Caracterização Genética De São Tomé E Príncipe Com Base Em Marcadores Do Cromossoma Y E Dna Mitocondrial

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Caracterização Genética De São Tomé E Príncipe Com Base Em Marcadores Do Cromossoma Y E Dna Mitocondrial MARIA DE JESUS TROVOADA DOS SANTOS CARACTERIZAÇÃO GENÉTICA DE SÃO TOMÉ E PRÍNCIPE COM BASE EM MARCADORES DO CROMOSSOMA Y E DNA MITOCONDRIAL Dissertação apresentada à Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia da Universidade de Coimbra para obtenção do grau de Doutor em Antropologia, especialidade de Antropologia Biológica Universidade de Coimbra 2004 ÍNDICE ÍNDICE DE FIGURAS………………………………………………………………… vii ÍNDICE DE TABELAS………………………………………………………………… ix RESUMO………………………..…………………………….……………………...… xi SUMMARY.....…………………………….………………………... xix AGRADECIMENTOS……………………………………………………………....… xxvii I - INTRODUÇÃO 1.1 - Introdução geral………………………….……………….……………..….. 3 1.2 - São Tomé e Príncipe: história e povoamento……………………………... 6 1.2.1 - A Localização……………………..…………….……………............... 6 1.2.2 - A Descoberta………………………..…………….……………............ 7 1.2.3 - Povoamento e resenha histórica ………………………..……............... 8 1.2.3.1 - Ciclo do açúcar………………………………………..………....... 8 1.2.3.2 - Ciclo do café e do cacau….......................................................... 10 1.2.4 - Estrutura populacional………...………………….……........................ 12 1.2.5 - Língua……………………………………………………………..…... 15 1.3 - Cromossoma Y e DNA mitocondrial……………………………………… 16 1.3.1 - Cromossoma Y…………………………………………………………. 16 1.3.1.1 - Estrutura e conteúdo génico…………………………..……........... 16 1.3.1.2 - Características chave em estudos evolutivos……..……….…..... 17 1.3.1.3 - Subestruturação geográfica de linhagens do Y……….…..….… 18 1.3.1.4 - Marcadores genéticos ……......................................................... 19 1.3.1.4.1 - Marcadores multialélicos………………………......... 21 1.3.1.4.2 - Marcadores bialélicos………….................................. 22 1.3.2 - DNA mitocondrial…………………………………………………….. 24 1.3.2.1 - Organização do genoma mitocondrial…………….…………... 24 1.3.2.2 - Taxa de substituição nucleotídica………….…………..…….… 26 1.3.2.3 - Modo de transmissão………………………………...………....... 27 1.3.2.4 - Heteroplasmia do mtDNA…....................................................... 28 1.3.2.5 - Filogenia de linhagens de mtDNA………………..……………… 29 1.3.3 - Padrões de diversidade do cromossoma Y e do mtDNA em África…... 30 1.3.3.1 - A Expansão do Homem Moderno………………………………... 30 1.3.3.2 - A expansão Bantu…………………………………………...………. 32 1.3.3.3 - Afinidades com a Península Ibérica e a Península Arábica....... 33 1.3.3.4 - África e as descobertas quinhentistas ………………………….... 35 1.4 - Objectivos………………………………………………………………...… 39 II - MATERIAL E MÉTODOS 2.1 - Amostras………………………………………………...……………..…… 43 2.2 - Extracção de DNA…………...…………………...………………………... 44 2.2.1 - Extracção a partir de sangue total……………………………….…….. 44 2.2.1.1 - Extracção por Chelex………………...…………......................... 44 2.2.1.2 - Extracção por fenol-clorofórmio……………………...…….…... 45 2.2.2 - Extracção a partir de manchas…………………….…………….…….. 46 2.3 - Marcadores do cromossoma Y…………………………………...……….. 46 2.3.1 - Microssatélites………………………………………………………… 47 2.3.1.1 - Condições de amplificação………………………...…………….. 47 2.3.1.2 - Separação automática de fragmentos de DNA amplificados….. 48 2.3.1.3 - Separação não-automática de fragmentos de DNA amplificados…………………………………………………………... 49 2.3.1.4 - Método de visualização do DNA amplificado……………....…... 49 2.3.1.5 - Genotipagem de STRs……………………………………………… 50 2.3.2 - Marcadores Biológicos…………………………………………………. 50 2.3.2.1 - Condições de amplificação………….…………………….…….. 51 2.3.2.2 - Digestão enzimática e separação dos fragmentos digeridos….. 52 2.3.2.3 - Classificação dos haplogrupos……………………………...……. 53 2.4 - DNA mitocondrial………………………………………………………….. 55 2.4.1 - Amplificação e sequenciação………………….………….…..……….. 55 2.4.2 - Classificação de sequências……………………………………...……. 56 2.5 - Análise estatística………………………………………………...…..….…. 57 III - RESULTADOS E DISCUSSÃO 3.1 - STRs do cromossoma Y………………………...……………………….…. 61 3.1.1 - Análise locus a locus……………………...……………………….….. 61 3.1.2 - Análise haplotípica……………………………...………………….…. 67 3.1.3 - Padrão de partilha……………………………………………………... 71 3.1.4 - Distribuição de diferenças entre pares de haplótipos …………….…… 72 3.1.5 - Diferenciação genética entre populações……………………………… 75 3.1.6 - Estruturação genética em São Tomé e Príncipe inferida com STRs do Y………………………………………………………………………. 77 3.1.7 - Considerações globais sobre o estudo de STRs do Y em São Tomé e Príncipe.. ……………………………………………………………... 79 3.2 - Marcadores bialélicos……………………………………………………... 84 3.2.1 - Perfil de haplogrupos e comparação com outras populações ……… 84 3.2.2 - Padrão de diversidade e comparação entre Angolares, Tongas e Forros 92 3.2.3 - Avaliação da diferenciação genética entre Angolares, Tongas e Forros 95 3.2.4 - Análise conjunta de SNPs e STRs….……………………...………….. 96 3.2.5 - Considerações globais sobre o estudo de marcadores bialélicos do Y em São Tomé e Príncipe…………………………………………….... 99 3.3 - DNA Mitocondrial…………………………………………………………. 101 3.3.1 - Pesquisa de mutações “fantasma”……….………………….…............ 101 3.3.2 - Níveis de diversidade em HVS-I e HVS-II em São Tomé e Príncipe.... 103 3.3.3 - Perfil de haplogrupos em São Tomé e Príncipe…………….……….... 106 3.3.4 - Árvore filogenética de sequências de mtDNA………………………... 108 3.3.5 - Estruturação genética em São Tomé e Príncipe inferida com mtDNA.. 110 3.3.6 - Comparação com outras populações africanas ……….………………. 111 3.3.6.1 - Diversidade molecular…………………………………...……. 112 3.3.6.2 - Padrão de partilha de sequências de mtDNA…………………. 114 3.3.6.3 - Análise de componentes principais……………………...…...... 118 3.3.7 - Considerações globais sobre o estudo de mtDNA em São Tomé e Príncipe…...……………………..………....…….………....………… 120 3.3.7.1 - Padrão de variação de mtDNA em São Tomé e Príncipe……... 120 3.3.7.2 - Achegas do mtDNA sobre a questão da origem dos Angolares. 122 3.3.7.3 - Afinidades genéticas entre Angolares, Forros e Tongas……….. 125 3.3.7.4 - Fluxo génico mediado pelo sexo feminino entre grupos sãotomenses.………....……………....…….………....…………………....…….. 126 IV – CONCLUSÕES…………………………………………………………………... 131 V - BIBLIOGRAFIA………………….………………………………………………. 139 VI - APÊNDICES……………………………………………………………………. 163 Apêndice 1 - Frequências de haplogrupos definidos por marcadores bialélicos utilizadas na análise de componentes principais………………………….. 165 Apêndice 2 - Haplótipos de STRs dentro de haplogrupos definidos por marcadores bialélicos do Y em amostras de Angolares, Forros e Tongas…………….. 167 Apêndice 3 - Frequência de haplogrupos definidos por mtDNA em amostras de Angolares, Forros e Tongas .……………………………………………. 169 ARTIGO 1 Polimorfismos Genéticos de ESD, GLO1, GPT e PGM1 em São Tomé e Príncipe ARTIGO 2 Evidence for population sub-struturing in São Tomé e Príncipe as inferred from Y chromosome STR analysis. ARTIGO 3 Pattern of mtDNA Variation in Three Populations from São Tomé e Príncipe. ÍNDICE DE FIGURAS Figura 1.1 - Mapa e localização de São Tomé e Príncipe …………………………. 7 Figura 1.2 - Esquema do cromossoma Y ….………………………………………. 17 Figura 1.3 - Esquema da molécula de DNA mitocondrial humano………………... 25 Figura 2.1 - Mapa da ilha de São Tomé com os locais de recolha de amostras…..... 44 Figura 2.2 - Haplogrupos possíveis de discriminar com 14 marcadores bialélicos 54 do Y ………………………………………………………................... Figura 2.3 - Esqueleto filogenético mostrando as sequências de HVS-I e HVS-II do mtDNA ……………………………………………………………. 56 Figura 3.1 - Distribuição de frequências alélicas de sete STRs em amostras populacionais de São Tomé e Príncipe e outras populações ……….… 64 Figura 3.2 - Distribuição do número e da média das diferenças entre pares de haplótipos definidos por STRs do Y ………………………………… 73 Figura 3.3 - Árvore neighbour-joining dos três grupos populacionais sãotomenses e outras populações africanas e portuguesas .………………………... 77 Figura 3.4 - Distribuições de frequências de haplogrupos definidos pelos marcadores bialelicos do Y observadas em São Tomé e Príncipe……. 85 Figura 3.5 - Perfil de haplogrupos na amostra de São Tomé e Príncipe e estimativas de componentes europeu e subsariano …………………... 89 Figura 3.6 - Projecção dos dois componentes principais obtidos com frequência de haplogrupos definidos por marcadores bialélicos do Y ..……….......... 92 Figura 3.7 - Distribuição de pares de diferenças e média das diferenças entre pares de haplogrupos ……………………………..……………………….... 94 Figura 3.8 - Median-joining networks de haplótipos definidos por STRs ………... 97 Figura 3.9 - Network representando a weighty variation de sequências de mtDNA. 103 Figura 3.10 - Distribuições do número de diferenças nucleotídicas entre pares de sequências de mtDNA …….………………………………………….. 105 Figura 3.11 - Distribuição de haplogrupos de mtDNA em São Tomé e Príncipe… 107 Figura 3.12 - Árvores filogenéticas de sequências de mtDNA em amostras de São Tomé e Príncipe………………………………………………………. 109 Figura 3.13 - Distribuição de diferenças entre pares de sequências de mtDNA em diferentes amostras populacionais…………..……………………….... 114 Figura 3.14 - Projecção dos dois componentes principais obtidos com frequências relativas de haplogrupos de mtDNA subsarianos……………….……. 120 ÍNDICE DE TABELAS Tabela 2.1 - Composição de soluções utilizadas no processo de extracção de DNA.. 46 Tabela 2.2 - Sequência e marcação dos primers utilizados na amplificação de sete STRs do cromossoma Y……………….……………………………... 47 Tabela 2.3 - Condições de amplificação dos STRs do cromossoma …….………… 48 Tabela 2.4 - Soluções utilizadas e tempos de incubação na técnica de coloração com nitrato de prata…………………..……………………………….. 50 Tabela 2.5 - Primers, condições de amplificação e tamanho dos fragmentos obtidos para cada marcador……………….…………………………..
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