Introduction: Performing Zero

Home , Cangue, Daigou, Demographics of Taiwan, Eileen Chang, Mei Shaowu, The Peony Pavilion

Notes

1. The Han (202 BC–AD 220) and the Tang (618–907) were dynasties. Their names became general terms for ethnic Chinese. In diaspora, for instance, Chinatown is often known as the “Street of Tang People” (Tangrenjie). “Han” is now the official name for China’s majority ethnicity, and Mandarin is known in Chinese as the “Han language” (Hanyu). 2. The term Zhongguo appears in both The Zuo Tradition (Zuozhuan, late fourth- century BC) and The Book of Documents (Shangshu, its earliest sections dating to the first half of the first millennium BC). 3. Daphne P. Lei, Operatic China: Staging Chinese Identity Across the Pacific (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006), 6–8. 4. Liang Qichao was an important scholar, philosopher, and reformer of the late Qing/early Republican era. 5. The writings of Stalin and terms translated from Japanese are cited as the most obvious foreign influences. See Allen Chun, “Fuck Chineseness: On the Ambiguities of Ethnicity as Culture as Identity.” Boundary 2, vol. 23, No. 2 (Summer 1996a), 111–38. 6. Historically, the term “Chinese problem” refers to the nineteenth-century racial discourse on Chinese immigrants in California. Closely linked to labor and economics, this racial discourse, along with the slogan “Chinese Must Go,” eventually resulted in the discriminatory “Chinese Exclusion Act” of 1882, the first law in US history targeting a specific nationality. The “Chinese problem” today, however, has to be discussed in the global context. 7. Their individual “national” histories and politics will be illustrated further in later chapters. 8. Daphne P. Lei (2006), 17. This idea is further explained with case studies in Chapter 2 and Chapter 4. 9. A new publication documents the 50 years (1959–2009) of Taiwan’s technical aid to other countries. See Zheng Liyuan et al. Heaven and Earth Afoot: Taiwan Technicians’ Contributions without Borders (Tiandi xingjiao: Taiwan jishu renyuan wuguojie de gongxian) (Taipei: Taiwan ICDF, 2009). 10. One such famous symbol is the Dragon Gate in San Francisco’s Chinatown, a gift from the ROC government in 1969. The horizontal tablet bears an inscription in the calligraphy of Dr Sun Yat-sen: “All under Heaven Is Our Common Polity” (tianxia weigong). Using Dr Sun’s writing here is a simple way to establish the ROC’s orthodox claim over this Chinese diasporic nation, which was established during the Gold Rush era, long before the founding of either ROC or PRC. For more information on present-day San Francisco Chinatown, see Daphne P. Lei (2006), 173–205. For a sample study of the Taiwan government’s use of “Chinese dance” as a tool of diplomacy in the early years, see Szu-Ching Chang, “Dance Performance and Cultural

184 Notes 185

Diplomacy: A Study on the International Performances of Taiwanese Dance Companies 1949–1973” (Wudao zhanyan yu wenhua waijiao: xiyuan 1949–1973 nianjian Taiwan wudao tuanti guoji zhanyan zhi yanjiu) (Master’s Thesis: National Taiwan University of Art, Taiwan, 2006). 11. Wei-ming Tu, “Cultural China: The Periphery as the Center,” in The Living Tree: the Changing Meaning of Being Chinese Today, ed. Tu Wei-ming (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1994), 1–35. Shu-mei Shih, Visuality and Identity: Sinophone Articulations Across the Pacific (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007). Lin Kehuan, Theater in Consumer Society (Xiaofei shidai de xiju) (Taipei: Bookman, 2007a). Daphne P. Lei (2006). Allen Chun (1996a), 111–38. 12. During the opening ceremony, 56 children in different ethnic attire, rep- resenting China’s 56 officially recognized ethnic groups, carried a large Chinese national flag in the procession. It was later discovered that these “ethnic” children were actually all played by children of the Han majority. See Jane Macartney and Hannah Fletcher, “New fakery scandal, as China’s ‘ethnic’ children actually come from Han majority.” The Times (16 August 2008). “Gaoshanzu” (high mountain people) is the erroneous name used by the Chinese government for Taiwanese aborigines, which consist of more than a dozen different ethnic groups. 13. According to Sina.com.hk: “The grand military parade can demonstrate to the world the strength and stability of our country under the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party, and also establish the authority and credibility of the fourth-generation leader Hu Jintao.” See http://news.sina. com.hk/cgi-bin/nw/show.cgi/9/1/1/968526/1.html. For related report, also see http://www.worldjournal.com/wj-la-news.php?nt_seq_id=1815845 14. According to the report, it took 9 minutes and 20 seconds to complete the air procession. See Taiwan News. “China’s Military Aircrafts in Display All Equipped with Real Missiles” (http://www.etaiwannews. com/etn/news_content.php?id=1065801&lang=tc_news&cate_img=257. jpg&cate_rss=news_PD). 15. Slavoj Žižek, “The Matrix, or two sides of Perversion,” Philosophy Today, Celina Volume: 43 (1999). Claude Lévi-Strauss, “Do Dual Organizations Exist?,” in Structural Anthropology (New York: Basic Books, 1963), 131–63. 16. For a comprehensive discussion of the naming and misnaming of Chinese opera, see Daphne P. Lei (2006), 8–11. 17. As always with the counting of historical and traditional origins, one might wonder if “600 years” is a stretch. Wei Liangfu (1489–1566), whose musical innovation is often seen as having given birth to kunqu, lived 500 years ago. For a study of the origins of kunqu, see Wu Xinlei, “Introduction: A Study of the Historical Origins of Kunqu,” in Studies of Kunqu of the Early Twentieth Century (Ershishiji qianqi kunqu yanjiu) (Shenyang, PRC: Chunfeng Wenyi, 2005), 1–12. 18. UNESCO, “Kunqu Opera: Proclamations of Master Pieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity (18 May 2001).” See http://www.unesco. org/bpi/intangible_heritage/china.htm 19. See Tanaka Issei, “Development of Chinese Local Plays in the 17th and 18th Centuries,” Acta Asiatica, vol. 23 (1972): 42–62; and Aoki Masaru, History of Chinese Theatre in Recent Times (Zhongguo jinshi xiqu shi), trans. Wang Gulu 186 Notes

(from Japanese: Shina kinsei gikyoku shi) (Hong Kong: Zhonghua, 1975), 376 and 468. 20. Joshua Goldstein is one of the most important scholars in recent years to have addressed the meaning of “national opera” and Mei’s US tour. See Joshua Goldstein’s “May Fourth Realism and Qi Rushan’s Theory of National Drama,” in Drama Kings: Players and Publics in the Re-Creation of Peking Opera, 1870–1937 (Berkeley: University of California, 2007), 134–71. 21. Such as “Nationalization through Iconification,” in Joshua Goldstein (2007), 264–89; and Nancy Guy, “Brokering Glory for the Chinese Nation: Peking Opera’s 1930 American Tour,” Comparative Drama, vol. 35, no. 3/4 (Fall/ Winter 2001–02), 377–92. 22. Bell Yung, Cantonese Opera: Performance as Creative Process (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), xi. 23. For the relationship among local, national, and international in jingju and yueju, see Daphne P. Lei (2006), 11–14. 24. For the declaration, see UNESCO, “Yueju opera: Inscribed in 2009 on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.” http:// www.unesco.org/culture/ich/index.php?RL=00203 25. The Oxford English Dictionary can be found online at http://www.oed.com/ 26. Eric Hobsbawn, “Introduction: Inventing Traditions,” in The Invention of Traditions, ed. Eric Hobsbawn and Terence Ranger (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 1–14. 27. Wu Xinlei, “A Review of Performances of The Peony Pavilion since 1911,” in Four Hundred Years of Youth Dream: Bright Purple Deep Red Peony Pavilion (Sibainian qingchun zhi meng: Chazi yanhong mudanting), ed. Pai Hsien-yung (Taipei: Yuanliu, 2004), 58–69. This book will be referred to as Pai Hsien- yung (2004a). 28. Hobsbawn (1983), 1–14. 29. Clifford Geertz, The Interpretation of Cultures (New York: Basic Books, 1973), 113–14. 30. For instance, in the international conference on jingju organized by The National Academy of Chinese Theatre Arts and held in Beijing in 2007, the debate between the two camps dominated the conversation. In my opinion, there was no real “dialogue” between the two camps. 31. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism. Rev. edn (London and New York: Verso, 2006), 5. 32. Fredric Jameson, “Third-World Literature in the Era of Multinational Capitalism,” Social Text, no. 15 (Autumn 1986), 65–88. 33. Brenda S. A. Yeoh, Michael W. Charney, and Tong Chee Kiong, eds. Approaching Transnationalisms: Studies on Transnational Societies, Multicultural Contacts, and Imaginings of Home (Boston: Kluwer Academic, 2003), 2. 34. Arjun Appadurai, Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization (Minneapolis and London: University of Minnesota Press, 1996, 2000 reprint), 169. 35. Aihwa Ong, “On the Edge of Empires: Flexible Citizenship among Chinese in Diaspora,” Positions, vol. 1, no. 3: 45–78. 36. Johaness Hofer, “Medical Dissertation on Nostalgia” (published in Latin in 1688). The article was translated into English by Carolyn K. Anspach. Bulletin of the History of Medicine, vol. 2 (1934): 376–91. Notes 187

37. Svetlana Boym, The Future of Nostalgia (New York: Basic Books, 2001), xiii–xiv. 38. Malcolm Chase and Christopher Shaw, “The Dimensions of Nostalgia,” in The Imagined Past: History and Nostalgia (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1989), 1–17. 39. Susan Stewart, On Longing: Narratives of the Miniature, the Gigantic, the Souvenir, the Collection (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982), 23. I also credit Susan Bennet for her inspiring introduction to “nostalgia.” See Performing Nostalgia: Shifting Shakespeare and the Contemporary Past (New York and London: Routledge, 1996), 1–17. 40. Boym (2001), 41–8. 41. Gilles Deleuze, Bergsonism, trans. H. Tomlison and B. Habberiam (New York: Zone Books, 1988), 59. 42. Renato Resaldo, “Imperial Nostalgia,” in Culture and Truth: The Remaking of Social Analysis (Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1993), 68–87. 43. James Clifford, “On Ethnographic Allegory,” in Writing Culture: The Poetics and Politics of Ethnography (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1986), 98–121. 44. James Clifford (1986), 112–13.

Chapter 1 Femininity Comes to the Rescue: Innovative Jingju in Taiwan

1. Various terms are used to describe this new phenomenon: “newly edited/created jingju” (xinbian jingju); “reformed jingju” (gailiang jingju); or “modern jingju” (xiandai jingju). I use the term “Innovative Jingju” to refer to jingju plays that are newly created or are adapted from the traditional repertoire with significant changes. The concept of “innovative jingju” is never new; Mei Lanfang had performed new plays with contemporary themes in modern clothes in the 1910s, although he later gave up this practice because he felt that jingju artistic standards had been compromised. Autobiography of Mei Lanfang (Mei Lanfang zishu), ed. Mei Shaowu and Mei Weidong (Beijing: Zhonghua, 2005), 85–105. 2. For a good study of the nationalization of jingju during the Republican era, see Joshua Goldstein (2007). The nationalization of jingju in Taiwan after 1949 will be explained in detail later. 3. Nancy Guy, Peking Opera and Politics in Taiwan (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2005), 1. 4. Allen Chun, “Ethnic Identity in the Politics of the Unreal,” Taiwan in Comparative Perspective, vol. 1 (November 2007): 76–86. 5. The island of Taiwan is considered a province in ROC territory, which includes other small islands. 6. Each group includes several political parties, but the major party associated with the Green is the DPP (Democratic Progressive Party, minjindang), while for the Blue it is the KMT (Nationalist Party, kuomintang or guomindang). 7. All these are familiar notions related to nationalism. On imagining a national community, see Benedict Anderson (2006), 1–7; on the notion of nationalism inventing a nation, see Ernest Gellner, Thought and Change 188 Notes

(London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1964), 168; on the idea of forgiving and forgetting, see Ernest Renan, “What is a Nation?” trans. Martin Thom, in Nation and Narration, ed. Homi K. Bhabha (London and New York: Routledge, 1990), 8–22. 8. China.com.cn. “The Hardship of Immigration across the Ocean.” http:// big5.china.com.cn/chinese/zta/439085.htm. The Dutch were in Taiwan from 1624 to 1662, the Spanish from 1626 to 1642. 9. Cao Yonghe, The Study of Early Taiwan History (Taiwan zaoqi lishi yanjiu) (Taipei: Lianjing, 1985), 1–24. 10. The February 28 Incident has been an important political and scholarly topic since the abolition of Martial Law in 1987. See, for example, Lai Zhehan, Research Report of the February 28 Incident (Ererba shijian yanjiu baogao) (Taipei: Shibao wenhua, 1994); Chen Fangming, ed., A Collection of Scholarly Essays on the February 28 Incident (Ererba shijian xueshu lunwenji) (Irvine, CA: Taiwan Publishing, 1988); Xu Xueji, ed., Essay Collection for the Conference on “Commemorating the Sixtieth Anniversary of February 28 Incident” (Ererba shijian liushi zhounian jinian lunwenji) (Taipei: Taipei Cultural Ministry February 28 Memorial Hall, 2008); and Huang Zhangjian, The Evidentary Scholarship on the Truth of the February 28 Incident (Ererba shijian zhenxiang kaozhenggao) (Taipei: Lianjing, 2007). 11. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_Taiwan 12. Horng-Luen Wang, “National Culture and Its Discontents: the Politics of Heritage and Language in Taiwan, 1949–2003,” Comparative Study of Society and History, vol. 46, no. 4 (October 2004), 789–815. The quotation is from Richard Handler, Nationalism and the Politics of Culture in Quebec (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press), 153. 13. Wang An-Ch’i, Fifty Years of Taiwan Jingju (Taiwan jingju wushinian) (Taipei: Guoli chuantong yishu zhongxin, 2002), 2 vols. 14. Su Guizhi, The Development of Jingju and Gezaixi under National Policies (Guojia zhengcexia jingju yu gezaixi zhi fazhan) (Taipei: Wenshize, 2003). 15. Xu Yanxiang, Chinese Theatre Troupes in Taiwan under Japanese Governance (Rizhi shiqi Zhonguo xiban zai Taiwan) (Taipei: Nantian, 2000). 16. The original document appeared in the Chinese-language Taiwan Daily (28 August 1906, no. 2499). See Xu Yaxiang, Historical Facts and Interpretation: Selected Readings from the Theatre Material in Taiwan Newspapers during the Period of Japanese Governance (Shishi yu quanshi: rizhi shiqi Taiwan baokan xiqu ziliao xuandu) (Yilan: National Traditional Art Center, 2006), 71–2. 17. Su Guizhi (2003), 108. 18. Wang An-Ch’i (2002), 1: 25–6. 19. For the history of Beijing opera in the pre-KMT period, see Wang An-Ch’i (2002), 1: 25–42, and Su Guizhi (2003), 57–88. Su’s chapter covers both jingju and gezaixi (Taiwanese opera). 20. One important fact is that some actors were actually from the famous troupe Fuliancheng in Beijing. See Wang An-Ch’i (2002), 1: 43–54. 21. Wang An-Ch’i (2002), 1: 55–72. 22. The Fuxing Theatre School (Fuxing xiju xuexiao) was established in 1957 by Wang Zhenzu as a specialized private school for the training of jingju actors. It became the National Fuxing Theatre Experimental School in 1968. Fuxing has been an important educational institution for traditional theatre in Notes 189

Taiwan, and many of the most important actors are graduates. Fuxing and other opera schools were merged into the National Taiwan Junior College of Traditional Theatre (Guoli Taiwan xiqu zhuanke xueyuan) in 1999, which became the National Taiwan College of Performing Arts (Guoli Taiwan xiqu xueyuan) in 2006. The National Taiwan College of Performing Arts is the only school that teaches traditional theatre in Taiwan today. Jingju is one of several forms (gezaixi, Hakka drama, ethnomusicology, and others) that students can choose to major in. 23. Wang An-Ch’i records many anecdotes of actors’ hardships and commit- ment during this time. See Wang An-Ch’i (2002), 43–54. 24. The Three Principles of the People are the Principle of Minzu (Chinese nationalism, which specifies that China consists of five major ethnic groups), the Principle of Minquan (democracy), and the Principle of Minsheng (social welfare or livelihood). An English translation is available by Frank W. Price, San Min Chu I: The Three Principles of the People (Sanmin zhuyi) (Shanghai: China Committee, Institute of Pacific Relations, 1927). The three principles are translated as the Principle of Nationalism, the Principle of Democracy, and the Principle of Livelihood. 25. Su Guizhi (2003), 98–9. 26. Mao Zedong, “Talks at the Yenan Forum on Literature and Art,” in Selected Readings from the Works of Mao Tsetung (Peking: Foreign Language Press, 1971), 250–86. 27. “The Two Amendments on Education and Wellbeing to the Principle of Livelihood” (Minsheng zhuyi yule liangpian bushu) by Chiang Kai-shek is collected in the new edition of Sun Yat-sen’s The Three Principles (The Three Principles, with The Two Amendments on Education and the Principle of Livelihood [Sanmin zhuyi, zenglu minsheng zhuyi yule liangpian bushu]) (Taipei: Zhongyang wenwu, 1974), vol. 2: 1–144. 28. Svetlana Boym (2001), 43. 29. Chiang Kai-shek, “Memorial Essay for the One Hundred and First Birthday of the Founding Father and the Inauguration of Yat-sen Hall [Zhongshanlou],” in Advocacy and Fulfillment: Documents from Ten Years of the Chinese Cultural Restoration Movement in Taiwan Province (Hongyang yu shijian: Taiwansheng tuixing zhonghua wenhua fuxing yundong shinian jiyao), ed. Committee of the Chinese Cultural Restoration Movement (Taipei: Committee of the Chinese Cultural Restoration Movement, 1972), 1–3. Yao and Shun were legendary sage kings. Yu founded the Xia dynasty, Tang the Shang dynasty. King Wen (r.1099–1050 BC) and King Wu (r. 1046–1043 BC) and the Duke of Zhou (fl. 1100 BC) were early Zhou dynasty rulers. By linking himself to the Duke of Zhou, who lived half a millennium prior to his time, Confucius (551–479 BC) included himself in the orthodox tradition. Claiming an affiliation with Yao, Shun, and the others has been a customary way for Chinese to trace their cultural lineage to ancient times, even though half of the named kings and sages are mythical or legendary figures. By linking Sun Yat-sen (1866–1925) to Confucius, Chiang Kai-shek bridges a gap of two and a half millennia and imagines a direct and continuous lineage of the orthodox Chinese tradition. 30. For a fuller description and a photograph of the gate, see Daphne P. Lei (2006), 179–81. 190 Notes

31. Svetlana Boym (2001), 41–8. 32. “The glorious month of October” (Guanghui de shiyue) is a familiar term in Taiwan. The anniversary of the founding of the ROC (10 October), Restoration Day (25 October, the day that marked Taiwan’s decolonization from Japan), and Chiang Kai-shek’s birthday (31 October) are the three major holidays. As a month of national holidays, October is always seen as a time for domestic and international festivities. It is also one of the most intense months for tourism, since many overseas Chinese are encouraged to return to Taiwan to participate in celebratory events. Although Restoration Day and Chiang’s birthday are no longer national holidays, October is still seen as a month of celebration. 33. For a comparative study of the banning of jingju in Taiwan and in the mainland, see Wang An-Ch’i, “Narrative Strategies of Prohibited Theater in China and Taiwan” (Jinxi zhenglingxia liang’an jingju de xushi celue), Journal of Theater Studies (Xiju yanjiu), vol. 1 (January 2008a): 195–218. 34. Theatre reform in mainland China was much more comprehensive and intense; it covered every genre, every region, and every aspect of theatre- making. The earlier reforms were less drastic than the reforms of the Culture Revolution, when nearly all traditional opera was completely banned except for eight model plays. 35. Wang An-Ch’i, “Speaking of the ‘First Family’: Are All Contest Plays Model Drama?” (Public talk in Taipei, 5 August 2008). 36. At the celebration of the sixtieth anniversary of the PRC in 2009, Hillary Clinton, the US Secretary of State, spoke of how the PRC had progressed in the past “thirty” years. It is interesting to note that as the PRC was celebrating its 60 years of history, the United States was recognizing only 30 years. The curious 30-year discrepancy can be interpreted in two ways: it might refer to the official US-PRC relationship of 30 years, but it might also reflect US recognition of the ROC as the legitimate China from 1949 to 1979. See “Hillary Clinton praises China’s ‘historic accomplishment’ in fighting poverty,” People’s Daily Online (2 October 2009): http://english.people.com. cn/90001/90776/90883/6776143.html 37. The United States has played a crucial role in helping Taiwan establish its economy. Support from the United States – both financial and technological – lasted until 1965. 38. Many people have written on these two artists, especially on Wu Hsing- Kuo. For two recent biographies, see, for Guo, Wang An-Ch’i’s Lights on Yayin (Guangzhao Yayin) (Taipei: Xiangyinwenhua, 2008b), and, for Wu, Lu Jianying, Sprouting from Disparity (Juejing mengya) (Taipei: Tianxiawenhua, 2006). 39. See note 22. 40. Wang An-Ch’i, “The Influence of Visiting Mainland Troupes on the Aesthetics of Taiwan Theatre,” in Wang An-Ch’i (2002), 1: 114–25. 41. As Wang Sipei points out, the pieces chosen in the genre of “traditional theatres” by the National Theatre in 2000, the year of the inauguration of the first DPP president, were two gezaixi (Taiwanese opera) plays. As the National Theatre is the biggest performance venue for theatre and dance, the mes- sage was clear to all traditional theatre artists. See Wang Sipei, “A Review on the Movement of Taiwanization in Peking Opera: Two Cases Study on Liao Notes 191

Tian-Ting and Exodus,” Bulletin of Taiwanese Literature (Taiwan wenxue xuebao), no. 1: 295–324. 42. Wang An-Ch’i, “The Transition from Actor-Centered to Playwright-Centered Drama: An Investigation of Mainland Drama Reform and the Transformation of the Nature of Contemporary Theater.” Bulletin of the Institute of Chinese Literature and Philosophy (Zhongguo wenzhe yanjiu qikan) 19 (2001), 250–316. 43. “Introduction to the Kuo Kuang [Guoguang] Chinese Opera Company.” This introduction appears in the programs of Mazu and Zheng Chengong and Taiwan. 44. See “The Heavenly Mother – Ma-Tzu” in the program for Mazu (Taipei: National Theatre, 1998). 45. See the program of Mazu. 46. See the programs of Zheng Chenggong and Taiwan (Zheng Chenggong yu Taiwan) and Liao Tianding. 47. “Red hair” (hongmao) is a common way of referring to the Dutch by Taiwanese locals. 48. Wang Sipei, 301. 49. See program notes for Zheng Chenggong and Taiwan, 13. Zhu Shaoyu is now a famous jingju composer and director in the PRC. 50. Luo Bei’an was the president of Greenray (Lüguang jutuan) at that time. Greenray, one of the important modern theatre troupes in Taiwan, has created works in the form of “Chinese musical,” “citizen drama” (works on contemporary Taiwan themes), and “world drama” (translated contemporary foreign works). See: http://www.greenray.org.tw/version2/p01/greenray01. htm 51. Women rarely attended public jingju performances in the Qing. The early Republican era began to see segregated-sex seating and then mixed-sex seating in urban theatres. Joshua Goldstein discusses the integration of the female audience throughout his Drama Kings (2007). 52. Different theatrical genres in different historical periods have different gender codes. I will explain cross-dressing and gender codes in the section “Return to femininity.” 53. The Dialogue at the Green Mound (2006) illustrates the encounter between the two familiar female historical characters Wang Zhaojun (fl. 32 BC) and Cai Wenji (fl. 194?–206?). Wang, a Chinese court lady married off to the leader of the northern Xiongnu tribes, and Cai, who was abducted by the Xiongnu troops and married to a Xiongnu lord, are representatives of women “stained” by the foreign “barbarians” during intercultural conflicts. Their sorrow has been dramatized and poeticized by many literati throughout history. For a detailed discussion of literary and dramatic works on these two characters, see Daphne Pi-Wei Lei, “Performing the Borders: Gender and Intercultural Conflict in Premodern Chinese Drama” (PhD Dissertation, Tufts University, 1999). 54. For a version of the jingju script, see The Pavilion of Royal Tablet (Yubei ting), in The Grand Complete Drama (Xikao daquan), ed. Hu Juren (Taipei: Hongye, 1986), 1: 281–93. 55. Wang An-Ch’i, “Experimenting ‘Beijing Opera Little Theatre’,” in Rouge Lips and Pearl-Sewn Sleeves, Both Lonely (Jiangchun zhuxiu liangjimo) (Taipei: INK Publishing, 2008c): 21–5. 192 Notes

56. Wang An-Ch’i (2008c), 25. Wang Youdao was presented as “jingju little theatre,” an experimental production in The Guoguang Theatre. 57. I have in mind Laura Mulvey’s term “being-looked-at-ness,” a state in which the female functions as object of the male gaze in cinema. See Laura Mulvey, “Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema,” Screen, 16.3 (Autumn, 1975), 6–18. 58. All page numbers refer to the published text. Wang An-Ch’i, Wang Youdao Divorces His Wife (Wang Youdao xiuqi), in Wang An-Chi (2008c), 59–109. 59. Wang An-Ch’i (2008c), 21–5. 60. “Cloud and rain” is a Classical Chinese euphemism for sexual intercourse. 61. All page numbers refer to the published text. Wang An-Ch’i and Zhao Xuejun, Three Persons, Two Lamps (Sange ren’er liangzhandeng), in Wang An- Ch’i (2008c), 111–87. 62. All visual images are found in the stage directions in the script and in the recording of the performance of 26 March 2005 at the New Stage. The DVD is published by the National Guo Guang Opera Company. 63. This poem comes from the collection The Original Legends of Poems (Benshi shi) by Meng Qi (fl. 875) of the Tang dynasty. The story tells of a soldier who discovers a poem sewn into a uniform made by court ladies. The emperor pardoned the court lady and married her to the soldier. This poem was the original inspiration for the play. 64. This is the ending of the published script; however, in the stage production, the play ends with all three characters on stage, with Shuangyue in the middle and the two lamps lit at the sides. In silence, the flute is passed from Guanzhi to Li, from Li to Shuangyue, and then back to Guangzhi. Li Huimian thinks the abstract meaning of the “two lamps” was lost in the stage production. See Li Huimian, “Between the Flow of Intention and Crossing the Boundary of Gender: A Comparison between ‘Three Persons and Two Lamps’ and ‘Male Queen,’” Taipei Theatre Journal, vol. 2 (2005): 63–84. The final image in the stage production, however, can be interpreted as the serene image of a traditional household, with the two lamps indicating that there are different possibilities of sexual relations. I think that by putting all three characters on stage, the director created an even greater ambiguity and allowed the audience more room for imagination. 65. See note 63. 66. From the production program for Three Persons, Two Lamps (Taipei: New Stage, 2005), 40. 67. The novella was written in the early 1940s and published in the anthology Marvel Tales (Chuanqi) in 1944 in Shanghai. Marvel Tales contains some of Chang’s most representative short stories and novellas. The anthology, later renamed Collected Short Stories of Eileen Chang (Zhang Ailing duanpian xiaoshuo ji), has gone through numerous editions. See “The Golden Cangue” in Collected Short Stories of Eileen Chang (Zhang Ailing duanpian xiaoshuo ji) (Taipei: Huangguan, 1980), 150–202. 68. C. T. Hsia, The History of Modern Chinese Fiction (Zhongguo xiandai xiaoshuo shi), trans. Liu Shaoming et al. (Hong Kong: Chinese University, 2001), 335–72. The book was written in the 1950s and first published in 1961. 69. New World Encyclopedia. “Eileen Chang” (http://www.newworldencyclopedia. org/entry/Eileen_Chang) Notes 193

70. Eileen Chang, A Return to the Frontier (Chongfang biancheng) (Taipei: Crown, 2008), 64. “A Return to the Frontier,” an essay in the form of a travelogue about Chang’s days in Taiwan and Hong Kong in 1961, was published in English in The Reporter (1963). She rewrote it in Chinese in the 1980s, but the work did not come to light till 2007. Both the English and Chinese version can be seen in A Return to the Frontier (Taipei: Crown, 2008), 9–80. It is significant that Chang uses the term “Formosa,” a term that means “beautiful island” in Portuguese, in her original English essay. Formosa is a term used by Europeans prior to the official governance of Taiwan by the Qing government in the late nineteenth century. In recent Taiwanese independence rhetoric, Formosa has sometimes been used to indicate a pre- Chinese colonial state; Formosa is thus a politicized name for Taiwan. Since Chang could not foresee the independence movement in Taiwan in early 1960s, I suspect she used “Formosa” for its familiarity to Western readers at that time. When she rewrote the essay in Chinese in 1980s, she used the Chinese name “Taiwan” in references to the island. 71. Many streets in Taiwan are named for major mainland cities, such as Nanjing, Qingdao, Chongqing, Chengdu, Guangzhou, and Xiamen. Although this “map” has a general geographical logic, its intersections with Taiwan local names and other names create geographical and cultural confu- sions. Many mainland regional foods were brought to Taiwan after 1949. A unique phenomenon in restaurants in Taiwan is food from multiple regions appearing in the same restaurant. Naturally, mainland regional foods have been localized and new fusion foods created. 72. All page numbers refer to the published text. Wang An-Ch’i, The Golden Cangue (Jinsuo ji), in Wang An-Ch’i (2008c), 188–275. 73. Wang An-Ch’i, “Magnificent and Bleak Theatre Design,” in Wang (2008c), 37–41. 74. Lin Shu-hsun points out that Qiqiao gazes into mirror three times in Act Two, during the wedding of Third Brother and his bride: the first time she is reflecting on her own wedding, the second time she is imagining the wedding between herself and Third Brother, and the third time she is gazing into reality (her lost youth and love). See Lin Shu-hsun, “Theatrical Stage Space Analysis of the New Jingju Opera ‘The Golden Cangue,’” Journal of Traditional Chinese Theatre (Xiqu xuebao), vol. 4 (December 2008): 273–98. 75. Martin Esslin describes Genet’s theatre as a “man caught in a maze of mir- rors, trapped by his own distorted reflections, trying to find a way to make contact with the others he can see around him but being rudely stopped by barriers of glass.” Martin Esslin, Theatre of the Absurd (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1968), 195. 76. Lin Shu-hsun (2008), 273–98. 77. See Chiu Hui-yin, “The Golden Cangue, Continuation and Innovation of Traditional Chinese Opera,” Journal of Chinese Ritual, Theatre and Folklore (Minsu quyi), vol. 159 (March 2008): 171–204; and Lin Shu-hsun (2008), 295. 78. Such as Chiang Hsin-li, “A Comparison between and Analysis of the New Chinese Opera Golden Lock and Its Original Novel,” Xiqu xuebao, vol. 3 (June 2008): 1–24; Wang Dewei, “Beautiful and Pathetic Gesture: Viewing Eileen Chang from Jingju The Golden Cangue,” in Unitas (Lianhe wenxue), no. 259 194 Notes

(May 2006): 47–53. Wang Youhui, “Gorgeous but Desolate Modern Beijing Opera: Guo Guang Company’s ‘The Golden Cangue,’” Performing Arts Journal (Taiwan xizhuan xuekan), vol. 13: 179–81; Chiu Hui-yin (2008): 171–204. 79. Wang Youhui, (2008): 179–81. 80. Wang An-Ch’i, (2001), 250–316. 81. Instead of “Macbeth says,” a typical Chinese script might have “Martial Male says.” My argument here is that performance style (martial male) trumps individual character (Macbeth) in the Chinese convention. 82. Wei Hai-Ming, Female Actor (Nüling) (Taipei: Jimu wenhua, 2006), 35–6. 83. Wang An-Ch’i also discusses the impact of Stanislavski’s theories on traditional performance schools (liupai). See Wang An-Ch’i, (2001), 250–316. 84. For a good study on the subject of cross-dressing, see Siu Leung Li, Cross- Dressing in Chinese Opera (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2003, 2006). 85. The art of “stilting” (caiqiao) was banned in 1952 in mainland China because of its associations with feudal society. The practice is preserved in jingju in Taiwan and in yueju in Hong Kong. 86. Wang An-Ch’i, “Gender, Performance, Texuality: A Direction of Jingju Studies,” Forum in Women’s and Gender Studies (Fuyan zongheng), vol. 72 (October 2004): 1–8. 87. Yu Ji, the favorite concubine of Xiang Yu (King of Chu) kills herself after a beautiful sword dance so that she will not become the king’s unwanted bur- den in the losing battle. The Hegemon King Says Farewell to His Queen (Bawang bieji) is an anonymous jingju classic. One version of the script is collected in Hu Juren (1986), 1: 91–104. 88. One version of the anonymous The Red-Maned Courser (Hongzong liema) is collected in Hu Juren (1986), 1: 561–95. 89. The heroine of the story, Xi’er, escapes into the deep mountains after she is raped by her landlord. Her hair turns white because of the hardships she suffers, and villagers mistake her for a goddess. Later, Communist troops save her and punish the evil landlord. Originally a local legend, The White Hair Damsel was turned into a modern musical (1945), a film (1951), a jingju (1958), and a ballet (1964). 90. Wei Hai-Ming, for instance, regularly teaches jingju classes, both in her own studio and in community colleges. Her students, almost entirely female, are both audiences of, and volunteers for, her productions. 91. Wang An-ch’i, “Female Consciousness in the Innovative Jingju in Taiwan: Why Do We Need to Reconstruct the Female Image?”; Chung Chuan-hsing, “Deep Cultivation of the Field: Children’s Jingju”; Weng Xingli, “The Study of the Viewing Behavior of Jingju Audiences in Taiwan.” 92. This was my observation at the conference, where I presented a paper titled “Face and Gender Metamorphosis: Beijing Opera on the World Stage.” 93. The Dubbed Image Project is a grand effort to reconstruct traditional theatre pieces from the 1940s to 1960s. New casts were trained to lip-sync to the voices on old audio recordings and to act with guidance from surviving actors and documents, with sets and costume constructed in accordance with surviving images and audience memories. Hundreds of traditional pieces were reconstructed and recorded. However, since the recording did not start until 1994, memories of the past were largely lost. Notes 195

94. Interview with Li, 5 August 2008, Taipei, Taiwan. 95. Interview with Li, 5 August 2008, Taipei, Taiwan. 96. Interview with Zhong Baoshan (24 February 2009). According to Zhong, the audiences for Guoguan’s jingju performances number about 70,000 annually, equivalent to about one in 300 of the entire Taiwan population.

Chapter 2 Pacification and Silent Resistance: Performing Hong Kong in The Flower Princess

1. Tong Dik Sang is the Cantonese pronunciation; Tang Disheng is the Mandarin. In this chapter, to respect local practice, I use Cantonese romanization whenever it is available, but also supply pinyin. 2. For the term “floating city,” see Xixi, “Marvels of a Floating City” (Fucheng zhiyi), in Handscroll (Shoujuan) (Taipei: Hongfan, 1988), 1–19. Through a discussion of René Magritte’s art, Xixi describes the allegorical, rootless, and timeless floating city as a miracle created by will and faith. It is a place of vibrant art and economy where people have both the freedom to receive any information and the right to remain silent. Ackbar Abbas’s “city of disappearance” and Richard Hughes’s “borrowed place, borrowed time” will be explained later. 3. Abbas believes that although the settlement can be traced back as early as the Song dynasty, such history is not especially relevant; what made Hong Kong into today’s Hong Kong was British colonialism. Ackbar Abbas, Hong Kong: Culture and the Politics of Disappearance (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997), 2. 4. Lau Siu-Kai, Decolonization Without Independence and the Poverty of Political Leaders in Hong Kong (Hong Kong: Hong Kong Institute of Asia-Pacific Studies, the Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1990), 14. 5. Lo Wai Luk, Hong Kong Stage: Hong Kong Drama as Cultural Discourse (Xianggang wutai: zuowei wenhua lunshu de Xianggang xiju) (Hong Kong: International Association of Theatre Critics, 2004), 10. 6. Daisy Sheung-Yuen Ng, “The Cultural Politics of Nostalgia in Contemporary Hong Kong Film and Memoir.” PhD Dissertation. Harvard University, 2000, 11. 7. Guan Xinji, “The Formation of Political Society in Hong Kong,” in Hong Kong in Transition: The Continued Search for Identity and Order (Zhuanhuanzhong de Xianggang: shenfen yu zhixu de zaixunqiu) ed. Liu Qingfeng and Guan Xiaochun (Hong Kong: the Chinese University Press, 1998), 99–113. 8. Lin Kehuan, Drama Hong Kong, Hong Kong Drama (Xiju Xianggang, Xianggang xiju) (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 2007b), 6. 9. Luo Feng “The Colonialism and Native Consciousness in Hong Kong Modern Poetry” (Xianggang xiandaishi de zhimin zhuyi yu bentu yishi), in Post- Colonial Theories and Cultural Identity (Houzhimin lilun yu wenhua rentong), ed. Zhang Jing-yuan (Taipei: Maitian, 1995), 227–78. 10. The May Fourth Movement of 1919 represented the “modernization” of Chinese language and literature. It advocated the use of colloquial rather than classical Chinese in writing of all kinds, the translation of Western texts, and experimentation with new ways of writing in literature. Although 196 Notes

the movement was a moment of enlightenment for modern Chinese literature, it would hardly be appropriate to regard it as forever contemporary. 11. Daisy Ng (2000), 11. 12. Homi Bhaba, “Of Mimicry and Man,” in The Location of Culture (New York: Routledge, 1994), 85–92. 13. A stereotype about Hong Kong students is that they are not good at either Chinese or English. 14. Allen Chun, “Discourses of Identity in the Changing Spaces of Public Culture in Taiwan, Hong Kong and Singapore,” Theory Culture Society, vol. 13, no. 51 (1996b): 51–75. 15. Guan Xinji (1998), 99–113. 16. Guan Xinji (1998), 103. 17. Liu Zhaojia, “Hong Kong People or Chinese People: Identity of Hong Kong Chinese 1985–1995,” in Liu Qingfeng and Guan Xiaochun (1998), 5. 18. Allen Chun (1996b), 58. 19. Lin Kehuan (2007b), 6. 20. Lau Siu-Kai (1990), 9. 21. Ackbar Abbas (1997), 1–15. 22. Mark Roberti, The Fall of Hong Kong: China’s Triumph and Britain’s Betrayal (New York: J. Wiley, 1996), 10–11. 23. GOVHK Constitutional and Mainland Affairs Bureau, “The Joint Declaration.” http://www.cmab.gov.hk/en/issues/jd2.htm 24. Ackbar Abbas (1997), 5. 25. Ridicule of mainland immigrants and exposure of their illegal identity have been common dramatic tropes in popular entertainment. Sheldon Lu, for instance, discusses how new mainland immigrants feel the need to “pass” as Hong Kongers in the movie Comrade, Almost a Love Story (Tianmimi). See Sheldon Lu, “Diaspora, Citizenship, Nationality: Hong Kong and 1997,” in China, Transnational Visuality, Global Postmodernity (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2001), 104–21. 26. For examples, see Ackbar Abbas (1997); Lin Kehuan (2007); Sheldon Lu (2001), 104–21; Daisy Sheung-Yuen Ng (2000); Yu Siu Wah, “The Reappearance of Feudal Rites at Fin de Siècle,” in Out of Chaos and Coincidence: Hong Kong Music Culture (Le zai diancuozhong: Xianggang yasu yinyue wenhua) (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 2001); Luo Feng, The Decadent City (Shijimo chengshi) (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1995); Liu Qingfeng and Guan Xiaochun, eds. (1998); Rozanna Lilley, Staging Hong Kong: Gender and Performance in Transition (Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 1998); Lo Wai Luk (2004). 27. Lau Siu-Kai (1990). 28. Abbas believes that postcoloniality begins when subjects think and act in a certain way. It is a tactic and a practice, not a legal-political contract or historical accident. Ackbar Abbas (1997), 10. 29. Rey Chow, “King Kong in Hong Kong: Watching the ‘Handover’ from the U.S.A,” Social Text, no. 55, Intellectual Politics in Post-Tiananmen China (Summer 1998): 93–108. 30. Mark Roberti (1994), 299–300. 31. According to The History of the Ming Dynasty (Mingshi), Princess Changping was 16 and already betrothed to Zhou Shixian when the calamity struck. Notes 197

The desperate emperor said to the weeping princess: “Why did you have to be born in my family?!” He intended to kill her but managed only to wound her in the arm. The Ming fell and the emperor committed suicide. The princess pleaded with the new emperor to allow her to become a Taoist nun. The new emperor did not grant her wish and on the contrary ordered her to marry her betrothed and gave her gifts of money and land. The princess died of unknown causes the next year. Zhang Tingyu, The History of the Ming Dynasty, Newly Edited (Xinjiaoben Mingshi) (Beijing: Zhonghua, 1974), 121: 3677–8. 32. One example is the legendary loner “One-Armed Wonder Nun” (dubi shenni) in the popular martial arts novel The Deer and the Cauldron (Luding ji, 1969–72), by the famous Hong Kong-based novelist Jin Yong (pen name for Zha Liangyong, 1928–). The Deer and the Cauldron has inspired multiple TV and film adaptations. 33. The late eighteenth century is generally regarded as a transitional time when kunqu was declining and local drama rising. See Tanaka Issei (1972): 42–62. 34. Zeng Yongyi, “The Flower Princess of Huang Yunshan” (Huang Yunshan de Dinühua), in The Collected Studies of Chinese Classical Theatre (Zhongguo gudian xiju lunji) (Taipei: Lianjing, 1986), 281–97. 35. Biographies of Contemporary Hong Kong Cantonese Opera (Xianggang dangdai yueju renminglu), ed. Ou Wenfeng and Zheng Yanhong (Hong Kong: The Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1999), 140–1. 36. Based on this reasoning, Yung chose the audio version for his English translation. Tong Dik Sang, The Flower Princess: A Cantonese Opera (Dinühua), trans. Bell Yung, with the assistance of Sonia Ng and Katherine Carlitz: (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2010), x. His romanization of characters’ names is in Cantonese. 37. For their history and information about the Chor Fung Ming (Chufengming) Troupe, see: http://www.geocities.com/chorfung/chorfung_intro.htm and http://sinfung.net/charaters/others_charaters/chofung.htm 38. Since my main focus is on the Youth Edition, all passages and page numbers from the play refer to that version. The script was edited by a committee of scholars and professionals (Ye Shaode, Ruan Zhaohui, Li Qifeng, Chen Shouren, and Li Weisheng) and published in 2008 by the Chinese University of Hong Kong. Tong Dik Sang, The Flower Princess: The Youth Edition Production Script (Dinühua: Qingnianban yanchu jubenji), ed. Ye Shaode et al. (Hong Kong: The Chinese University, 2008). All translations are mine, though in many cases I have consulted Yung’s new translation. 39. Shuihengzhou’s “The Swan Song of Yueju in Hong Kong” (Xianggang de yueju juechang) relates the miserable endings of many yueju artists who “went up north,” including Pak Kui Wing, the father of Pak Suet Sin. See Shuihengzhou, in Open Magazine (Kaifang zazhi) (February 2007) (http:// www.open.com.hk/0702p54.html). 40. Mao Zedong (1971), 250–86. 41. See the website of the School of Drama, Hong Kong Academy for Performing Arts (http://www.hkapa.edu/asp/drama/drama_showcase_production_detail. asp?performanceid=2562&lang=tch&mode=gui). 42. Yu Shanlu, “The Flower Princess: The Small Sparrow Has It All” (http:// mypaper.pchome.com.tw/news/yushanlu/3/1278783173/20070131235502) 198 Notes

43. For a review and introduction, see Joanne Ho’s: “The Theatrical Generational Gap between Deng Shurong and Tang Disheng: A Review of The Flower Princess of the Chinese Language Arts Festival” (Deng Shurong yu Tang Disheng de juchang daigou: ping Huawen yishujie Dinühua) (http://www.iatc. com.hk/onlinearticle/articled431.html); Wang Jieyu, “Recreate Cantonese Opera with Spoken Drama” (Jie huaju zaizao yueju) (http://paper.wenweipo. com/2006/10/29/YC0610290001.htm); and Yu Shanlu, “The Small Sparrow Has It All.” 44. For more information about the conference on “Chinese Language Theatre Centennial,” see Liu Huifen, “The Sixth Chinese Language Theatre Festival: Records of the Chinese Language Theatre Centennial Conference” (http:// www.com2.tw/chta-news/2007-3/chta-0703-a1.htm). 45. Yu Shanlu, “The Small Sparrow Has It All.” 46. Joanne Ho (http://www.iatc.com.hk/onlinearticle/articled431.html). 47. Joanne Ho (http://www.iatc.com.hk/onlinearticle/articled431.html). 48. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QnV1XbY302E. This song was first performed in Las Vegas, 1970. 49. See http://www.fm993.com.cn/fm993/news/html/200742204620.htm. A performance of this song can be seen on YouTube (http://www.youtube. com/watch?v=JviDyIQvVsI). 50. The title alludes to two famous yueju pieces, both by Tong Dik Sang. 51. The six pillars (liuzhu) are the major role types in a performance of yueju: major flower female, civil and martial male, clown male, martial male, sec- ondary flower female, and young male. 52. The first word in the parenthesis indicates the actor’s gender, the second term the specialized role type. 53. Dai Shuyin, ed. “The Flower Princess Youth Edition Audition Notice.” Hong Kong Opera Newsletter, vol. 16, (31 August 2007): 10. 54. http://www.takungpao.com:82/news/07/02/25/UL-696927.htm. 55. Most of the lead actors in The Peony Pavilion began their training at age 16 in opera school (for four years) and performed for a few years in the opera company before their Peony experience. The actors for The Flower Princess, on the other hand, had taken only evening classes or private lessons. They did not receive any systematic Cantonese opera training. 56. In the tradition of Chinese opera, actors-in-training have to play such roles as guards and maids, that is, in the non-speaking entourage that surrounds the lead characters and provides a sense of lively spectacle. 57. Liang Shuming, the woman who played the male lead, received the most votes. 58. My conversation with Professor Yung immediately after the performance. 59. Ye Shixiong, “Window to Opera: Who Are the Heirs of the Masters?” (Xiqu shichuang: mingjia fengfan houji heren?) (11 September 2007, Wenhuipo). See http://paper.wenweipo.com/2007/09/11/XQ0709110006.htm. 60. Cantonese, a southern Chinese language, is the de facto language of Hong Kong. Mandarin, the official language of the PRC and Taiwan, originates in northern China and belongs to a very different language system. In writing, both Hong Kong and Taiwan use the traditional character system, while simplified characters are used on the mainland. As explained in the Introduction, Hong Kong and Taiwan share the same written Chinese, Notes 199

Taiwan and the mainland share the same spoken Chinese, and Hong Kong and the mainland share neither spoken nor written Chinese. 61. http://www.cnr.cn/2007tf/cfadly/zxbd/200709/t20070909_504564607.html. 62. Note that minzhu (people’s rights) and minsheng (people’s lives) are two principles of Sun Yat-sen’s “The Three Principles of the People.” Minzhu is “the Principle of Democracy” and minsheng “the Principle of Livelihood.” See Chapter 1, note 24. 63. Allen Chun credits this idea to a conference paper by Wing Sang Law (1992). See Allen Chun (1996b), 51–75. 64. Such as Szeto Wah (Situ Hua) and Li Zhuoren, both leading voices in the democratic movement in Hong Kong. An annual commemoration of June Fourth is staged by activists in Hong Kong. More details below. 65. I credit Professor Wang An-Ch’i for the idea that voting within the theatre was instituted as a surrogate for the general election not available to Hong Kong citizens (conversation with Wang, Guangzhou, 2008). 66. I watched the broadcast of the ceremony on TV. “Somber” is the proper word to describe the general mood of the British. For a recording of various transition ceremonies, see British Retreat 1997 (http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=T2Rvdktho_g) 67. Yu Siu Wah, “The Reappearance of Feudal Rites at Fin de Siècle,” in Yu Siu Wah (2001), 16–43. Yu devotes a section of his piece to a discussion of the bronze bells and their significance as indications of the “central” or “orthodox” Chinese government position. See Yu (2001), 16–25. For an introduction to the ancient bronze bells, see Robert Bagley’s chapter “Percussion,” in Music in the Age of Confucius, edited by Jenny F. So (Washington DC: Freer Gallery of Art and Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institute, 2000), 35–62. 68. This 1995 film was directed by Wu Ziniu (PRC), produced by Taiwan’s Longxiang dianying LTD, and co-starred Qin Han and Liu Ruoying, both from Taiwan. The historical commemoration was a transnational production. 69. I have discussed this point in a conference paper, in which I analyze rekin- dling of anti-Japanese sentiment through a performance of the song “Ballad of the Great Wall” (Changcheng yao). The song describes the atrocities committed by the Japanese against the Chinese during World War II. Diasporic Chinese, comprising many diverse groups, were instantly united by anti- Japanese sentiment at the concert. See Daphne Lei, “Staging Transnational Chinese Capital for the Local American Audience,” conference paper for American Society of Theatre Research (Chicago, 2006). 70. I have written previously that a series of stereotypes, including historical traumas such as the Cultural Revolution, have become elements of authentic Chineseness as presented for international consumption. The obvious examples are the film Farewell My Concubine and the play M. Butterfly. See Lei (2006b), 207–53. 71. Chan Sau Yan writes of the character of the Qing emperor and political intention in The Flower Princess. In Huang Yunshan’s original play, despite his severe criticism of those who shifted their allegiance to the new dynasty, the Qing emperor’s “kindness” is nevertheless praised. This praise can be seen as a survival tactic for Huang, who did not have a successful political career. 200 Notes

His play is both commemorating the lost dynasty and creating a safe political environment for himself. His own political agenda is hidden behind the beautiful woman’s suicide. See Chan Sau Yan, “Analyzing Drama from ‘Evolution Psychology’: Discussing the Plot of Life and Death in Cantonese Opera The Flower Princess” (Cong “yanhua xinlixue” jiedu xiqu: yueju Dinühua shengsi qingjie chutan), in Gazing into Death: Multi-Disciplinary Perspective (Ningshi siwang: si yu renjiande duoyuan xingsi), ed. Liang Meiyi and Zhang Canhui (Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press, 2005), 117–42. For more analysis of Huang Yunshan’s The Flower Princess, also see Zeng Yongyi (1986), 281–97. 72. Yu points out that Tan Dun did not credit the performer in his recording. Yu Siu Wah (2001), 16–43. 73. Ackbar Abbas (1997), 12–13. 74. Renato Rosaldo (1993), 68–87. 75. James Clifford (1986), 98–121. 76. James Clifford (1986), 112–13. 77. Mahalo.com. “China’s National Mourning” (http://www.mahalo.com/ China_National_Mourning). 78. Many victims of the quake were schoolchildren crushed by collapsed school buildings, whose construction did not meet safety standards. Local officials, who took bribes allowing construction standards to be compromised, were considered the real culprits. 79. During the Olympic torch relays in 2008 prior to the Beijing Olympic Games, torch-bearers encountered many protesters who condemned the Chinese government’s oppression of Tibetans. 80. Peter Homans, ed. Symbolic Loss: The Ambiguity of Mourning and Memory at Century’s End (Charlottesville and London: University Press of Virginia, 2000), 1–40. 81. Phillipe Ariès, “The Tame Death,” in The Hour of Our Death, trans. Helen Weaver (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1981), 5–28. 82. Peter Homans (2000), 7–9. 83. Sigmund Freud, General Psychological Theory: Papers on Metapsychology (New York: Touchstone, 1997), 166. 84. Peter Homans (2000), 20. 85. Richard Hughes, Hong Kong: Borrowed Place – Borrowed Time (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1968), 10. 86. Asia Pacific Migration Research Network (APMRN). “Migration Issues in the Asia Pacific Issues.” Paper from Hong Kong (http://www.unesco.org/most/ apmrnwp7.htm). 87. It was 11.5 (per 100,000) in 1990, 11.8 in 1995, 13.2 in 1999, and 18.6 in 2004 .(http://www.who.int/mental_health/media/chinzhongk.pdf). 88. See the Introduction to this volume, note 41. Also see Svetlana Boym (2001), xiii–xiv, 41–56. 89. Sina.com.hk. “The Population for the Twenty-Year Anniversary of the June Fourth Protest Increased.” Sing Tao Daily (June 1, 2009) (http://news.sina. com.hk/cgi-bin/nw/show.cgi/630/3/2/1152716/1.html) and EpochTimes. com. “Hong Kong Protests the Rhetoric of Donald Tseng” (http://www. epochtimes.com/b5/9/5/15/n2527182.htm). 90. Robert Mackey, “China’s Great Firewall Blocked Twitter,” The New York Times (2 June 2009) (http://thelede.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/06/02/chinas-great- firewall-blocks-twitter/). Notes 201

Chapter 3 The Blossoming of the Transnational Peony: Performing Alternative China in California

1. Throughout this chapter, I use The Young Lovers’ Edition to refer to Pai Hsien- yung’s production and The Peony Pavilion to indicate the play itself or other productions of the play. 2. UNESCO. “Proclamations of Master Pieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity, 18 May 2001 (http://www.unesco.org/bpi/intangi- ble_heritage/china.htm). 3. These four dreams are written in the form of chuanqi (marvel plays), the dominant dramatic genre in the Ming dynasty. Kunqu was one of the ways of performing chuanqi plays and later became a synonym for chuanqi. It is said that Tang Xianzu did not intend for The Peony Pavilion to be a kunqu play, but kunqu soon became the conventional way of performing it. 4. Aoki Masaru, History of Chinese Theatre in Recent Times (Zhongguo jinshi xiqushi), trans. Wang Gulu (from Japanese: Shina kinsei gikyoku shi) (Taipei: Taiwan shangwu, 1975), 1: 230. 5. The sheer amount of scholarship on The Peony Pavilion and on Tang Xianzu is overwhelming. Below are selected examples: Wu Fuming, Annotated Bibliography on The Peony Pavilion (Mudanting yanjiu ziliao kaoshi) (Shanghai: Xinhua, 1987); Mao Xiaotong, Compilation of Scholarship on Tang Xianzu (Tang Xianzu yanjiu ziliao huibian) (Shanghai: Shanghai Guji, 1986); Zou Yuanjiang, New Studies on Tang Xianzu (Tang Xianzu xinlun) (Taipei: Guojia, 2005); Hua Wei, ed. Tang Xianzu and The Peony Pavilion (Tang Xianzu yu Mudanting) (Taipei: Academia Sinica, 2005); Yang Zhenliang, A Study of the Peony Pavilion (Mudanting yanjiu) (Taipei: Xuesheng, 1992). There are also scholarly journals devoted to Tang Xianzu, such as Newsletter of Tang Xianzu Studies, published by the Chinese Drama Association, Tang Xianzu Branch in Zhejiang province. 6. Tina Lu, Persons, Roles, and Minds: Identity in the Peony Pavilion and Peach Blossom Fan (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2001); Judith Zeilin, “Shared Dreams: The Story of The Three Wives’ Commentary on The Peony Pavilion,” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, vol. 54, no. 1 (June 1994): 127–79; Hua Wei, “How Dangerous Can the ‘Peony’ Be? Textual Space, ‘Caizi Mudan ting, and ‘Naturalizing the Erotic.’” The Journal of Asian Studies, vol. 65 (November 2006): 741–62. For publications related to productions, see below. 7. For instance, in Taipei, 2004, an international conference organized by Academia Sinica, the National Taiwan University and the University of California, Santa Barbara. This conference invited many distinguished scholars on Chinese theatre from all over the world: Stephen Owen, Wilt Idema, Stephen West, Wang An-Ch’i, Zeng Yongyi, Judith Zeitlin, Hua Wei, Li Wai-yee, Wang Ailing, Wang Derwei, Ye Changhai, Zhao Shanlin, and others. Thirty essays were published as a result of the conference. See Hua Wei, ed. Tang Xianzu and the Peony Pavilion (Tang Xianzu yu Mudanting) (Taipei: Academia Sinica, 2005). At least a dozen books related to The Young Lovers’ Edition have been published in recent years. Some of them provide very important references for this chapter. 202 Notes

8. Pai reworked the conventional phrase qugao hegua (“a high tune matched by few”) to qugao hezhong (“a high tune for all”) for his book, indicating his hope to popularize the elite art. See High Tune for All (Qugao hezhong), ed. Pai Hsien-yung (Taipei: Bookzone, 2005a). 9. This is the translation of Cyril Birch. Unless otherwise noted, all quoted English text from the play will be from Birch’s translation. Birch’s translation is highly regarded and can be seen as the elite English version of The Peony Pavilion. Tang Xianzu, The Peony Pavilion (Mudanting, 2nd edn), trans. Cyril Birch (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2002), ix. I will provide my own translations of certain passages added to or altered from the original text in the course of specific productions. 10. The word mei in the name of the male lead, Liu Mengmei, is translated as “apricot” by Birch, although it is typically translated as “plum.” See Tang Xianzu (2002), 2. When quoting Birch’s text, I will also include the word “plum” in bracket to follow the convention. 11. Jiao Xun, On Drama (Jushuo) (Taipei: Taiwan shangwu, 1973), 99. 12. Cao Xueqin, The Dream of the Red Chamber (Honglou meng). See chs 23 and 40 for the reference to The Peony Pavilion. For a good English translation for Honglong meng, see Cao Xueqin, Story of the Stone: A Chinese Story in Five Volumes, trans. David Hawkes and John Minford (London and New York: Penguin, 1973–86). 13. Hua Wei, Playwriting and Drama Commentary by Women of the Ming and Qing (Ming Qing funü zhi xiqu chuangzuo yu piping) (Taipei: Academia Sinica, 2003), 337–62. 14. Judith Zeitlin, The Phantom Heroine: Ghosts and Gender in Seventeenth-Century Chinese Literature (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2007). 15. The song “By the Plum Tree” (Zaimeibian, 2004) by the popular singer Leehom Wong (Wang Lihong, Alexander Wang) satirizes the slow and dated classic while also expressing a longing for such romantic love. “The depiction of The Peony Pavilion is romantic and unthinkable […] especially to us […] too busy to eat, [eyes] too tired from web-surfing […]. My world is more and more convenient, but I still can’t find love […]. Slow down […]. Let Master Tang take us back to the romantic Peony Pavilion.” Part of the song is done in a rapid rap style, with 250 words spoken in 50 seconds. 16. Catherine Swatek’s “Introduction: Peony Pavilion on Stage and in the Study” (Introduction to Cyril Birch’s 2002 edition). See Tang Xianzu (2002), xv–xxx. 17. Wu Xinlei, “A Review of the Performance of The Peony Pavilion since 1911,” in Pai Hsien-yung (2004a), 58–69. 18. For scholarly discussion of these productions, see Asian Theatre Journal, vol. 19, no. 1 (Spring 2002): 121–60. This special issue includes articles on Sellars’s and Chen Shizheng’s versions of Peony: Catherine Swatek’s “Boundary Crossings: Peter Sellars’s Production of Peony Pavilion”; Judith T. Zeitlin’s “My Year of Peonies”; Susan Pertel Jain’s “Contemplating Peonies: A Symposium on Three Productions of Tang Xianzu’s Peony Pavilion”; and David Rolston’s “Tradition and Innovation in Chen Shi-Zheng’s Peony Pavilion.” Other works include Catherine Swatek’s “Introduction: Peony Pavilion on Stage and in the Study,” Tang (2002), xv–xxx. I have written about these two productions in comparison with The Young Lovers’ Edition Notes 203

in the context of the “intangible heritage of humanity”: Daphne Pi-Wei Lei, “The Paradox between Materiality and Intangibility: Preservation and Development of Kunqu Overseas,” Arts and Literature Studies (Wenyi yanjiu, vol. 6, 2009), 78–86; the article is in Chinese. Catherine Swatek also wrote a book about productions of Peony: Peony Pavilion on Stage: Four Centuries in a Career of a Chinese Drama (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 2002b). 19. Steven Paul, “A Review of the Peony Pavilion,” Chinese and Japanese Newsletter, Valparaiso University (May 1999). 20. I was involved in the early stages of the Sellars project, serving as translator for Hua on several occasions: at the International Festival of Arts and Ideas at Yale University (“Conversation with an Artist,” International Festival of Arts and Ideas) in 1996; at UCLA in 1997 (“Beyond the Peony Pavilion: Chinese Opera and Contemporary Consciousness”); and other unofficial meetings of Sellars, Hua and Tan Dun in 1997. I had numerous conversations with Hua and Sellars about the production and saw the US premiere at Berkeley in 1999. 21. Although all 55 scenes were presented, sections were cut and the tempo of certain songs was speeded up. 22. I have discussed this phenomenon using Farewell My Concubine as an example. See Daphne Lei (2006a), 207–54. 23. A Chinese Cracker: The Making of The Peony Pavilion in Shanghai, New York and Paris (Princeton, NJ: Films for the Humanities & Sciences, 2001). 24. For example, see http://www.sinologic.com/newmusic/special/shangkun, html. 25. Pai was founder, editor, contributor, and major fund-raiser for Modern Literature (Xiandai wenxue, 1960–73, 1977–84), a journal that has played an important role in the history of modern Chinese literature. In retro- spect, Modern Literature can be seen as part of a Taiwan literary and cultural movement similar to the “May Fourth” movement of 1919. Featuring both experimental Chinese works and introductions to Western literature, Modern Literature provided a major ground for new writers in Taiwan. Pai is commonly seen as one of the leaders of the literary revolution of his generation in Taiwan. The Interrupted Dream in the Garden (Youyuan jingmeng, 1982) combined modern technology (multimedia) and the performance styles of spoken drama and Chinese opera (kunqu and jingju). This production started a new trend of staging modern plays in the Chinese-speaking world. According to Pai, all three events were motivated by the same urge to revive and renew the tradition. What matters most in the process of renewal and revival is new experimentation and the discovery of new life in traditional art. See Chen Yizhen, “Creating New Cultural Directions: Three Major Events, One Spirit – an Interview with Pai Hsien-Yung,” in Deep Purple and Bright Scarlet Blossoms: A Documentary on The Peony Pavilion, Young Lovers’ Edition Performance Tour (Chazi yanhong kaibian: Qingchunban Mudanting xunyan jishi), ed. Pai Hsien-yung (Taipei: Bookzone [Tianxia Yuanjian], 2005), 11–34. This will be referred as Pai Hsien-yung (2005b). 26. In order to express his determination not to play for Japanese occupiers during the war, Mei Lanfang grew a mustache, signaling a clear rejection 204 Notes

of his stage femininity. This famous act of “growing a mustache to express his determination” (xuxumingzhi) is often cited when Mei is mentioned as a patriotic actor. 27. See Chen Yizhen, “Creating New Cultural Directions: Three Major Events, One Spirit – an Interview with Pai Hsien-yung,” in Pai Hsien-yung, ed. (2005b), 11–34. Pai also had a heart attack in Santa Barbara a few years prior to The Young Lovers’ Edition. This near-death experience gave him a sort of existentialist awakening, and he has devoted himself to the art of kunqu ever since his recovery. 28. http://www.unesco.org/bpi/intangible_heritage/china.htm. 29. “Oral and Intangible” is translated as “non-material”(fei wuzhi) in Chinese. For instance, a conference on “non-material” heritage was organized by the Sun Yat-sen University in Guangzhou in 2007. 30. Juan Goytisolo (Chairman of the International Jury), “Defending Threatened Cultures,” Proclamation of Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity (http://www.unesco.org/bpi/intangible_heritage/goytisoloe.htm). 31. According to Fan Mannong, a co-producer of The Peony Pavilion, the inspiration for this approach came from the phrase “looking for spring in the autumn,” famously used by the PRC writer Yu Qiuyu to describe previous productions. Most cast members of The Young Lovers’ Edition were in their twenties when they were cast. Pai Hsien-yung (2004b), 30–3. 32. See Js.xinhuanet.com. “Pai Hsien-yung’s Kunqu Chronology” (Bai Xianyong kunqu dashiji) (http://big5.xinhuanet.com/gate/big5/www.js.xinhuanet.com/ zhuanlan/2005-05/20/content_4272828.htm) for a chronology of Pai’s kunqu-related events. Three of the four actors who went to Hong Kong later were cast in The Young Lovers’ Edition. 33. Pai Hsien-yung, “The Peony Pavilion: The Story of the Returning of the Soul,” in Peony – the Soul Returned (Mudan huanhun), ed. Pai Hsien-yung (Taipei: Shibao, 2004b), 22–33. 34. Master performers with national stature of this kind – that is, performers who have received the Plum Flower Award or been recognized as a National First-Class Performer – also include Hua Wenyi and Cai Zhengren of the Shanghai school. See Zhu Donglin, “On the Phenomenon of the Young Lovers’ Peony Pavilion,” in Pai Hsien-yung (2005a), 277–296. Cai Shaohua, the president of Suzhou Kunqu Company, also spoke of the difficulty of convincing people locally. Since kunqu is considered a local art of Suzhou, why was it necessary to invite outsiders such as Wang Shiyu and Pai Hsien-yung to “teach” the locals how to improve their own art? See “An Extraordinary Opportunity” (Interview with Cai Shaohua) in Such Spring: Interviews with Persons of the Peony Pavilion Young Lovers’ Edition (Chunse ruxu: Qingchunban kunqu Mudanting renwu fangtanlu), edited by Poon Sing Wah (Singapore: Bafang wenhua, 2007), 15–23. 35. http://big5.xinhuanet.com/gate/big5/www.js.xinhuanet.com/zhuanlan/ 2005-05/20/content_4272828.htm. 36. At the party in Beijing celebrating the one hundredth performance, held at the Moscow Restaurant, 13 May 2007, Pai even used the phrase “restoring the feudal rites” to describe the baishi ceremony. Such an expression would have been politically unacceptable two decades ago. Pai persuaded three Notes 205

master teachers to take seven pupils, explaining that the teacher-pupil trans- mission is the embodiment of social responsibility and the best way to pass on the “oral and intangible heritage of humanity.” See Wu Xinlei and Pai Hsien-yung’s “China and the US: The Development of Kunqu in the Age of Globalization” (http://club.xilu.com/kunqu/msgview-823641-68511.html). 37. Daphne P. Lei (2006a), 251. 38. He uses building hospitals as an example of a flourishing modern Buddhism. See Chen Yizhen (2005), 11–34. The masters he lists are among the “Four Heavenly Kings” of Taiwan (the fourth one being Master Wei Chueh). Master Cheng Yen, for instance, founded the Tzu-Chi Foundation, a “modern” char- ity organization that operates a TV station, builds hospitals and schools, advocates recycling, and is involved in relief efforts worldwide. Tzu-Chi has also established many Chinese schools abroad. 39. Shen Fengying, “Youth Starting Line,” in Pai Hsien-yung (2004b), 134–45. 40. Yu Jiulin, “With Faith, No Neglect!” in Pai Hsien-yung (2004b), 146–53. 41. “One Is Beauty; One Is Passion” (Interview with Pai Hsien-yung) in Poon Sing Wah (2007), 1–14. Pai also notes his own efforts to shape the actors’ bodies: in order to strengthen Yu Jiulin, who was often sick, he gave Yu 100 US dollars each month to buy more nourishing food; by contrast, Pai asked Shen Fengying to lose weight (“There has never been a fat Du Liniang!”). Shen succeeded in losing more than ten pounds. 42. Yu Jiulin, “With Faith, No Neglect!” in Pai Hsien-yung (2004b), 146–53. 43. Xin Yiyun, “Building Dreams: May All Lovers in the World Enjoy Nuptial Bliss,” in Pai Hsien-yung (2004b), 156–61. 44. Pai Hsien-yung, “The Road of Three Lives in the Peony Pavilion: Origins and Developments of Producing The Peony Pavilion,” in Pai Hsien-yung (2004a), 96–101. 45. Hua Wei, “Insistence of Passion: Adapting The Peony Pavilion: The Young Lovers’ Edition,” in Pai Hsien-yung (2005), 88–115. 46. Pai Hsien-yung, “The Road of Three Lives in the Peony Pavilion: Origins and Throughlines of Producing The Peony Pavilion,” in Pai Hsien-yung (2004a), 96–101. 47. The first set of scene numbers and titles correspond to the actual English subtitles seen in the performance; the second set refers to Cyril Birch’s translation of Tang Xianzu’s original (in parenthesis). The performance script for The Young Lovers’ Edition (Qingchunban Mudanting juben), ed. Hua Wei et. al. can be found in Pai Hsien-yung (2004a), 130–263. 48. Zhou Chuanjia, “Number Techniques,” in Pai Hsien-yung (2005a), 158–165. 49. “This Is Celestial Music” (Interview with Zhou Youliang), in Poon Sing Wah (2007), 69–74. 50. “One Is Beauty; One Is Passion” (Interview with Pai Hsien-yung), in Poon Sing Wah (2007), 1–14. 51. Shen Fengying, “Youth Starting Line,” in Pai Hsien-yung (2004b), 136–45. 52. Fan Mannong, “Seeing Spring in Spring,” in Pai Hsien-yung (2004b), 30–3. 53. Shen Fengying, “Youth Starting Line,” in Pai Hsien-yung (2004b), 136–45. “Zaoluopao” (from “the Interrupted Dream”) is arguably the most famous aria of the play. 54. Interview with Amy O’Dowd (Beijing, 13 May 2007). 206 Notes

55. Poon Sing Wah (2007), 191–3. 56. Liu Shangjian, “Modest Contribution to the Awakening of Chinese Culture,” in The Special Publication for the 100th Performance of the Peony Pavilion the Young Lovers’ Edition (Qingchunban Mudanting daxing gongyan yibai chang jinian tekan) (Beijing: n.p., 2007), 48–9. 57. This is a well-known legend in Chinese American circles. Liu also speaks of this in his interview with Poon Sing Wah. See Poon Sing Wah (2007), 195–6. 58. See “China and US: The Development of Kunqu in the Age of Globalization” (Wu Xinlei’s interview with Pai Hsien-yung): http://club.xilu.com/kunqu/ msgview-823641-68511.html. 59. For instance, alumni of both National Taiwan University (Pai’s alma mater) and of Taipei First Girls’ High School enthusiastically promoted the production with various events. 60. One typical example is the press conference I participated in. Panelists included Pai Hsien-yung, Dominic Cheung (Zhang Cuo, a poet from Taiwan and professor at University of Southern California), kunqu diva Hua Wenyi, and David Schaberg (co-director of the Center for Chinese Studies at UCLA), and myself (Drama professor at UC Irvine). Each panelist talked about kunqu or The Peony Pavilion, and Hua demonstrated the play’s most famous aria, “Zaoluopao.” Representatives of the Chinese language media and of many Chinese organizations were present, and tickets were available for purchase on site. See World Journal (16 July 2006). Many such activities took place all over California during summer and fall, 2006. To promote the production at Barclay Theatre in Irvine, I gave a lecture on The Peony Pavilion for a small circle of VIPs at the Barclay Theatre (10 September 2006) and organized a workshop with two actors from the troupe for faculty and students at UC Irvine (26 September 2006). I also gave an interview for a local newspaper, the Irvine World News. See Irvine World News, 14 September 2006. Needless to say, all these different kinds of “volunteer” work helped sell tickets for the Barclay performance. 61. Clifford Geertz (1973), 113–14. 62. This speech was given at a rehearsal on 21 September 2006. 63. Interview with Wang Shiyu at the cast party in Beijing (13 May 2007). 64. Shen Fengying explained that junior actors like her usually have no chance to play in big professional productions at all. They often play for tourists in places like Zhouzhuang. See Pai Hsien-yung (2004b), 137. 65. The “big rice pot” is a term used in reference to communist communes and suggests shared property and shared duty, with a concomitant loss of individuality and lack of drive to perform. Amy O’Dowd used this term to describe the actors’ condition before they participated in the Peony project. Interview with Amy O’Dowd (Beijing, 13 May 2007). 66. The actors were often “pampered” by wealthy kunqu volunteers. For instance, they were given a tour in the Bay area and a trip to Disneyland during their California tour. Cash gifts were also common. At the cast party in Beijing, a lottery game of cash prizes was set up for company members. Wealthy volunteers were encouraged to add to or match the amount that was in the Notes 207

original envelope. Hundreds of US dollars were given to individual actors as the party reached its climax. 67. Leslie Sklair, Sociology of the Global System (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University press, 1995), 8. 68. Chen Yizhen, “Creating New Cultural Directions: Three Major Events, One Spirit – an Interview with Pai Hsien-Yung,” in Pai Hsien-yung (2004b), 15. 69. “One Is Beauty; One Is Passion” (Interview with Pai Hsien-yung), in Poon Sing Wah (2007), 1–14. 70. Ernest Gellner, Nations and Nationalisms (Malden: Blackwell Press, 2006), 49. 71. Interview with Amy O’Dowd (Beijing, 13 May 2007). She believed that, cash rewards at the cast party in Beijing were one tactic to make the actors stay in the profession. 72. Each of these theatres has a close connection with the local campus of the University of California. 73. I attended all three performances at Barclay, one performance at Royce Hall, and all three performances in Beijing (2007). The audience’s behavior after the show was similar in all these performances. 74. See Mark Swed’s “‘Peony’ able to flower amid cuts,” Los Angeles Times (26 September 2006.) He criticized the costumes, the set, and the omission of scenes and characters, but generally considered the production successful. He wrongly identified Pai Hsien-yung as the subtitle translator. 75. Enraged by Swed’s review, Pai phoned me and asked me to write a “write back” to the LA Times to explain the rationale for his choices. I did so but received no response from the LA Times. When I later had a chance to write a review for the AAP (Association for Asian Performance) Newsletter, I explained the reason for Pai’s choice for translation. See Association for Asian Performance Newsletter (Fall 2006c). I consider my “write back” as a form of paratheatrical performance. 76. The lines quoted above come from Tang Xianzu’s preface, but part of the “prologue” of this production also takes lines from Scene One: The Legend (biaomu). 77. I use present tense for the script narrative, but past tense to describe what happened on stage and in the auditorium at a specific performance. 78. All stage directions in brackets and in italics refer to the performance I saw. They are not in the original script. 79. Like “Zaoluopao,” “Shanpoyang” is another very famous song in the play. 80. Hua Wenyi demonstrated the “itching” during “Conversation with an Artist” at Yale University in 1996. In Chen Shizhen’s The Peony Pavilion at the Lincoln Center, Qian Yi (as Du Liniang) performed this scene sitting down, thus neglecting the entire itching sequence. This omission was roundly condemned by connoisseur audiences. See Tang Xianzu (2002), xxi. 81. Wichmann points out that going to the theatre was commonly referred to as “listening to theatre” (tingxi). The aural aspect was more important than the visual aspect in traditional theatre. See Elizabeth Wichmann, Listening to Theatre: The Aural Dimension of Beijing Opera (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1991), 1. Goldstein discusses how changes in theatre architecture in the early twentieth century – such as the change from a teahouse setting to a playhouse setting, dimming of the auditorium with electric lighting and 208 Notes

so on – made for an emphasis on the visual elements of theatre. See “From Teahouse to Playhouse,” Joshua Goldstein (2007), 55–88. 82. The History of Chinese Jingju (Zhongguo jingju shi), vol. 2, 134–5. 83. “One Is Beauty; One Is Passion” (Interview with Pai Hsien-yung) in Poon Sing Wah (2007), 1–14. 84. This is how the choreographer Wu Sujun described the use of the Flower God motif. See Hua Wei, “Insistence of Passion: Adapting The Peony Pavilion: the Young Lovers’ Edition,” in Pai Hsien-yung (2005a), 88–115. 85. Daphne P. Lei (2006b), 25–85. 86. These are the notes from the rehearsal at the Barclay Theatre (21 September 2006). 87. Liu means willow, and Mengmei means “dreaming of plum/apricot” (mei). In their dream, Liu holds a willow branch and asks Du to compose a poem about the willow. 88. Traditionally, Du and Liu barely touch in this scene. Pai asked Wang Shiyu to “sex up” the scene by adding more flirting glances and touches of water sleeves. See Poon Sing Wah (2007), 1–14. In Chen Shizhen’s Lincoln Center production, there was a lot more touching, and Liu Mengmei removed a layer of Du’s outer garment. Chen’s “realistic” approach seems to violate the aesthetics of Chinese opera. 89. For plum/apricot, see note 10. 90. The original lines are “How to locate the root of this sickness, how find a healer for her heart?” (by Chunxiang) and “How can the moon, once set, rise again or the burnt-out lamp glow red?” (by Du Liniang) These desperate questions were changed into a statement and a wish to provide a sense of hope in the production. 91. These two campuses are about 55 miles apart. 92. See note 40. 93. Wang Shiyu told me that he never praised his students so they would con- tinue to strive for perfection; however, after 100 performances, he finally told the public that he felt Yu’s performance in “The Portrait Retrieved” was “not bad.” This was probably the highest praise uttered by this master- teacher. Interview with Wang Shiyu, Beijing (at the Moscow Restaurant, 13 May 2007). 94. What I call the “stage business” (requesting Mother to step back) is not in Tang’s original text. 95. Tang Xianzu (2002), xxi. 96. Brenda S. A. Yeoh et al., eds (2003), 2. 97. Interview with Pai Hsien-yung, in Poon Sing Wah (2007), 11. 98. http://club.xilu.com/kunqu/msgview-823641-68511.html.

Chapter 4 Waiting for Meaning: The Joint Venture of Robert Wilson, Jingju, and Taiwan

1. For the reasons for incorporating noh in his performance, see Yeats’s introduction to Ezra Pound and Ernest Fenollosa’s Certain Noble Plays of Japan: From the Manuscripts of Ernest Fenollosa, Chosen and Finished by Ezra Pound, Notes 209

with an Introduction by William Butler Yeats (Churchtown: Cuala Press, 1916), i–xix, also see Yeats’s “Notes on the First Performance of ‘At the Hawk’s Well,’” in Yeats and the Noh, with Two Plays for Dancers by Yeats and Two Noh Plays, ed. Akhtar Qamber (New York: Weatherhill, 1974), 85–8. For the script of At the Hawk’s Well, see Akhtar Qamber, ed. (1974), 121–30. 2. Michio Ito, the Japanese dancer who was involved in Yeats’s “noh plays,” was instrumental in producing the Oriental fantasies of Ted Shawn and Jack Cole. He was unfortunately deported during World War II because of his “enemy ethnicity.” For a discussion of Ito’s career, see Yutian Wong, “Utopias: Michio Ito and the Trope of the International,” in Worlding Dance, ed. Susan Leigh Foster (New York and Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), 144–62. 3. For the creation, process, and criticism of Brook’s Mahabharata, see David Williams, ed., Peter Brook and the Mahabharata: Critical Perspectives (London and New York: Routledge, 1991). 4. Rustom Bharucha, “A View from India,” in David Williams (1991), 228–52. It would be inaccurate to assume contemporary Indian society still connects with the ancient epic in the way it did centuries ago; Bharucha points out that there are plenty of modern misrepresentations of the epic by Indians them- selves. However, The Mahabharata is still regarded by Indian people today as their cultural heritage, from which they derive strength. 5. Mainlander military villages (juancun) were a unique cultural phenomenon in post-war Taiwan. Scattered throughout Taiwan, these villages are typically densely constructed and densely populated. Many of the residents are low-income military families who followed the KMT government to Taiwan. These close-knit communities usually belong to the anti-communist “pan blue” coalition. As military villages grew decrepit and Mainlanders were losing political power, many of the villages were dismantled, with villagers transferred to high-rise housing projects. The irony is that the Ta An (Da’an) district is a wealthy district, with high real estate values, so that the urban paradise built on the site of the old military village was ironically referred to as “the rich men’s park.” 6. Liu Jihui, “New Pantheon in Taipei: Oresteia in Da’an Forest Park” (Taiwan xinshenmiao: Da’an gongyuan de Aoruisitiya) (http://www.srcs.nctu.edu.tw/ joyceliu/mworks/mw-taiwantheatre/Oresteia.htm). 7. Katharina Otto-Bernstein, Absolute Wilson: The Biography (Munich, Berlin, London and New York: Prestel, 2006); Katharina Otto-Bernstein et al., Absolute Wilson (DVD) (New York: New York Video, 2007). Other frequently cited works include Arthur Hombert, The Theatre of Robert Wilson (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Maria Shevtsova, Robert Wilson (London and New York: Routledge, 2007); Franco Quadri, Franco Bertoni and Robert Stearns, Robert Wilson (New York: Rizzoli, 1998); Laurence Shyer, Robert Wilson and His Collaborators (New York: Theatre Communication Group, 1989). Geng Yiwei’s book is a Chinese introduction to Wilson’s life and works prepared in advance of the Orlando performance. See Geng Yiwei, Robert Wilson, the Unlimited Power of Light (Luobo Wei’ersen, Guangde wuxian liliang) (Taipei: Zhongzheng wenhua, 2009). 8. Maria Shevtsova (2007), 63. 9. Maria Shevtsova (2007), 63–4. 210 Notes

10. Interview with Wei Hai-Ming (July 2008). 11. The first chapter is based on my own experience with the group in summer, 2007. Here I act as the native informant, a cultural and linguistic translator, but also an anthropologist reporting my findings. 12. Wilson uses the word formal to refer to his major directorial concern, forms. In other words, he generally does not discuss content, meaning, or psychology with his actors. 13. The Watermill Center is located in Water Mill, Long Island, New York. Wilson bought this six-acre property in the 1980s and donated it to his non-profit organization, the Byrd Hoffman Foundation. The main building, where 250 Western Union workers were employed, was built in 1926 and redesigned by Wilson and the famous architect Richard Gluckman. The center’s major events take place during the summer, when dozens of artists from all over the world gather to collaborate in creating art and in gardening and cooking. For the history and development of the center, see Jonathan Kalb, “Theater: Robert Wilson’s 21st-Century Academy” (New York Times: Sunday, 13 August 2000) and the website of the Watermill Center (http://watermillcenter.org/about/history). 14. Three productions of Orlando were staged before the Taiwanese production: the German (with Jutta Lampe, 1989), the French (with Isabelle Huppert, 1995), and the English (with Miranda Richardson, 1996). 15. “Baby-male” (wawa sheng) is a known role type that captures the innocence of children in a high singing and speaking voice. It is in practice a rather difficult role to perform. As Chinese opera requires years of training, actors might be too old by the time they acquired the skill; female actors with a smaller build might be chosen to play such roles instead. The lack of major children roles in Chinese opera is probably both a cause and an effect of the lack of specific training in this category. 16. See note 12. 17. I was not involved in the negotiation and rehearsal process in Taiwan. Chapter Two is based on numerous interviews I conducted in 2008 and 2009 with people at the core of the project: the original group members (Wei, Li and Lee), Wang An-Ch’i (writer and artistic director for Guoguang), Huang Pen-Ting (program planner for NTCH), Liu Chang-Han (Marketing, NTCH), and Zhong Baoshan (vice-president of Guoguang). These individuals, along with a few others closely involved with the production from Taiwan, are hereafter referred to together as the “Taiwan team.” Here I write in the role of anthropologist and archival researcher. 18. “Two Is One: Western Avant-Garde Is in the Orient,” PAR: Performing Arts Review, vol. 195 (March 2009): 60–8. 19. Interview with Wang An-Ch’i (Taipei, 29 July 2008). 20. Interview with Lee Huey-Mei (10 July 2008). 21. At the final dress rehearsal, when Wilson made a comment on the intonation of certain lines, she complained: “Of course it was flat. I never understood what this line meant!” Her complaint obviously was not translated into English for Wilson (Taipei, 20 February 2009). 22. Bradley Winterton, “Talking to Robert Wilson,” Taipei Times (20 February 2009), 13. 23. Interview with Wang An-Ch’i (Taipei, 29 July 2008). 24. Conversation with Hua Wenyi (Berkeley, 1998). Also see Chapter 3, note 20. Hua Wenyi had told me of the discomfort she felt performing in Sellars’s Notes 211

production without traditional kunqu costume and makeup. Pantsuits do not have water sleeves, which are essential for certain kunqu movement. 25. Interview with Wang An-Ch’i (Taipei, 29 July 2008). 26. Interview with Wei Hai-Ming (July 2008). 27. Nancy T. Lu, “Wilson directs Wei Hai-Ming in ‘Orlando,’” culture.tw (12 February 2009) (http://www.culture.tw/index.php?option=com_content& task=view&id=1119&Itemid=235). 28. Interview with Li Hsiao-Ping (21 February 2009). 29. Although Guoguang still supplied the “software” such as musicians, they reduced their financial support to only 10 percent of the total production cost. 30. For a picture of the tree, see Figure 4.2. 31. Interview with Wang An-Ch’i (Taipei, 21 February 2009). 32. “Invitation to the Complete Dress Rehearsal of the World Premier of Orlando” (email advertisement from NTCH, 12 February 2009). The original email was sent by Chuang Ching Ju, Programming and Marketing Department of NTCH. 33. Interview with Wang An-Ch’i (Taipei, 21 February 2009). 34. Interview with Wei Hai-Ming (Taipei, 23 February 2009). 35. Interview with Wang An-Ch’i (Taipei, 21 February 2009). 36. At the final dress rehearsal on 20 February, when the subtitles abruptly stopped, people thought it was a technical mistake. It turned out that Wang An-Ch’i had deliberately directed that subtitles be omitted for this section. When Wang An-Ch’i published her script, she insisted on including her own original lines. See Wang An-Ch’i and Xie Baiqi, Orlando: Chinese Opera Version (Oulanduo: xiqu ban), Taipei Theatre Journal, 10 (2009): 225–41. The script was later collected in the beautifully printed Orlando: Wake up the Orient, a record of the Orlando rehearsal and production process. See Geng Yiwei et al., Orlando: Wake up the Orient (Huanxing dongfang Oulanduo) (Taipei: Zhongzheng wenhua, 2009), 171–204. 37. Here I write from the point of view of an audience member and art critic. I watched Orlando three times during its run, once from the first row of the orchestra (opening performance, 21 February 2009), once from the tenth row of the orchestra (final dress rehearsal, 20 February 2009), and finally from the second-floor balcony (22 February 2009). 38. Throughout this section, the gender of pronouns follows the narration: when describing the actress Wei Hai-Ming, I use “she,” but “he” and “she” are both used in reference to the character Orlando. For Orlando, the gendered pronouns correspond to the appearance of biological sex, not the state of mind. 39. This plot summary of Orlando is based on the Taiwan stage version. Darryl Pinckney’s script is a much more condensed version than Woolf’s original, and the Chinese translation further sheds specific cultural, geographic, and national references. For instance, Sasha is a princess from Russia in Woolf’s novel, but in the Chinese version, she is only referred to as someone from “a northern country” (beiguo). 40. Bradley Winterton, “Talking to Robert Wilson,” Taipei Times (20 February 2009). 41. Nancy T. Lu (2009). 42. For instance, Huang Pen-Ting explained that many people from the design field would come to see the production, simply to seek inspiration 212 Notes

from Wilson’s famous avant-garde staging, lighting, and costume design. Interview with Huang Pen-Ting (Taipei, 30 July 2008). 43. In this miming sequence, she was actually playing with moving spotlights as she appeared as if under the surface of frozen water, touching the ice from below. I did not notice the light show when I sat in the orchestra; only from a higher elevation did the moving spotlights become visible. 44. Interview with Wei Hai-Ming (Taipei, 23 February 2009). 45. “Two Is One: Western Avant-Garde Is in the Orient,” PAR: Performing Arts Review, vol. 195 (March 2009): 60–8. 46. Lady Yang drinks while waiting for the emperor and becomes tipsy. The whole scene portrays her longing for the emperor and her jealousy of other women in very feminine movements. To a feminist eye, Drunken Princess would be a male chauvinist play. 47. “Two Is One: Western Avant-Garde Is in the Orient” (2009): 60–8. These are the words of Wang Jiaming. 48. “Two Is One: Western Avant-Garde Is in the Orient” (2009): 60–8. 49. “Two Is One: Western Avant-Garde Is in the Orient” (2009): 60–8. This comment is by Zhang Xiaohong. 50. “Two Is One: Western Avant-Garde Is in the Orient” (2009): 60–8. 51. Cape No. 7 (haijiao qihao) was directed by Wei Shengde and starred Fan Yichen. The film, which premiered in 2008, was extremely popular in Taiwan.

Conclusion

1. Long Yingtai, Big River, Big Sea – Untold Stories of 1949 (Dajiang dahai, yijiusi- jiu) (Taipei: Tianxia zazhi, 2009), 1: 68–9. For an English introduction to the book, see Verna Yu, “Untold Stories of China and Taiwan,” New York Times (5 October 2009) (http://www.nytimes.com/2009/10/06/world/asia/06iht- taiwan.html?_r=3). 2. Traveling from Taiwan to the mainland was officially forbidden until 1987, almost 40 years after the separation. 3. On 3 July 2010, a conference co-sponsored by Harvard University, Academia Sinica, and the National Taiwan University was held in Taipei to celebrate the 15-year anniversary of the Guoguang Opera Company. Many scholars, writers, and jingju practitioners mentioned in this book were present at the conference. Guoguang also scheduled two special performances of The Golden Cangue, with its original cast, for the conference participants and special guests (The Metropolitan Hall, Taipei, 6 and 7 of July). I was invited to both the conference and the performance. 4. He Dingzhao, “Resinging Meng Xiaodong, Wei Hai-Ming Doubles as Mei Lanfang,” United Daily News (9 February 2010). 5. At the conference on “Non-Material” (feiwuzhi, Chinese translation for “intangible”) at the Sun Yat-sen University in Guangzhou I attended, scholars did not hold much hope for the submission of yueju to UNESCO because one country should only have one dramatic genre proclaimed. “Tibetan” drama, some suggested, might be a better choice, because of its ambigu- ous identification as Chinese/non-Chinese. To my mind, the joint award between center and peripheries fulfilled this type of logic. The title of the Notes 213

international conference was “Traditional Theatre under the Perspective of Preserving Non-Material Cultural Heritage.” 6. Because of China’s internet censorship and hacker intrusions, Google shut down its internet service in China and redirected Chinese users to the uncensored search engine in Hong Kong on 22 March 2010. It is said that youngsters placed wreathes outside of Google’s headquarters in Beijing, as a gesture of mourning for the death of freedom. Although this move was temporary, it nevertheless accentuates Hong Kong’s position as a refuge for mainland China during transitional times. See Miguel Helft, “Google Shuts China Site in Dispute over Censorship,” New York Times (March 22, 2010) (http://www.nytimes.com/2010/03/23/technology/23google.html); and Steve Lohr, “Sergey Brin on Google’s China Move,” New York Times (March 22, 2010) (http://bits.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/03/22/interview-sergey-brin- on-googles-china-gambit/?ref=technology) 7. Since its premier in Taipei in 2009, The Jade Hairpin had traveled to Beijing, Hong Kong, and Shanghai by mid-2010. See http://mag.udn.com/mag/reading/storypage.jsp?f_ART_ID=180922 Also see Audacious Lust: The Story of the Jade Hairpin (Sedan baotian Yuzan ji), edited by Pai Hsien-yung (Taipei: Tianxia yuanjian, 2009). The book includes scholarly articles, production photos, costume design as well a performance script. 8. One recent example is the Peony Pavilion fundraising performance I organized for the Department of Drama, University of California, Irvine (20–21 February 2010), involving such Southern California amateur groups as the Jade Bell Performing Arts Association, the Chinese Kwun Opera Society, the Spring Thunder Chinese Music Association, and students from the department. As a local production, this miniature Peony did not have a transnational scope; however, The Young Lovers’ Edition clearly showed its influence in the actors’ movement, costumes, and scenic design. Video and audio recordings often serve as diasporic amateur actors’ first Chinese opera “teachers” because of the lack of better pedagogical resources in diaspora. See http://drama.arts.uci.edu/ChineseOpera.html. 9. http://www.utheatre.org.tw/eng/engopen.htm. 10. Other than budget cuts, another major problem is the leadership of The National Taiwan College of Performing Arts, the only opera school in Taiwan. The president of the school, Zheng Rongxing, has been in the position for 12 years; however, his focus on Hakka drama depleted valuable resources from jingju. See He Dingzhao, “Wei Hai-Ming and Wu Hsing-kuo rescued Jingju Education” (http://mag.udn.com/mag/campus/storypage. jsp?f_MAIN_ID=13&f_SUB_ID=104&f_ART_ID=251219) I also started an online petition and invited the international theatre community to support their effort to save Taiwan jingju. More than 100 scholars and artists from all over the world signed the petition within a 24-hour period. See http://www.thepetitionsite.com/1/save-taiwan-jingju- education 11. See note 96, Chapter 1. 12. http://blog.yam.com/weihaimin/article/28933759. http://www.facebook. com/pages/wei-hai-min-Wei-Haimin/113799801972633?ref=search. Bibliography

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Yeats, W. B. “Notes on the First Performance of ‘At the Hawk’s Well.’” In Yeats and the Noh, with Two Plays for Dancers by Yeats and Two Noh Plays, ed. Akhtar Qamber. New York: Weatherhill, 1974, 85–8. Yeats, W. B. “Introduction.” In Certain Noble Plays of Japan: From the Manuscripts of Ernest Fenollosa, Chosen and Finished by Ezra Pound, with an Introduction by William Butler Yeats, ed. Ezra Pound and Ernest Fenollosa. Churchtown: Cuala Press, 1916, i–xix. Yeoh, Brenda S. A., Michael W. Charney, and Tong Chee Kiong, eds. Approaching Transnationalisms: Studies on Transnational Societies, Multicultural Contacts, and Imaginings of Home. Boston, MA: Kluwer Academic, 2003. Yu Jiulin. “With Faith, No Neglect!” In Peony – the Soul Retuned (Mudan huanhun), ed. Pai Hsien-yung. Taipei: Shibao, 2004b, 146–53. Yu Shanlu. “The Flower Princess: The Small Sparrow Has It All” (Maque suixiao, wuzang juquan de Dinühua) (http://mypaper.pchome.com.tw/news/yushanlu/ 3/1278783173/20070131235502/). Yu Siu Wah. Out of Chaos and Coincidence: Hong Kong Music Culture. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 2001. Yung, Bell. Cantonese Opera: Performance as Creative Process. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989. Zeitlin, Judith. The Phantom Heroine: Ghosts and Gender in Seventeenth-Century Chinese Literature. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 2007. Zeitlin, Judith T. “My Year of Peonies,” Asian Theatre Journal, vol. 19, no. 1 (Spring 2002): 124–33. Zeitlin, Judith. “Shared Dreams: The Story of The Three Wives’ Commentary on The Peony Pavilion,” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, vol. 54, no. 1 (June 1994): 127–79. Zeng Yongyi. “The Flower Princess of Huang Yunshan.” In The Collected Studies of Chinese Classical Theatre (Zhongguo gudian xiju lunji). Taipei: Lianjing, 1986, 281–97. Zhang Tingyu. The History of the Ming Dynasty, Newly Edited (Xinjiaoben Mingshi). Beijing: Zhonghua, 1974. Zheng Liyuan et al. Heaven and Earth Afoot: the Borderless Contribution from the Taiwan Technical Crew (Tiandi xingjiao: Taiwan jishu renyuan wuguojie de gongxian). Taipei: Taiwan ICDF, 2009. Zhou Chuanjia. “Number Techniques in The Peony Pavilion: The Young Lovers’ Edition.” In Caviar to the General (Qugao hegua), ed. Pai Hsien-yung (Taipei: Bookzone, 2005), 158–65. Zhu Donglin, “On the Phenomenon of the Young Lovers’ Peony Pavilion.” In High Tune for All (Qugao hezhong), ed. Pai Hsien-yung. Taipei: Bookzone, 2005, 277–96. Žižek, Slavoj. “The Matrix, or Two Sides of Perversion,” Philosophy Today, Celina Volume: 43 (1999). Zou Yuanjiang, New Studies on Tang Xianzu (Tang Xianzu xinlun) Taipei: Guojia, 2005.

Dramatic texts

Anonymous. The Hegemon King Says Farewell to His Queen (Bawang bieji). In The Grand Complete Drama (Xikao daquan), ed. Hu Juren. Taipei: Hongye, 1986, 91–104. Bibliography 225

Anonymous. The Pavilion of Royal Tablet (Yubei ting). In The Grand Complete Drama (Xikao daquan), ed. Hu Juren. Taipei: Hongye, 1986, 1: 281–93. Gao Lian. The Story of Jade Hairpin (Yuzan ji), adapted by Zhang Shuxiang. In The Audacious Lust: The Story of the Jade Hairpin (Sedan baotian Yuzan ji), ed. Hsien-yung. Taipei: Tianxia yuanjian, 2009, 58–101. Pinckney, Darryl. Orlando (stage adaptation from Orlando by Virginia Woolf, in English). np. nd. Tang Xianzu. The Peony Pavilion: The Young Lovers’ Edition (Qingchunban Mudanting juben), ed. Hua Wei et. al. In Four Hundred Years’ of Youth Dream: Bright Purple, Deep Red Peony Pavilion (Sibainian qingchun zhi meng: Chazi yanhong mudanting), ed. Pai Hsien-yung. Taipei: Yuanliu, 2004a, 130–263. Tang Xianzu. The Peony Pavilion (Mudanting, 2nd edn), trans. Cyril Birch. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2002. Tang Xianzu. The Peony Pavilion (Mudanting). Taipei: Liren, 1986. Tong Dik Sang (Tang Disheng). The Flower Princess: A Cantonese Opera (Dinühua), trans. Bell Yung, with the assistance of Sonia Ng and Katherine Carlitz. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2010. Tong Dik Sang (Tang Disheng). The Flower Princess: The Youth Edition Production Script (Dinühua: Qingnianban yanchu jubenji), ed. Ye Shaode et al. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Cantonese Opera Programme, 2008. Wang An-Ch’i. The Golden Cangue (Jinsuo ji). In Rouge Lips and Pearl-Sewn Sleeves, Both Lonely (Jiangchun zhuxiu liangjimo). Taipei: INK Publishing, 2008, 188–275. Wang An-Ch’i. Wang Youdao Divorces His Wife (Wang Youdao xiuqi). In Rouge Lips and Pearl-Sewn Sleeves, Both Lonely (Jiangchun zhuxiu liangjimo). Taipei: INK Publishing, 2008, 59–109. Wang An-Ch’i. The Dialogue at the Green Mound (Qingzhongqiande duihua). In Rouge Lips and Pearl-Sewn Sleeves, Both Lonely (Jiangchun zhuxiu liangjimo). Taipei: INK Publishing, 2008, 277–300. Wang An-Ch’i and Xie Baiqi. Orlando (Chinese Opera Version) (Oulanduo, xiqu- ban) (adaptation from Darryl Pinckney’s Orlando, in the style of jingju). Taipei Theatre Journal, 10 (2009): 225–41. Wang An-Ch’i and Xie Baiqi, Orlando: Chinese Opera Version (Oulanduo: xiqu ban). In Orlando: Wake up the Orient (Huanxing dongfang Oulanduo) by Geng Yiwei et al. Taipei: Zhongzheng wenhua, 2009, 171–204. Wang An-Ch’i and Zhao Xuejun. Three Persons, Two Lamps (Sange ren’er liangzhandeng). In Rouge Lips and Pearl-Sewn Sleeves, Both Lonely (Jiangchun zhuxiu liangjimo). Taipei: INK Publishing, 2008, 111–87.

Theatre programs

The Flower Princess: Fiftieth Anniversary The Youth Edition (Dinühua: wushi zhounian jinian qingnianban) (The Hong Kong Academy for Performing Arts, Hong Kong, 7 September 2007). The Golden Cangue (Jinsuo ji) (City Stage, Taipei, 2–4 May, 2006). The Golden Cangue (Jinsuo ji) (The Metropolitan Hall, Taipei 6–7 July, 2010). Liao Tianding (The National Theatre, Taipei; The County Cultural Center, Xinzhu; The City Cultural Center, Jiayi; The National Sun Yat-sen University, Gaoxiong; 22 October – 21 November 1999). 226 Bibliography

Mazu (The National Theatre, Taipei; The County Cultural Center, Xinzhu; The County Cultural Center, Taidong; Zhongxing Village, Taizhong; 14 April – 9 May 1998). Orlando (Oulanduo) (The National Theatre, Taipei, February 21 – 1 March 2009). The Peony Pavilion – Young Lovers’ Edition (California Tour) (Zellerbach Hall, Berkeley; Barclay Theatre, Irvine; Royce Hall, Los Angeles; Lobero Theatre, Santa Barbara; 15 September – 8 October 2006). Three Persons, Two Lamps (Sange re’er liangzhandeng) (The New Stage, Taipei, 25–27 March 2005). Wang Youdao Divorces His Wife: Jingju Little Theatre (Wang Youdao xiuqi: Jingju xiaojuchang) (Guoguang Theatre, Taipei, 27 March 2004). Zheng Chengong and Taiwan (Zheng Chenggong yu Taiwan) (The National Theatre, Taipei; The County Cultural Center, Xinzhu; Chenggong University, Tainan; The City Cultural Center, Gaoxiong; 1–24 January 1999).

Audio and video recordings (films, DVD, and Youtube)

British Retreat 1997 (http://www.youtube.com/watch?vT2Rvdktho_g). Chen Shizhen, et. al. A Chinese Cracker: The Making of The Peony Pavilion in Shanghai, New York and Paris (DVD). Princeton, NJ: Films for the Humanities & Sciences, 2001. Dongshan Shaoye and Xu Shiyu. “Matching Sword and United Hairpin – The Flower Princess” (Jianhe chaiyuan Dinühua Jianhe chaiyuan Dinühua (http:// www.youtube.com/watch?v=JviDyIQvVsI). Otto-Bernstein, Katharina et al., Absolute Wilson (DVD). New York: New York Video, 2007. Pai Hsien-yung, et. al. The Peony Pavilion (The Young Lovers’ Edition; DVD). Taipei: Gonggong dianshi, 2004. Shum, Lanny. Lovely Princess – In English (Yingwen Dinühua) (http://www. youtube.com/watch?vQnV1XbY302E). Tan Dun. Symphony 1997: Heaven, Earth, Mankind (CD). New York: Sony Classical, 1997. Wu Ziniu, dir. Don’t Cry, Nanking (Nanjing datusha or Nanjing, 1937; film). Taipei: Longxiang dianying LTD, 1995.

Interviews by Daphne Lei

Conversation with Hua Wenyi (Berkeley, 7 March 1999). Conversation with Sai Shing Yung (Rong Shicheng) (Hong Kong, 7 September 2007). Conversation with Wang An-Ch’i (Guangzhou, 12 October 2008). Interview with Lee Huey-Mei (Taipei, 10 July 2008). Interview with Li Hsiao-Ping (Taipei, 5 August 2008). Interview with Li Hsiao-Ping (Taipei, 21 February 2009). Interview with Wang An-Ch’i (Taipei, 21 February 2009). Interview with Wang An-Ch’i (Taipei, 29 July 2008). Bibliography 227

Interview with Wang Shiyu (Beijing, 13 May 2007). Interview with Amy O’dowd (Amy Chang) (Beijing, 13 May 2007). Interview with Wei Hai-Ming (Taipei, 23 February 2009). Interview with Wei Hai-Ming (Taipei, July 2008). Interview with Zhong Baoshan (Taipei, 24 February 2009).

Talks

Wang An-Ch’i. “Speaking of the ‘First Family’: Are All Contest Plays Model Drama?” (Public talk in Taipei, 5 August 2008). Index

Abbas, Ackbar, 65, 68, 70, 90 Chinese diaspora, 4, 5, 13, 117–18, alternative Chinese opera, 2, 7, 8, 139–41, 181 11–15, 18, 19, 20, 179, 182–3 Chinese opera Anderson, Benedict, 14 actor training, 194 (n. 85), 198 Appadurai, Arjun, 15 (n. 56), 210 (n. 15) cross-dressing, 59 Bai Xianyong, see Pai Hsien-yung genres, 10–11 Bai Xuexian, see Pak Suet Sin identity performance, 2, 13 Boym, Svetlana, 16, 30, 94–5 naming (and misnaming) in US, Brook, Peter, 144, 146 9–10 see also Mahabharata, The Performance school (liupai), 58, 85, 108, 179–80 Cantonese, as language (yueyu), 5, problematic definition, 9 198–9 (n. 60) role type (jiaose, hangdang), 58–9 Cantonese opera, see yueju stakes, 1–2, 11, 182–3 Chan Sau Yan, 199–200 (n. 71) structure (compared to Western Chang, Eileen (Zhang Ailing), 51–2, 192 drama), 113 (n. 67, n. 68, n. 69), 193 (n. 70) see also jingju (Beijing opera), kunqu Taiwan, 52 (kun opera), yueju (Cantonese The Golden Cangue, 51–3 opera) Chen Shizheng Chinese peripheries, 2, 3, 5–8, 13, 97, The Peony Pavilion, 104–5, 207 181 (n. 80), 208 (n. 88) scholarship on, 6, 185 (n. 11) Chiang Kai-shek, 29–30, 189 (n. 29), superiority to center, 6, 14, 15 190 (n. 32) Chun, Allen, 24, 67–8 China Clifford, James, 17, 91 Zhongguo (central states), 2, 184 Contemporary Legend Theater (n. 2) (dangdai chuanqi), 33–4, 36, 58–9 center, 3, 5–8, 13 see also Wu Hsing-kuo zero institution, 3, 7–8 Cultural Restoration movement (wenyi Chinese fuxing yundong), 30–1, 189 (n. 29) as ethnicity, 2–3, 4, 6, 13, 18, 184 Cultural Revolution, 30, 199 (n. 70) as ethnicities represented in Olympics, 6, 185 (n. 12) Deleuze, Gilles as language(s), 5 social desire, 16 as writing systems, 5, 86, 198–9 contemporaneity, 17, 95 (n. 60) Deng Shurong, 79–81 Chinese center, see China Dialogue at the Green Mound, The Chinese communism (Chinese (Qingzhong qiande duihua), 191 Communist Party), 3 (n. 53) in KMT rhetoric, 16, 30 Dubbed Image Project, The work ethics, 15, 120, 206 (n. 65) (yinpeixiang gongcheng), 62, 194 Hong Kong, 66, 94 (n. 93)

228 Index 229

February 28 Incident (ererba shijian), SAR, 13, 181 25–6 Sino-British Joint Declaration, scholarship on, 188 (n. 10) 68–9 flexible citizenship, 15, 118 transitional space, 15, 21, 66–7, Flower Princess, The (Dinühua, Dae 117, 181, 213 (n. 6) Neui Fa), 14, 21, 96 see also Symphony 1997, The Flower Hong Kong classic, 64, 81, 96, 97 Princess English translation, 197 (n. 36) Hua Wenyi, 98, 103, 104, 106–7, 161, kunqu version, 71 203 (n. 20), 210–11 (n. 24) modern variations, 79–81 Symphony 1997, 89–91 Innovative Jingju, 20–1, 23–4, 34–63, Tong Dik Sang, 71–7 179–80, 187 (n. 1), 212 (n. 3) Flower Princess, The (the Youth similar terms, 187 (n. 1) Edition, Qiannianban), 21, 81–8, see also Wang Youdao Divorces His 94–7, 180–1 Wife, Three Persons, Two Lamps, best player contest, 82, 84 The Golden Cangue, Orlando, and figures, 74 (fig. 2.1), 78 (fig. 2.2) Meng Xiaodong script, 197 (n. 38) intercultural theatre, 33–4, 143–6, Flower Princess, The (Princess 175–6 Changping), 71, 196–7 (n. 31, n. 32) Jameson, Fredric, 14 Freud, Sigmund, 93 jingju (Beijing opera), 10, 56, 59, 151, 1433: the Grand Voyage (Zheng He, 153, 155, 156, 160, 162–3, 171, 1433), 181–2 173, 176–7, 178–80, 210 (n. 15), 207–8 (n. 81), 212 (n. 46) Geertz, Clifford, 13, 119 national opera (guoju), 10, 186 Gellner, Ernest, 24, 120 (n. 20) gezaixi (Taiwanese opera), 28, 38, origin, 61–2 182 reconstruction (The Dubbed Image Golden Cangue, The (jinsuo ji, the Project), 62, 194 (n. 93) novella), 51–3, 57–9 jingju in Taiwan see also Eileen Chang conspiracy theory, 16 Golden Cangue, The (jinsuo ji, the decline, 34 jingju), 53–6, 212 (n. 3) early new jingju, 32–4 figures, 54 (fig. 1.4) education, 29, 34, 183, 188–9 see also Eileen Chang (n. 22), 213 (n. 10) Guo Xiaozhuang, 33–4 effeminizing, 40–1 Guoguang Company (National modern jingju, 32–63 Guoguang Opera Company), 11, music, 164–6 34, 36–8, 51, 55–6, 63, 146, 149, nativization of (bentuhua), 35–40, 152, 162–3, 179–80, 212 (n. 3) 46 see also Innovative Jingju, jingju in traditional jingju, 27–32, 56, 148 Taiwan, Wang An-Ch’i see also Innovative Jingju, The Taiwan Trilogy, Wang Youdao Hobsbawm, Eric, 12–13 Divorces His Wife, Three Persons, Homans, Peter, 92–3 Two Lamps, The Golden Cangue, Hong Kong, 3, 4 Orlando, Meng Xiaodong, colonialism, 17, 65–71 Contemporary Legend Theater, the 97 problem, 68, 87, 88 Oresteia, Silang Visits His Mother 230 Index kunqu (kun opera), 10, 100, 185 (n. 17) Mazu, 37–8 decline, 100, 186–7 (n. 19) Mao Zedong, 30, 77 as “masterpiece of oral and Mei Lanfang, 10, 41, 59, 103, 125, intangible heritage of humanity,” 148, 173 98, 107 children of, 35 see also The Peony Pavilion in Meng Xiaodong, 179–80 (Mudanting), The Story of the Jade in Wang Youdao Divorces His Wife, Hairpin 45 KMT (Kuomintang, Guomindang, the influence on Pai Hsien-yung, 106 Nationalist party), 3, 16, 20, jingju reform, 187 (n. 1) 24–31, 34, 38, 56, 61–2, 104, 105, patriotism, 202–3 (n. 26) 140, 179, 187 (n. 6) Meng Xiaodong, 179–80 metatheatre, 46, 48, 56–8, 180 Lei, Daphne P. mourning, 17, 88, 91–7 The Flower Princess, 83–4 Orlando, 149–58 nationalism, 14, 89, 92 The Peony Pavilion by Peter Sellars, theories of, 187–8 (n. 7), 199 (n. 69) 203 (n. 20) nostalgia, 15–18, 140 The Peony Pavilion (The Young Lovers’ conspiracy theory, 16, 30 Edition), 206 (n. 60) imperialist nostalgia, 17, 91–2, 94 The Peony Pavilion fundraising macro nostalgia, 16 performance at UC Irvine, 213 origin of the term, 16 (n. 8) reflective nostalgia, 17, 94–5 research methodology, 18–20 restorative nostalgia, 16, 31, 94–5, “saving Taiwan jingju,” 213 (n. 10) 176 works by, 199 (n. 69), 202–3 (n. 18) retro-futuristic nostalgia, 18, 176–7 Li Chao, 164–6 see also Svetlana Boym Li Hsiao-Ping, 40, 46, 56, 62–3, 149–58, 161–3, 179, 183 One China Policy, 4 Liang Qichao, 3, 184 (n. 4) Ong, Aihwa, 15, 186 (n. 35) Liao Tianding, 38, 40 see also flexible citizenship Lin Kehuan, 66, 68 Oresteia, 144–6 Long Yingtai, 178–9 see also Contemporary Legend Luo Feng, 66 Theater, Richard Schechner, Wu Hsiang-kuo “made in China,” 15, 21, 109–10 Orlando (by Virginia Woolf), 158, 159 Mahabharata, The, 81, 144, 209 (n. 4) Orlando (by Robert Wilson, European Mandarin (as language), 5, 33, 86, productions), 20–1, 151, 152–3, 181 (n. 1), 198–9 (n. 60) 154, 210 (n. 14) see also Chinese (as language) English script, 158 Mainlander (waishengren, daluren), 18, Orlando (by Robert Wilson, Taiwanese 23, 26–7, 139–40, 145–6, 178–9, production), 18 209 (n. 5) audience, 173–6 immigration to the US, 140 Chinese script, see Wang An-Ch’i masterpiece of oral and intangible figures, 168 (fig. 4.1), 170 (fig. 4.2) heritage of humanity (UNESCO), performance, 166–70, 181, 211 107, 204 (n. 36, n. 38), 212 (n. 43) for kunqu, 10, 107, 185 (n. 18) rehearsal in Taipei, 160–6 for yueju, 11, 186 (n. 24) rehearsal at Watermill, 153–8 Index 231

see also Robert Wilson, Wei in Contemporary Legend Hai-Ming, Li Hsiao-Ping, productions, 33–4, 58–9 Wang An-Ch’i Silang Visits His Mother (Silang tanmu), 178–9, 180 Pai Hsien-yung (Kenneth Pai, Bai Story of the Jade Hairpin, The (Yuzan Xianyong), 99, 105–12, 116–17, ji), 181 141, 203 (n. 25) Sun Yat-sen, 3, 29–31, 184 (n. 10), see also The Peony Pavilion (The 189 (n. 29) Young Lovers’ Edition); The Story of the Jade Hairpin Taiwan, 3, 13 Pak Suet Sin (Bai Xuexian), 72, 77, 79, ethnicity, 24–7 83, 86, 98 face of, 159, 163, 166 see also The Flower Princess see also jingju in Taiwan Peony Pavilion, The (Mudanting, the Taiwanese kunqu classic) as ethnicity (benshengren or key concepts, 99–103 Taiwanren), 24–7 production history, 103–5 as language (Hokkien), 5, 33 scholarship on, 201 (n. 5, n. 6, n. 7) as nativism (bentu), 33, 37 Peony Pavilion, The (Mudanting, Taiwan Trilogy, The, 36–40 The Young Lovers’ Edition, Tan Dun qingchunban), 21, 98–9, 107–21, Symphony 1997, 89–92, 94 181, 204 (n. 31, n. 34) The Peony Pavilion (by Peter Sellars), California tour, 116–39, 206 (n. 60) 104, 203 (n. 20) figures, 128 (fig. 3.1), 135 (fig. 3.2) Tang Disheng (Tong Dik Sang), see financial investment, 15, 116–18 Tong Dik Sang Peony Pavilion, The (miscellaneous) Tang Xianzu, 99–100 fundraising performance at scholarship on, 201 (n. 5, n. 7) University of California, Irvine, see also The Peony Pavilion 213 (n. 8) Tiananmen Square Incident, The Pai Hsien-yung’s early productions, (The June Fourth Massacre), 106–7 69–70, 80, 87, 94, 95–6 pop music (Zaimeibian), 202 (n. 15) Tong Dik Sang, 71–2, 80 see also Peter Sellars, Chen see also The Flower Princess Shizheng Three Persons, Two Lamps (Sange ren’er liangzhandeng), 47–51, 57 racial split, 4, 5, 12, 15, 139–40 figures, 48 (fig. 1.3) Rosaldo, Renato, 17, 91 source, 192 (n. 63) Three Principles of the People Sanmin zhuyi, see The Three Principals (sanmin zhuyi), The, 29–30, 86–7, of the People 189 (n. 24, n. 27), 199 (n. 62) Schechner, Richard, 144–6, 150 see also Sun Yat-sen and Chiang see also Oresteia Kai-shek Sellars, Peter tradition The Peony Pavilion, 104, 161 general definition, 12 scholarship on, 202–3 (n. 18, n. 19, invented (Hobsbawm), 12–13, 79 n. 20) see also Eric Hobsbawm Shakespeare transnationalism compared with Tang Xianzu, 100 theories, 14–15, 139 compared with Tong Dik Sang, 80 transnational capital, 116–21 232 Index transnationalism – continued see also The Golden Cangue, transnational collaborations, 15, see Orlando, Contemporary Legend also The Peony Pavilion (The Young Theater Lovers’ Edition, California tour) Wilson, Robert, 146–7 1433, 181–2, 210 (n. 12) U Theatre, 182 Orlando, 18, 147–75 see also 1433: the Grand Voyage scholarship on, 209 (n. 7) (Zheng He, 1433) Watermill Center, The, 150–1, 210 (n. 13) Wang An-Ch’i, 32, 41, 61, 63, 100 Wu Hsing-kuo, 33–4, 183 Dialogue at the Green Mound, The Oresteia, 144–6 (Qingzhong ji), 191 (n. 53) “saving Taiwan jingju”, 183 The Flower Princess, 199 (n. 65) see also Contemporary Legend The Golden Cangue, 51–6 Theater (dangdai chuanqi) Meng Xiaodong, 179–80 Orlando, 158–66, 171, 174–5, 199 Yayin Ensemble see Guo Xiaozhuang (n. 65), 211 (n. 36, n. 39) Yeats, W. B., 143 Three Persons, Two Lamps, 47–51 Yu Siu Wah (Yu Shaohua), 88–92 Wang Youdao Divorces His Wife, 41–6 Yueju (Cantonese opera), 10–11 Wang, Horng-Luen, 27 as “masterpiece of oral and Wang Leehom (Alexander Wang, intangible heritage of humanity,” Wang Lihong), 6, 202 (n. 15) 11, 180–1, 183, 212–13 (n. 5) Wang Youdao Divorces His Wife overseas connection, 10–11 (Wang Youdao xiuqi), 41–6, 56–7, role types, 198 (n. 51) 59, 180, 44 (fig. 1.2) see also The Flower Princess, Pak Suet Wei Hai-Ming (Wei Haimin), 21, 55, Sin, Tong Dik Sang 58–9, 145, 183, 194 (n. 90) figures, cover, 168 (fig. 4.1), 170 zero, 1, 7–8, 20, 62, 183 (fig. 4.2) Zhao Xuejun, 47, 50 Orlando, 147–77, 179–80, 210 Zheng Chenggong and Taiwan (Zheng (n. 21), 211 (n. 36) Chenggong yu Taiwan), 38–40 “saving Taiwan jingju,” 183, 213 figures, 39 (fig. 1.1) (n. 10) Žižek, Slavoj, 7