An Introduction to : Understanding Economic and Production Trends in and

Thomas Foulke | University of Wyoming In this webinar we will…

 A brief look at what coal is and where it comes from.

 A little history of coal usage and how it lead to production in Wyoming and Colorado.

 Investigate the sources of use and growth for the fuel in our two states

 Learn how our economies benefited or were hurt over time in changes in demand, and the sources of those changes.

 See how modern coal production impacts the economies of both states.

 Learn about the importance of coal on the national level

 Peek at a possible future of coal and in our region and beyond. What is coal?  Coal is made from organic matter that has accumulated in marshy areas.

 As dead material accumulates in a low oxygen environment to form . Then heat, pressure and time do their work.

 The process of “coalification” progressively reduces the material to carbon with various degrees of impurities such as oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen and sulfur.

 The process can take tens to hundreds of millions of years, depending on the amount of overburden accumulated.

Image source: http://www.uky.edu/KGS/coal/coalform.htm Types of coal

 There are four major grades of coal   Sub-bituminous  Bituminous 

 The type of coal used depends on what you are going to use it for and what type you have the cheapest access to.

 Anthracite has the highest BTU value and is the rarest. It’s mainly used in the industry. It’s also called “metallurgical” Peat coal or “met-coal”. The other types of coal are used for heat and in this country, primarily for production.

 Lignite is also called “brown coal” because if it’s low BTU value it is also the “dirtiest”. Some lignite is still burned in the U.S.

 The lowest rank of combustible organic derivative is peat, which is not-quite-coal. And then there is, of course, dung which is not coal at all, but does burn well and is and has been used for fuel for millennia. Image source: USGS Where is the coal? U.S. Coal Regions

Lignite or “brown coal”

Sub-bituminous

Bituminous

Anthracite

Image Source: USGS A little history: the rock that burns

Man has used coal for a long time.

 Coal residue has been found in bronze age fire pits.

 Romans used coal in Britain for heating and metal working.

 Coal residue has also been found in the remains of roman funeral pyres.

 The Chinese have probably been using coal for just as long, if not longer.

 The bottom line is that man has used ‘the rock that burns’ since time immemorial…longer than anyone knows.

16th century Chinese wood cut of coal mining

Image source: Wikipedia Historical uses of coal

 Coal’s chief uses seem to have always been heating and metal- working.

 Coal burns hotter than wood or so it’s use for metal working has always been prized.

, because of its high melting point, particularly favors coal for production.

 This lead to the discovery of steel.

 Steel is a low carbon derivative of iron. Small quantities of steel would have been produced with early iron production methods.

 Steel is stronger and more malleable (workable, not as brittle) than iron.

 This made it highly valued for blades and armor.

 Thus coal became a strategic commodity. 16th century European coal mine. De Re Metallica, by Gregorius Agricola, 1556 Watt’s

 Not much changed in the use of coal for millennia. The Japanese and Chinese appear to have had a better grasp on steel production than Europeans, witness the samurai sword.

 But Europeans, especially northern Europeans who developed mercantile economies appear to have been more innovative.

 The Newcomen steam engine was invented in 1712. It was mainly used to drive pumps to de-water tin mines in Cornwall.

 In 1755 James Watt was granted a patent for a steam engines and by 1765 he had developed a steam engine that could harness rotary power and used a separate condenser. The Newcomen engine could just provide ‘up and down’ motion. Watt’s improvement was the key driver to the . Rotary power enabled power looms and eventually locomotives James Watt’s steam engine, first patented in 1755. and steam ships. This is the rotary version that came out in 1782. Source: Spartacus educational Image source: http://spartacus-educational.com/TEXrotary.htm Coal, steel, and the industrial revolution

 Because steel was so hard to produce, it was very expensive and basically a specialty commodity.

 Coal production was low because not a lot of it was needed and wood served well for most heating needs.

 Things started to change though after the invention of the steam engine in the 18th century.

 Most early steam engines were wood-fired, but demand for fuel started stretching resources. More and more coal started to be burned for fuel and for heating (there was probably always some of this, just as there has always been peat Power loom weaving in Britain, 1835. burned for heat). Image Source: Wikipedia

 Even so, industrialization brought more demands for fuel and Note: The industrial revolution started using water power to weave cloth. But as the looms got bigger, it was coal filled that role…think of coal-choked in Charles harder to power them with water. Furthermore, water Dickens’ novels (1850’s). might be more seasonally dependent. Coal did not have these problems. The process

 As the industrial revolution progressed into the 19th century, demands for more and more energy (fuel) created increasing need for coal.

 One of the limitations of the time was the that iron was brittle and hard to work. The answer was steel, but how to make it in quantity?

 Henry Bessemer patented a process in 1856 that allowed steel to be made in large quantities. Essentially, the blew air Bessemer converter. into the molten iron which removed the impurities.

 Bessemer’s innovation was driven by the need for more (and better) artillery during the Crimean War (1854-56).

 Large scale steel production soon followed.

Image source: Wikipedia Railroads and the West  So how does all this connect to coal and Wyoming and Colorado?

 In the 1850’s railroads were expanding in the eastern half of the country.

 Many people felt that is was the country’s “Manifest Destiny” to expand coast to coast. There were a number of surveys to find the best route for the transcontinental railroad.

 The route that was finally chosen, was chosen in part due to coal deposits in Wyoming.

 The Front Range in Colorado was a barrier to these early trains that could only negotiate a 5 percent or less grade.

 They still burned wood, but that became problematic on the plains. The “Governor Stanford” on the Central Pacific  Railroad technology advanced during the civil war and newer trains line. were now converting to coal, i.e. they had more steel parts and could Image Source: Wikipedia handle the higher pressures of the higher temperature burning coal.

For a good read, see: Nothing Like it in the World: The Men Who Built the Transcontinental Railroad, by Steven E. Ambrose. The industrial and transport revolution  Steam, steel, railroads…all these things came together at the right time for the development of the American West, particularly Colorado and Wyoming…And they all rely on coal.

 The earliest coal mines in Colorado were located between Denver and Boulder. The coal was likely used for heat and to power the stamp mills (gold refining).

 In the early years, Colorado had a lot of hard- rock mining, much of which was steam- powered. Small local mines provided coal for the mines and the railroads.

 Wyoming had very little hard-rock mining, but the Union Pacific and the transcontinental railroad was a driving force in the economic Working a coal face, Britain, 1942. development of the state.

Image Source: Wikipedia Economic trends

 In our Economic Trends in Wyoming’s Mineral Sector: Coal, my colleagues and I divide the production in Wyoming into three eras:

 The Railroad Era: 1865-1954  The Transition Era: 1955-1968  The Energy Era: 1969-present

 The same can be said for Colorado as well, but we might want to add the words “and mining and steel production” to the railroad era.

 Each of these eras contributed differently to economic development in the region and for different reasons. Let’s look at them in a little more detail…

Available from: http://www.wyoextension.org/publications/Search_Details.php?pubid=1850 The Rail Era. 1865-1954  Coal production during this period was primarily for transportation use in Wyoming, plus mining steel production in Colorado.

 In Wyoming, the sector was dominated by one company, the Union Pacific. In Colorado, the sector came to be dominated by the Company. But in both states, to put it mildly, employee relations were strained.

 Colorado’s signature labor relations struggle was the “Coal Field War” 1913-14. Where miners, represented by the UMWA, at the C.F. & I battled the company “Death Special” armored car used during Colorado’s and the state militia. The state nominally won, but at “coal field war”, 1913-14. the cost of 66 miners and their families lives. The ‘war’ bankrupted state coffers and galvanized the nation at the time. It’s effect was to help change labor laws.

Image source: Denver Public Library Source: The Coal Field War Project: https://www.du.edu/ludlow/cfhist.html  In Wyoming, it was the Rock Springs “Chinese Massacre” of 1885. Twenty-eight Chinese miners where killed by mob violence. The violence was caused by European miner’s resentment of the cheaper Chinese laborers who were imported to take their jobs. State militia had to be called in to quell the violence.

 Both to these instances resulted from labor unrest brought on by what by today’s standards would be horrific working conditions. In fact, as many of you may already know, the same issues were occurring in many other industries throughout the industrializing world during this period in time; as workers struggled for better conditions and pay.

Image source: University of Wyoming, American Heritage Center archives. Milestones:

Socio-Economic 22 Mine Explosion/Violence Mechanization

16 19 Production 20 14 23

15 17 13 18

21 11 9 10 7 12 24 6 2 4 5 3 1 8

1. 1867-Union Pacific enters what would become Wyoming, laying 8. 1886-Mine explosion in Almy No. 4 kills 13. First laws protecting 15. 1922- 5-month UMWA strike shows that Wyoming mine track for the transcontinental railroad. miners pass. workers had support of national union. 2. 1868- Carbon, Wyoming’s first founded. Also, Rock 9. 1892-First electric mine locomotive in U.S. “ the Charlie Smith” 16. 1923-Frontier No. 1 mine explodes killing 99. Wyoming’s Springs mine No. 1 opened introduced at Rock Springs. second worst mine disaster 3. 1874-Jay Gould elected U.P. to board of Directors. Seizes 10. 1893-Nationwide economic depression forces bankruptcy of 17. 1924-Sublet No. 5 mine explodes killing39. control of Wyoming Coal Company mines and Union Pacific and Northern Pacific railroads. 18. 1924-USGS reports Peerless mine (east of Gillette as starts importing Chinese laborers. Wyoming’s 1st strip mine. 11. 1895-Red mine No. 5 explosion at Almy kills 61. Wyoming’s 3rd 4. 1877-Sioux Chief Crazy Horse surrenders and Federal 19. 1925-Wyoming Legislature passes laws regulating mine worst mine disaster. Government removes Indians to reservations. N.E. safety. Wyoming opens to white settlement. 12. About 1902-Shortwall automatic miner installed in Rock Springs 20. 1926-70% of U.S. coal mined by machinery. 5. 1881-Telephones installed in Rock Springs No. 1 and 2. U.P. No. 2 mine. 21. 1925- Wyodak-1st large strip mine opens near Gillette. 13. 1903-Hanna No. 1 mine explosion kills169. Wyoming’s 6. 1882-First cutting and drilling machines introduced to Rock 22. Peak production for WWII still dominated by underground worst mine explosion. Springs No. mining. 7. 1885-Rock Springs Chinese Massacre. 28 Chinese killed by 14. 1907-Union Pacific mines unionize. 8 hour day comes 23. 96% of all coal removed mechanically. mob violence. Troops dispatched to quell violence. to Wyoming mines 24. U.P. completes “dieselization” of its locomotive fleet. The Transition era, 1955-1968  The “transition era” represents a low point in Wyoming coal production between the end of when coal was used for railroads and when large scale surface mines appeared.

 It started with the completion of “dieselization” by the UP. Diesel locomotives had been in use since before II. But the war effort required for the military. Post-war, the railroads quickly adopted diesel technology.

 Many people in the 1950’s and ‘60’s thought that the end of coal usage was near. Oil was the fuel of the future!

 Trains burned from underground mines.

 Mining towns that depended on coal production (especially along the UP line) suffered greatly.

 1958 was the low point for Wyoming coal production with 1.62 million tons mined. Image source: University of Wyoming, American Heritage Center archives. The Energy Era, 1969-Present

 PRB sub-bituminous coal (avg. BTU content about 8,600 BTU/ton) was considered too low BTU to be of any economic value.

 But that changed with the Clean Air Act of 1970.

 One of the property’s of PRB coal is that is it very low sulfur.

 Another is that it is very near the surface…

 And there is a lot of it…a real lot…still about 250 years of minable reserves.

 This created a coal boom in Wyoming in the 1970’s as power plants throughout the eastern U.S. modified their systems or built new plants to comply with the Clean Air Act.

 The 1980’s saw consolidation in mine ownership and a move toward efficiency.

Loading coal at North Antelope-Rochelle mine complex, , Wyoming. Photo: Foulke Note depth of overburden and additional coal seams higher in the overburden. Wyoming coal production (1970-2013)

500,000,000

 2008 was the overall 450,000,000 peak of coal production at 462 400,000,000 million tons. 350,000,000

 Demand for electricity 300,000,000 declined with the “great recession” and 250,000,000

increased supplies of 200,000,000 and increased 150,000,000 environmental 100,000,000 regulations have

helped to keep 50,000,000 demand down. 0  But early figures show

that coal production Data source: Wyoming State Inspector of Mines increased again in 2014. Wyoming energy map

PRB  The vast majority of Wyoming’s mines and coal comes from the Powder River Basin.

 The PRB contains some “world class” coal beds, some over 80 feet thick.

 Wyoming has been the number one coal producing state in the nation since 1986.

 Hyper-efficient mine “complexes” load coal onto “unit trains” of up to 120 cars. The trains never stop, but are loaded on the move.*

 About 86 unit trains leave the PRB everyday for 29 states.

 Last year, the PRB alone mined over 374 million tons of coal.

*each train car holds about 121 tons of coal

Image source: Energy Information Administration Wyoming coal mines, production and employment, 2013

Location/operator Mine Employees Production Campbell County Alpha Coal West, Inc. Belle Ayr mine 283 18,258,922 Alpha Coal West, Inc. Eagle Butte mine 259 19,904,433 Buckskin Mining Co. Buckskin Mine 330 15,023,906 These are the two Cloud Peak Energy LLC Cordero Rojo Complex 603 36,670,450 largest mines in the Peabody Caballo Coal LLC Caballo Mine 149 8,979,111 Peabody Energy Rawhide Mine Rawhide Mine 203 14,246,329 country Powder River Coal Co. North Antelope/Rochelle Complex 1,340 111,005,549 Thunder Basin Coal Co. LLC Black Thunder Mine 1,591 100,687,876  There are currently Thunder Basin Coal Co. LLC Coal Creek Mine 148 8,522,265 19 active coal mines Western Fuels of Wyoming, Inc. Dry Fork Mine 78 5,433,936 Wyodak Resources Develop. Corp. Wyodak Mine 65 4,285,445 in Wyoming. Only Carbon County one of them has Arch of Wyoming, LLC Elk Mountian Mine 6 Arch of Wyoming, LLC Seminoe II Mine 10 underground Converse County operations. Cloud Peak Energy LLC Antelope Coal Mine 556 31,354,248 Hot Springs County Grass Creek Coal Co. Grass Creek Mine 3 26,587  The lower quality of Lincoln County Westmoreland Kemmerer Inc. Kemmerer Mine 289 4,639,135 Wyoming Sweetwater County makes companies Black Butte Coal Co. Black Butte and Lucite Hills 185 3,728,280 Bridger Coal Co. Surface operations 178 785,984 extremely sensitive Bridger Coal Co. underground operations 224 4,442,616 to price changes and Uinta County the mines are hyper- Haystack Coal Co. Haystack Mine 16 Only one 6,516 387,995,072 efficient. underground mine in the state. Tons/employee 59,545 Data source: State Inspector of Mines of Wyoming In 2013, Wyoming shipped 347 million tons of coal to 29 states 2013 export State tons Percent The main TX 54,653,364 15.73 IL 47,645,203 13.72 market is MO 40,654,008 11.70 the central WI 20,092,588 5.78 U.S… AR 18,375,318 5.29 KS 17,922,269 5.16 IA 17,919,408 5.16 MI 17,486,697 5.03 OK 16,225,375 4.67 NE 14,565,021 4.19 GA 12,083,030 3.48 AL 11,960,940 3.44 LA 10,680,456 3.07 CO 10,430,883 3.00 TN 8,931,975 2.57 $90,000 MN 8,285,873 2.39 $80,000 $82,654 AZ 5,548,709 1.60 IN 3,054,179 0.88 $70,000 $44,977 KY 2,300,978 0.66 $60,000 …but “smaller” NV 1,786,525 0.51 $50,000 OR 1,597,202 0.46 OH 1,414,417 0.41 $40,000 shipments are SD 1,289,851 0.37 $30,000 still important. WA 1,095,245 0.32 $20,000 NY 779,974 0.22 $10,000 MD 385,527 0.11 ND 143,296 0.04 $0 MS 41,946 0.01 Coal mining Statewide avg. FL 12,302 0.00 Total export 347,362,559 100.00 Coal mining jobs are some of the best paying jobs in the state Data source: EIA 2013 Estimated Wyoming State and Local Government Revenue from Coal mining* Wyoming state and local government received over Ad valorem property, $30,320,850, State rents and royalties, 3% $39,357,566, 3% $1.1 billion in 2013 alone Abandon mine lands distributions, $26,920,000, 2% Federal mineral royalties, from coal mining. Sales and use taxes, $31,039,606, 3% $259,252,342, 22%

Coal’s contribution is slightly less than natural gas’. So with a small population (about 560,000) Wyoming’s Ad valorem production, $251,614,091, 22% citizen’s get a dis- proportionately large benefit from fossil fuel extraction compared to most other states. Severance taxes, $288,487,852, 25%

One benefit is no state income tax. Federal mineral bonus payments, $237,467,799, 20% The state has a total of about $17 billion in investments. *based on prior years’ production. State lands number based on current years production. Wyoming coal mining employment, 1970-2013

st 8,000 Wyoming’s 1 coal boom Here, coal is being mined deeper. 7,000 Higher overburden means more employees are needed. 6,000

5,000

4,000

3,000

2,000

1,000

0

Data source: US Dept. of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics

Currently, coal mining jobs are under threat. This is true for both Wyoming and Colorado. Low natural gas prices have pushed more electricity production from natural gas. The low gas prices are mainly a function of production, i.e. fracking. Gas and oil are often co-products. But the current ultra-low prices will mean that some of this production will stop. Coal has a major role in base-load electricity production. As prices for other fuels rise, coal may yet again increase it’s market share. Colorado energy map

 All of the current mines in Colorado are on the western slope and are producing primarily for the electricity market.

 There are both underground and surface (also called strip) mines.

 All coal mined in Colorado is bituminous coal (about 10,000 BTU/ton.

 4 of Colorado’s 9 coal mines are “captive”, they serve co-located power plants.

 Colorado coal mines stopped mining coking coal for steel production in 1995. Now all coal goes for or industrial heating, such as cement kilns or sugar beet refining.

 About 64 percent of the power used in Colorado is generated from coal. Some coal also comes from Wyoming.

Image source: Energy Information Administration Colorado coal production, 2012

Underground Surface Total Coal-Producing State Number of Number of Number of Production* Production* Production* & County Mines Mines Mines Delta 1 3,430,000 - - 1 3,430,000 Gunnison 2 9,810,000 - - 2 9,810,000 La Plata 1 639,000 - - 1 639,000 Las Animas 2 69,000 - - 2 69,000 Moffat - - 2 4,567,000 2 4,567,000 Montrose - - 1 353,000 1 353,000 Rio Blanco 1 1,673,000 - - 1 1,673,000 Routt 2 8,024,000 - - 2 8,024,000 12 28,496,000

Source: Colorado Geological Survey  Colorado coal production has faced the same issues as Wyoming (coal is a national market).

 But Colorado coal resource are less accessible and must be mined underground which makes them expensive.

 That also means that Colorado’s mines and mining jobs may be more vulnerable.

Source: Colorado Geological Survey: http://coloradogeologicalsurvey.org/energy-resources/coal-2/production/ Additional headwinds for Colorado coal production  Colorado coal is some of the best low-sulfur bituminous coal in the country.

 Colorado coal is shipped to power plants in 24 states, mainly in the mid-west and south-east (2011).

 Low-sulfur Colorado coal is blended with low-sulfur Wyoming coal to bring up the heating power (BTU content) of Wyoming coal.

 This was the primary use of Colorado coal until the end of 2014.

 Before 2014, some power plants did not have scrubbers. If they burned low sulfur coal (i.e. from Colorado and Wyoming scrubbers were not required. Coal stock pile, Jim Bridger Power plant, Rock Springs, Wyoming

Image source: Foulke  However, new EPA rules required all power plants to have scrubbers by the end of 2014.

 Coal coming from the western slope of Colorado must pass through the Moffat tunnel. There is a $20/ton surcharge for this coal. Plus, it costs an additional $10/ton to get the coal to the plants in the southeast.

 Power plants are now finding it cheaper (since they have invested heavily in scrubbers) to burn high sulfur basin coal than low sulfur Colorado coal, due to the transportation cost differential.*

Stacks on Jim Bridger Power Plant, Rock Springs, Wyoming Image source: Foulke *Source:, Chris Carol, Wyoming Geological Survey, Personal communication, 2015 National trends in coal today  U.S. coal production fell below 1 billion tons (984.8 million short tons) in 2013 for the first time since 1993.

 Coal production has shifted in the last 30 years from the Appalachian region to the Western U.S, particularly the Powder River Basin in Wyoming. This trend has increased recently.

 Coal mining employment fell 10.5 percent in 2013 nationwide. However productivity (tons per employee) increased as production has shifted to more efficient surface mines.

 Coal consumption has actually increased as the economy has recovered.

 Several companies in Wyoming are looking to exports to support coal demand. There are several Loading coal at North Antelope-Rochelle mine complex, Powder River Basin, projects in the works that would ship coal from the Wyoming. Note thickness of coal seam. These are some of the thickest in the PRB to the west coast for export to Asia. There is world. also significant environmental push-back from west coast states. Source: Annual Coal Report, 2013. EIA Image source: Foulke The future of coal??  Coal (and all energy at this point) is not doing so well. This is mainly a factor of supply and demand. Slowing economies around the world have less demand for energy. So there is currently an over supply and prices are low.

 The imbalance of supply and demand will not last. We have seen this before, most recently in 1998 when oil was in the $30/bbl range.

 There is too much money at stake. One thing is certain…things will change.

Jim Bridger Power Plant, Rock Springs, Wyoming. The JBPP has a generating capacity of over 2 gigawatts and is one of the largest power plants in the west.

Image source: Foulke  Here in Wyoming in the last decade or so there was much talk about Coal-to-Liquids (CTL).

 CTL was developed in Germany right after WWI (Fischer- Tropsch or F-T process). It was used by the Nazi’s in WWII. Then the technology found it’s way to South Africa which used it during the Apartheid years. Now SASOL (South African Oil Company) is one of the leaders in this technology.

 The F-T process makes liquid petroleum by mixing carbon- monoxide and hydrogen in the presence of a catalyst. The primary components are made from oxidizing (burning) coal in a reduced oxygen environment.

 The result is a very pure syn-fuel product that can be chemically tailored to match a range of petroleum products.

Image source: Foulke  Why would anyone want to do this?  Might not have a choice, no access to petroleum but have access to coal.  The price of petroleum might be too high.

 Why would someone not want to do this?  It’s expensive. Estimate range from $85 to $120 per barrel.  It’s not very environmentally friendly from a carbon standpoint. CO2 is released in the syn-gas stage and then again when the fuel is consumed.  Plus, the technology is proven, but there is a lot of risk with building a large scale plant. Refineries are well understood…So this is not being seriously considered by most…today…but. Image source: U.S. Navy

 Remember that there is no alternative to fuel. Aircraft cannot run on anything else.

 The U.S. Military is the world’s largest single user of fuel…about 8 billion gallons per year. Having a secure source is in the strategic interest to the United States. Plus we have a lot of coal. Therefore, the interest will continue.  But realistically, I think between now and then, LNG (liquefied Natural Gas) and GTL (gas-to-liquids) are more likely intermediate steps.

 As demand picks up again, oil supplies will become constrained and prices will rise. Gas is easier and cleaner to convert to liquids. But that is another story…

World’s largest LNG train in Qatar, 7.8 million metric tonnes per year …Back to the future? A UK perspective… “…Traditional sources of electricity were stunningly dominant; we often forget about coal, which to some minds has a 1980s feel to it, but it remains hugely important. It deserves greater attention and analysis. The figures reveal that wind output fell at one point on Monday [19Jan15] to just 0.354GW, 0.75pc of the country’s needs. To put this in perspective, there is roughly 12GW of wind capacity, and the windfarms operate on average at 28pc of their theoretical maximum capacity. But those average figures have been of very little use when we actually need vast amounts of electricity. In fact, these numbers are a complete catastrophe and are a devastating indictment of years of UK energy policy, which has focused far too much on wind and been based on unrealistic targets and expectations. Photo: The Daily Telegraph For all the vast subsidies it has been given, the wind industry is not fit for purpose. While it is clearly able to contribute during some periods, it cannot always do so and its cost is high, hitting the poor and taxpayers in an unacceptable manner. We will always need to rely on fossil fuel for the vast bulk of our energy consumption…” http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/energy/11358770/Proof-that-the-wind-industry-cannot-be-relied-upon-for-our-electricity.html -Allister Heath From: “Proof that the wind industry cannot be relied upon for our electricity” Daily Telegraph (UK) 20Jan15  Here in the US, the Energy Information Administration predicts that by 2040 we will still receive 30 percent of our electricity from coal* *Source: EAI, Energy Outlook 2014 Natural gas is …but the share of projected to be nuclear and coal the main source remains relatively of growth… constant.

 The takeaway point is that due to increases in demand, traditional fuel sources of power will still be needed. Source: EIA, Annual Energy Outlook 2014 with projections to 2040, pages, IF-41, MT16 Selected references:  Colorado Geological Survey. Annual Reports (various years). Available from: http://coloradogeologicalsurvey.org/energy-resources/data-statistics/annual-reports-legacy/

 Foulke, T, Taylor, D, and Roger H. Coupal. Economic Trends in Wyoming’s Mineral Sector: Coal, 2nd edition. University of Wyoming Extension, publication B-1116R. December, 2013. Available from: http://www.wyoextension.org/publications/Search_Details.php?pubid=1850.

 Heath, Allister. Proof that the wind industry cannot be relied upon for our electricity. The Daily Telegraph. 20 January, 2015. Available from: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/energy/11358770/Proof-that-the-wind- industry-cannot-be-relied-upon-for-our-electricity.html.

Geological Survey. How Coal is Formed? Available from: http://www.uky.edu/KGS/coal/coalform.htm.

 U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration. Annual Coal Report, 2013. Available from: http://www.eia.gov/coal/annual/pdf/acr.pdf.

 U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration. Annual Energy Outlook 2014 with projections to 2040. Available from: http://www.eia.gov/forecasts/AEO/pdf/0383%282014%29.pdf.

 Wyoming Department of Workforce Services. Mine Inspection and Safety. Annual Report of the State Inspector of Mines of Wyoming (Various years). Available from: http://wyomingworkforce.org/employers-and- businesses/mines/Pages/mining-information.aspx. Thank you!

Photo: Foulke