from the microfilm master. UMI films the trad directly from the original or copy submitted. Thus, some thesis and dissertation copies are in typewriter face, while others may be from any type of computer printer.

The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality illustrations and photographs, print bfeedthrough. substandard margins, and improper alignment can adversely affect reproduction.

In the unlikely event that the author did not send UMI a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if unauthorized copyright material had to be removed, a note win indicate the deletion.

Overraze materials (e.g., maps, drawings, charts) are reproduced by sectioning the original, beginning at the upper left-hand comer and continuing from left to right in equal sections with small overlaps.

Photographs included in the original manuscript have been reproduced xerographicaliy in this copy. Higher quality 6’ x 9* black and white photographic prints ate available for any photographs or illustrations appearing in this copy for an additional charge. Contact UMI directly to order.

ProQuest Information and Learning 300 North Zeeb Road. Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 USA 800-521-0600

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. AN EXPLORATORY EXAMINATION OF THE IMPACT OF PERSONAL VALUES ON SPORT CONSUMPTION PREFERENCES AND BEHAVIORS: A CROSS-CULTURAL STUDY

DISSERTATION

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy

in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University

Yu-Lin Shao, M.S.A.

*****

The Ohio State University 2002

Dissertation Committee:

Dr. Ketra L. Armstrong, Adviser

Dr. Roger D. Blackwell

Dr. Donna L. Pastore

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. UMI Num ber 3049112

UMf

UMI Microform3049112 Copyright 2002 by ProQuest information and Learning Company. All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17. United States Code.

ProQuest Information and Learning Company 300 North Zeeb Road P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor. Mi 48106-1346

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ABSTRACT

As a result of integrated world economic and advanced technology, the market

territory of the sport industry is no longer limited to North America. Technological

innovation, such as the World Wide Web and digital satellite television, has globalized the

distribution of sport and has enhanced sport marketers' ability to implement marketing

strategies across countries in a global manner. Globalization, undoubtedly, is an

inevitable trend for sport organizations that want to have a competitive advantage in the

world marketplace to follow. However, an effective global strategy does not rely only

on having high quality products and dazzling marketing strategies, but also on

understanding the cultural differences of global consumers that may influence marketing

effectiveness.

Values serve as guiding principles to our everyday lives (Kahle, 1983; Schwartz,

1992), and provide a foundation for attitudes and behaviors (Homer & Kahle, 1988).

Among the variates of culture, personal values (which are the focus of this current study)

have been considered significant influences on consumers’ preferences, behavioral

intentions, and (ultimately) behaviors. Personal values also undoubtedly influence the

behaviors of sport consumers. Therefore, regarding the successful implementations of

global and international sport marketing strategies, understanding the role and influence

of personal values is a necessity.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The purpose of this study was to explore the impact of personal values on sport

consumption preferences and sport consumption behavioral frequency in two different

cultural settings. Utilizing Kahle’s (1983) value scale - the List of Value (LOV), this

study examined: (a) the value structure of American and Taiwanese students, (b) the

extent to which personal values influenced sport consumption preferences and sport

consumption behavioral frequency of American and Taiwanese students differently, and

behavioral frequency in both cultural settings. The results revealed that the structures of

personal values between American and Taiwanese students were different and personal

values collectively had a significant effect on sport consumption patterns for both cultural

settings, hi addition, sport consumption preferences were significantly related to sport

consumption behavioral frequency for both the American and Taiwanese students.

From practical and theoretical implications perspectives, the findings of this study

highlighted the importance of identifying and understanding the cultural differences and

similarities among global sport consumers that may influence the overall success of

global and international marketing strategies.

ixi

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. DEDICATION

To my mother for her love, as well as for being a good friend of mine.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ACKNOWLEDGMENT

First of aIlT I would like to thank Dr. Ketra L. Armstrong, my advisor, for her

encouragement, dedication and patient in helping me to finish this dissertation and

throughout my stay at The Ohio State University. I also want to thank my dissertation

committee members. Dr. Roger D. Blackwell and Dr. Donna L. Pastore, for their valuable

comments and suggestions.

I would also like to acknowledge my colleagues, George Cunningham, Harry Kwon,

and John Singer, for their support both academically and mentally; Ms. Janice Fon for

translating the questionnaire; my sister, Joni Shao, for her help in data collection and data

input; Ms. Y. M. Kao for helping me interpreting the data; and Mr. G J. Lee for

administering the questionnaires at the National Cheng Kung University, hi addition,

special thank to Mr. Raymond Lau for his mental support and help in formatting and

correcting my dissertation.

Finally, I would like to express my greatest appreciation to my mother for her

support, caring, and understanding. Without her, I would have quitted half way through

my study.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. VITA

March 20,1971 ______Bom—Taipei, Taiwan

2000 B.S. Business Administration, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan

2000 M.SA.. Sport Administration and Facility Management, Ohio University, Athens, OH

2000 - present______Graduate Teaching Associate, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH

FIELDS OF STUDY

Major Field: College of Education, Sport and Exercise Management Minor Field: Marketing

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. TABLE O F CONTENTS Page Abstract ii

Dedication iv

Acknowledgments V

Vita vi

List ofTables X

List of Figures xiii

Chapters:

1. Introduction I

LI The Globalization of Sport I 1 2 Culture and Cross-Cultural Analysis______3 13 Personal Values and Consumption Behavior 4 13.1 Personal Values and Attitudes 5 133 Attitudes and Preferences______6 133 Preferences and Behaviors 6 13.4 Personal Values and Consumption Decisions______7 133 Personal Values and Sport Consumptions 10 1.4 Problem Statement II 13 Purpose of the Study 12 1.6 Research Ouestions 12 1.7 Limitation 13

vii

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1.8 Operational Definition______14 1.9 Summary of Introduction______15

2. Literature Review______17

2.1 Rokeach’s Value Scale (RVS) ______17 2.2 List of Values (LOV)______24 23 Schwartz’s Value Scale (SVS)______33 2.4 Application of Value Scales to Sport Consumptions______37 2.5 The Role of Personal Values in the Consumer Decision Process Model______42 2.5.1 Need recognition______42 2.5.2 Search for information______43 2.5.3 Pre-purchase evaluation of alternatives______44 2.5.4 Purchase______45 2.5.5 Consumption______45 2.6 Summary of the literature ______46

3. Methodology ______48

3.1 Research Design______48 3.2 Population and Sample______49 3.2.1 Target Population______49 3.2.2 Sample Size______50 3.2.3 Selecting the Sample______51 3.3 Data Collection Procedures______51 3.4 Instrumentation______53 3.4.1 Personal Values______53 3.4.2 Sport Consumption Behaviors______54 3.4.3 Demographic Characteristics______55 3.5 Panel o f Expert______55 3.6 Pilot Test______56 3.7 Data Analysis Procedures ______60

viii

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4. Results 62

4.1 Sample Characteristics______62 4.1.1 American Sample______62 4.1.2 Taiwanese Sample______63 4.2 General Statistical Information______65 43 Examining Research Questions______70 43.1 Research Question 1______70 433 Research Question 2______77 433 Research Question 3______81 43.4 Research Question 4______85 4.4 Summary of the Results______88

5. Discussion______90

5.1 Personal Values of American and Taiwanese Students.______90 53 Personal Values and Sport Consumption Preferences and Behavioral Frequency ______94 53 Sport Consumption Preferences and Behavioral Frequency ______97 5.4 Practical Implication______97 5.5 Limitation and Future Research______100 5.6 Conclusion______103

REFERENCE______105

APPENDIX A-l - Final Questionnaire - English Version______113 APPENDIX A-2 - Pilot Study Questionnaire - English Version______121 APPENDIX B -l — Final Questionnaire—Mandarin Version______129 APPENDIX B-2 - Pilot Study Questionnaire - Mandarin Version______137 APPENDIX B-3 — Pilot Study Questionnaire — Bilingual Version______145 APPENDIX C - Panel of Experts______154

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

2.1 Rokeach’s Terminal and Instrumental Values.______20

222 Brief description the items of the List of Values (LOV)______27

2.3 Most Important Social Values in Several Countries______31

2.4 Percentage Distribution of Personal Values ______32

2.5 Definition of Motivational Types of Values in Terms of Their Goals and the Single Values That Represent Them______34

3.1 Physical Activity Classes ______53

3.2 Two Dimensions of the LOV______53

33 Rotated Component Matrix of Taiwan and United States______59

3.4 Top Five Favorite Sport Activities______60

4.1 Demographic Characteristics of American Sample______63

43 Demographic Characteristics of Taiwanese Sample______64

43-1 Mean and Standard Deviation of Sport Consumption Preferences and Behavioral Frequency of American Sample______66

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4.3-2 Mean and Standard Deviation of Sport Consumption Preferences and Behavioral Frequency of American Men and Women______66

4.4-1 Mean and Standard Deviation of Sport Consumption Preferences and Behavior Frequency of Taiwanese Sample______67

4.4-2 Mean and Standard Deviation of Sport Consumption Preferences and Behavior Frequency of Taiwanese Men and Women______67

4.5 Means, Standard Deviations, and Bivariate Correlations of the Personal Values of American Sample______68

4.6 Means, Standard Deviations, and Bivariate Correlations of the Personal Values of Taiwanese Sample______69

4.7 Most Important Personal Value of American and Taiwanese Samples______70

4.8 Multivariate and Univariate Effects of Cultural Subgroups and Sex on Personal Values______73

4.9 Rotated Component Matrix of Personal Values of Entire Sample______75

4.10 Rotated Component Matrix of Personal Values of American Sample______76

4.11 Rotated Component Matrix of Personal Values of Taiwanese Sample______77

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4.12 Multivariate Multiple Regression Model Predicting Sport Consumption Preferences from 3 Personal Value Domains of American Sample______78

4.13 Multivariate Multiple Regression Model Predicting Sport Consumption Preferences from 2 Personal Value Domains of Taiwan Sample______79

4.14 Correlations Between Personal Value Domains and Sport Consumption Preferences in American Sample.______80

4.15 Correlations Between 2 Personal Value Domains and Sport Consumption Preferences in Taiwanese Sample______81

4.16 Multivariate Multiple Regression Predicting Sport Consumption Frequency from 3 Personal Value Domains of American Sample______82

4.17 Multivariate Multiple Regression Predicting Sport Consumption Frequency from 2 Personal Value Domains of Taiwan Sample 83

4.18 Correlations Between 3 Personal Value Domains and Sport Consumption Frequency in American Sample...... 84

4.19 Correlations Between 2 Personal Value Domains and Sport Consumption Frequency in Taiwanese Sample______...85

4.20 Correlation Between Sport Consumption Preferences and Behavioral Frequency of American Sample______86

4221 Correlation Between Sport Consumption Preferences and Behavior Frequency of Taiwan Sample ______87

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. LIST O F FIGURES

Figure Pa£5

LI Constructs Leading to Choice ______6

L2 The Consumer Decision Process Model ______8

13 Relationship Between Personal Values and Sport Consumption______11

2.1 Value to Attitude Structure Model______-1

2.2 The Prototypical Structure of Value______35

4.1 Profile Plots of the Value of Being Well-Respected______71

4.2 Profile Plots of the Value of Fun and Enjoyment in Life ______71

5.1 The Relationships among Culture, Personal Values and Sport Consumption Patterns______— ----- *01

xiii

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

The GlohaH?arinn pf Snort

Globalization, for the past two decades, has been an inevitable trend for many

industries. The primary factors amalgamating the global market may be contributed to

the integration of world economy, technology innovation, advanced communication and

transportation, decreased protectionism, and the capability of coordinating global

operation (Terpstra, 1987). With the implementation of globalization, global

corporations not only dramatically reshape the fundamental infrastructures and business

strategies, but also expand the market territory beyond national boundaries to reach

global consumers.

One such industry that is affected by globalization and international marketing is the

sport industry. Because sport has unique characteristics of unpredictable, competitive,

dynamic, and exciting, consumers are often more personally and emotionally involved

with sport than they are with other products and goods (such as household products or

other tangible goods). Moreover, since sports are offered in various forms in countries

throughout the world, sport attracts a multicultural base of consumers. Collegiate and

professional sports often attract culturally diverse sport consumers. The best example of

the international and global appeal of sport is the Olympic Games, which draw billions of

worldwide spectators, and involve thousands of athletes, officials, administrators, and 1

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. volunteers. Without a doubt, sport has diffused on a global scale, and does have “a

remarkable appeal to contemporary human beings” (Maguire, 1999, p. 2). However,

while sport may offer a common denominator for attracting a global base of consumers,

marketing sport on a global scale must acknowledge the myriad of multicultural factors

that may influence the consumers' sport experience.

Notwithstanding the challenge of attracting global consumers, globalization is a

favored strategy by almost all the major-Ieague sports, such as Major League Baseball

(MLB), National Basketball Association (NBA), National Football Leagues (NFL), and

elite companies, such as International Marketing Group (IMG), Nike, and Adidas. Nike,

for instance, has established itself as a well-known global brand by endorsing outstanding

male and female athletes from around the world. The global appeal of their athletes

attracts global consumers and offers Nike entrance into the global market. MLB, NBA,

and NFL held season opening games or fan festival abroad (i.e. Japan, Europe, and

Taiwan) to promote their games in the global market and to gain access to global

consumers. These global marketing strategies seem to have successfully expanded the

reach of the respective sport organizations into the international arena. However, a

theoretical understanding of the factors that influence global consumers is lacking, and

several issues regarding the effectiveness and marketing management of international and

global strategies still need to be deliberated. Surprisingly, Nike, which has long been

viewed as a leading sport organization, generated its global marketing strategy without

any formal market research or understanding the needs and wants of customers (personal

communication, April 23,2000). For the most part, these marketing strategies were

made purely based on Nike’s “hunch” and past experience with customers (personal

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. communication* April 23,2000). Notwithstanding the global opportunities for the sport

industry, any international sport marketing strategies and practices that do not take

culture differences and customers’ needs and wants into consideration at the outset are

more likely to fail (Rick, 1993). Since globalization is driven mostly by the needs and

preferences of customers (Ohmae, 1989), understanding the cultural differences and

similarities of global sport consumers is imperative for developing successful global

marketing plans.

Culture and Cross-Culture Analysis

hr the past, consumer behavior research mainly focused on identifying individual

differences and the process of decision-making (Blackwell, Miniard, & Engel, 2001).

Now, firms are required to operate in a multicultural environment because of the

integrated world economy, technology innovation, and intensive international

competition. Consequently, the focus of consumer behavior research has shifted to an

emphasis on cross-cultural analysis. Cross-cultural analysis is “the comparison of

similarities and differences in behavioral and physical aspects of cultures” (Blackwell et

al., 2001, p. 55). Culture has been extensively studied by several different disciplines,

including anthropology, psychology, and sociology. According to Child and Kieser’s

(1977) definition: Cultures may be defined as patters of thought and manners which are widely shared. The boundaries of the social collectivity within which this sharing takes place are problematic so that it may make as much sense to refer to a class or regional culture as to a national culture, (p. 2) Similarly, Triandis (1972) referred to subjective culture as “a cultural group’s

characteristics way of perceiving the man- made part of its environment” (p. 4). He

believed that the subjective aspects of culture include the categories of social stimuli, i

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. associations, beliefs, attitudes, norms and values, and roles those individual shares, hi

addition, horn a consumer behavior research standpoint, Blackwell et al. (2001) referred

to culture as “a set of values, ideas, artifacts, and other meaningful symbols that help

individuals communicate, interpret and evaluate as members of society” (p. 314).

McCort and Malhotra (1993) also proposed that the relationship between culture and the

individual is a circular process, and the meaning of culture is “created, maintained and

transmitted within a society” (p. 94).

Based on the previous four different versions of the definition of culture, it may be

argued that the concept of culture is vague and broad. Nonetheless, all of the definitions

suggest that culture is shared among members of the society, inherited from one

generation to another, and has either directly or indirectly impacted members’ behaviors.

Further, culture is perceived more like “a process rather than a distinctive whole, which

would be entirely identifiable by the sum of its elements” (Usunier, 1996, p. 5).

Notwithstanding the difficulty of analyzing culture, both behavioral and material

elements of culture can benefit marketers and researchers in evaluating and

differentiating cultures (Blackwell et al., 2001) and developing appropriate marketing

strategies. Consequently, it is important for sport marketers who are seeking a position

in the global market to identify which cultural element or elements will significantly

influence consumers’ sport consumption behaviors globally.

Personal Values and Consumption Behavior

Values may be one of the most critical variables contributing to cultural influences

on global sport consumers’ behavior. Rokeach (1973) proclaimed, “the value concept,

more than any other, should occupy a central position...able to unify the apparently

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. diverse interests of all the sciences concerned with human behavior” (p. 3). Moreover,

values provide a way of understanding an individual's decision making because values

are more likely to correspond to consumers’ beliefs and behaviors (Blackwell et al.,

2001), and they serve to guide people’s lives (Kahle, 1983; Schwartz, L992). hi addition

to utilizing values as one of the criterion to understand human behavior, Boote (1981)

suggested that personal values’ information may also provide mote distinct groupings of

consumers of a product or service for the purpose of market segmentation more so than

other bases of consumer grouping such as demographics.

Rokeach (1973) postulated “values are guides and determinants of social attitudes

and ideologies on the one hand and social behavior on the other” (p. 24). Similarly,

Kahle (1983) considered values may serve as principal guidelines to roles in individuals’

daily life, hi value-behavior relation, variables such as attitudes, preferences, and

behavioral intention also contribute to understanding consumer behaviors.

Consequently, the relationship between personal values and behavior is dynamic and

complex rather than simple and direct.

Personal Values and Attitudes. According to Katz’s (1960) theory of attitude

function, attitudes can serve a value-expressive function, such that attitudes may express

central values and components of an individual’s self-concept, hi addition, the construct

of attitudes can function as a moderator in value-behavior relation such as the hierarchy

of value-attitude-behavior (Homer & Kahle, 1988). See Figure 1.1 for a depiction of the

manner in which attitudes (as a value expressive construct) may influence behaviors.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ATTITUDES PREFERENCESBEHAVIORBEHAVIORAL INTENTION

Figure 1.1: Constructs Leading to Choice (Reibstein, 1978)

Attitudes and Preferences. Blackwell et al. (2001) indicated that attitudes represent

what people like or dislike, which determine consumer intentions. Consumers with

favorable attitudes toward a product are more likely to hold favorable consumption

intentions, although these favorable attitudes toward a product do not automatically

translate into favorable consumption intentions. Consequently, attitudes are sometimes

measured in the form of preferences.

Preferences and Behaviors. Reibstein (1978) stated that the constructs leading to

consumers' choice included attitudes, preference, and behavioral intention (see Figure

1.1). “Behavior is usually preceded by behavioral intention” (Reibstein, 1978, p. 163),

and preference is a predictor of behavioral intention. In turn, preferences are the

subsequences of attitudes that consumers have towards specific product category.

Reibstein indicated that “the closer the construct is to actual behavior, the more accurate

it should be in predicting actual behavior” (p. 163). Although behavioral intentions are

far from being a perfect predictor of behavior, understanding consumers' intentions,

under the right circumstances, may accurately predict their future behaviors (Blackwell et

al., 2001).

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Personal Values and Consumption Decisions. The manner in which personal

values may influence consumption frequency may be illustrated by applications to the

consumer decision making process as revealed in Blackwell, Miniard, and Engle’s

(2001) Consumer Decision Process model (CDP) model (Figure 1.2). Since businesses

operate in a hypercompetitive and consumer-oriented environment, understanding

consumer behavior becomes more important than ever. Blackwell et al. (2001)

indicated, “Developing consumer-based corporate strategy requires a thorough

understanding of consumer trends, global consumer markets, models to predict purchase

and consumption patterns and communication method to reach target market most

effectively” (p. 35). The CDP model serves this purpose. It illustrates a roadmap of

consumers’ minds with regard to how they reach purchase decisions. “The model

captures the activities that occur when decisions are made in a schematic format and

shows how different internal and external forces interact and affect how consumers think,

evaluate, and act” (Blackwell et al., 2001, p. 71).

According to the CDP model, consumers typically go through seven major stages

when making purchase decisions: need recognition, search for information, pre-purchase

evaluation, purchase, consumption, post-purchase evaluation, and divestment. The

types of decision process and factors involved in the extent of problem solving also

influence consumers’ purchasing decision. Aside from the seven stages of the

decision-making process, consumers will also be influenced by factors from three

different aspects: individual differences, environment influences, and psychological

processes. One of the individual factors listed in the CDP model that undoubtedly

influences consumers’ decisions is value. For example, if the personal value of

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. self-fulfillment is salient to an individual, that value may represent the need the individual

is seeking to satisfy, it may also influence the individual’s search for information, it may

influence the evaluation of other options (such that those that are not in alignment with

that value may not be evaluated favorably), it may influence the actual purchase decision

(i.e., lower risk because of the value salience the product represents), and it may also

influence the individual’s post evaluation of the consumption experience and decisions

regarding subsequent behavioral decisions, hi each case, the decision process was

influenced by the individual’s personal value of being self-fulfilled.

Need Recognition

internal Environmental Search Search Influences •Culture •Social Class •Personal Influences Exposure •Family •Situation Stimuli Attention *■ Pre-Purchase ■Marketer Evaluation of Dominated Alternatives * Individual Differences •Nonmarketer •Consumer Resources Dominated Memory •Motivation and Involvement •Knowledge Acceptance * •Attitudes •Personality, Values, and Lifestyle______Retention Post-Consumpuon Evaluation

Figure 1.2: The Consumer Decision Process Model (Blackwell et al.,

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Consequent to the manner in which personal values influence the decision making

process, personal values may also influence the frequency of the consumption behavior.

For example, a consumption behavior that represents a salient personal value to an

individual is more likely to be satisfying, and satisfying experiences are more likely to be

repeated. Thus, notwithstanding the influence of attitudes, preferences, and behavioral

intentions, it is likely that personal values may exert a direct influence on consumption

frequency.

Although personal values may only account for a small amount of variance in terms

of explaining behavior outcomes, personal values significantly influence consumption

behavior (R. D. Blackwell, personal communication, November 28,2001). Based on

information previously presented, with regard to the relationship between personal values

and consumption behavior, the entire process of value-behavior relationship may be

influenced by intervening variables such as attitudes, preferences, and behavioral

intentions. Therefore, it may be inferred that attitudes can be an antecedent of personal

values, and may serve a value-expressive function (Katz, I960). Moreover, preferences

can serve as a measurement of attitudes (Blackwell et al., 2001), and may influence

behavioral intention as well. Also, based on the consumer decision making process,

personal values may also influence behavioral frequency. Therefore, it is the contention

of this research that: (a) an individual’s personal values may influence his/her

consumption preferences and consumption behavior frequency, and (b) an individual's

consumption preferences may influence the frequency in which the individual engages in

consumption behaviors.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Personal Values and SportConsumptions The behavior under investigation in this

study was sport consumption. Shank (1999) defined sport as a source of diversion or

physical activity engaged in for pleasure. Sport is comprised of highly organized and

structured competitive events (football games, basketball games, etc.) as well as the less

structured leisure activities in which individuals may partake (tennis, bowling,

racquetbail, etc.). There are a myriad of ways in which individuals may consume sport.

Individuals may attend sport events as spectators, they may engage in physical activities

as participants, or they may partake of sport via the media such as listening to sports on

the radio or watching sports on television. Research has mainly focused on participants

and spectators as the two main consumer groups for sport, mid has revealed some

psychological and behavioral differences between the two groups. For instance, the

study of Burnett, Menon, and Smart (1993) indicated that type of participation and

gender did influence consumers’ attitude toward advertising and media consumption

habits. The findings also suggested that sport marketers should tailor different

marketing campaigns to approach participants and spectators respectively.

Just as an individual’s personal values may generally influence their consumption

preferences and behaviors (as discussed previously), such influence may also be evident

in their sport consumptions. For instance, ifsense o fbelonging is a very important

personal value for an individual, then it is likely that the individual will prefer sport

activities that provide a sense of belonging (such as group or team sports) and

consequently, they may frequently attend (spectate), participate in, and consume via the

media sports that foster a sense of belonging. The relationships between personal values,

sport consumption preferences, and frequency of sport consumption behaviors examined

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. in this study are presented in the Figure 13.

Snort Consumption Snort Consumption Preferences Frequency Personal Sport Spectating Sport Spectating Values Sport Participating Sport Participating Sport Media Consumption Sport Media Consumption

Figure 13: Relationship Between Personal Values and Sport Consumption

Problem Statement

Although sport has diffused on a global scale, little theoretical work has been done

to investigate sport consumption behavior in cross-cultural or cross-national settings, hi

this study, the United States and Taiwan were chosen as the two populations for a

comparison of cultural settings. These populations were appropriate for this

investigation due to the following reasons. First, the United States is considered as an

individualist society, whereas Taiwan is considered a collectivist society (Schutte &

Ciarlante, 1998). These two different predominant cultural characteristics allow for

cross-cultural comparisons. Second, Taiwan is among the world's top 20th largest

economies. Its continually rising living standards and disposable income encourages the

citizens of Taiwan to seek more sport and recreational oriented lifestyle (The Republic of

China Yearbook - Taiwan, 2001) and to consume sport related services and products.

Additionally, with well-developed amateur and professional sports and media

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. infrastructures, such as ESPN Taiwan, Fox Sports, and other local sport channels,

Taiwan’s consumers are quite familiar with various types of sport activities that will

encourage international marketing opportunities for American sport marketers.

However, the multicultural global appeal of sport requires a stringent analysis of the

factors that may influence success with consumers in different cultural settings.

Via Kahle’s List of Values (LOV), this study investigated the influence of personal

values on sport consumers’ sport consumption preferences and sport consumption

behavior frequency. Studying the construct of personal values (as an important variate

of culture) should contribute to a better understanding of the needs and wants of global

sport consumers because values are believed to occupy the center of a person’s cognitive

system and serves as the principal guidance to people’s daily life. Therefore, the results

of this study should offer valuable insight into marketing sport on a global platform.

In addition, consumer preferences and behaviors may be the consequences of

personal values (Kahle, 1983;Rokeach, 1973). Hence, in order to measure consumer

preferences and behavioral intentions more specifically, three sport consumption patterns

were studied, including preference and frequency of attending sporting events,

participating in sport activities, and watching sport related programs on TV.

Purpose of the Study

The overall objective of the study was to examine factors that may influence

cross-cultural and global sport marketing. The primary purposes of this study are to: (a)

identify the differences and similarities of personal values between consumers in two

different cultural settings, (b) examine the influence of personal values on the sport

consumption preferences and behaviors of consumers in different cultural settings, and (c)

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. devise value-specific marketing strategies for the respective samples under investigation.

Research Questions

Under the assumption that personal values may influence sport consumption

preferences and behaviors, the following research questions were examined:

(1) Do consumers from different cultural settings (i.e. United States and Taiwan) report

different values?

(2) To what extent do personal values influence sport consumption preferences of

American and Taiwanese students differently?

(3) To what extent do personal values influence sport consumption behavior frequency of

American and Taiwanese students differently?

(4) To what extent do sport consumption preferences correlate with sport consumption

behavior frequency of American and Taiwanese students?

Limitations

A major limitation of this study was lack of generalizability due to the fact that the

data were obtained from judgment sample instead of random sample. Therefore, the

results obtained may not be applicable to student/consumers beyond this sample.

Another limitation of this study dealt with the measurement of outcome variables of sport

consumption behaviors. According to several consumer behavior studies (Homer &

Kahle, 198S; Blackwell et al., 2001), consumption behavior may be influenced not only

by personal values, but also by variables such as needs, motivations, and self-concept to

name a few. The focus of this current study was on exploring the relationship between

personal values and sport consumption preferences and behaviors and the possible

influences that personal values may have on behavior outcomes. Therefore, the

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. outcome of sport consumption preferences and behaviors affected by variables other than

personal values would not be assessed. As such, this study was not an exhaustive

examination of the value construct or the phenomenon of culture. This study cannot

account for the transitory nature of personal values, but merely attempts to identify the

relationship between personal values and sport consumption patterns at this particular

moment.

The study utilized both survey research and correlational research. According to

Fraenkel and Wallen (2000), it is important that survey research: (a) ensures the questions

to be answered are clear and not misleading, (b) encourages respondents to answer

questions thoughtfully and honestly, and (c) acquires a sufficient number of the

questionnaires completed and returned so that meaningful analyses can be made. The

questionnaire was developed to adhere to these considerations. However, a limitation of

using survey research to measure values is that value is such a multidimensional

construct that survey questions may not accurately quantify or capture the complexity of

human values.

Operational Definitions

The definitions of the respective constructs utilized in the context of this study are as

follows:

Personal Values—In the context of this study, personal values were defined as such:

an enduring, desirable end-state that when realized or actualized within a specific cultural

context provide a basis for behaviors (Kahle, Rose, and Shoham, 2000).

Culture—Culture refers to a set of values, ideas, artifacts, and other meaningful

symbols that help individuals communicate, interpret and evaluate as members of society

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. (Blackwell et aL, 2001). The focus of this study was on culture as influenced by

geographical location. The two cultural settings for this study were the United States

and Taiwan.

Cross-Cultural Analysis - Cross-cultural analyses involves comparisons of

similarities and differences between at least two cultures (Blackwell et al., 2001).

hi the context of this study, a cross-cultural analysis was performed by examining the

similarities and differences between the influence of personal values of consumers in the

cultural settings of the United States and Taiwan.

Sport Consumption Behaviors - Blackwell et al. (2001) referred to consumer

behavior as “activities people undertake when obtaining, consuming, and disposing of

products and services” (p. 6). hi the context of this study, sport consumption behaviors

referred to activities undertaken by sport consumers such as actively participating in sport

activities, spectating sport activities, and watching sport programs on television.

Summary of Introduction

As a result of integrated world economic and advanced technology, the market

territory of sport industry is no longer limited to North America. Technology innovation,

such as the World Wide Web and digital satellite television, has globalized the

distribution of sport and has enhanced sport marketers’ ability to implement marketing

strategies across countries in a global manner. Globalization, undoubtedly, is an

inevitable trend for any sport organizations that want to have a competitive advantage in

the world marketplace to follow. However, an effective global strategy does not rely

only on having high quality products and dazzling marketing program, but also on

understanding the cultural differences of global consumers that may influence marketing

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. effectiveness.

Values serve as guiding principles to our everyday lives (Kahle, 1983; Schwartz,

1992), and provide a foundation for attitudes and behaviors (Homer & Kahle, 1988).

Among all the variates of culture, personal values, the focus of current study, have been

considered significant influences on consumer preferences, behavioral intentions, and

ultimately behaviors. Therefore, understanding the role and influence of personal

values on sport consumption is a necessity long-term successful global (i.e., international

and cross-cultural) sport marketing strategy. Obtaining insight into this phenomenon

was the impetus for this study.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

This current study focuses on understanding the influences of personal values on

sport consumption preferences and behaviors in a cross-cultural setting. In order to

establish a theoretical foundation for this study, this chapter presents various values

theories, as well as the related studies from the perspective of consumer behavior. This

chapter began with a review of three major value scales of Rokeach (1973). Kahle (1983).

and Schwartz (1992), and followed by a discussion of the influences of personal values

on consumers’ decision-making process.

Rokeach’s Value Scale (RVS)

Rokeach (1973) stated clearly at the beginning of his book - “The Nature of Human

Values” that the concept of values should be “scientifically fruitful, should satisfy at least

certain criteria” (p. 3). Value concepts should be capable of operational definition, and

should be distinguishable horn other concepts, such as attitudes, social norms, and needs.

Under these criteria, Rokeach indicated that the conception of human values were guided

by five prevailing assumptions, which are: (1) the total number of values that a person possesses is relatively small; (2) all men everywhere possess the same values to different degree; (3) values are organized into value systems; (4) the antecedents of human values can be traced to culture, society and its institutions, and personality; 17

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. (5) the consequences of human values will be manifested in virtually all phenomena that social scientists might consider worth investigating and understanding, (p. 3) These assumptions highlighted “values” as a significant construct to understand people’s

attitudes and behaviors. Rokeach further contended, “the concept of values, more than

any others, should occupy a central position...being able to unify the apparently diverse

interest of all the sciences concerned with human behavior” (Rokeach, 1973, p. 3). Rokeach provided the definition of a value and a value system as follows: A value is an enduring belief that a specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence. A value system is an enduring organization of beliefs concerning preferable modes of conduct or end-states of existence along a continuum of relative importance, (p. 5). Based on this definition, values are beliefs which embody three essential components: (a)

cognition about desires, (b) affection and associations with emotions, and (c) a behavioral

component that leads to action when activated (Rokeach, 1973). In addition, a value

represents a preference, and which may be preferred socially or personally. Rokeach

postulated that same values may be shard or not shared among people within the same

society, but any value or values preferred socially may be employed to serve as standards

to encourage people to follow.

From the perspective of conceiving values as modes of conduct or end-states of

existence, Rokeach defined two kinds of values: (a) terminal values, and (b) instrumental

values. Terminal values refer to end-states of existence. Values of this type are either

social or personal, or intrapersonal or interpersonal values. Instrumental values are

modes of conduct that relate to morality or competence. Table 2.1 provides Rokeach’s

18 term ina l values and 18 instrumental values. Terminal and instrumental values

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. represent “two separate yet functionally interconnected systems, wherein all the values

concerning modes of behavior are instrumental to the attainment of all the values

concerning end-states” (Rokeach, 1973, p. 12). Although, values can function in either

terminal or instrumental setting, they may not necessarily correspond to each other.

Rokeach’s (1973) aforementioned assumptions stated that people only possess

relatively small number of values organized in a value system. Therefore, the question

arises: What function do values serve? Values can be used as standards to guide

people’s behavior. When a given situation activates several values and creates conflicts,

a value system will serve as a general plan for a person to resolve conflict and make

decisions. Additionally, Rokeach argued, “if the immediate function of values and value

systems are to guide human action in daily situations, their more long-range functions are

to give expression to basic human needs” (p. 14). In other words, values have a strong

motivational component serving the functions of adjustive, ego-defensive, knowledge,

and self-actualization (Rokeach, 1973, p. 15-16).

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Terminal Value Instrumental Value A comfortable life Ambitious (a prosperous life) (hard-working, aspiring) An exciting life Broadminded (a stimulating* active life) (open-minded) A sense of accomplishment Capable (lasting contribution) (competent, effective) A world at peace Cheerful (free of war and conflict) (lighthearted, joyful) A wodd of beauty Clean (beauty o f nature and the arts) (neat* tidy) Equality (brotherhood, equal Courageous opportunity for all) (standing up for your beliefs) Family security Forgiving (taking care of loved ones) (willing to pardon others) Freedom Helpful (independence, bee choice) (working for the welfare of others) Happiness Honest (contentedness) (sincere, truthful) Inner harmony Imaginative (freedom from inner conflict) (daring* creative) Mature love Independent (sexual and spiritual intimacy) (self-reliant, self-sufficient) National security Intellectual (protection from attack) (intelligent* reflective) Pleasure Logical (an enjoyable* leisurely life) (consistent* rational) Salvation Loving (saved* eternal life) (affectionate, tender) Self-respect Obedient (self-esteem) (dutiful, respectful) Social recognition Polite (respect* admiration) (courteous, well-mannered) True friendship Responsible (close companionship) (dependable, reliable) Wisdom Self-controlled (a mature understanding of life) (restrained, self-disciplined)

Table 2.1: Rokeach's Terminal and Instrumental Values (Rokeach* 1973* p. 28)

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Adapted from the concept of Mas low's (1954) hierarchical theory of motivation,

Rokeach proposed that according to the priority or importance of each value, people form

a hierarchy of values. When we think about, talk about, or try to teach one of our values to others, we typically do so without remembering the other values, thus regarding them as absolutes. But when one value is actually activated, the behavioral outcome will be a result of the relative importance of all the competing values that situation has activated, (p. 6) Moreover, Rokeach considered that “different subsets of values may differentially serve

Maslow’s safety, security, love, self-esteem, and self-actualization needs” (p. 16).

Consequently, the concept of values ranging from lower- to higher-order is consistent

with Maslow’s hierarchy of needs ordered from the most important to the least important.

Rokeach’s (1973) Value Scale (RVS) has been used to investigate a wide range of

topics in marketing, consumer behavior, and advertising, especially in cross-cultural

settings. For instance, Rustogi, Hensel, and Burgers (1996) proposed a framework (see

Figure 2.1) to examine the linkage between personal values and advertising towards sex

and humor appeals in advertising across two different cultural settings - India and the

United States.

Personal Values Domain-Specific Values Attitude Toward Rokeach Value Survey ^ on Sex/Humor ^ Sex/Humor Advertising Appeals

^ Attitude Toward Advertising in General

Figure 2.1: ^felue to Attitude Structure Model (Rustogi etal., 1996) 21

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. In order to accurately estimate the relationship between personal values and attitudes, this

framework; incorporated not only RVS, but also the concept of domain-specific values

proposed by Scott and Lamont (1973). Since the relationship between personal values

and specific attitudes are not always entirely direct, Scott and Lamont (1973) identified a

three-level hierarchy of values: (a) global values, (b) domain-specific values, and (c)

evaluative beliefs, hi a subsequent study, Vinson, Scott and Lamont (1997) applied this

hierarchy to assess consumers' thoughts about automobiles. The findings of Vinson et

al. (1997) showed that personal values, mediated by domain-specific values (the domain

being automobiles), affected consumers' attitudes towards automobile brands.

Consequently, Rustogi et al. (1996) followed Scott and Lamont's (1973) framework

to interpose domain-specific values (values specific to the domains of humor and sex) in

the measured model. The findings of Rustogi et al. (1996) showed only small

differences in personal values, which were consistent with Rokeach's (1973) assumption

that all men everywhere possess the similar values but to different degree. However, the

personal values of India and American students were linked differently to

domain-specific values, and to attitudes. Rustogi et al. (1996) indicated that the

differences are not because people possess various values, but because people come from

different culture backgrounds. Different cultures represent the different ways in which

people link basically similar personal values to the domain-specific values and to

attitudes. Therefore, people may have similar personal values and priority, but they still

differ in terms of linking personal values to domain-specific values and to attitudes due to

the influences from their cultural backgrounds. The study of Rustogi et al. (1996)

suggested to advertising managers the importance of understanding personal values, as

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. well as cultural differences while implementing a standardized global advertising

campaign.

Similarly, Lascu, Manrai, and Manrai (1996) utilized RVS to examine the

differences between Polish and Romanian consumers in terms of their value orientation

(terminal and instrumental values), and the relationship between value orientation and

demographics (age, education, and income) in these two cultural settings. Their study

argued for the existence of substantial differences between consumer segments in

different countries - Polish and Romanian in this case, even though these countries were

located within the same region. To prove this argument, Lascu et al. (1996)

hypothesized that age and income would be positively correlated with terminal and

instrumental values for Polish consumers, but not with Romanian consumers. Also,

education would be negatively correlated with terminal and instrumental values for

Polish consumers, but not with Romanian consumers. The results suggested that

demographics - age, education and income, can be an effective criterion of targeting

consumers with different value structures in Poland, but not for Romania. Lascu et al.

(1996) indicated that this finding could be attributed to the differences in historical,

religious, political and economic developments between Poland and Romania. Romania

has been isolated from the other countries in the region such that its value system tends to

be influenced by social traditions. On the other hand, Polish has been exposed to

Western media, tourism, urbanization, and industrialization; therefore, its value system is

more likely to be affected more by individuals' experience than by tradition. However,

with the political, economic, and technological changes in Romania, Romanians' values

are gradually transformed, as well as their consumption patterns. Since values are

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. enduring and changing (Rokeach, 1973), the relationship between demographic

characteristics and terminal and instrumental values in Romania will become more

similar to the equivalent relationship in Poland. Thus, a significant implication for

marketers is that by understanding the relationship between value systems and consumer

demographics, the effectiveness of market segmentation will be enhanced.

List of Values (LOV)

One alternative value measurement instrument is the List of Values (LOV), used to

measure social values and was developed by researchers at the University of Michigan

Survey Research Center (Kahle 1983; Veroff, Douvan, & Kulka 1981). The theoretical

bases of LOV was derived primary from social adaptation theory, which considers the

major function of values is to assist individuals to adapt to their environment, as well as

from Feather's (1977) approach viewing abstraction as another function of values,

Maslow’s (1954) hierarchy of needs, and Rokeach’s (1973) terminal and instrumental

values discussed previously.

Values are “central to people's lives in that what they rate highly is what they prize,

hold in esteem, and nurture” (Kahle & Timmer, 1983, p. 44). hi Kahle andTimmer’s

view, values are a type of social cognition, whereas the primary function of social

cognition is adaptation. Piaget (1952) asserted that a function of cognition is to

facilitate the process of adaptation to one’s environment. “There is an adaptation when

the organism is transformed by the environment and when this variation results in an

increase in the interchanges between the environment and itself which are favorable to

preservation” (Piaget, 1952, p. 5). Based on Piaggt’s concept, Kahle’s (1983) sodai

adaptation theory suggested that individuals acclimatized themselves to different social

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. coles through the development and fulfillment of values. Value development is through

accumulation of life experiences* and interaction with other members within the society.

Also* values may be assimilated into or accommodated by individuals' existing cognitive

structures which serve as principal guidelines to roles in daily life, such as marriage*

work* parenting, leisure* and daily consumption (Kahle, 1983).

Abstraction, another important function of values* “works in concert with

adaptation’' (Kahle & Timmer* 1983* p. 51). As previously mentioned* values are

considered as a type of social cognition* and “cognition serves to reduce the infinite

number of stimuli* which constantly impinge on a person* to a manageable number of

abstract generalizations" (Kahle & Timmer, 1983, p. 51). Thus, during the process of

social adaptation, abstractions will gradually become congruent with adaptation to

promote interchange between an individual and his or her environment. According to

Kahle and Timmer. Adaptation abstractions emerge continuously from a process of assimilation, accommodation, organization, and integration of environmental information and thought* in order to promote interchanges between the individual and the environment that* from the individual’s perspective, are favorable to preservation and optimal functioning, (p. 51). As a result, values are the most abstract elements of social cognition, which reflects the

most basic characteristics of adaptation. “The abstraction in a sense provides a

prototype from which behaviors are manufactured” (Kahle & Timmer, 1983, p. 51).

The nine values of LOV were extracted from eighteen terminal values from RVS,

Maslow’s (1954) hierarchy of values* and other value researches. These include

self-respect* sense of accomplishment* being well respected* security* warm relationships

with others, sense of belonging* fun and enjoyment in life* self-fulfillment* and

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. excitement- The category of excitement, for most of the time, was folded into the value

of fun and enjoyment because excitement has seldom been selected as first choice for the

majority of subjects (Kahle & Kennedy, 1989). Kahle (1996) indicated that the LOV

not only has established itself as a reliable value measurement instrument through

thousands of correlates with ratings and rankings of the items in the LOV (cf. Kahle,

1983,1994; Kahle & Kennedy, 1989), but can also provide a personality-like description

(see Table 2 2 ) of how individuals identify with each value and adapt to their

environments.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ______Values______Description______Self-respect The Value most frequently selected in the United States, it is selected by the least distinctive consumers- People who endorse self-respect as most important engage in social identity purchasing and display high levels of health consciousness.

Security A deficit value, endorsed by people who lack economic and psychological security. It is associated with purchasing for self-indulgence and with a desire for quality.

Warm Relationships An excess value endorsed especially by women consumers who have a lot of with others friends and who are themselves friendly. People who value warm relationships are characterized by purchasing for patriotism, deal proneness, and the belief that “ads are informative."

Sense o f They are mostly male consumers who endorse this value have made significant accomplishment accomplishments in their lives. This value is associated with conspicuous consumption, purchasing for sex appeal, self-indulgence, and convenience.

Self-fulfillment These consumers are relatively fulfilled economically, educationally, and emotionally. They are typically young professionals and tend to make purchases that emphasize quality, self-indulgence, convenience, patriotism, entertainment, conspicuous consumption, and brand loyalty.

Being well respected These people pose an interesting contrast to those representing contrast to those representing self-respect. Self-respect requires the cooperation of others, whereas being well respected can be achieved alone. Consumers who value this segment are associated with a strong desire for quality, company reputation, patriotism, social identity, health consciousness, and brand loyalty, and in surveys of mental health, are much better adjusted.

Sense of belonging This value also requires the help of others. Similar to warm relationships with others, it is a social value selected more by women than men. But sense of belonging is less reciprocal than warm relationships, and seems to result in greater conformity and dependency. Consumers who value sense of belonging believe that “you get what you pay for;” they admire voluntary simplicity, purchasing for company reputation, patriotism, nostalgia, brand consciousness, brand loyalty, deal proneness, and health consciousness. This is a home and family oriented value.

Fun and enjoyment This value has been increasing in popularity, especially among young people. in life* Rather than the hedonistic attitude one might associate with this value, consumers who specify fun and enjoyment in life believe in living life on life’s term, a “stop and smell the rose” philosophy. These people respond most favorably to survey questions designed to measure involvement with leisure-time activities. This value is associated with purchasing for elegance, convenience, nostalgia, patriotism, authenticity, and brand consciousness. *Notez include subsumes the value o f excitement

Table 2.2: Brief Description of the Items of the List of Values (LOV) (Kahle, L996; Kahle etal.,2001) 27

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. In addition, the findings of several researches have supported that nine items of the

LOV can be grouped into internal and external loci of control (Kahle, 1983; Homer &

Kahle, 1988; Kahle, Beatty & Homer, 1986). Rotters (1955) referred to locus of control

as the degree to which a person feels that the control of his or her world belongs to self, at

one extreme, or fate, at the other. Rotter, Seeman, and Liverant (1962) first introduced

the concept of two poles of locus of control. Internal-oriented values include

self-respect, self-fulfillment, warm relationships with others, fun and enjoyment,

excitement, and sense of accomplishment, whereas external-oriented values include sense

of belonging, being well-respected, and security. Kahle (1983) indicated that

individuals with strong internal-oriented values tend to depend on their inner strength to

wrestle with life's problems, and believe that they have the power of influence and

control outcome. On the contrary, individuals with strong external-oriented values rely

more on fate and luck to overcome problems in life, but not on their own ability.

From the standpoint of consumer research, the LOV has been used to examine the

relationship between values, attitudes, and behaviors. Several studies have showed that

values may be correlated with attitudes and behaviors. For example, Homer and Kahle

(1988) used the LOV to examine the influence of social values on nutrition attitudes, and

shopping and spending behaviors. The findings showed that people who have more

internally oriented values (i.e. self-fulfillment, fun and enjoyment in life, sense of

accomplishment, and self-respect) and less externally oriented values (sense of belonging,

being well-respected, and security) tend to concern more about nutrition and food

activities, as well as put extra effort to involve in purchasing the most nutritious food at

natural food store. Another significant finding was that the association between values

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. and nutrition attitudes was stronger than the association between values and shopping

behaviors, fit addition, nutrition attitudes significantly influenced natural food shopping

behaviors. Homer and Kahle (1988) indicated that the hypothesis of value —► attitude

—► behavior hierarchy was supported in the contort of natural food shopping; however,

these findings need to be further examined in other settings.

Personal values also can be used as a criterion for market segmentation. The study

completed by Madrigal and Kahle (1994) examined whether vacation activity importance

ratings differed across segments comprised of tourists homogeneously grouped on the

basis of the LOV. Madrigal and Kahle (1994) hypothesized that the values that

constitute the LOV would represent a smaller number of domains that reflect either

external or internal orientations, and segments comprised of tourists with similar value

systems would differ in their importance ratings of vacation activities. Principal

components factor analysis with varimax rotation was used on the nine value ratings and

18 activities, and the analysis yielded four-factor loadings of values: external (sense of

belonging, being well respected, and security), enjoyment/excitement (fun and enjoyment

in life, and excitement), achievement (sense of accomplishment, and self-fulfillment), and

egocentrism (self-respect, and warm relationship with others), and four activity factors,

which including culture, outdoor, exercise, and roots. The findings revealed that

individuals who valued personal achievement and enjoyment/excitement also appear to

value outdoor activities. Also, men who are younger were more likely to value the

enjoyment/excitement domain more highly than women who are older, while the latter

group places greater emphasis in external values. Although both demographic and

value differences explained tourists' activity preferences, Madrigal and Kahle (1994)

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. indicated that value systems alone were better predictors. Besides identifying personal

values as a significant segmentation variable, tins study highlighted the importance of

understanding personal values combined with a destination's attributes, tourists'

demographics and needs in identifying segment profiles in terms of tourism marketing.

Kahle, Rose, and Shoham (1999) concluded, “values do not partition neatly along

geographic lines” (p. 4). Indeed, some countries have the same most frequently

endorsed value, however, the geographic locations are totally different. The figures in

Table 2.3 listed several cross-national values studies by employing the LOV as a

measurement instrument. These empirical findings demonstrated that values could be a

base of segmenting cross-national consumers. For example, self-fulfillment and warm

relationships with others are the two most frequently endorsed values of Japanese and

French; and self-respect is the most frequently endorsed value of Americans and Danes.

Also, both warm relationships with others and sense of accomplishment could serve as a

basis for segmentation across France and the United States. Assessing the primary and

secondary values and correlations provided in Table 2 3 could reveal more information.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Value France BRD Denmark Norway US USSR Japan Self-fulfillment 30.9% 4.8% 7.1% 7.7% 6.5% 8.8% 36.7% Sense of belonging 1.7 28.6 13.0 33.4 5.1 23.9 2 3 Security 6 3 24.1 6 3 10.0 16.5 5.7 10.9 Self-respect 7.4 12.9 29.7 16.6 23.0 10.1 4.7 Warm relationships 17.7 7 9 113 13.4 19.9 2 3 3 27.6 with others Fun and enjoyment in 16.6 10.1 16.8 3.6 7 2 9.7 7 3 life/excitement Being well respected 4.0 6.1 5.0 8.4 5.9 83 2.1 Sense of 15.4 5.4 10.9 6.8 15.9 10.1 83 accomplishment TOTAL 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% N 175 1008 239 413? 997 321 387 Sources: Beatty et aL, 1990; Grunert and Scherhom, 1990; Kahle, Beatty, and Homer, 1989; Kahle, Poulos, and Sukhdial, 1988, Reprintedfrom Kahle. Beatty, and Mager (1994)

Table 2.3: Most Important Social Values in Several Countries

Another study utilized the LOV in Taiwan was conducted by Kau and Yang (1993).

This study attempted to (a) investigate choice of values by Taiwanese consumers and

compare the findings in other parts of the world (i.e. Singapore, U.S., and West Germany),

(b) develop the demographic profiles of Taiwanese holding diffemt personal values in life,

and (c) examine the relationship between value choice and demographic characterisitcs

with consumption behaviors, particular with an foucs on product consumptions and brand

preferences. Instead of using the nine items of the LOV, Kau and Yang reclassified

them into four value groups, which are: (a) respect (self-respect, and being well

respected), (b) harmony (security, sense of belonging, and warm relationships with

others), (c) achievement (self-fulfillment, and sense of accomplishment), and (d)

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. hedonism (fan and enjoyment in life, and excitement). The value orientations of the

respondents in Taiwan, Singapore, the United States, and the former West Germany were

presented in Table 2.4. According to the figures in Table 2.4, the value group of

harmony was most favored by the respondents from Taiwan, which was higher than that

reported in the U.S. (45%) and Singapore (57%). Comparing the percentage of

respondents choosing the value group of respect between Taiwan and the U.S., the U.S.

was 13 percent higher than the Taiwan. With regard to the relationship between value

choice and demographic characterisitcs with consumption behaviors, the findings

indicated that demograpic characteristics were correlated with personal values.

However, demogrpahic variables appeared to show stonger dependency relationship with

product usage and brand preferences than personal values did. Moreover, another

rinding about Taiwanese consumers’ life aspirations and satisfactions indicated that the

top rive wishes in life were health, security, happiness, freedom, and wealth.

Values Taiwan Singapore* US.** W. Germany*

Harmony 61 57 45 61 Respect 17 17 30 19 Achievement 15 19 21 10 Hedonism 7 7 4 10 (100) (100) (100) (100) Sample Size 1782 2104 2235 1008 Source : Keng and Yang (1993) *Adaptedfrom Kau (1990) **Adaptedfrom Kahle (1983) +Adaptedfrom Grunert & Scherhom (1990)

Table 2.4: Percentage Distribution of Personal Values

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Schwartz Values Scale (SVS)

Schwartz (1992,1994), extended on Rokeach’s value scale, proposed a theory of

basic human values distinguishing ten motivational types of values and specifying the

dynamic relations among the value types. Schwartz and Bilsky (1987) indicated that

values have five primary features. That is, values are: (a) concepts or beliefs, (b) about

desirable end states or behaviors, (c) transcend specific situation, (d) guiding the selection

or evaluation of behavior and events, and (5) ordered by relative importance. Based on

these features, Schwartz (1994) defined values as “desirable, transsituadonal goals,

varying in importances, that serve as guiding principles in the life of a person or other

society entity” (p.21). The definition of goal-oriented values connoted that values serve

the interests of some social entity, modvate acdon, function as standards of behavior, and

are acquired through individuals’ socialization and learning experiences of life (Schwartz

& Bilsky, 1987,1990; Schwartz, 1992,1994).

Schwartz (1994) indicated that “values represent, in the form of conscious goals,

responses to three universal requirements with which all individuals and societies must

cope: (a) needs of individuals as biological organisms, (b) requisites of coordinated social

interaction, and (c) requirements for the smooth functioning and survival of groups”

(p.21). Schwartz’s ten motivational types of values include: power, achievement,

hedonism, stimulation, self-direction, universalism, benevolence, tradition, conformity,

and security. These values were derived from the three universal requirements. For

example, the values of achievement were derived from the prerequisites of coordinated

social interaction and group survival. Also, achievement values emphasize performing

competence to cope with social standards, as well as social approval (Schwartz, 1992).

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Definition Exemplary values Sources Power: Social status and prestige, control or Social power authority, Interaction dominance over people and resources wealth Group

Achievement: Personal success through Successful capable Interaction demonstrating competence according to ambitious Group social standards.

Hedonism: Pleasure and sensuous gratification Pleasure Organism for oneself Enjoying life

Stimulation: Excitement, novelty, and challenge Daring, varied life, Organism in life exciting life

Self-direction: Independent thought and action - Creativity, curious Organism choosing, creating, exploring Freedom Interaction

Universalism: Understanding, appreciation, Broad-minded, social Group* tolerance, and protection for the welfare justice, equality Organism of all people and for nature

Benevolence: Preservation and enhancement Helpful Organism of the welfare of people with whom one is in Honest Interaction frequent personal contact Forgiving Group

Tradition: Respect, commitment, and acceptance Humble, devout Group of the customs and ideas that traditional Accepting my portion culture or religion provide in life

Conformity: Restraint of actions, inclinations, Politeness, obedient Group and impulses likely to upset or harm others Honoring parents and and violate social expectations or norms elders

Security: Safety, harmony, and stability of society, National security Organism of relationships, and of self Social order, clean Interaction Group

Table 2.5: Definition of Motivational Types of Values in Terms of Their Goals and the Single Values That Represent Them (Schwartz, 1992)

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. fit addition to proposing the content of ten motivational types of values* Schwartz

postulated that values would not have influence on attitudes and behaviors until there is

value conflict, hr other words, “actions taken in pursuit of each type of values have

psychological, practical, and social consequences that may conflict with or may be

compatible wit the pursuit of other values types” (Schwartz, 1996, p. 4). The

interrelations of conflict and compatibility among ten motivational types of values are

arranged in a circular structure of value systems with two dimensions of higher-order

bipolar value placed around the circle as presented in Figure 2.2.

Self-Transcendence Openness to Change Universalism

Simulation Benevolence

Hedonism Conformity Tradition

Achievement

Conservation Power Self-Enhancement

Source: Schwartz (1992,1994)

Figure 2.2: The Prototypical Structure of Value

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Schwartz (1994) argued that the differences between motivational types of values

are continuous instead of discrete. Therefore, the compatible value types sharing similar

motivational orientations are placed adjacent to each other. For instance, the values of

power and achievement both focus on seeking social status and personal success, and the

values of achievement and hedonism both emphasize self-centeredness. On the other

hand, the values located in opposite positions within the circle indicate the nature of

conflict among values with different motivational origins.

Two dimensions of higher-order bipolar value placed around the circle captured the

relations among competing value types. The first dimension set, Openness to Change

(combining self-direction and stimulation) versus Conservation (combining conformity,

tradition, and security), reflects a discrepancy between favoring change, independent

thought, and action, and emphasizing submissive self-restriction, preservation of

traditional practice, and protection of stability. The second dimension set,

Self-Transcendence (combining universalism and benevolence) versus Self-Enhancement

(combining achievement and power), reflects a discrepancy between favoring acceptance

of others and individuals’ welfare and focusing on pursuing personal success and

dominance over others. Hedonism shares both dimensions of Openness and

Self-Enhancement.

Several studies have indicated that Schwartz’s (1992) Values Scale (SVS) is a valid

instrument in terms of understanding the influence of personal values on consumer

behavior. For example, Grunert and Juhl (1995) investigated the applicability of

Schwartz’s value theory by utilizing SVS in explaining how personal values affect

consumer’s attitude towards environment and buying organic foods. Schwartz’s theory

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. on the universal content and structure of values was supported in this study. The authors

further concluded that SVS is a promising measurement instrument for cross-cultural

research in the area of consumer behavior.

Burgess and Steenkamp (1999) conducted a study using SVS to examine value

priorities of South African consumer to understand how antecedents and relevance of

values influence consumer behavior. The findings showed that those who placed more

importance on the value domain of openness to change tended to be male, younger, single,

and with higher incomes. The domain of conservation was more important for females,

older people, people with lower income and less education, and people living in rural

areas. Although income and ethnic cultural group were found to be more important than

value priorities in explaining actual behavior, the results still strongly supported the

validity of SVS.

Application of Value Scales to Sport Consumption

So far, three types of value measurement instruments and studies related to each

value scale have been introduced, hi general, one main theme that is addressed in all

three scales is that values have enduring and desirable characteristics, which serve as

guiding principles in people's lives. Conceptually, both Kahle's (1983) List of Values

(LOV) and Schwartz's (1992) Values Scales (SVS) are influenced by the work: of

Rokeach's (1973) Value Scale (RVS). Nevertheless, the three value instruments have

some different theoretical foundations in terms of functions and measured items of values.

In order to determine the most appropriate value scale to explore the relationship between

personal values and sport consumers' preferences and behaviors, a discussion of the three

values scales will be presented in the following content.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. From theoretical perspective, Rokeach (1973) postulated that values function as

standards guiding ongoing activities and as giving expression to human needs, whereas

value systems serve as general plans solving conflicts and making decision. Similar to

Rokeach’s motivation oriented values, Schwartz (1992 & 1994) indicated that what

distinguishes the ten value types he proposed is the different motivational goal each value

expresses. Moreover, the contents of Schwartz’s motivational types of values are under

the notion that values represent three universal requirements of human existence: (a)

biological needs, (b) requisites of coordinated social interaction, and (c) demands of

group survival and functioning. Meanwhile, Kahle (1983) felt that adaptation should be

the primary function of values because individuals adapt to various life roles in part

through the development and fulfillment of values, and through the interaction with their

environments. Abstraction is the second function of values, which works closely with

adaptation. Kahle indicated that if values reflect an individual’s most basic and

characteristics of adaptation, then abstraction will provide a prototype from which

behaviors are manufactured. Rokeach (1973) and Schwartz (1992 & 1994) perceived

the functions of values more from the motivation-driven standpoints. On the other hand,

Kahle (1983) believed that the primary function of values is to assist individuals to fit

into their roles and environment. Thus, these three value scales have some differences

and similarities in theoretical background.

The value scales of Rokeach (1973), Schwartz (1992 & 1994), and Kahle (1983) all

have been recognized as substantial approaches in terms of studying personal values.

Since the current study focuses on examining the relationship between personal values

and sport consumption preferences and behaviors, Kahle’s social adaptation theory may

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. provide a better theoretical exploitation of the influences of personal values on sport

consumption preferences and behaviors. The central tenet of social adaptation theory is

that individuals adapt to various life roles in part through the development and fulfillment

of values, and through the interaction with their environments. Therefore, consumers

may adjust their value priorities to adapt themselves to consume sport products and

services, as weQ as adjust their value priorities to play different roles and to adapt

different environments in their life such as being a student, a parent or an employee.

From methodological perspectives, Rokeach (1973) indicated that RVS is capable of

“describing the values of virtually any individual or group in quantitative terms and

comparing and contrasting them with those of any other individual group” (p. 323).

Subjects were asked to rank all 18 terminal and 18 instrumental values in order of

importance as guiding principles in their lives. However, even though RVS has been

widely used to measure personal values, the scale itself is not without criticisms.

Especially from the perspective of customer research, Clawson and Vinson (1978)

indicated that RVS has three major limitations associated with its use of ranking, and the

instructions and the time constrained to finish the questionnaire. It also omits some

substantial values related to daily life.

Kahle (1983) felt that to ask subjects to rank total 36 items in RVS maybe a bit

overwhelming because a classic experiment conducted by Peterson and Peterson (1959)

showed that information can only be held in short-term memory for 18 seconds.

Besides, the average unit of information for people to store in short-term memory is7 ,

with a range of plus or minus 2 items (Miller, 1956). Ranking method of value

instruments, like RVS, requires respondents to sort 18 options in short-term memory,

! Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. which may decrease the possibility of obtaining precise data. Consequently, Kahle

(1983) believed that the LOV should draw a better data set due to the fact that

respondents may define their values more carefully with a less time-consuming task that

has few categories. Moreover, the LOV measured on interval scales, allows researchers

to apply more sophisticated statistical analyses than the RVS’s rank ordering (Kahle,

1983). Derived from Rokeach’s 18 terminal values and other value researches, the LOV

consists of nine items that can be scored in a number of ways. For instances, each value

can be evaluated on a 9- or 10-point scale (from very unimportant to very important), or

the values can be ranked from the most to the least important The combination of these

two methods can also be employed where each value is rated on a 9- or 10-point scale

and then subjects are asked to identify the one or two most important values in their daily

lives (e.g., Kahle, 1983; Kahle et a t, 1986; Kahle & Kennedy, 1988).

Schwartz (1996) criticized that the items of RVS “are less well-defined, however,

and the coverage is less broad because power and tradition values are omitted” (p. 22).

Further, Schwartz (1996) revealed two problems related to the use of the LOV as value

instrument. First, the reliability of the LOV may be low because the LOV only uses

single items to measure nine values. The second drawback is that the LOV may have

less power of explaining the relationship between values and behavior due to the fact that

it omitted some important types of values, such as universalism, tradition, and conformity

values. SVS asks respondents to rate the importance of 56 values as “a guiding

principle in my life” by using a 9-point scale in which 7 = of supreme importance, 6 =

very important, 3 = important, 0 = not important, and -1 = opposed to my values. Among

current cross-cultural value instruments, Rose (1997) noted that the SVS may offer the

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. most promising approach to measure all human values. However, 56 items are still

redundant in applying to a marketing context. Thus, these three value scales have some

differences and similarities in terms of measuring people’s value system.

According to the previous discussion of three scales, the items of Kahle’s (1983)

LOV may better assess and capture the relationship between the construct of personal

values and sport consumption preferences and behaviors in two different cultural settings

of the current study. Although both Rokeach (1973) and Schwartz’s (1992 & 1994)

value scales have been well established and applied to various disciplines, the LOV

seems to more relevance to daily consumption, particularly to sport consumption. For

instance, RVS incorporated the items that may not be highly related to consumers’

decision-making process, such as a world at peace or a world of beauty in terminal values.

SVS has proved to be a valid scale to measure global values; its validity has not been

widely supported in consumer behavior research. Moreover, the LOV has been proved

as a valid scale to measure consumers across cultures, especially in both United States

and Taiwan (Kau & Yang, 1993). Since the purpose of the current study is to examine

the influence of personal values on sport consumption patterns, utilizing the LOV to

measure sport consumers’ values in two different cultural settings should provide a better

assessment.

In sum, no matter which scale is chosen, the RVS (rank only), the LOV (rating and

ranking) or the SVS (rating), each is not without its own problems and limitations. To

conduct an efficient sport consumer research in a cross-cultural setting, the LOV

instrument win be selected over other instruments because of the following reasons: (a)

the LOV demonstrates its reliability and validity in cross-cultural consumer research, (b)

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. the LOV questionnaire is shorter than other instruments such as RVS and SVS, and

therefore, it is more convenient for data collection, and (c) the inclusion of the

demographic variables in the LOV produced greater prediction capabilities (Novak &

MacEvoy, 1990).

The Role of Personal Values in the Consumer Decision Process Model

To understand the manner in which values may influence sport consumption

behavior frequency, it is important to discuss the consumer decision making process (as

mentioned briefly in Chapter I and presented in Figure 1.2). Within Blackwell et al.’s

(2000) Consumer Decision Process (CDP) model, personal values are categorized under

individual differences, which directly influence the first five stages of the consumer

decision process - need recognition, information search, pre-purchase evaluation of

alternatives, purchase and consumption.

Need recognition. Almost without exception, any purchase decision is originated

from a consumer’s need or a problem. “Need recognition occurs when an individual

senses a different between what he or she perceives to be the ideal versus the actual state

of affairs” (Blackwell et ai., 2001, p. 72). In other words, need recognition will not be

activated if there were no discrepancy between the actual state (the consumer’s current

situation) and the desired state (the situation the consumer wants to be in). Once

consumers’ need recognition being activated, their need recognition will correspond to

their values because values are enduring, desirable end-state which provide a basis for

behavior (Kahle, 1983).

On the other hand, since personal values have an enduring nature and serve as a

guide for people’s behavior, consumers’ need recognition may also be activated by

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. personal values. According to social adaptation theory, the primary theme of the LOV,

“individuals adapt to various life roles in part through value development and value

fulfillment” (Kahle, 1996, p. 135). Assuming a diehard fan of the Ohio State University

(OSU) football team who is a person with stronger internally oriented personal values

such as sense of accomplishment, the purpose of attending OSU football game may not

only to show his/her support to OSU football program, but also to fulfill his/her personal

values - sense of accomplishment Therefore, in the stage of need recognition, sport

consumers' values will either influence need recognition or become a consequence of

need recognition.

Search for information. After the occurrence of need recognition, consumers will

not necessarily start searching for information or solution to fulfill the unsatisfied needs.

Whether consumers will proceed with the purchasing process depends on the availability

of money and the time that need recognition is activated. If the unmet need has been

considered as pressing and necessary, consumers usually will search for solutions.

According to Blackwell et al. (2001), information search represents “the motivated

activation of knowledge stored in memory or acquisition of information from the

environment concerning potential need satisfiers” (p. 106).

During this stage, personal values may influence the information search because

personal values are considered as standards with enduring nature and representing

people's beliefs (Rokeach, 1973; Kahle, 1983). For example, if a person is more apt to

externally oriented values, such as sense of belonging, while searching the information

about what type of sport activities to participate or sport programs to watch on TV.

Hie/she is more likely to obtain information from external resource such as friends and

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. family because sense of belonging is a home and family oriented value. Since personal

values serve as a guidance of people's daily life, individuals will constantly refer to

personal values when obtaining information during the search process.

Pre-purchase evalnation of alternatives. Pre-purchase evaluation mainly deals with

choice of alternatives. During this stage, consumers are evaluating the options obtained

from the previous search process. Although search and pre-purchase evaluation are two

different stages in the CDP model, acquiring product knowledge usually involves some

evaluation, which may result in subsequent search. Thus, these two stages are

“intricately intertwined during decision making” (Blackwell et al., 2001, p. Ill), ha the

pre-purchase evaluation stage, consumers sometimes may not construct new evaluations,

instead, they retrieves the preexisting evaluations from memory. In addition, they may

use their value systems as criteria. According to Kahle’s (1983) LOV that the primary

function of values is adaptation, and adaptation involves fitting the person to the

environment, or vice versa. Also, values may be assimilated into or accommodated by

individuals’ existing cognitive structures which serve as principal guidelines to roles in

daily life, such as marriage, work, parenting, leisure, and daily consumption (Kahle,

1983). Taking the diehard OSU fan as an example, he/she may identify himself/herself

as an OSU fan, as well as play different roles in life such as a student, a consumer, or a

parent. While he/she playing a role as a sport consumer to participate in sport activities,

the chance that he/she will choose a high-risk sport (i.e. bungee jumping) might be low if

his/her emphasis value were security. Therefore, consumers’ pre-purchase evaluations

will be influenced by personal values, as well as other elements.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Purchase. In the stage of purchase, consumers need to deal with five major

questions: whether to buy, when to buy, what to buy, where to buy and how to buy

(Blackwell et aL, 2001). Before reaching the purchase decision, consumers may

terminate or defer the decision-making process because of lack of product availability,

changed motivations and circumstances, and new information (Dhar, 1997). hr addition,

the outcome of the decision might be totally different from the original one. The

decision may lead to a fully planned purchase (both the product and the brand are the

same as the pre-purchase decision), a partially planned purchase (the product is different

from the planned brand), or an unplanned purchase (both the product and the brand are

cfedded at the point of sale, and are totally different from what was previously planned).

Kahle (1983) indicated that individuals who favor the value of fun and enjoyment in

life are more likely to purchase for elegance, convenience, authentidty, and brand

consciousness. On the other hand, for those who endorse the value of self-fulfillment,

the purchase behavior will emphasize quality, entertainment, and brand loyalty.

Therefore, the purchase derision may be varied depending on an individual’s priority of

values. For instance, if a runner who has more externally oriented values such as

self-fulfillment, and would like to purchase a pair of running shoes. Since he/she

always has been a loyal customer of Nike, the chance he/she would buy a pair of Nike

running shoes is higher than buying other brand because the value he/she endorsed (i.e.

self-fulfillment) tends to emphasize on brand loyalty.

Consumption. Consumption occurs after consumers made the purchase and own

the product, and it usually refers to the usage of the purchased product. The terms of

user and nonuser are used to differentiate consumers that actually use the product from

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. those who do not (Blackwell et al., 2001). To better understand the usage of a product,

marketers need to assess consumption behavior from the following aspects: (a) when and

where does consumption occur? (b) how is the product consumed? and (c) how much is

consumed? Aside from consideration of consumption behavior, consumption

experience also takes a significant part in the overall consumption process, hi general,

there are three types of consumption experience. First, positive reinforcement occurs

when consumer experience positive outcome from product usage. A second experience

is negative reinforcement, which happens when consumers avoid some negative outcome

during consumption. The third experience is punishment, occurring when consumption

leads to negative outcome. For instance, a person highly endorses the values of sense of

accomplishment with a strong motivation to become a professional golfer. Comparing

to a consumer who perceives golf as a game and plays only couple times a year, the

consumption patterns between these two person will be totally different which also

influence their consumption experiences.

Summary of the Literature Review

Built upon Rokeach’s concept, Kahle (1983) felt that values, as a type of social

cognition, not only guide and motivate people as they deal with their environment, but

also assist people in selecting which situations to enter. Thus, values usually serve as a

guidance while people make consumption decisions. Moreover, because of the enduring

nature of values and its role in people’s cognitive systems, marketers use values to

understand consumer behavior from advertising cognition, market segmentation, product

choice, and brand choice. Since some studies have supported that personal values can

indeed influence consumer behavior, the present study investigates whether the linkage

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. between personal values and preferences and behaviors hold in sport context, hi

addition to investigating the relationship between personal values and preferences and

behaviors, another ramification of this study is to understand sport consumers across

national borders. Rokeach (1973) postulated that people only possess relatively small

number of values, organized in a value system. Consequently, what is the likelihood

that college students of United States and Taiwan have similar personal values? The

results of the current study may provide a basis for answering this question.

From sport marketers’ perspectives, this study may add to the understanding of their

long striving challenge - why do consumers buy? Personal values, along with other

factors (e.g., attitude, motivation, and lifestyle), are considered as having significant

influence on consumer decision process (Blackwell, Miniard, and Engle, 2001). The

construct of values distinguished from other constructs in terms of understanding

consumer behavior is largely due to its enduring nature and the center rote in personality

structure. Also, personal values may provide more distinct groupings of consumers of a

product or service for the purpose of market segmentation than demographics alone

provide (Boote, 1981). Therefore, if the linkages between personal values, preferences

and behaviors are significant, sport marketers may utilize personal values as one of the

main themes in marketing strategies and as a criterion for market segmentation.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

The purpose of this chapter is to present the methodological procedures for

exploring and examining the research questions identified in Chapter I. The procedures

are portrayed as follows: (a) research design, (b) population and sample, (c) data

collection procedures, (d) instrumentation (including the independent and dependent

variables), (e) panel of experts, (f) pilot test, and (g) data analysis procedures.

Research Design

The current study is exploratory in nature and is discovery-directed. It used a

descriptive approach in an attempt to understand the strength of the relationship between

personal values and sport consumption behavior among American and Taiwanese

students. Data were collected through self-reported questionnaires. A combination of

survey and correlational research St the purposes of this study, because: (a) survey

research seeks to describe and/or explore the characteristics of a population, and collects

information from a sample rather than from entire population through asking question

(Fraenkel & Wallen, 2000), and (b) correlational research is designed to investigate

possible relationship among variables.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Population and Sample

Target Population

According to Salant and Dillman’s (1994), the procedure of sampling involves three

steps: (a) identifying the target population, (b) putting together a population list, and (c)

selecting the sample. Since this study sought to examine cultural values, besides these

three steps previously presented, cultural unit is also an important factor that needs to be

considered. Malorta, Agarwal, and Peterson (1996) indicated that sometimes “.. .using a

nation-state as a surrogate for culture may be inappropriate for countries with

heterogeneous cultures (e.g. India, Malaysia, etc.)” (p. 25). For example, the primary

ethnicity groups of Malaysia includes Chinese Malaysian, native Malaysian, and Indian

Malaysian, therefore, the cultural values of Malaysia is not homogeneous due to the

multicultural influences. However, they suggested that the use of cultunit as the unit of

cross-cultural analysis might be appropriate. A cultunit is defined as “people who are

domestic speakers of a common distinct language and who belong either to the same state

or the same contact group” (Malorta et al., 1996, p. 25). Criteria of forming a cultunit

include: (a) language, (b) territorial contiguity, and (c) whenever there is sufficient

authoritative political structure and political organization (NaroO, 1970). Another

alternative to use in the selection of cultunit is behavior settings as units for cross-cultural

comparisons (Malorta et al., 1996). A behavior setting refers to “all the forces acting on

individual members of a setting to enter and participate in its operation in particular

ways” (Malorta et al., 1996, p. 25).

Based on notions related to sampling and cross-cultural research, the accessible

population universes for this study were the students enrolled at National Cheng Kung

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. University (Taiwan) and the students enrolled at The Ohio State University (United

States). College students of Taiwan and United States from these two universities not

only met Naroll’s cultunit criteria of language and sufficient authoritative political

structure and political organization, but also had the best fit for the purpose of this study

of examining the influence of personal values on sport consumption behavior, hr fact,

college students are one of the most viable target markets for sport organizations.

According to the research of Campus Concepts, a Baltimore based college marketing and

advertising firm, college market is a prime target for marketers of all kinds of products

such as electronics, clothing, and sporting equipments. The annual estimated spending

power of college students was more than $100 billion in the United States (American

Student List, 2002) and $3.66 billion in Taiwan (Marketing, 1999). Therefore, selecting

college students from these two universities in two distinct cultural settings was deemed a

legitimate choice for the current study.

Sample Size

The approximate total enrollments of college students at National Cheng Kung

University (Taiwan) and at the Ohio State University (U.S.A.) were 15,000 and 48,000

respectively (Ohio State University, 2001; Taiwan Department of Education, 2000).

According to Salant and P ittman (1994), the decision of a sample size depends on several

criteria, including tolerance of sampling error, population size, the degree of variation

within the population with regards to characteristics of interest, and the smallest subgroup

within the sample for which estimates are needed. Also, for principal components

analysis, which was used to ascertain the factor loadings of the values under investigation,

Stevens (2002) recommended that components with at least 10 loadings equal to or

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. greater than .40 (absolute) are reliable for a sample size of 150 or higher. Thus, total

sample sizes o f300 or above, at least 150 for each group were needed in this study.

Selecting the Sample

The universities selected as the sampling frame were demographically representative

of their respective countries (i.e.. The demographics of The Ohio State University has

been considered representative of the demographics of United States and the

demographics of National Cheng Kung University had been deemed very representative

of the demographics of Taiwan). The students from the selected universities offer

access to viable young and educated markets from the two countries (United States and

Taiwan). Moreover, college students worldwide are generally more exposed to and

interested in sports than the general public, and thus have more opportunities to consume

sports than the general public. These aforementioned criteria made the respective

samples appropriate for the nature of this study. Consequently, judgment sampling

(based on the rationale provided) was used in the selection of participants for this study.

Data Collection Procedure

According to the recommendation of Salant and Dillman (1994), there are four types

of survey methods: mail survey, telephone interviews, face-to-face interviews, and

drop-off survey. The choice of a survey method depends on the resources (e.g., time,

money, staff...etc.) that researchers can commit to, as well as types of error inherent in

each method that researchers may tolerate (Salant & Dillman, 1994). Salant and

Dillman indicated that the drop-off survey is not only low labor cost in terms of personal

contact, but also well-suited to simple and short questionnaire with large sample size.

Moreover, if the survey procedures were used effectively, the drop-off method is flexible

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. with good response rate. For these reasons, this study employed the (hop-off survey

method to ensure response rate and to lower cost. Since the data were collected during

regular class hours at the respective universities, instructions were provided to class

instructors to ensure that identical guidelines were given to the participants.

Prior to data collection, the research proposal was sent to the Human Subjects

Review Committee and approval was granted to conduct this study (Protocol #02E0018).

Then, questionnaires (see Appendix A) along with the cover letter and instructions were

administered to the physical activities classes (see Table 3.1) at the two universities

(National Cheng Kung University in Taiwan, and The Ohio State University in United

States). The physical activities classes were selected due to the fact that they comprised

a diverse sample of students ranging from freshmen to seniors with various majors.

The Ohio State University National Cheng Kung University Team Sports Team Sports • Basketball • Basketball • Volleyball • Volleyball Individual Sports Individual Sports • Golf • Tennis • Martial Arts -Tae Kwon Do • Table Tennis Lecture Lecture • First Aid • Sport for Spectator • Sport for Spectator

Table 3.1: Physical Activity Classes from Which Participants were Selected

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Instrumentation

The instrumentation for this study was a self-administrated questionnaire, which

ascertained the independent variable of personal values, the dependent variables of sport

consumption behaviors, and various demographic characteristics (see Appendix A).

Before each section of the questionnaire, instructions were provided in order to minimize

measurement error.

Personal Values

As described in the literature review, the LOV was used in this study to measure

personal values. A detail description of nine value items was listed in Table 2.2. hi

addition, Kahle (1983) indicated that the items of the LOV could be grouped into internal

and external loci of control, as shown in Table 3.2.

Control Internal External Warm relationships with others Sense of belonging Self-respect Being well-respected Self-fulfillment Security Fun-enjoyment-excitement Sense of accomplishment

Table 3.2: Two Dimensions of the LOV (Kahle, 1983)

As illustrated in Table 3.2, six internal values (sense of accomplishment,

self-fulfillment, self-respect, fun and enjoyment, excitement, and warm relationships with

others) and three external values (sense of belonging, security, and being well-respected)

were examined using the LOV. Participants were asked to rate them personal values on 53

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. a 9-point scale, ranging fromleast important to me to most important to me. Then,

participants were asked to indicate one of the most important personal values to their

daily life.

Snort Consumption Behaviors

Several researches that have examined the construct of personal values have

indicated that personal values have some manner of influence on behavior. With regard

to consumer behavior, a number of studies have provided supporting evidence that

personal values relate to purchase behavior and consumer choice behavior across several

product categories (Homer & Kahle, 1988; Madrigal & Kahle, 1994). The dependent

variables in this study focused on the participants’ consumption of sport The three

behavioral outcomes were the dependent variables of attending sporting events, watching

sport programs on TV, and participating sport activities (see Appendix A). Each of the

consumption patterns (i.e. attendance, participation, and media consumption) had three

subsequent questions in order to obtain more specific information (i.e. preferences for

engaging in the sport consumption, frequency of engaging in the sport consumption

behaviors, and other elements may influence the sport consumption behaviors), hi this

study, sport consumption behaviors were examined from three different aspects discussed

as follows.

Attending Spotting Events (Sport SpectaringV Participants were asked to respond

to their preference for attending a number of sporting events using a scale of I Oeast

preference) to 9 (most preference). Participants were also asked to respond to the

frequency in which they attended the listed sport events using the scale ranging from 1

(never) to 9 (very frequently).

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Watching Sport Activities/Programs on TV (Sport Media Consumption).

Participants were asked to respond to their preference for watching sport

activities/programs on television using a scale of 1 (least preference) to 9 (most

preference). Participants were also asked to respond to the frequency in which they

watched the listed sport activities on television using the scale ranging from 1 (never) to

9 (very frequently).

Participating in Snort Activities (SportParticipating^ Participants were asked to

respond to their preference for participating in a number of sport activities using a scale

of 1 (least preference) to 9 (most preference). Participants were also asked to respond to

the frequency in which they participated in the listed sport activities using the scale

ranging from 1 (never) to 9 (very frequendy).

Demographic Characteristics

Respondents were asked to provide demographic information regarding to their: (a)

age, (b) sex, (c) marital/lifestyle status (e.g., single, married), (d) race/ethnicity, and (e)

annual household income.

Panel of Experts

In general, evidence of content validity is gathered via expert judgment (Fraenkle &

Wallen, 2000; Gay & Airasian, 2000). For tins study, a panel of experts (Appendix Q ,

including three sport management professors, one marketing professor who had

conducted research similar to the current topic, two international Sport Management

doctoral students, and two American Sport management doctoral students examined the

questionnaire to establish content validity. These individuals were provided with

detailed information regarding the purpose of the study to assist them in making

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. judgment. The panel evaluated face validity, content validity, and

relevance/appropriateness to sport and to the nature of this investigation.

To ensure the measurement equivalence, a bilingual expert from Taiwan, fluent in

both English and Mandarin, drafted the Mandarin version of questionnaire for the Taiwan

sample, and then translated to the Mandarin version of questionnaire back to English.

Further, two additional bilingual experts examined both versions of questionnaires to

ensure their precise meaning and the cross-cultural equivalence of measures (Berry,

1980).

Pilot Test

After adjusting the questionnaire suggested by panel of experts, the revised

questionnaire was administered as a pilot test to a judgment sample of the target

population (i.e. 120 questionnaires to the students of National Cheng Kung University in

Taiwan and 100 questionnaires to the students of The Ohio State University in United

States). Since this study administered the questionnaire to different countries; therefore,

linguistic equivalence needed to be pretested. According to the recommendation of

Malorta et al. (1996), linguistic equivalence can be obtained via two sets of pretests.

One is to administer the translated questionnaires to monolingual subjects in their native

language, and the other is to use the original and translated versions to bilingual subjects.

Afterwards, the data should be analyzed and the pattern of responses should be compared

to detect any cultural biases. Following by Malorta’s et al. (1996) recommendation, the

M andarin version questionnaire (see AppendixB-2) was administered to monolingual

subjects and the questionnaire with the original and Mandarin version (see Appendix B-3)

was administered to bilingual subjects to minimize cultural biases.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. One hundred and eleven Taiwanese students and eighty-nine American students

responded to the questionnaires for a total 90.9% return rate. Data obtained from the

pilot test were primarily used to check the reliability of the List of Values (LOV).

According to Gay and Airasian (2000), internal consistency can be obtained through three

different approaches: split-half, Kuder-Richardson, and Cronbach’s alpha. For the

current study, calculating internal consistency was used to establish reliability because

two versions of the questionnaire were administered to two groups of students (one group

from Taiwan, and the other from United States) during the pilot test. Since the

questionnaire did not contain any dichotomously scored item, such as true or false

answers, according to Gay and Airasian, Cronbach’s alpha should be used, hi general,

the lower limit for Cronbach’s alpha is .70 (NunnaQy, 1978) and it may be lowered to .60

in exploratory research (Robinson, Shaver, & Wrightsman, 1991). Based on the

suggestions of Nunnally (1978) and Robinson et al. (1991), the LOV scale established

good reliability in both cultural settings with the Cronbach’s alpha of .77 from the

Taiwanese sample and .79 from the American sample.

hi addition to examining the reliability of the LOV scale in both cultures, the pilot

test was used to examine the factor loadings of the nine items of the LOV. As

mentioned previously, several studies have indicated that values constituted the LOV

would possess an internal or external dimension (Homer & Kahle, 1988; Madrigal &

Kahle, 1994), see Table 3 SL However, in the studies of Homer and Kahle (1988) and

Madrigal and Kahle (1994) showed that (a) the value items loaded on external dimension

were consistent with the initial literature presented by Kahle (1983), and (b) the value

items loaded on internal dimension were not completely identical to previous research.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Since this present study was conducted in reference to sport (unlike previous research

which focused on travel activities and purchasing organic food), it was likely that the

nine value items may load differently on either internally or externally oriented

dimensions in comparison to previous studies. Therefore, to analyze the structure of the

interrelationships among nine value variables in the current study, a principal component

analysis with orthogonal rotation was performed to confirm the value loadings. The

results of the factor analysis revealed that value loading analyzed from both cultures (i.e.

Taiwan and United States) were not consistent with Kahle’s (1983) two dimensions of the

LOV (see Table 33). For example, the item of warm relationship with others loaded

with the item of sense o f belonging in both cultures which was different from Kahle’s

internal values (see Table 33), in which the item of warm relationship with others was

grouped with 5 other personal values (i.e.self-respect, self-fulfillment, fun and enjoyment

in life, excitement, and sense o f accomplishment) Moreover, comparing the value

loadings of American samples to Taiwanese samples resulted in different factor loadings

of the personal values (see Table 33). Therefore regarding the factor structure of the

LOV, according to the results of principal component analysis from both cultures, the

structure of the interrelationships among nine value variables as revealed by previous

research woe not confirmed in this present study.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. AMERICA TAIWAN Rotated Component Matrflt R otated Compone n t Matrifc

Component Component t 2 3 t 2 3 Fun and eniayment in He .793 Setf-futfiBment .799 Excitement .763 Self-respect .774 Setf-futfBIment .662 Being welt-respected .772 A sense of Security .594 .707 Sense of belonging .900 accomplishment Being weli-respected .730 Sense of belonging .832 Warm relationships with Warm relationships with .714 .747 others others Self-respect .909 Fun and enjoyment in life .747 A sense of Security .741 .565 .617 Excitement -.625 Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis. Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis. Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization. Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization. a-Rotation converged in 5 iterations. a-Rotation converged in 5 iterations.

Table 33: Rotated Component Matrix of Taiwan and United States

As stated previously, the purpose of this study was to examine the relationships

between personal values and sport consumption preferences and behaviors (i.e. sport

spectating, sport media consumption, and sport participating) noting the similarities

and/or differences between two cultures (i.e. two different cultural settings). In order to

have a more in-depth analysis of consumption patterns related to various sports, the pilot

test was also utilized to reduce the number ( 22) of sport activities by selecting the top five

sports preferred in the three sport consumption behaviors investigated for two cultural

groups (United States and Taiwan), see Table 3.4 for the top five sports for each

consumption behavior in the respective cultural settings.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. American Samples Taiwanese Samples Media Media Spectaing Participating Spectaing Participating Consumption Consumption Baseball Baseball Baseball Basketball Basketball Badminton Basketball Basketball Basketball Billiard Billiard Basketball Boxing Boxing Football Table Tennis Free Skating Billiard Football Football Golf Tennis Gymnastics Swimming Ice Hockey Ice Hockey Workout Volleyball Volleyball Table Tennis

Table 3.4: Top Five Favorite Sport Activities (Alphabetic order)

Data Analysis Procedures

After receiving the questionnaires from the respondents for the final analysis, the

data were entered into computer, and were analyzed by using the computer software

Statistical Package for the Social Science (SPSS) 11.0. First of all, descriptive statistics

(i.e. frequencies, means, and standard deviations) were calculated, and frequency

polygons were plotted to examine the normality and skewness of all variables. Reliability

coefficients (Cronbach’s alpha) were calculated for the LOV scale in both cultures.

As mentioned previously in the pilot test, the value items that loaded on internal and

external dimensions of two cultural groups were not completely identical and were not

consistent with Kahle’s (1983) theory. Therefore, prior to examining the research

questions, a principal component analysis with orthogonal rotation was again applied to

the final data to examine the value loadings of both cultures and to analyze the structure

of the interrelationships among nine value variables.

Further, a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was performed utilizing the

nine items of LOV to examine whether responses to personal values differed based on the

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. cultural setting (i.e. United States and Taiwan) or the sex of the respondents (Research

Question 1). Simultaneous multivariate multiple regression was utilized to analyze to

the extent to which the personal values influenced sport consumption preferences and

behavior frequency (i.e. frequency and preferences of sport attendance, sport

participation, and sport media consumption) of American and Taiwanese students

differently (Research Questions 2 & 3). Since a sequence of multivariate multiple

regressions was performed, it was necessary to adjust the alpha level by the Bonferroni

inequality to decrease the probability of any Type I error (Hair et al., 1998). For this study,

the alpha level of .05 was adjusted to .01 for both cultural groups because a total six

regressions (three for preferences and three for behavioral frequency) were ran.

hi addition, a correlation analysis was used to examine to the extent to which sport

consumption preferences were correlated with sport consumption behavior frequency of

American and Taiwanese students (Research Question 4). Of note: although probability

samples are preferred for statistical tests and inferences, the statistics employed for the

analyses of the data provided by the judgment samples in this exploratory investigation

were deemed appropriate.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER 4

RESULTS

The purpose of this chapter is to present the results of the main data for this study,

which are portrayed as follows: (a) sample characteristics provided the demographic

information related to the sample of this study, (b) general descriptive statistics of the

personal values and sport consumption measures, and (c) the results from the analyses

utilized to examine each research question, as well as a principal component analysis for

the independent variables (i.e. personal values).

Sample Characteristics

American Sample. Final data were collected from 200 students enrolled in Sport

Fitness, and Health Program (SFHP) classes of The Ohio State University yielding a final

sample of 185 participants after discarding 15 incomplete questionnaires. For the

American sample, 54.1 % of the participants were females, while 45.9 % were males. In

terms of race/ethnicity, the sample included 1.1 % American Indian or Alaskan native,

9.8 % Asian, Pacific Islander, or Filipino, 10.9 % Black o r African-American, 1.1 %

Hispanic, Chicano, or Spanish-American, 75 % White or Caucasian and 2.2 % listed as

Other. The mean age of the participants was 20.67 years (SD = 2.59). As for the annual

income, 212. % of the sample reported an annual income less than $5,000,25.1% were

within the rangp of $5,001 to $10,000,16.9 % were within the range of $10,001 to

6 2

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. $15,000,123% were within the range of $15,001 to $20,000,6.7% were within the

range of $20,001 to $25,000,3.4 % were within the range of $25,001 to $30,000,1.1 %

were within the range of $30,001 to $35,000,.6 % were within the range of $35,001 to

$40,000, and 10.1 % were with $40,0001 and above, see Table 4.1 for the demographic

characteristics of the American sample.

Variable N % Sex: Male 85 45.9 Female 100 54.1 Race/Ethnicity: American Indian or Alaskan native 2 1.1 Asian, Pacific Islander, or Filipino 18 9.8 Black or African-American 20 10.9 Hispanic, Chicano, or Spanish-American 2 1.1 White or Caucasian 138 75.0 Other 4 2.2 Annual Income: less than $5,000 38 21.2 $5,001 - $10,000 45 25.1 $10,001-$15,000 35 19.6 $15,001 -$20,000 22 123 $20,001-$25,000 12 6.7 $25,001-$30,000 6 3.4 $30,001-$35,000 2 l.I $35,001-$40,000 I .6 $40,001 and above 18 10.1

Table 4.1: Demographic Characteristics of American Sample

Taiwanese Sample, For the Taiwanese sample, data were collected from 200

students enrolled in physical activity classes of National Cheng Kung University yielding

a final sample of 195 participants after discarding 5 incomplete questionnaires. As

shown in Table 4.2,493 % of the participants were females, while 50.8 % were males.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. In terms of race/ethnicity, the sample included 3.1 % Southern Min, 79.4 % Taiwanese,

103 % Hakka, 3.6 % Mainlander, 03 % Mountain Aborigines and 3.1 % listed as Other.

The mean age of the participants was 19.79 years (SD = 1.40). As for the annual income

(in New Taiwan Dollars = NTD), 53.6 % of the sample reported an annual income less

than $50,000 NTD, 13.4 % were within the range of $50,001 to $70,000 NTD,8.8 %

were within the range of $70,001 to $90,000 NTD, 9.8 % were within the range of

$90,001 to $110,000 NTD, 7.2 % were within the range of $110,001 to $130,000 NTD,

2.6 % were within the range of $130,001 to $150,000 NTD, 3 % were within the range

of %150,00i to $170,000 NTD, and 4.1 % were with $170,000 NTD and above.

Variable N % Sex: Male 99 50.8 Female 96 49.2 Race/Ethnicity: Southern Min 6 3.1 Taiwanese 154 79.4 Hakka 20 103 Mainlander 7 3.6 Mountain Aborigines 1 0 3 Other 6 3.1 Annual Income*: less than $50,000 104 53.6 $50,001 - $70,000 26 13.4 $70,001 - $90,000 17 8.8 $90,001-$110,000 19 9.8 $110,001-$130,000 14 7 2 $130,001-$150,000 5 2.6 $150,001 -$170,000 1 3 $170,001 and above 8 4.1 * The information is reported in New Taiwan Dollar (NTD), 1 USD=343 NTD

Table 43: Demographic Characteristics of Taiwanese Sample

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. General Statistical Information

The dependent variables in this study were the three behavioral outcomes of:

attending sporting events, watching sport programs on TV, and participating in sport

activities. As previously mentioned in the discussion of the pilot test, top five sports

across three different behavioral outcomes were chosen respectively from two cultural

settings. The general information of descriptive statistics for the selected sports is

presented in Table 43-1 and Table 43-2 for the American sample and in Table 4.4-1 and

Table 4.4-2 for the Taiwanese sample.

Participants were asked to rate their sport consumption preferences on a scale

ranging from I (least preference) to 9 (most preference), and for their sport consumption

behavioral frequency on a scale ranging from I (never) to 9 (very frequendy). Football

was rated as the most favorable sporting event in the categories of spectating and media

consumption preferences and behavioral frequency, while workout was rates as the top

participating sport activity in preference and behavioral frequency of American sample

(see Table 43-1 & Table 43-2). hi addition, basketball and baseball was rated as the

second and the third sports across three categories in both preferences and behavioral

frequency. In Taiwanese sample (see Table 4.4-1 & Table 4.4-2), basketball was

constantly rated as the top sport activity across in the categories of spectating and media

consumption preferences and behavioral frequency, while badminton was rated as the top

participation sport activity in preferences for Taiwanese female students. Moreover,

figure skating was rated as the most preferable sport activity in media consumption for

Taiwanese female students.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Preferences Behavioral Frequency Ciuipf» r ,AnaimnfvAv»Jiiixiiiii|miiit rltUVlUvaA iviifng Mean SD Mean SD Sport Spectating Baseball 53 4 2.47 3.90 237 Basketball 6.43 2.45 4.67 365 Boxing 3.75 237 1.43 1.15 Football 7.23 2.17 6.01 369 Ice Hockey 5.59 232 3.46 338 Sport Media Consumption Baseball 4.24 2.67 3.86 355 Basketball 5.88 2.76 5.42 376 Boxing 332 233 2 36 2.06 Football 6.98 2.46 6.41 2.61 Ice Hockey 4.04 2.64 330 239 Sport Participation Baseball 4.53 2.96 336 232 Basketball 5.49 2.89 431 2.82 Football 5.19 2.84 3.70 233 Golf 4.23 2.80 331 366 Workout 730 2.17 6.72 347

Table 43-1: Mean and Standard Deviation of Sport Consumption Preferences and Behavioral Frequency of American Sample

S port Consumption Preferences Behavioral Frequency Activities M en Women M en Women MSD M SDMSDM SD Sport Spectating Baseball 536 232 533 2.44 3.79 235 339 360 Basketball 6.45 2.45 6.42 2.46 432 2.64 4.79 366 Boxing 439 235 331 237 1.48 133 138 1.07 Football 734 235 7.14 311 538 381 638 355 Ice Hockey 538 350 5.77 233 3.08 309 3.78 356 Sport Media Consumption Baseball 4.16 2.64 430 371 331 365 3.82 348 Basketball 5.89 2.76 5.87 377 5.69 376 5.19 375 Boxing 4.09 353 366 235 3.05 232 2.15 1.83 Football 739 235 6.64 231 6.81 357 6.07 361 Ice Hockey 4.00 353 4.08 2.74 339 o r? 332 235 Sport Participating Baseball 435 38 4 431 3.07 337 356 336 2.50 Basketball 6.12 2.77 436 389 5.42 371 3.74 370 Football 6.07 361 4.45 382 4.67 2.64 2.87 311 G olf 532 383 339 2.49 435 385 352 230 Workout 6.71 347 7.80 1.73 6.12 380 733 302

Table 43-2: Mean and Standard Deviation of Sport Consumption Preferences and Behavioral Frequency of American Men and Women

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Preferences Behavioral Frequency ijpCn/ipf u tl >«i rtwci■iwniiflii Ai^tinitiioc ilLllTKUw " Mean SD Mean SD Sport Spectating Basketball 6.85 2.02 5.10 2.47 Billiard 5.09 2.22 2.41 2.15 Table Tennis 539 1.97 2.94 2.14 Tennis 6 3 4 1.60 2.61 2.08 Volleyball 5.89 2.17 4.01 231 Sport Media Consumption Basketball 6.74 2.17 6.49 236 Billiard 5.18 2.43 4.71 238 Figure Skating 6.03 2.44 439 235 Gymnastics 5.99 2.35 439 2.27 Volleyball 538 2 36 431 2.29 Participating Badminton 6.60 1.78 535 1.94 Basketball 5.92 237 530 2.44 Billiard 4.89 2.39 3.46 2.41 Swimming & Diving 5.73 2.49 4.75 2.28 Table Tennis 5.46 2 3 0 4.49 230

Table 4.4-1: Mean and Standard Deviation of Sport Consumption Preferences and Behavior Frequency of Taiwanese Sample

Behavioral Frequency Sport Consumption Preferences Activities M en W omen M en W omen M SD M SD M SD M SD Sport Spectating Basketball 7.12 1.86 636 2.15 5.19 2.57 5.01 237 Billiard 538 2.23 4.89 230 2.59 230 2.23 2.09 Table Tennis 5.23 1.92 536 2.01 2.81 230 3.07 2.08 Tennis 6.80 132 6.27 1.65 2.79 2.23 2.42 130 Volleyball 5.46 2.10 63 2 2.17 3.23 230 4.81 236 Sport Media Consumption Basketball 7.32 1.89 6.15 238 731 2.03 5.74 2.25 Billiard 5.81 2.40 4.54 239 539 2.63 4.01 233 Figure Skating 4.90 238 730 130 3.67 233 535 2.08 Gymnastics 5.06 237 6.96 131 3.84 2.10 538 2.19 Volleyball 5.19 2.23 5 36 2.31 4.15 2.27 4 3 6 2 3 2 Sport Participating Badminton 630 1.93 7.01 133 4.82 2.07 5.90 1.63 Basketball 6.79 2.04 5.03 2 36 635 4.61 2.34 Billiard 538 232 4 3 9 237 431 2 3 4 2.69 2.01 Swimming & Diving 5.10 2 3 4 6 3 7 2.48 4.04 2.04 5.48 2 3 9 Table Tennis 539 2.09 533 2 32 4.54 2.15 4.45 236

Table 4.4-2: Mean and Standard Deviation of Sport Consumption Preferences and Behavior Frequency of Taiwanese Men and Women 67

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Farther, Table 4J> and Table 4.6 listed the bivariate correlations of nine personal

value items of American and Taiwanese samples respectively, as well as the means and

standard deviation for each variable. In this study, participants were asked to rate their

personal values on a 9-point scale, ranging from I (least important to me) to 9 (most

important to me). The correlation matrix revealed that most of the personal values were

positively related in both cultural settings, except for sense o f belonging which was not

significantly related to fun and enjoyment in life for the American sample, and excitem ent

was not significantly related to sense c fbelonging and warm relationship with others for

the Taiwanese sample.

Independent Variables I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 I. Sense of belonging — 2. Excitement 2.74** — 3. Warm relationships with .495**311** — others 4. Self-fulfillment .255**352**264** — 5. Being well-respected .266**317**393**.403** — 6 . Fun and enjoyment in life .136 -560**397**374**303** — 7. Security 395**495**.430**395**.464**.402** — 8. Self-respect .165* 311**.265**300**.412**.237**.545** — 9. A sense of accomplishment329**330**395**.464**519**352**.578**414** —

Mean 7.05 6.71 736 7.65 6.91 8.16 6.98 8.03 7.92 SD 1.74 1.67 135 135 1.74 1.16 1.89 132 1.48 ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

Table 4.5: Means, Standard Deviations, and Bivariate Correlations of the Personal Values of American Sample

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Independent Variables I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1. Sense of belonging 2. Excitement .00 3. Warm relationships with others .64** .05 — 4. Self-fulfillment 31** .14* .41** — 5. Being well-respected 44** 31** 38** 36** — 6 . Fun and enjoyment in life 34** 30** 34** 39**.47** — 7. Security 3 5 * * .14* 36** 34**36**30** — 8. Self-respect .19** .15* 30** .47**30**39** .45** — 9. A sense of accomplishment .14* 32** .16* .41**35** .40**35**.47** —

Mean 7.64 5.87 7.66 730 7.45 7.79 732 734 735 SD 1.46 1.62 137 138 132 131 1.49 133 138 ** Correlation is significant at the O.OI level (2-tailed). * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

Table 4.6: Means, Standard Deviations, and Bivariate Correlations of the Personal Values of Taiwanese Sample

After rating the nine personal values, participants were asked to identify the most

important personal value after rating the nine personal values. The results are presented

in Table 4.7. For the American sample, the values of fun and enjoyment in life and self-

respect were reported as the most important personal values, whileself-fulfillment was

the second most important one. Similar to the results for the American sample,fu n and

enjoyment in Ifie was reported as the most important personal value for the Taiwanese

sample. Sense o fbelonging and self-fulfillment were ranked second and third most

important personal value.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Taiwanese Sample Personal Values American Sample Frequency Valid % Frequency Valid % Sense of belonging 19 112 36 19.0 Excitement I .6 4 2.1 Warm relationships with others 22 13.0 24 12.7 Self-fulfillment 23 13.6 31 16.4 Being well-respected 7 4.1 9 4.8 Fun and enjoyment in life 37 21.9 39 20.6 Security 2 1.2 11 5.8 Self-respect 37 21.9 9 4.8 A sense of accomplishment 21 12.4 26 13.8 Total 169 100.0 189 100.0 Missing 16 6 Total 185 195

Table 4.7: Most important personal value of American and Taiwanese samples

Examining Research Questions

Research Question 1.: Do consumers from different cultural settings (i.e.

American and Taiwan) report different values?

A MANOVA was performed to investigate the differences between the personal

values of the participants from the two cultural groups. Nine personal values were used

as the dependent variables, and cultural groups and sex were used as the independent

variables. Preliminary assumption testing was conducted to check for normality, linearity,

univariate and multivariate outliers, homogeneity of variance-covariance matrices, and

multicollinerity, with no serious violations noted. The results revealed a significant two-

way interaction between culture and sex influenced the values of being well-respected (F

(3,378) = 5.36, g = .02) (Figure 4.1) and fiat and enjoyment in life (F (3,378) = 5.95, g

= .02) (Figure 4.2).

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Estimated Marginal Means of Being well-respected

Male

u S.8 Female American Taiwanese

Country

Figure 4.1: Profile Plots of the Value of Being Well-respected

Estimated Marginal Means of Fun and enjoyment in life

Male

3 7 .4 Fem ale American Taiwanese

Country

Figure 4.2: Profile Plots of the Value of Fun and Enjoyment in Life

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Considering dependent variables separately, the results (as shown in Table 4.8)

indicated, that for the value of sense o f belong a significant main effect was found for

culture (F (l, 378) = 14.93, p = .000) with a mean score of 7.05 for the American sample

and 7.64 for the Taiwanese sample, and a significant main effect was found for sex with a

mean score of 7.02 for men and 7.66 for women. For the value of excitement, a

significant main effect was found for culture (F (1,378) = 2533, p = .000) with a mean

score of 6.71 for the American sample and 5.87 for the Taiwanese sample, but no main

effect was found for sex. For the value of being well-respected, a significant main effect

was for culture (F (1,378) = 11.45, p = .001) with a mean score of 6.92 for the American

sample and 7.45 for the Taiwanese sample, but no main effect was found for sex. For the

value of fun and enjoyment in life a significant main effect was found for culture (F (1,

378) = 9.46, p = .002) with a mean score of 8.17 for the American sample and 7.79 for

the Taiwanese sample, and a significant main effect was found for sex (F (1,378) = 5.22,

P = .02) with a mean score of 7.82 for men and 8.12 for women. For the value of security

a significant main effect was found for culture (F (1,378) = 10.83, p = .001) with a mean

score of 6.99 for the American sample and 7.52 for the Taiwanese sample, and a

significant main effect was found for sex (F (1,378) = 17.81, p = .000) with a mean score

of 6.91 for men and 7.60 for women. For the value of self-respect, a significant main

effect was found for culture (F (1,378) = 13.78, p = .000) with a mean score of 8.04 for

the American sample and 734 for the Taiwanese sample, but no mam effect was found

for sex. For the value of a sense o f accomplishment, a main effect was found for culture

(F (1,378) — 5.97, p = .02) with a mean score of 7.91 for the American sample and 735

for the Taiwanese sample, but no main effect was found for sex. For the value of warm

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. relationship with others, a main effect was found for sex (F (lr 378) = 10.50T g = .001)

with a mean score o f738 for men and 7.83 for women, but no main effect was found for

culture. For the value of self-fulfillment, no main effect was found for both culture and

sex.

IndeDendent Variables MANOVA Cultural*Sex Cultural Sex Multivariate F 2.08* 14.41*** 4.52*** df (9,367) (9,367) (9,367) Univariate F df (3,378) (1,378) (1,378) Sense of belonging .02 14.93*** 1736*** Excitement .15 2533*** 337 Warm relationships with others .06 .79 1030** Self-fulfillment 2.50 131 1.17 Being well-respected 536* 11.45** 339 Fun and Enjoyment in life 5.95* 9.46** 532* Security 31 10.83** 17.81*** Self-respect 2.70 13.78*** 232 A sense of accomplishment .16 5.97* 134 *** £ <.001; ** £ < .01; * £ < -°5.

Table 4.8: Multivariate and Univariate Effects of Cultural Subgroups and Sex on Personal Values

In terms of the dimensions of personal values, as mentioned previously in the

discussion of the pilot test, the value loadings analyzed from both cultures (i.e. Taiwan

and United States) were not consistent with Kahle’s (1983) two dimensions of the LOV

(see Table 33). Therefore, a principal component analysis (PCA) with orthogonal

rotation was performed to confirm the structure of the interrelationships among nine 73

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. personal value variables in both cultural settings for the final data set. Prior to

performing PCA, the reliability estimate (Cronbach’s alpha) was examined to establish

the reliability of the lis t of Value (LOV) scale. According to the suggestion of Normally

(1978), the lower limit for reliability estimates (Cronbach’s alpha) is .70. hi the currently

study, the Cronbach’s alpha for the LOV was .74 for the entire sample, .81 for the Taiwan

sample, and .83 for the American sample.

For the entire sample, principal components analysis revealed the presence of two

components with eigenvalues exceeding Iwith the scree plot leveling off after the second

component. According to the varimax rotated component matrix (Table 4.9), the rotated

solution revealed the presence of simple structure (Thurston, 1947), with two components

showing a number of significant loading, which were the internal value domain (i.e. fia t

and enjoyment in life, a sense o f accomplishment, excitement, self-respect, and self-

fulfillmeni) and the external value domain (i.e. sense o f belonging, warm relationships

with others, security, and being well-respected). The criteria for retaining items included

retaining items that had eigenvalue of 1.0 or higher and had loadings of .50 (absolute) or

higher without having substantial loadings on other dimensions.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Component rcTMIUalWinprn—o l ValUCrnilm k 1 2 Fun and enjoyment in life .725 A sense of accomplishment .680 Excitement .668 Self-respect .660 Self-fulfillment .619 Sense of belonging .856 Warm relationships with others .795 Security .423 .576 Being well-respected .467 .556 Value Domain Internal External Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis. Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization.

Table 4.9: Rotated Component Matrix of Personal Values of Entire Sample

For the American sample, principal components analysis revealed the presence of

three components with eigenvalues exceeding Iwith the scree plot leveling off after the

third component. According to the varimax rotated component matrix (Table 4.10), the

rotated solution revealed the presence of simple structure (Thurstone, 1947), with three

components showing a number of significant loadings, which were the internal value

domain (i.e. self-respect, being well-respected, a seme o f accomplishment, security, and

self-fulfillment), external value domain (i.e. sense o fbelonging and warm relationships

with others), and hedonism value domain (i.e. excitem ent and fun and enjoyment in life).

The criteria for retaining items included retaining items that had eigenvalue of 1.0 or

higher and had loadings of JO (absolute) or higher without having substantial loadings on

other dimensions. Although, security had a double loading on both the internal and the

external value domains, security was considered to have loaded on the internal value

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. domain since the loading of .652 was significant, while the loading of .446 on the

external value domain was not.

Component Personal value 1 2 3 Self-respect .842 Being well-respected .676 A sense of accomplishment .670 Security .652 .446 Self-fulfillment .648 Sense of belonging .859 Warm relationships with others .773 Excitement .842 Fun and enjoyment in life .834 Value Domain Internal External Hedonism Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis. Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization, a. Rotation converged in 5 iterations.

Table 4.10: Rotated Component Matrix of Personal Values of American Sample

For the Taiwan sample, principal components analysis revealed the presence of

two components with eigenvalues exceeding Iwith the scree plot leveling off after the

second component. According to the varimax rotated component matrix (Table 4.11), the

rotated solution revealed the presence of simple structure (Thurstone, 1947), with two

components showing a number of significant loadings on the external value domain (i.e.

warm relationships with others, sense o fbelonging, and being well-respected), and the

internal value domain (i.e. a sense o faccomplishment, Jim and enjoyment in life, self-

respect, excitement, and self-fulfillment). The criteria for retaining items included

retaining items that had eigenvalue of 1.0 or higher and had loadings of .50 (absolute) or

higher without having substantial loading on other dimensions. Although security

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. loaded on both the internal and the external value domains, the loading of .461 on the

external value domain and the loading of .440 on the internal value domain were not

significant. Therefore, security cannot be considered as loaded on either the external or

the internal value domains. Self-fulfillment, another double loading variable, can be

considered loaded on internal value domain due to a significant loading of .517.

Personal value j------Com ponent------

Warm relationships with others .872 Sense o f belonging .851 Being well-respected .648 .485 Security .461 .440 A sense of accomplishment .735 Fun and enjoyment in life .673 Self-respect .667 Excitement .600 Self-fulfillment .476 .517 Value Domain External Internal Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis. Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization, a. Rotation converged in 3 iterations.

Table 4.11: Rotated Component Matrix of Personal Values of Taiwanese Sample

Research Question 2.: To what extent do personal values influence sport

consumption preferences of American and Taiwanese students differently?

A multivariate multipie regression was performed for both cultural groups to

answer this research question and examine the influence of personal values on sport

consumption preferences. The components extracted from the principal component

analysis served as the independent variables, and the preferences of five sport activities of

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. spectating, media consumption, and participating were the dependent variables. Since a

sequence of multivariate multiple regressions was performed, it was necessary to adjust

the alpha level by the Bonferroni inequality to decrease the probability of any Type I

error (Hair et al., 1998). For this study, the alpha level of .05 was adjusted to .01 for both

cultural groups because a total six regressions (three for preferences and three for

behavioral frequency) were ran. The results are presented in the Table 4.12 (American

sample) and Table 4.13 (Taiwanese sample).

As shown in Table 4.12, the overall influences of the personal values on

spectating (F (5,177)= 9.18, j> < .001), media consumption (F (5,177)= 5.99, j> < .001),

and participating (F (5,177)= 737, p < .001) preferences were significant for the

American sample. With regard to the univariate analyses, spectating preferences for

boxing was significantly influenced by personal values with 6.2 % of variance explained

with the internal and the external value domains both making significant contributions.

Dependent Variable (Preferences) Adj F Beta T Spectating F (5,177)=9.i8.e<-O0i Boxing .062 5.06 ** Internal 334 2.67** External -387 -331** Hedonism .049 .60 M edia Consumption F (5,177)= 5.99,2 < 001 Participating F (5,177)=737. ec.OOl *** g< .001; ** E< -01; * R< .05.

Table 4.12: Multivariate Multiple Regression Model Predicting Sport Consumption Preferences from Three Personal Value Domains of American Sample For the Taiwanese sample (Table 4.13), the overall influence of the personal

values on spectating (F (5,188) = 8.91, p < .001), media consumption (F (5,188) = 3.69,

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. j> <-01), and participating (F (5,188) = 5.41, p < .001) preferences were significant. The

univariate analyses of outcome variables indicated that personal values significantly

influenced the sport of basketball across the three sport consumption preferences. The

variance explained in spectating preferences for basketball was 11.8 % due to the

significant influence of the external value domain; for basketball media consumption

preferences, the amount of variance explained was 73% with the external value domain

contributing significantly; and for basketball participating preferences, the amount of

variance explained was 5.8% with the internal value domain contributing significantly.

Dependent Variable (Preferences) Adjusted Rz F Beta T Spectating F (5,188)= 8.91, g < .001 Basketball .118 15.64*** External .283 3.71*** Internal .145 1.90 M edia Consumption F (5,188)= 3.69. £<.01 Basketball .073 8.69*** External .230 2.93** Internal .095 131 Participating F(5.188)= 5.41, £<.001 Basketball .058 7.02** External .121 133 Internal .180 2.28* B< .001; ** &< .01; * £ < .05.

Table 4.13: Multivariate Multiple Regression Model Predicting Sport Consumption Preferences from Two Personal Value Domains of Taiwan Sample

Since the overall results of multivariate multiple regression revealed a small

amount of variance explained in both cultural settings, a correlation was further 79

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. performed to explore the relationship between personal values and sport consumption

preferences (see Table 4.14 & Table 4.15). hi the American sample, the external value

domain was negatively correlated with spectating preferences for boxing, while

positively correlated with spectating preferences for ice hockey, In addition, the

hedonism value domain was positively correlated with the preferences for participating in

baseball.

Sport Consumption Activities______Sport Activities Sport Spectating Baseball Basketball Boxing Football Ice Hockey Internal .021 -.007 .121 .027 -.008 External .070 -.037 -.160* .080 .150* Hedonism .130 -.002 .064 .112 .080 Sport Media Consumption Baseball Basketball Boxing Football Ice Hockey Internal .028 -.056 .122 .011 .021 External .075 -.061 -.045 .036 .032 Hedonism .126 -.015 .054 .114 .116 Sport Participation Baseball Basketball Football Golf Workout Internal .052 -.068 .020 .004 .117 External .040 -.098 -.013 -.091 .103 Hedonism .181* -.030 .101 .103 .118

* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

Table 4.14: Correlations Between Three Personal Value Domains and Sport Consumption Preferences in American Sample

As for the correlations of Taiwanese sample, as shown in Table 4.15, the external

and the internal value domains were both positively correlated to preferences for

basketball spectating, preferences for basketball media consumption, and preferences for

participating in basketball. Moreover, the internal value domain was positively correlated

to preferences for billiard spectating and preferences for participating in swimming and

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. diving. The internal value domain was also positively correlated with preferences for

participating in badminton.

Sport Consumption Activities Sport Activities Sport Spectating Basketball Billiard Table Tennis Volleyball Tennis External 352** .042 .030 -.026 .084 Internal 380** .146* .104 .084 .107 Sport Media Consumption Basketball Billiard Figure Gymnastic Volleyball Skating External 376** .032 .064 .072 .019 Internal 305** .057 .076 .091 .092 Sport Participation Badminton Basketball Billiard Swimming Table & Diving Tennis External .152* 307** -.024 .104 -.058 Internal .115 338** .105 .147* .040 * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Table 4.15: Correlations Between Two Personal Value Domains and Sport Consumption Preferences in Taiwanese Sample

Research Question 3.: To what extent do personal values influence sport

consumption behavior frequency of American and Taiwanese students differently?

Similar to the approach taken in research question 2, a multivariate multiple

regression was run to reveal if personal values influenced sport consumption behavior

frequency. The components extracted from the principal component analysis served as

the independent variables, and spectating, media consumption, and participating behavior

frequency regarding five sport activities served as the dependent variables. As mentioned

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. previously in the results of Research Question 2, the adjusted alpha was .01. The results

are presented in the Table 4.16 (American sample) and Table 4.17 (Taiwanese sample).

As shown in Table 4.16, the overall influence of personal values on spectating (F

(5,176)= 4.69, p < .001), media consumption (F (5,177)= 3.43, p < .001), and

participating (F (5,177)= 438, p < .01) behavioral frequency were significant for the

American sample. With regard to the univariate analyses, only the frequency in which

the participants consumed boxing via the media was significant The variance explained

by the personal values for media consumption of boxing was 2.7%, with the internal

value domain contributing significantly, hi addition, personal values also significantly

influence the frequency in which the American students participating golf. The amount

of variance explained was 3.4 %, with the external and the hedonism value domains

contributing significantly.

Dependent Variable (Frequency) A djR - F Beta T Spectating F (5 .176)= 4.69. a <.001 Media Consumption F (5 .177)= 3.43. B < .001 Boxing .027 2.72* Internal m 2.50* External -.149 -1.78 Hedonism .021 .249 Participating F (5.177)= 438, j> < .01 Golf .034 3.18* Internal -.020 -2 2 9 External -1.915 -231* Hedonism .194 2.34* *** B< .001; ** p< .01; * a < .05.

Table 4.16: Multivariate Multiple Regression Predicting Sport ConsumptionFrequency from Three Personal Value Domains of American Sample For the Taiwanese sample (Table 4.17), the overall influence of personal values on

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. media consumption (F (5,188) = 3.27, £>< .01) and participating (F (5,188) = 3.86, p

< .01) frequency were significant, but spectating was not significant. The univariate

analyses of outcome variables indicated that media consumption of basketball as well as

basketball participation frequency significantly influenced by the personal values. The

amount of variance explained by media consumption of basketball was 6%, with the

external value domain contributing significantly; for frequency of participating in

basketball, the amount of variance explained was 3.1%, with no factor contributing

significantly. Moreover, the frequency of participating in badminton was significantly

influenced by personal values, with 3.1% variance explained, yet no unique significant

contributor by either value domain.

Dependent Variable (Frequency) Adi R F Beta T Spectating Media Consumption F (5.188) = 3.27 .2 < .01 Basketball .060 7.11** External .211 2.66** Internal .087 1.10 Participating f (5,188)= 3.86 .2 < .01 Badminton .024 3.42* External .121 1.50 Internal .094 1.17 Basketball .031 4.13* External .112 139 Internal .125 135 »** 2 < -001; ** 2 < -01; * p < .05.

Table 4.17: Multivariate Multiple Regression Predicting Sport Consumption Frequency from Two Personal Value Domains of Taiwanese Sample Since the overall results of multivariate multiple regression revealed a small

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. amount of variance explained in both cultural settings* a correlation was farther

performed to explore the relationship between personal values and sport consumption

frequency (see Table 4.18 & Table 4.19). hi the American sample (see Table 4.18), the

internal value domain was positively correlated with frequency of media consumption of

boxing, hi addition, the hedonism value domain was positively correlated with baseball

participating frequency. As for the correlations of Taiwanese sample, as shown in Table

4.19, both the external and the internal value domains were positively correlated with the

frequency of basketball of spectating, frequency of basketball media consumption, and

basketball participating frequency, except for the relationship between the internal value

domain and basketball spectating frequency. Moreover, both value domains were

positively correlated with badminton participating frequency.

Sport Consumption Activities______Sport A ctivities Sport Spectating Baseball Basketball Boxing Football Ice Hockey Internal -.074 -.081 .120 .019 -.056 External .002 .000 -.028 .119 .053 Hedonism .029 -.042 .101 -.014 .019 Sport Media Consumption Baseball Basketball Boxing Football Ice Hockey Internal .011 -.027 .162* .061 .026 External -.046 -.070 -.036 -.027 .006 Hedonism .111 .040 .076 .136 .102 Sport Participation Baseball Basketball Football Golf Workout Internal .084 -.051 .057 -.020 .119 External .029 -.042 -.056 -.137 .095 Hedonism .151* .005 .074 .121 .096 * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

Table 4.18: Correlations Between Three Personal Value Domains and Sport Consumption Frequency in American Sample

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Sport Consumption Activities Sport Activities Sport Spectating Basketball Billiard Table Tennis Volleyball Tennis External .157* .032 .039 .015 .119 Internal .086 .112 -.061 .047 .021 Sport Media Consumption Basketball Billiard Figure Gymnastic Volleyball Skating External .252** -.025 .059 .039 .000 Internal .188** -.016 .047 .068 .121 Sport Participation Badminton Basketball Billiard Swimming Table & Diving Tennis External .166* .171* .007 .017 -.085 Internal .152* .178* .130 .070 -.001 * Correlation is significant at the 0.0S level (2-tailed). ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Table 4.19: Correlations Between Two Personal Value Domains and Sport Consumption Frequency in Taiwanese Sample

Research Question 4.: To what extent do sport consumption preferences correlate

with sport consumption behavior frequency of American and Taiwanese students?

Correlation analyses were used to reveal the relationships between sport

consumption preferences and behavior frequency of American and Taiwanese samples.

The results are presented in Table 4.20 and Table 4.21.

As seen in Table 4.20, the results revealed that Person product-moment

correlation coefficients between sport consumption preferences and sport consumption

behavioral frequency were all highly (i.e. significantly) and positively correlated in the

American sample (Cohen, 1988). The correlation between spectating preferences and

spectating behavioral frequency for baseball was .71, for basketball was .70, for boxing

was .46, for football was .63, and for ice hockey was .66. In media consumption, the

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. coefficient between preferences and behavioral frequency for baseball was .89, for

basketball was .85, for boxing was .83, for football was .87, and for ice hockey was .83.

As for the consumption pattern of participating, the correlation between preferences and

behavioral frequency for baseball was .80, for basketball was .84, for football was .77, for

golf was .85, and for workout was .83.

Sport Consumption Preferences Sport Consumption Behavioral Frequency Sport Spectating Baseball Basketball Boxing Football Ice Hockey Baseball .710** .120 -.045 .192** .147* Basketball .187* .702** .058 .192** -.045 Boxing .064 .101 .458** .076 .028 Football 193** 300** .049 .633** .185* Ice Hockey .118 -.107 -.010 .161 .663** Sport Media Consumption Baseball Basketball Boxing Football Ice Hockey Baseball .886** 351** -.049 366** .100 Basketball .226** .847** .146* 384** -.021 Boxing .039 .178* .832** 340** .077 Football 394** .414** .140 .872** 345** Ice Hockey .104 .025 .056 380** .831** Sport Participation Baseball Basketball Football Golf Workout Baseball .795** .189* 328** 329** .173* Basketball 334** .840** 376** 397** .093 Football 336** 350** .765** 350** .058 Golf 386** 373** .416** .848** .010 Workout .114 -.012 -.086 -.022 .827** ** Correlation is significant ac the 0.01 level (2-tailed). * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2* tailed).

Table 4.20: Correlation Between Sport Consumption Preferences and Behavioral Frequency of American Sample

As seen in Table 4.21, the results revealed that Person product-moment

correlation coefficients between sport consumption preferences and behavior frequency

were all highly correlated in the Taiwanese sample (Cohen, 1988). The correlation 86

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. between spectating preferences and spectating behavioral frequency for basketbal was .41,

for billiard was .50, for table tennis was 39, for tennis was 33, and for volleyball was .52.

In media consumption, the coefficient between preferences and behavioral frequency for

basketball was .84, for billiard was .87, for figure skating was .76, for gymnastics was .72,

and for volleyball was .77. As for the consumption pattern of participating, the

correlation between preferences and behavioral frequency for badminton was .69, for

basketball was .85, for billiard was .76, for swimming and diving was .79, and for table

tennis was .79.

Sport Consumption Sport Consumption Frequency Preferences Sport Spectating Basketball Billiard Table Tennis Tennis Volleyball Basketball .410** .088 339 -.050 346 BilHairi 222** .496** J29 .056 .017 Table Tennis -.014 235** 386** .084 .080 Tennis .061 364 398 331** 323 Volleyball .065 394 J26 -.025 515** Sport Media Consumption Basketball Billiard Figure Skating Gymnastic Volleyball Basketball 336** 278** -.099 301 208?** BQfiatd 320** 368** 316 -.008 .116 Figure Skating -.087 -305 .768** 571** .193?** Gymnastic -.072 -.065 316** .717** 276** Volleyball .118 J14 .198** 325** .768** Sport fartfcipating Badminton Basketball Billiard Swim/Dive Table Tennis Badminton .685** 3(78 308 J06 .086 Basketball 362 353?** .413** -.172* J16 Billiard .045 306** .758** 366 268** Swimming&Diving .192** -.060 .130 .78t** .118 Table Tennis JOS J13 .193** 374 .789?** ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

Table 421: Correlation Between Sport Consumption Preferences and Behavior Frequency of Taiwanese Sample

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Summary of the Results

In general, the results indicated that the American and Taiwanese samples differed

in their prioritizing of personal values, their responses to the values - and thus yielded

different factor structures, and in their sport consumption patterns. For research question

I, the MANOVA analysis revealed a significant two-way interaction between culture and

sex influenced two personal values for both cultural settings. There were also significant

differences in the personal values between two cultural groups and between men and

women. Additionally, the findings of principal component analyses revealed that the

structures of personal values between American and Taiwanese students were different.

Research question 2 and 3 examined the influence of personal values on sport

consumption preferences and sport consumption behavioral frequency regarding five

sport activities in three categories (i.e. sport spectating, sport media consumption, and

sport participation). The multivariate multiple regressions indicated that the personal

values significantly influenced overall sport consumption preferences and sport

consumption behavioral frequency for the American sample, and for the Taiwanese

sample, the multivariate multiple regressions indicated that the personal values

significantly influenced overall sport consumption preferences and sport consumption

behavioral frequency, except for the influence of personal values on spectating behavioral

frequency was not significant. However, in terms of the influence of the personal values

on each sport activity or the relationships between the personal values and each sport

activity, neither multivariate multiple regressions nor correlation analyses revealed

significant amount of findings. The last research question intended to explore the

relationship between sport consumption preferences and sport consumption behavioral

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. frequency, and the results indicated that sport consumption preferences were generally

highly correlated with sport consumption behavioral frequency in both cultural settings.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER 5

DISCUSSION

The primary purposes of this study were to: (a) identify the differences and

similarities of personal values of students from two cultural settings, (b) examine the

influence of personal values on the sport consumption preferences and behaviors of

consumers in two different cultural settings, and (c) devise value-specific sport marketing

strategies for the respective samples under investigation, hi the following discussion, the

findings related to each research question are presented, followed by the implications of

marketing the respective sports in each of the countries, and suggestions for future

research directions.

Personal Values of American and Taiwanese Students

The first research question attempted to examine the differences and similarities

of personal values in two cultural settings — United States and Taiwan. The overall

findings indicated that the personal values reported by the American students differed

from the personal values reported by the Taiwanese students. The results of MANOVA

showed a significant two-way interaction between culture and sex influenced the values

of being w ell-respected andfun and enjoyment in life. Significant differences were also

found between two cultural groups in the values of sense o f belonging, excitement, being

wed-respected,Jim and enjoyment in life, security, self-respect, and a sense o f 90

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. accomplishment. American students rated the values of excitement, fun and enjoyment in

life, self-respect, and a sense o faccomplishment higher than Taiwanese students did. On

the contrary. Taiwanese students rated the values of sense ofbetonging, security, and self-

respect higher than American students did.

An interesting observation based on these findings is that the values rated highly

by the American students were those that are internal-oriented personal values; whereas

the values rated highly by the Taiwanese students were those that are external-oriented

personal values (see Table 3.2). These differences may be due to the influences of culture

on personal values. From a macro-cultural prospective, Taiwan is primarily a collectivist

society, whereas United States is more of an individualist society (Schutte & Ciarfante,

1998). The interpersonal relationships of collectivist societies are more apt to social

cohesion, social harmony and social sensitization that create a distinctive divergence

from those of individualist societies such as United States (Schutte & Ciarlante, 1998).

hi addition, SchQtte and Ciarlante’s concept of internal and external locus of control (in

describing man's relationship with nature and fate) may offer insight into these findings.

Schutte and Ciarlante further indicated that Asian cultures have the characteristics of an

external locus of control, a stronger belief in fate, external forces and predetermined

events in comparison to Western cultures' focus on internal locus of control. According

to Kahle (1983), individuals with strong internal-oriented values tend to depend on their

inner strength to wrestle with life's problems, and believe that they have the power of

influence and control outcome, whereas individuals with strong external-oriented values

rely more on fate and luck to overcome problems in life. Synthesizing Kahle’s

interpretation and Schutte and Ciarlante's concept,it is not surprising that Taiwanese

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. students rated external-oriented personal values higher, while American students rated

internal-oriented personal values higher. Moreover, the antecedents of human values can

be traced back to culture (Rokeach, 1973) and culture is shared among members of

society, offering support for the findings of this study regarding the differences of

personal values between two cultures, as well as the differing impact of culture on

personal values.

In addition to statistically controlling culture as a fixed factor in MANOVA, sex

was used as another fixed factor to detect whether men and women report different

personal values. The results indicated that women rated the values ofsense o f belonging,

warm relationships with others, security, andfun and enjoyment in life higher than men

did. The findings for sense o fbelonging and warm relationships with others were

consistent with Kahle’s (1996; 2001) conclusion that the values of warm relationship

with others and sense o f belonging are selected more by women than men. Further, the

results of principal component analysis showed that the value ofsecurity was loaded on

the external domain along with the values sense o f belonging and warm relationship with

others in the study (see Table 4.9), therefore, the value of security was rated higher

among women than men.

In this study, participants from both cultural settings were also asked to identify

the most important personal value among the nine personal values presented- The values

of fun and enjoyment in life and self-respect were reported as the most important

personal values, while self-fulfillment and warm relationships with others as the second

and the third most important personal value for the American students. With regard to the

results of Taiwanese students, the most important personal value was fun and enjoyment

ji Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. in life, while sense of belonging and self-fulfillment as the second and the third most

important personal value. These findings supported Kahle’s (1996; 2001) conclusion that

self-respect is the most frequently selected value in the United States, whereas fun and

enjoyment in fife was the most popular value among young people. Moreover, since

Taiwan is more of a collectivism-oriented society and the value of sense of belonging

seems to result in greater conformity and dependency (Kahle, 1996; 2001), the result of

sense of belonging as the second most important personal value for Taiwanese students

revealed that culture may have indeed influenced personal values.

In terms of the dimensions of personal values, the results of the pilot study were

not consistent with previous researches such as Kahle’s (1983) two dimensions of the

LOV (see Table 3.2). A principal component analysis with orthogonal rotation was

performed to confirm the structure of the interrelationships among nine personal value

variables in both cultural settings in the final data. The results (see Table 4.10 & Table

4.11) generated from two cultural groups were still not consistent with Kahle’s external

and internal dimensions. Three components were extracted in American sample (internal

value domain; self-respect, being well-respected, a sense o f accomplishment, security,

and self-fulfillment, external value domain: sense o fbelonging and warm relationships

with others, and hedonism value domain: excitem ent andfiat and enjoyment in life). For

the Taiwanese sample, two components were extracted (external value domain:warm

relationships with others, sense o fbelonging, being well-respected, and internal value

domain: a sense ofaccomplishment, fun and enjoyment in life, self-respected, excitement,

and self-fulfillment). Comparing Kahle’s (1983) two dimensions with the components

extracted in American and Taiwan samples, a distinctive difference is that the value of

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. warm relationships with others was constantly loaded with the external-oriented value of

sense of belonging in both cultures rather than the internal-oriented values presented by

Kahle. The value of warm relationships with others was defined as having close

companionships and intimate friendships. The locus of control for this value lie mote on

the external than the internal; therefore, placing the value ofwarm relationships with

others under external-oriented value dimension could be more appropriate than under

internal-oriented value dimension (as in Kahle (1983)).

Personal Values and Sport Consumption Preferences and Behavioral Frequency

Research question 2 and 3 attempted to explore to the extent to which personal

values may have influenced sport consumption preferences and sport consumption

behavioral frequency of American and Taiwanese students differently, hi the American

sample, all six multivariate multiple regression models of the influences of personal

values on preferences and behavioral frequency of sport spectating, sport media

consumption, and sport participation were significant. Results from the univariate

analyses indicated that only spectating preferences for boxing, media consumption

frequency for boxing, and participating frequency in golf were significantly influenced by

personal values with 6.2 %, 2.7 %, and 3.4 % of variance explained respectively. With

regard to the correlations between three value domains and sport consumption

preferences and behavioral frequency, the results did not reveal any significant

relationship other than the findings of regression analyses. Although both regression

analyses and correlations did not reveal a lot of profound findings to extensively explain

the influence of personal values on sport consumption patterns, an interesting finding was

that the external value domain (i.e. sense o fbelonging and warm relationships with others)

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. had a negative effect on boxing spectating preferences. A possible explanation for this

finding is that boxing is usually labeled as a cruel, violent sport. Therefore, the

likelihood of having people who highly endorse the external-oriented values to attend

boxing event is very low because personal values are more likely to correspond to

consumers’ beliefs and behaviors (Blackwell et al. 2001).

hi the Taiwanese sample, multivariate multiple regression revealed that personal

values significantly influenced sport consumption preferences and sport consumption

behavioral frequency across three categories, except for the sport spectating behavioral

frequency. Results of univariate analyses indicated that personal values significantly

influenced preferences and behavioral frequency of basketball spectating, basketball

media consumption, and participation, excluding basketball spectating frequency.

Similar to the findings of the American sample in the correlation, there was no major

significant relationship between two value domains and sport consumption preferences

and sport consumption behavioral frequency other than the results revealed in regression

analyses. However, the positive influence of the external domain values (i.e. warm

relationships with others, sense o f belonging, and being well-respected) on basketball

spectating preferences and behavior frequency and media consumption frequency may be

contributed to individuals’ need of fulfilling the external personal values such as warm

relationships with others or sense o fbelonging. As previously discussed, Taiwan is a

collectivism society and the interpersonal relationships are more apt to social harmony

and social cohesion. Since sport is considered a social institution, which “...constitutes a

distinctive kind of social organization; represents a unique form of social activity...”

(McPherson, Curtis, & Loy, 1989, p. 18), individuals may fulfill their values of warm

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. relationships with others or sense o f belonging by participating in a team sport such as

basketball- Kahle (1983) also mentioned that socialization represents a process of

increasing congruity of personal and institutional values. Therefore, for the Taiwanese

students, the positive influence of the external values domain on basketball sport

consumption patterns may have been because of participants’ desire to fulfill personal

values. These findings may also have been due to the function of socialization.

McPherson et al. (1989) defined socialization as “a complex developmental learning

process that teaches the knowledge, values, and norms essential to participation in social

life” (p. 37). Participating in sport activities, particularly team sports such as basketball,

creates opportunity for individuals to leam teamwork, to develop social skills, and

ultimately to fit into other social institutions.

The overall multivariate multiple regression analyses of both cultural groups

indicated that personal values collectively had significant effects on sport consumption

patterns, however, relatively small amount of variance were explained by specific value

domains in terms of examining each sport activity. A possible explanation for this

finding is that according to the Consumer Decision Making (CDP) Model (Blackwell et

al-, 2001), consumers typically go through several stages with influences from individual

and environmental differences and psychological processes when making purchase

decision. Thus personal values may only account for a small amount of variance in

explaining behavior outcome- Notwithstanding the limited/minimal amount of variance

explained by personal values, the construct of personal values significantly influences

consumption behavior (RJ>. Blackwell, personal communication, November28,2001).

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Spoit Consumption Preferences and Behavioral Frequency

Research question 4 attempted to reveal the relationships between sport

consumption preferences and behavioral frequency of American and Taiwanese students.

Results from correlation indicated that sport consumption preferences were all positively

and highly correlated to sport consumption behavioral frequency across five sport

activities in three consumption patterns (i.e. spectating, media consumption, and

participating) of both American and Taiwanese samples. The findings support Reibstein’s

(1978) statement that preference is a predictor of behavioral intention, and behavior is

usually preceded by behavioral intention, hi addition, according to Blackwell et al.

(2001), preferences sometimes may measure the construct of attitudes, and attitudes may

determine consumer intentions. Therefore, a reasonable conclusion is that sport

consumption preferences have a significant influence on sport consumption behavioral

frequency of the American and the Taiwanese students.

Practical Implication

Cross-cultural analysis has an important role in developing global marketing

strategies because analyzing the cultural elements of different markets, will assist global

marketers in their decision regarding the degree of standardization (i.e., a marketing

strategy that is generally equally applicable to various cultures without major

modifications based on cultural differences) or localization (i.e., a marketing strategy that

is more specific to the local setting in which it will be implemented) that should be

adapted and/or infused into marketing strategies. According to the findings of this study,

the predominant cultural characteristics and the structures of the interrelationships among

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. nine personal value variables of American and Taiwanese students were different.

Therefore, American sport marketers may consider a more localized oriented strategy to

approach the consumers in Taiwan, because a standardized marketing strategy may not

adequately address the cultural differences (based on the consumers’ personal values) that

were manifested in this study. For instance, according to the CDP model (Blackwell et

al., 2001), in addition to the seven stages consumers typically go through as they make

decisions, individual differences, environment influences, and psychological processes

also influence the actual purchase decisions. Therefore, while American and Taiwanese

students may go through the same seven stages, it is likely that individual differences

such as personal values will exert a significant influence on the decision making process

such that the likelihood of the students in these two cultures making the same

consumption decisions may be quite low. Therefore, in the context of sport consumption

and as suggested by the findings of this study regarding personal values as an individual

difference variable, it is important for global sport marketers to implement international

marketing strategies with the consideration of cultural differences and cultural influences.

Boote (1981) suggested that the information retrieved from personal values could

provide more distinct groupings of consumers of a product or service for the purpose of

market segmentation more so than other bases of consumer grouping such as

demographics. The results of this study indicated that there maybe a fu n and enjoym ent

in life segment because this value was selected as the most important personal value for

both American and Taiwanese students. In addition, Kahle (1996 & 2001) indicated that

the value of fun and enjoyment in life tended to associate with purchasing for elegance,

convenience, nostalgia, patriotism, authenticity, and brand consciousness. Sport

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. marketers can communicate with this group of people with a focus on emphasizing these

characteristics. Nike’s effort in building sport consumers' brand awareness and providing

authentic athletic products is a perfect example of approaching thefun and enjoyment in

life segment.

The results of this study also showed that men and women had different personal

value structures. Taking the value of warm relationship with others as an example,

women selected this value more so than did the men. Since values are more likely to

correspond to consumers' beliefs and behaviors (Blackwell et al., 2001) sport marketers

may therefore approach women by emphasizing the value of warm relationship with

others. For example. Minor League Baseball currently positions itself as a family

oriented sporting event As such, a marketing strategy targeted to women stressing that

attending minor league baseball games may provide an opportunity to spend quality time

with families could be a legitimate strategic approach to target women consumers.

Another implication is that sport marketers need to differentiate the market by the

characteristics of sport consumers such as spectators, media viewers, and participants.

The study of Burnett, Menon, and Smart (1993) indicated that type of participation and

gender did influence sport consumers’ attitude toward advertising and media

consumption habits. The results of this study showed that there were differences in

preferable sport activities across three categories of spectating, media consumption, and

participation for the Taiwanese students. For example, figure skating and gymnastics

were rated as the second and the third preferable sport activities to watch on TV.

However, these two sport activities were not rated with the top five preferable sport

activities of spectating and participation in the pilot test. For the American sample, the

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. top five preferable sport activities were the same for the categories of spectating and

media consumption. However, workout was rated as the most preferable participating

sports. Moreover, the activity of golf was in the top five preferable sport activities for

participation, but not for spectating and media consumption. Therefore, in terms of

promoting specific sport activities or products, sport marketers may consider tailoring

different marketing campaigns to approach participants, media viewers, and spectators

respectively.

Limitation and Future Research

Some limitations of this study were noted in Chapter 1. However, some

additional limitations are presented here along with suggestions for future research. Lack

of generalizability may be the biggest limitation of this study because the data were

collected via a judgment sample rather than random sample. The results obtained may

not be applicable to students/consumers beyond this sample (including students enrolled

in the respective universities). Another limitation of using a judgment sample is the

likelihood of a Type II error occurring (i.e., not finding significance when it is actually

present). Nevertheless, since: (a) the focus of this study was to examine the influence of

personal values on sport consumption patterns in two cultural settings and (b) college

students worldwide are generally more exposed to sports more than the general public,

the judgment samples were deemed appropriate. Therefore, while the results obtained

from the judgment samples were not generalizable they offered the best fit for the

purpose of this study. In order to infer the results to a greater extent, similar inquiries

should be replicated by using random probabilistic samples rather than convenient

samples, and by using participants from general public instead of college students.

100

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Another limitation of this study dealt with the measurement of outcome variables

of sport consumption behaviors. Consumption behavior may be influenced not only by

personal values, but also by variables such as motivations, time and money availability,

and attitudes, to name a few. Since the intention of this study was to explore the

relationship between personal values and sport consumption preferences and sport

consumption behavioral frequency per se, the outcome of sport consumption patterns

affected by variables other than personal values was not assessed. In light of this

limitation, future researches may consider examining whether there are other variables

which either moderate or mediate the relationships between personal values and sport

consumption preferences or the relationships between preferences and behavioral

frequency. Nevertheless, according to the results of this study (see Figure 5.1), culture

influences personal values, and personal values influences sport consumption preferences,

winch were correlated with sport consumption behavioral frequency. Future studies

could also examine values beyond those included in the LOV, and identify values that are

more relevant to sport consumption.

Personal Culture Values

Figure 5.1: The relationships among culture, personal values and sport consumption patterns

101

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rokeach’s (1973) indicated that the antecedents of human values may be traced

back to culture, society and its institutions, and personality, therefore, cultural elements

such as education, material elements, and social institutions may significantly influences

sport consumption behaviors. For example, family, as an important unit of social

institution, has a strong effect on whether and how children and adolescents become

involved in sport (McPherson et al., 1989) because the primary function of family is to

support individuals, particularly children and infant during the process of socialization,

and sport provides an opportunity for individuals to learn to participate in groups and to

work with siblings. Moreover, if individuals were socialized into the role of sport

consumers in the early childhood rather than later on in their life, they are more likely to

continue to consume sport (McPherson et al., 1989). Therefore, the influence of family

on sport consumption behaviors may be considered into subsequent studies.

This research compared the differences between two cultural settings. In addition

to the suggestions mentioned previously, there are some recommendations for future

research in terms of cross-cultural study. One recommendation is related to the

subculture. Czinkota and Ronkainen (2001) indicated that except for the cultures like

Japan and Saudi Arabia, few cultures today are homogeneous, therefore, “intracultural

differences based on nationality, religion, race, or geographic area have resulted in the

emergence of distinct subcultures” (p. 61). For instance, the African-American and the

Hispanic subcultures in the United States are good examples. Sport consumers with

different subcultures may vary in consumption patterns due to the intricate influences of

macro culture and subculture (Armstrong, 2001; McCarthy & Stillman, 1998).

102

I Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Accordingly, a comparison of sport consumer behaviors between subcultures (e.g., Asia-

American, African-American, and Hispanic) may be one direction for future research.

Another culture related recommendation is the issue of acculturation. The process

of acculturation refers to individuals adjusting and adapting to a specific culture other

than their own (Czinkota & Ronkainen, 2001). Other than collecting the data from

Taiwanese students who reside in Taiwan in this study, future research may consider

collecting data from Taiwanese students who reside in United States to explore the

possible influence of acculturation on sport consumption behaviors because students who

reside in Taiwan seldom have chance to expose to sport activities such as football or ice

hockey. Since sport is part of American culture, engaging in sport related activities might

be an acculturation process for Taiwanese students or other international students who

reside in United States.

Conclusion

The purpose of this study was to explore the impact of personal values on sport

consumption preferences and sport consumption behavioral frequency in two different

cultural settings. Utilizing Kahle’s (1983) value scale - the List of Value (LOV), this

study examined: (a) the value structure of American and Taiwanese students, (b) the

extent to which personal values influenced sport consumption preferences and sport

consumption behavioral frequency of American and Taiwanese students differently, and

behavioral frequency. The results revealed that the structures of personal values between

American and Taiwanese students were different and personal values collectively had

significant effects on sport consumption patterns. As such, the results inferred that

103

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. geographical setting may influence vanates of culture such as personal values. The

results also indicated that personal values significantly influenced sport consumption

preferences and sport consumption behaviors. Moreover, the results also revealed that

sport consumption preferences were significantly related to sport consumption behavioral

frequency for both cultural settings (i.e., for the American and Taiwanese students).

Therefore, from practical and theoretical implications perspectives, the overall findings of

this study highlighted the importance of identifying and understanding the cultural

differences and similarities among global sport consumers that may influence the success

of global and international sport marketing strategies.

104

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. REFERENCE

American Student List (2001). College students. Retrieved November 15,2001, from, http://www.studentlist.coin/Iists/colIege-htniL

Armstrong, K. L. (2001). Black consumers’ spending and historically Black college sport events: the marketing implications. Sport Marketing Quarterly. 10(2}, 102-111.

Baily, K. D. (1978). Methods o fsocial research. Basingstoke: Collier-Macmillan.

Berry, J. W. (1980). Introduction to methodology. In Triandis, H. C. and Berry, J. W. (Ed.), The Handbook o f Cross-Cultural Psychology (Vol.2, pp. 1-29). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

Betty, S. E., Homer, P. M., & Kahle, L. R. (1991). Personal values and gift giving behavior: A study across cultures. Journal o f Business Research, 2183-190. 0 ,

Bilsky, W., & Schwartz, S. H. (1994). Values and personality. European Journal o f Personality, 8(3), 163-181.

Blackwell, R. D., Miniard, P. W., & Engel, J. F. (2001). Consumer behavior. Ft. Worth, Tex: Harcourt College Publishers.

Bogdan, R. C., & Bilken, S. K. (1998). Qualitative research fo r education: An introduction to theory and methods. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Boote, A. S. (1981). Market segmentation by personal values and salient product attributes, Journal o fAdvertising Research, 21,29-35.

105

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Bracht, G. H., & Glass, G. V. (1968). The external validity of experiments. Am erican Educational Research Journal, 5,437-474.

Burgess, S. M., & Steenkamp, J. E. M. (1999). Value priorities and consumer behavior in a transitional economy, hi R. Batra (Ed.) Marketing issues in transitional economies. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Burnett, J., Menon, A., & Smart, D. T. (1993). Sport marketing: A new ball game with new rules. Journal o f Advertising Research, Sep/Oct, 21-35.

Clawson, C. J., & Vinson, D. E. (1978). Human values: An historical and interdisciplinary analysis. In H. K. Hunt (Ed.), Advances in Consumer Research (Vol. 5, pp396-402). Ann Arbor, MI: Association for Consumer Research.

Child, J., & Kieser, A. (1977). A contrast in British and West German management practices: Are recipes of success culture bound?Conference on Cross-Cultural Studies on Organizational Functioning, Hawaii.

Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis fo r the behavioral science. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum Associates.

Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2000). Research methods in education. New York: RoutledgeFalmer.

CzmkoTA, M. R. & Ronkainen, I. A. (2001). International marketing. Orlando, FL: Harcourt.

Dhar, R. (1997). Consumer preference for a no-choice option.Journal o f Consum er Research, 24, 215-231.

Erez, M., & Early C. P. (1993). Culture, self-identity, and work. New York. NY: Oxford University Press.

Feather, N. T. (1977). Value importance, conservatism, and age. European Journal o f Social Psychology, 7(2), 241-245. 106

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Fraenkel, J. R.T & Wallen, N. E. (2000). How to design and evaluate research in education. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Gay, J. R., & Airasian, P. (2000). Educational research: competencies fo r analysis and application. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Grunert. S. C., & Juhl, H. J. (1995). Values, environmental attitudes, and buying of organic foods. Journal o f Economic Psychology, 16(1),39-62.

Grunert, S. C., & Scherhom, G. (1990). Consumer values in West Germany underlying dimensions and cross-cultural comparison with North America.Journal o f Business Research, 20(2), 97-107.

Hair, J. F. Jr., Anderson, R. E., Tatham, R. L., & Black, W. C. (1998). Multivariate data analysis. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Hayes, B. E. (1998). Measuring customer satisfaction. Milwaukee, WI: ASQC Quality Press.

Homer, P. M., & Kahle, L. R. (1988). A structural equation test of the value-attitude- behavior hierarchy. Journal o f Personality & Social Psychology, 54(4), 638-646.

Kahle, L. R., Rose, G., & Shoham, A. (1999). Finding of LOV throughout the world, and other evidence of cross-national consumer psychographics: Introduction. Journal o f Euro ~ Marketing, 8( 1/2), 1-13.

Kahle, L. R. (1983) (Ed.). Social Values and Social Change: Adaptation to Life in Am erica. New York: Praeger.

Kahle, L. R. (1994). Values and behaviors: Can yon get there from here? In M. Lynn & J. M. Jackson (Ed.), Proceedings o fthe Society fo r Consumer Psychology (pp.43-47).

j Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Kahle, L. EL (1996). Social values and consumer behavior: Research from the List of Values. In C. Seligman, J. M. Olson & M. P. Zanna (Ed.), The Psychology o f Values: The Ontario Symposium (Vol. 8, pp. I35-I5I). Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Kahle, L. EL, Betty, S. E., & Homer, P. M. (1989). Consumer values in Norway and the United States: A comparison.Journal o fInternational Consumer Marketing, 81- 1, 92.

Kahle, L. R., Betty, S. E., & Mager, J. (1994). Implications of social values for consumer communications: The case of the European community, hi B. Englis & F. Baker (Ed.), Global and Multinational Advertising. Hillsdale, NJ: LEA.

Kahle, L. EL, Duncan, M., Dalakas, V., & Aikon, D. (2001). The social values of fans for men’s versus women’s university basketball. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 10,156- 162.

Kahle, L. R., Homer, P. M., O’Brien, EL M., & Boush, D. M. (1997). Maslow’s hierarchy and social adaptation as alternative accounts of value structures, hi L. R. Kahle and L. Chiaouris (Ed.), Values, Lifestyle, and Psychographics (pp. 111-135). Mahawh, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associate.

Kahle, L. R., & Kennedy, P. (1989). Using the List of Values (LOV) to Understand Consumers. Journal o f Consumer Marketing,5-12. 6 ,

Kahle, L. EL, Poulos, B., & Sukhdial, A. (1988). Changes in social values in the United States during the past decade.Journal o fAdvertising Research, 28,35-41.

Kahle, L. EL, & Timmer, S. G. (1983). A Theory and a Method for Studying Values, In L. R. Kahle, Social Values and Social Change: Adaptation to Life in America, New York: Praeger.

Katz, D. (1960). The functional approach to the study of attitudes.Public Opinion Quarterly, 2 4 ,163-204.

108

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Kail Ah Keng (1990). Choice of values and demographics: A study of an Asian culture. Proceedings o fthe 19^ Annual Conference o f the European Marketing Academy, Innsbruck, Austria, 81-97.

Kan Ah Keng & Yang, C. (1993). Personal values, demographics and consumption behavior A study of Taiwanese consumers. Journal o fInternational Consumer Marketing, 6(1), 27-48.

Kennedy, PP., Best, R. J., & Kahle, L. R. (1988). An Alternative Method for Measuring Value-Based Segmentation and /advertisement Positioning, In L. H. James & C. R. Martin Jr. (Ed.), Current Issues and Research in Advertising. Ann Arbor, Mi: University of Michigan, 139-155.

Lascu, D., Manrai, L. A., & Manrai, A. K. (1996). Value differences between Polish and Romanian consumers: A caution against using a regiocentric marketing orientation in Eastern Europe.Journal o fInternational Consumer Marketing, 8(3/4), 145-167.

Levitt, T. (1983). The globalization of markets. Harvard Business Review, 61,92-102.

Madrigal, R., & Kahle, L. R. (1994). Predicting vacation activity preferences on the basis of value-system segmentation. Journal o f Travel Research, 22-28.

Maguire, J. A. (1999). Global sport: identities, societies, and civilizations. Malden, MA: Blackwell.

Malorta, Agarwal, & Peterson (1996). Methodological issues in cross-cultural marketing research: A state-of-the-art review. International Marketing Review, 13(5), 7-43.

Maslow, A JL (1954). Motivation and personality. New York: Harper.

Marketing (1999). Consumer report of Taiwan college students. Retrieved November 15, 2001, from http://www.harment.com/bt/9904/I65cov.htm.

McCarthy, L. M. & Stillman, W. P. (1998). Marketing sport to Hispanic consumers. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 7(4), 19-24. 109

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. McCort, D. J. & Malhotra, N. K. (1993). Culture and consumer behavior: Toward an understanding of cross-cultural consumer behavior in international marketing. Journal o fInternational Consumer Marketing, 6(2),91-127.

McPherson, B. D., Curtis, J. E., & Loy, J. W. (1989). The social significance o fsport: An introduction to the sociology o Champaign, fsport. EL: Human Kinetics Books.

Miller, G. A. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information.Psychological Review, 63,81-97.

Novak, T. P., & MacEvoy, B. (1990). On comparing alternative segmentation schemes: The List of Values and Values and Life Styles. Journal o f Consumer Research, 17, 105-109.

Nurmally, J. L. (1978). Psychometric theory. New York: McGraw Hill.

Ohmae, K. (1989). Managing in a borderless world. Harvard Business Review, 6 1152- , 161.

Peterson, L. R., & Peterson, M. J. (1959). Short-term retention of individual verbal items. Journal o f Experimental Psychology, 193-198.5 8 ,

Piaget, J. (1952). The origins o f intelligence in children. New York: International University Press.

Reibstein, D. J. (1978). The prediction of individual probabilities of brand choice. Journal o f Consumer Research,163-168. 5 ,

Ricks, D. A. (1993). Blunders in international business. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.

Rokeach, M. (1973). The nature o f human values. New York, Free Press.

Rotter, J. B. (1955). The role of the psychological situation in determining the direction of human behavior. In M. R. Jones (Ed.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation (Vol. 01). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. 110

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rotter, J. B., Seeman, M., & Liverant, S. (1962). Internal versus external control of reinforcements: A major variable in behavior theory, fir N. F. Washbume (Ed.), Decision, Values, and Groups (Vol. 2). London: Pergamon Press.

Robinson, J. P., Shaver, P. R., & Wrightsman, L. S. (1991). Criteria for scale selection and evaluation, hi J. P. Robinson, P. R.Shaver, & L. S. Wrightsman (Ed.) M easures o fPersonality and Social Psychological Attitudes. San D iego, CA: Academic Press.

Rustogi, H., Hensel, P. J., & Burgers, W. P. (1996). The link between personal values and advertising appeals: Cross-cultural barriers to standardized global advertising. Journal o f Euro—Marketing, 5(4), 57-79.

Salant, P. & Dillman, D. A. (1994). How to conduct your own survey. New York: Wiley.

Schwartz, S. H. & Bardi, A. (2001). Value hierarchies across cultures: Taking a similarities perspective.Journal o f Cross-Cultural Psychology, 32(3),268-290.

Schwartz, S. H. (1992). Universal in the content and structure of values: Theoretical advances and empirical tests in 20 countries. Advances in experimental social psychology, 25,1-65.

Schwartz, S. H. (1994). Are there universal aspects in the structure and contents of human values? Journal o fSocial Issues, 50(4), 19-45.

Schwartz, S. H., & Bilsky, W. (1987). Toward a psychological structure of human values. Journal o fPersonality and Social Psychology,550-562. 53,

Schwartz, S. H., & Bilsky, W. (1990). Toward a theory of the universal content and structure of values: Extensions and cross-cultural replications.Journal o f Personality and Social Psychology, 58(5), 878-891.

Shank, M. D. (1998). Sport marketing: A strategic perspective. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Stevens, J. (2002). Applied multivariate statisticsfo r the social sciences (4th ed). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erfbaum.

t i l

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Taiwan Department of Education (2000). Higher education statistics. Retrieved September 23,2001, from http://www.edu.tw/statistics/service/sts4-5.htin.

Terpstra, V. (1987). The evolution of international marketing. International Marketing Review, 4(4), 47-59.

The Republic of China Yearbook—Taiwan (2001, May). Sport and recreation. Retrieved May 27,2002, from http://www.gio.gov.tw/taiwan-website/5- gp/vearbook/index.html

Thurstone, L. L. (1974). Multiple factor analysis, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Trandis, EL C. (1972). The analysis o f subjective culture. New York: Wiley-Interscience.

US Department of Education (2000, September). Post secondary education, hi Digest of education statistics (chap. 3), from http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2001/digest/dtl75.html

Usunier, J. (1996). Marketing across cultures. Hemel Hempstead, NY: Prentice-Hall.

Veroff, J., Douvan, E., & Kulka, R. A. (1981). The inner American: A self-portrait from 1957to 1976, New York: Basic Books.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX A -l

Final Questionnaire - English Version

LI3

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Dear Participant:

I am a Ph. D. student majoring in Sport Management in the School of Physical Activity and Educational Service at The Ohio State University. I am interested in learning more about sport consumption preferences and behaviors and would like for you to assist me.

To Ieam more about the sport consumption preferences and behaviors (which include preferences and frequency of attending and participating sport activities, sport media consumption, and purchasing sport related products) of OSU students, £ have included a questionnaire that will take you less than 10 minutes to complete. There are no known physical or psychological risks associated with completing this survey, however, some questions may be of a sensitive nature. As such, your assistant is entirely voluntary and you may withdraw from completing the survey at any time. However, the completion and return of questionnaire indicate your consent of participating in this research. Your confidentiality will be maintained, as individual responses will not be identifies in the final report. The published results will not refer to any individual, and the discussion will be based upon group data.

I am grateful for your time and will deeply appreciate your assistance with this project.

Jackie Yu-Lin Shao, Ph. D. Candidate Dr. Ketra L. Armstrong, Advisor College of Education School of Physical Activity and Educational Services Sport and Exercise Management

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Section. 1: Following is a list of personal values. Some values may be more important than others. Please study the list carefully and then rate each value on how important it is in your daily life, using the scale ranging from 1 (least important) to 9 (most important).

Least Important M ost to m e Important Please drde the appropriate number tom e ▼ ▼ 1. Sense of belonging 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 (to be accepted and needed by ourfamily. friends, and community) 2. Excitement 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 (to experience stimulation and thrills) 3. Warm relationships with others 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 (to have close companionships and intimate friendships) 4. Self-fulfillment 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 (to find peace of mind and to make the best use of your talents) 5. Beine well-respected 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 (to be admired by others and to receive recognition) 6. Fun and eniovment in life 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 (to lead a pleasurable, happy life) 7. Security 12 3 4 56 789 (to be safe and protected from misfortune and attack 8. Self-respect 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 (to be proud ofyourself and confident with who you are) 9. A sense of accomplishment 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 (to succeed at what you want to do) 10. Please write down die most important personal value from the above 9 item s. Please write the corresponding number

115

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Section 2: Hus section pertains to your preference for and frequency in attending sporting events.

11-A. Please indicate the extent of your PREFfaKENCE for attending sporting events as a spectator o f the follow ing sports by circling the appropriate num ber:

Not Preferable At AH Most Preferable ______V ______▼_ a. Baseball 123456789 b. Basketball 123456789 c Boxing 123456789 d. Football 123456789 e. Ice Hockey ______123456789

11-B. Please indicate the extent of your FREQUENCY of attending sporting events as a spectator of the follow ing sports by circling the appropriate num ber:

Never Very Frequently _T ______Y_ a. Baseball 123456789 b. Basketball 123456789 c Boxing 123456789 d. Football 123456789 e. Ice Hockey 123456789

11-C. Which of the follow ing is the most influential in your decision for attending sporting events (please circle the corresponding number!?

a. Friends/Significant others b. Money availability c. Time availability d. Facility: quality or facility location e. Other______

116

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Section 3: The following section pertains to your preference for watching sport programs on TV.

12-A. Please indicate the extent of vour FREE fcKENCE for watching the following sports on TV by circling the appropriate number:

Not Preferable At AH Most Preferable

a. Baseball 123456789 b. Basketball 123456789 c. Boxing 123456789 d. Football 123456789 e. Ice Hockey ______123456789

12-B. Please indicate the extent of your FREQUENCY of watching the following sports on TV by circling the appropriate number:

Never Very Frequently _ £ ▼_ a. Baseball 123456789 b. Basketball 123456789 c Boxing 123456789 cL Football 123456789 e. Ice Hockey 123456789

12-C. Which of the following is the most influential in your decision for watching sport programs on TV (please circle the corresponding number)?

a. Friends/Significant others b. The quality of sport commentators c. Time availability d . Rivalry e. O ther______

117

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Section 4: The section is interested in exploring your preference in participating sport activities.

13-A. Please indicate die extent of vour PRfcPfeKENCE for participating in the follow ing sports by circling the appropriate number:

Not Preferable At All Most Preferable T______V a.Baseball 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 b. Basketball 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 c Football 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 d. Golf 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 e. Workout 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

13-B. Please indicate the extent of your FREQUENCY of participating in the follow ing sports by circling the appropriate number:

Never Very Frequently _ £ ▼_ a. Baseball 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 b. Basketball 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 cFootball 123 4 5 6 7 8 9 d. Golf 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 & Workout 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

13-C. Which of the follow ing is the most influential in your decision for participating in sport activities (please circle the corresponding number)?

a. Friends/Significant others b. Money availability c. Time availability d. Facility e. Instruction availability f. O ther______

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Section 5: This final section of the questionnaire is designed to gather some information about you. 14. What is your age? ______15. What is your sex (please circle the corresponding number)? 1. M ale 2 . Fem ale

16. What is your marital status (please circle the corresponding number)? 1. Single 2 . M arried 3. Living with partner/significant other 4. Divorced 5. W idow ed

17. What is your ethnicity/race (please circle the corresponding number)? 1. American Indian or Alaskan native 2. Asian, Pacific islander, Filipino 3. Black or African-American 4. Hispanic, Chicano, or Spanish-American 5. White or Caucasian 6. Other (Please specify)______

18. What is your annual income range including support horn scholarship and parents (please drcle the corresponding number)? 1. le s s than $5,000 2. $5,001 - $10,000 3. $10,001-$15,000 4. $15,001-$20,000 5. $20,001 - $25,000 6. $25,001-$30,000 7. $30,001 - $35,000 8. $35,001-$40,000 9. $40,001 and above

119

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. In the space provided, please list any other factors that influence your sport consumption behaviors. ^ -

Thank you for your assistance! The Ohio State University School of Physical Activity and Educational Service Sport & Exercise Management 3 3 7 W est 17th A ven u e Columbus, OH 43210-1284 120

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX A-2

Pilot Stndy Questionnaire—English Version

121

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Dear Participant:

I am a Ph. D. student majoring in Sport Management in the School of Physical Activity andBducational Service at The Ohio State University. I am interested in learning more about sport consumption preferences and behaviors and would like for you to assist me.

To learn more about the sport consumption preferences and behaviors (which include preferences and frequency of attending and participating sport activities, sport media consumption, and purchasing sport related products) of OSU students, I have included a questionnaire that win take you less than 10 minutes to complete. There are no known physical or psychological risks associated with completing this survey, however, some questions may be of a sensitive nature. As such, your assistant is entirely voluntary and you may withdraw from completing the survey at any time. However, the completion and return of questionnaire indicate your consent of participating in this research. Your confidentiality will be maintained, as individual responses will not be identifies in the final report. The published results will not refer to any individual, and the discussion will be based upon group data.

I am grateful for your time and will deeply appreciate your assistance with this project.

Jackie Yu-Lin Shao, Ph. D. Candidate Dr. Ketra L. Armstrong, Advisor College of Education School of Physical Activity and Educational Services Sport and Exercise Management

122

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Section 1: Following is a list of values. Some values may be more important than others. Please study the list carefully and then rate each value on how important it is in your daily life, using the scale ranging from 1 (least important) to 9 (most important).

Least Important M ost to me Important Please circle the appropriate number ^ to dm 1. Sense of belonging 123456789 (to be accepted and needed by our family, friends, and community) 2. Excitement 123456789 (to experience stimulation and thrills) 3. Warm relationships with others 123456789 (to have close companionships and intimate friendships) 4. Self-fulfillment 123456789 (to find peace of mind and to make the best use of your talents) 5. Being well-respected 123456789 (to be admired by others and to receive recognition) 6. Fun and enjoyment in life 123456789 (to lead a pleasurable, happy life) 7. Security 123456789 (to be safe and protected from misfortune and attack 8. Self-respect 123456789 (to be proud of yourself and confident urith who you are) 9. A sense of accomplishment 123456789 (to succeed a t what you want to do)

Please write down the number corresponding to die values above that you think is of m ost importance to you.______123

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Section 2: This section pertains to your preference and frequency in attending sporting events. 10-A. Please indicate the extent of your PREFERENCE for attending games in die follow ing sports by circling the appropriate number: Not Preferable At AH Most Preferable

^ ▼ ▼ H Badminton 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 b. Baseball 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 c. Basketball 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 d. Billiard 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 e. Bowling 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 £ Boxing: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 g. Football 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 n. Figure Skating 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Gymnastic 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 L Ice Hockey 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 L Motor Racing 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 nu Soccer 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ru Swimming & Diving 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 o. Table Tennis 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 p. Tennis 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 q. Track & Held 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 r. Volleyball 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 s. Workout 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 L Wrestling 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 U. X-Game (skateboard, inline skate...etc) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 v. O ther ______1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10-B. Please indicate the extent of vour FREQUENCY for attending games in the follow ing sports by circling the appropriate number: Never Very Frequently ^ T ▼ Hi Badminton 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 b. Baseball 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 c Basketball 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 cL Billiard 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 e. Bowling 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 £ Boxing: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 g. Football 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ru Fjggre Skating 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 u Gymnastic 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 k. Ice Hockey 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 L Motor Racing 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ecu Soccer 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ru Swimming & Diving 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 o. Table Tennis 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 p. Tennis 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 q. Track & Held 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 r. Volleyball 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 s. Workout 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 b Wrestling 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 U. XGam e (skateboard, inline skate...etc) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 v. Other ______1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 124

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Section 3: The following section pertains to your preference for watching sport programs on XV. 11-A. Please indicate die extent of your PREFERENCE for watching on TV in the follow ing sports by circling the appropriate number: Not Preferable At All Most Preferable

a. Badminton 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 3 9 b. Baseball 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 c. Basketball 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A Billiard 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 e. Bowling 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 L Boxing,, 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Football 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 t Kgure Skating 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 L 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Gymnastic 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 I Ice Hockey 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 L Motor Racing 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 m. Soccer 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 n. Swimming & Diving 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 o. Table Tennis 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 P* Tennis 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 £I- Track & Field 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 r. Volleyball 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 s . Workout 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 t Wrestling 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 u. X-Game (skateboard, inline skate...etc) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 V. Other 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 11-B. Please indicate the extent of your FREQUENCY for watching on TV in the follow ing sports by circling the appropriate number: Never Very Frequently V ______V a. Badminton 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 b. Baseball 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 c Basketball 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A Billiard 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 e Bowling 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 L Boxing 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Football 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 I Kgure Skating 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 L I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Gymnastic 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 t Ice Hockey 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 L Motor Racing 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 m. Soccer 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 IL Swimming & Diving 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 o. Table Tennis 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 P* Tennis 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A Track & Field 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 r. Volleyball 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 & W orkout 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 t W restling 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 U, X-Game (skateboard, inline skate...etc) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 V. Other 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 125

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Section 4: The section is interested in exploring your preference in participating

12-A. Please indicate die extent of your PRtdrliKENCE for participating in the follow ing sports by circling the appropriate number: Not Preferable At All Most Preferable ▼ ▼ al Badminton 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 b. Baseball 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 c Basketball 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 cL Billiard 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 e. Bowling 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 f. Boxing 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 g. Football 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ft. Figure Skating 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Gymnastic 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 t Ice Hockey 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 L Motor Racing 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 m. Soccer 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ru Swimming & Diving 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 o. Table Tennis 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 p. Tennis 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 q. Track & Field 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 r. Volleyball 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 s. Workout 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 t Wrestling 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 O. X-Game [skateboard, inline skate...etc) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 v. O ther ______1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 12-B. Please indicate the extent of your FREQUENCY for participating in the follow ing sports by circling the appropriate number: Never Very Frequently T ▼ a. Badminton 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 b. Baseball 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 c Basketball 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 d. Billiard 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 e. Bowling 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 f. Boxing 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 g Football 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ft. Fis 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Ice Hockey 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 - Motor Racing 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 m. boccer Soccer 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ru Swimming ~ & Diving 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 o. Table Tennis 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 p. Tennis 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 q. Track & Field 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 r. Volleyball 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 s.Ok Workout »* UXAUUk 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 L Wrestling 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 U. X-Game [skateboard, inline skate—etc) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 v. Other 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 126

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Section 5: This final section of the questionnaire is designed to gather some information about you. 13. What is your age? ______14. What is your sex (please circle the corresponding number)? 1 . M ale 2 . Fem ale

15. What is your marital status (please circle the corresponding number)? 1. S in g le 2 . M arried 3. Living with partner 4. Divorced 5 . W idow ed

16. What is your ethnicity/race (please circle the corresponding number)? 1. American Indian or Alaskan native 2. Asian, Pacific islander, Filipino 3. Black or African-American 4. Hispanic, Chicano, or Spanish-American 5. White or Caucasian 6. Other (Please specify)______

17. W hat i s y o u ra n n u al income range including support from scholarship and parents (please circle the corresponding number)?

1. less that $10,000 2. $10,001 -$15,000 3. $15,001-$20,000 4. $20,001-$25,000 5. $25,001-$30,000 6. $30,001-$35,000 7. $35,001 -$40,000 8. $40,001 and above

127

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Iii the space provided, please list any other factors that influence your sport consumption behaviors. sj

Thank you for your assistance! The Ohio State University School of Physical Activity and Educational Service Sport & Exercise Management 3 3 7 W est 17* A ven u e Columbus, OH 43210-1284 128

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX B-I

Final Questionnaire — Mandarin Version

129

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. - s a ? ;

• nn'possm m m mi i » s Hr' eSfe»«iW S»URS*S±Blt®W I5S«iS«?R» -

era • m s*tm • Mmmm&immmusti i

m d j m A ' - w ^ : Dr. Ketra L. Armstrong

m m m m m

Jackie Yu-Lin Shao, Ph. D. Candidate Dr. Ketra L. Armstrong. Advisor The Ohio State University College of Education School of Physical Activity and Educational Services Sport and Exercise Management

130

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. • fin e ® i - l i i ^ - 9 « »

▼ ▼ 1* § § ® ^ i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

2. m m m i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ( m m w m m m s m 3 . ^ A n m i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 (m & jm sm * mmmffi 4 . i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 * m u M m m s . ^ a f S A « i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ( g A m m m m m 6. » £ £ § * & i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

7. i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

8. i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 m m m B • w&m> 9. i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

8M gM J«ft2aR5^&THi

131

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. m = m & -

* * * « * # * * a. ^ c 123456789 b. W& 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 c &$ 123456789 cL * 123456789 e. »& 123456789

a. i 2 3 4 5 7 9 b. Mt i 2 3 4 5 7 9 c i 2 3 4 5 7 9

ii-C ( i H H I £SUft£9KSXP

a . S t £ & ^ X b . a c- mm

132

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 12-a. h h m »k «mmjimmxTfirFiZ-mmmm m mm

m s p f m i m t ▼ SL 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 b. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 c 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 d. H g | 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 e. gEBE 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

sl WM 123456789 b. 123456789 c 123456789 cL M 123456789 123456789

i2-c. mmm- mgmmw&'mmm?

a. MARMA b. c- BffH d. M W CmiHIBRS e. ______

133

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 13-A.

m&FWBi ft-mmm. _ r a. W £ 123456789 b. WM 123456789 c W& 123456789 d. #Sc^t7fc 123456789 123456789

i3-B .

f f i & m m m m m a. W k 123456789 b. ^ 123456789 c g££ 123456789 d. 123456789 e. j^c 123456789

13-C. iRHttBiSft

a. m j a t M A b. fl| c. B^Ps! d . m m t m m e. f . m m m ______

134

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. a* J§ b ' £ :

1 6 . M « R ?

a ' b * e s t c ■*• m & ______

17. itm m m xi

a ' HTPffA b * n M A C' « A d ' a e' ^iflCfeg f ' tU*feI££S S ' % '£------.

is . mm it& ^m& AAm^'jm *

a ' 'Ate 550,000 b ' $50,001 ^ $70,000 C' $70,001 S $90,000 d ' $90,001 M $110,000 e ' $110^)01 M $130,000 £' $1304)013E $150,000 g ' $1504)01 M $170,000 h ' $1704)01 £ L t

135

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The Ohio State University SBIftfFgFiggm School of Physical Activity and Educational Service Sport & Exercise Management 337W est 17th Avenue Cohunbus, OH 43210-1284, USA

136

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX B-2

Pilot Study Questionnaire - Mandarin Version

137

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. • i m - :

mm ’ msbwm • wmmmmmrmm \

ftPHffcS? : Dr. Ketra L. Armstrong

Jackie Yu-Lin Shao, Ph. D. Candidate Dr. Ketra L. Armstrong. Advisor The Ohio State University CoQege of Education School of Physical Activity and Educational Services Sport and Exercise Management

138

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. m - m t - txTAmmmmm&mm • s • • mm 1 1 9© ■ l JM ^SH ' 9 M S S

■jw aag«^aifl5« % m m p fw m i t m

l . u s s i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ttstm ' m m nt& p, 2. m m m i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ( m m m m m m m 3 . i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

4 . s m m i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

5. « H I L U m i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ( g A m m m m m 6. « £ £ £ * i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ( m s m m m m m 7. i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

8. § ^ < L V i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ( t m g n ' w s m 9. i s s t s i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ( m m m w m m s )

139

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 0 -A .

▼ ___ W a- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 b. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 c. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 cL W $ t 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 e. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 f. m m 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 R. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 i- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 )- f t # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 k 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 i m m 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 m. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 n. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 o. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 p . i m 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 q. EHM 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 2 % m 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 s. m t m h 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 t m m 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 u. c * « , m s m , n m M z ?) i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 v. Jtffi 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10-B. ann»£& -££Kftis& m & m w ▼ a. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 b. m t 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 c 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 c i W $- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 e. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 f. m m 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 f t « ® s t 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 t 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 L 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1- t u t 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 k <7fc±E&®c 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 L « 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 m. jiL££ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 n. * 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 o. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 p . w m . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 q. E3M 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 s- f e M f t 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 t m 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 u- ( r i « t EBUfe, S T O ) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 v. JMft 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 140

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. W & b & i t P l s s t a. & m 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 T b. m m i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 c m m i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 c l m m i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 e. m m i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 m m i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 fr i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 n. i & x m i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 L im z m i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1- m m i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 k ■ i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 L « i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 m . JsLBfc i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 n. i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 o. m m i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 P* m m i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 q* BBH i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 r. fW t i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 s. m m m i i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 t w m i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 u. (tt& mum, m m m ) i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 V. Xffit i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

141

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. m m - = 12-A.

▼ a. i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 b. i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 c. i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 d. « i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 e. i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 f. m m i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 & i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 n. i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 L i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 I- m i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 iL i* ± i l ® § c i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 L W i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 m, BM i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 n. i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 o. j H t i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 P* m e i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 EM i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 r. i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 s. i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 t M i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 u. m u m . s f * i ) i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 V. i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 12-B. m m f g a S S f ^ ' p ' tfl£^Fv^MF" a. w m i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 b. 4R i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 c* ME i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 d. m m i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 e. f iM E i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 g- m j m i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 n. i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 L i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 i- f§€HBSjSt^ i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ie 'r f i t m m i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 L m m i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 m* ME i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 EL w m m * i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 o. Jslk i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 P* ME i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 EM i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 r. SPSS i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 & M J I S i i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 t m m i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 tL m h k & k , m s i $ i ) i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 V. m u i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 142

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 2 . ______

13. m m m

1. n 2. £

14.

1. w % 2. e « f 3. [SIS 4. mm 5. W

1 5 . MB?

1. l a i t A 2. ggE A 3. f t # 4. 5. 6 . ______

is .

1. $70,000 2. $70,001 MS100,000 3. $100,001 M $130,000 4. $130,001 M $160,000 5. $160,001 M $190,000 6. $190,001 M $210,000 7. $210,0013E $240,000 8. $240,001 £ L h

143

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. m m i m m i

s L ± m The Ohio State University School of Physical Activity and Educational Service Sport & Exercise Management 337W est 17th Avenue Columbus, OH 43210-1284, USA 144

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX B-3

Pilot Stucfy Questionnaire - Bilingual Version

145

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Dear Participant: I am a Ph. D. student majoring in Sport Management in the School of Physical Activity and Educational Service at The Ohio State University. I am interested in learning more about sport consumption preferences and behaviors and would like for you to assist me. To learn more about the sport consumption preferences and behaviors (which include preferences and frequency of attending and participating sport activities, sport media consumption, and purchasing sport related products) of OSU students, I have included a questionnaire that will take you less than 10 minutes to complete. There are no known physical or psychological risks associated with completing this survey, however, some questions may be of a sensitive nature. As such, your assistant is entirely voluntary and you may withdraw from completing the survey at any time. However, the completion and return of questionnaire indicate your consent of participating in this research. Your confidentiality will be maintained, as individual responses will not be identifies in the final report. The published results will not refer to any individual, and the discussion will be based upon group data. I am grateful for your time and will deeply appreciate your assistance with this project.

Jackie Yu-Lin Shao, Ph. D. C andidate Dr. Ketra L. Armstrong, Advisor The Ohio State University College of Education School of Physical Activity and Educational Services Sport and Exercise Management

MM, °

• HMMHtKiiiffMgBfr l

ftPHifcSI: Dr- Ketra L. Armstrong

146

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Section 1: Following is a list of personal values. Some values may be more important than others. Please study the list carefully and then rate each value on how important it is in your daily life, using the scale ranging from 1 (least important) to 9 (most important). : • w - i m m • m m m • • m m m i • l * 9 M ii

Least Important Most Please circle the appropriate number to me Important to me H H H U t e B K S X M i l l T ▼ 1. Sense of belonging 123456789 (to be accepted and needed by ourfamily. friends, and community) m m m (&mm * ffigm atw #, mmmtmm&mm 2. Excitement 123456789 (to experience stimulation and thrills)

km ( m m m /m m m 3. Warm relationships with others 123456789 (to have close companionships and intimate friendships) m A m m (m $ujm sm - tm m tm 4. Self-fulfillment 123456789 (tofindpeace of mind and to make the best use of your talents)

147

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 5. Being well-respected 123456789 (to be admired by others and to receive recognition) ^ l A H ( g A & m m m 6. Fan and enjoyment in life 123456789 (to lead a pleasurable, happy life)

7. Security 123456789 (to be safe and protectedfrom misfortune and attack)

8. Self-respect 123456789 (to be proud ofyourself and confident with who you are) n m t ( W £ g E ' w & m 9. A sense of accomplishment 123456789 (to succeed at what you want to do) aam i m m m w m m 10. Please write down the most important personal value from the above 9 items.

148

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Section 2: Hus section, pertains to your preference for and frequency in attending sporting events.

ll-A . Please indicate the extent of your PREFERENCE for attending sporting events as a spectator of the following sports by circling the appropriate number:

Not Preferable At An Most Preferable t m m t mmst £1 i _ JL a. Basketball 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 b. Billiard 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 c. Table Tennis 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 d. Tennis 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 e. Volleyball 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

11-B. Please indicate the extent of your FREQUENCY of attending sporting events as a spectator of the following sports by circling the appropriate number:

Never :ently m a. 2 3 4 5 7 8 b. Billiard 2 3 4 5 7 8 c Table Tennis 2 3 4 5 7 8 d. Tennis 2 3 4 5 7 8 e. Volleyball 2 3 4 5 7 8

11-C. Which of the following is the most influential in your decisionfor attending sporting events (please circle the corresponding number)?

a. Friends/Significant others MSlKJILA. b. Money availability I t c. Time availability d. Facility quality or facility location e. Other M fimm______

149

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Section 3: The following section pertains to your preference for watching sport programs on TV.

12-A. Please indicate the extent of your FRliiffcKENCE for watching the following sports on TV by circling the appropriate number:

Not Referable At All Most Preferable

s _ 1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9 b. Billiard 1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9 c Figure Skating 1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9

12-B. Please indicate the extent of your FREQUENCY of watching the following sports on TV by circling the appropriate number: i t a M m : Never mmn' Frequently J f L 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 b. Billiards^ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 c Figure Skating 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 d. Gymnastic 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 e. Volleyball ______1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

12-C. Which of the following is the most influential in your decision for watching sport programs on TV (please circle the corresponding number)?

a. Friends/Significant others b . c. Time availability Kjflfi cL e. Other

150

13-A. Please indicate the extent of your PREFERENCE for participating in the following sports by circling the appropriate number: m m tm i b itmi-zmmmm mn rmfr Not Preferable At All Most Preferable

11 - a. Badminton ifpjt 1 23456789 b. Basketball 123456789 c Billiard 123456789 d. Swim and Dive 123456789 e. Table Tennis ______123456789

13-B. Please indicate the extent of your FREQUENCY of participating in the following sports by circling the appropriate number: Never Verymnmm Frequently l l - a. Badminton1 23456789 b. Ba s k e t b a l l 123456789 c B i l l i a r d 123456789 d. Swim and Dive 123456789 e. Table Tennis ______123456789

13-C. Which of the following is the most influential in your decision for participating in sport activities (please circle the corresponding number)?

a. Friends/Significant others SH SlS^A b. Money availability c. Tame availability (^FfeJ d. RuafitylBttKM e. Instruction availability f. Other ______

151

14. What is your age? t e & m * ______15. What is your sex (please circle the corresponding number)? i g m m n 1. M a le fl 2 . Female in 16. What is your marital status (please circle the corresponding number)?

1. Single W-M’ 2 . Married p .ffjf 3. Other ______17. What is your ethnicity/race (please circle the corresponding number)? &»SA? 1. Southern Min (MIMA. 2 . Taiwanese A 3. Hakka^^A 4. Mainlander^MfiA 5. Plain Aborigines 6. Mountain Aborigines 7. Other ______18. What is your annual income range including support from scholarship and parents (please circle the corresponding number)?

1. Less than NT$50,000 ^^$50,000 2 . NT$50,001 to NT$70,000 $50,001 M $70,000 3. NT$70,001 to NT$90,000 $70,001 M $90,000 4. NT$90,001 to NT$110,000 $90,001 M $110,000 5. NT$110,001 to NT$130,000 $110,001 M $130,000 6. NT$130,001 to NT$150,000 $130,001 M $150,000 7. NT$150,001 to NT$170,000 $150,001 M $170,000 8 . NT$170,001 and above $170,001 £ L t 152

Thank you for your assistance! ! The Ohio State University School of Physical Activity and Educational Service Sport & Exercise Management 337West 17th Avenue Columbus, OH 43210-1284, USA

153

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX C

Panel of Experts

154

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Dr. Ketra L. Armstrong Assistant Professor - Sport and Exercise Management School of PAES The Ohio State University 337 West 17th Ave. Columbus, OH43210-1248

Dr. Roger D. Blackwell Full Professor - Marketing and Logistics CoDege of Business The Ohio State University 2100 Neil Ave. Columbus, OH 43210

Dr. Donna L. Pastore Associate Professor—Sport and Exercise Management School of PAES The Ohio State University 337 West 17th Ave. Columbus, OH 43210-1248

Panel of Experts

Mr. Hairy Kwon Mr. George B. Cunningham Doctoral Candidate Doctoral Candidate The Ohio State University The Ohio State University Columbus, OH Columbus, OH

Mr. Jatong Baba Mr. John Singer Doctoral Student Doctoral Candidate The Ohio State University The Ohio State University Columbus, OH Columbus, OH

155

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.