Water Cycle 1 (2020) 19–40

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Water Cycle

journal homepage: www.keaipublishing.com/en/journals/water-cycle/

Water and in - history, current situation and future perspectives

John C. Radcliffe *, Declan Page

CSIRO, Locked Bag 2, Glen Osmond, South Australia, 5064, Australia

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Most of Australia has low rainfall. The population is small (25 M) but growing at 1.5%/yr. Water limitations are Desalination being exacerbated by climate change. By 1990, restraints placed on wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) dis- Drought charges to receiving waters became an incentive for water recycling. The millennium drought (2000–2009) was a Managed aquifer recharge further driver for water recycling and desalination. Water reform policies, led to guidelines for recycled water, Stormwater including stormwater and augmentation of drinking water. Advanced purified recycled water plants for indirect Water recycling potable reuse were built in . Dual pipes for drinking and recycled water were installed in new suburbs in , Melbourne and Adelaide. Agricultural, industrial and amenity recycled water use was expanded. Seawater desalination plants were installed in Gold Coast, Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide and Perth. After the drought, economics further influenced the future use of recycled water. Since catchment water was cheaper than recycled or desalinated water, desalination plants were mothballed or maintained at low processing rates. and Brisbane’s advanced water treatment plants were shut. Water policy complacency followed. However, Western Australia, which had declining rainfall, demonstrated to an accepting community that recycled water could be used for groundwater replenishment in Perth’s water supply. By 2019, drought conditions had returned to eastern Australia. Desalination plants were reactivated and Brisbane’s indirect potable recycling scheme prepared for reinstatement. Regional towns faced water shortages and were looking for diversity of water supply. Reviews have been undertaken of the future for direct potable recycling, a debate that needs to be initiated with the consuming public.

1. Introduction (Canberra), shown in Figs. 1 and 2. Ninety per cent of the population live within 100 km of the coast. In 2018–19, the population increase was Australia is a large country with a surface area of 7.7 M km2. Much of 1.5%. Natural increase contributed 37% and net overseas migration the continent has very low rainfall (Fig. 1), is unsuitable for arable contributed 63% of the population increase [2]. The rate of population agriculture and falls within a generalised Koppen€ classification defined as growth is relatively high by comparison with other developed countries desert (Fig. 2). There is also a high degree of variability in rainfall and (e.g. Canada 1.4%, New Zealand 1.9%, United Kingdom. 0.6%, USA temperature. Evidence is appearing of climate change and global 0.6%, China 0.5%, and Japan 0.2%) [3] and puts pressure on assurance warming. The annual national mean maximum temperature in 2019 was of urban water supply. warmest on record (2.09 C above average) [1]. The nationally-averaged European settlement began in Sydney in 1788, at which time the rainfall for Australia (1961–1990) was 465.2 mm, but in 2019 was 40% indigenous population has been estimated as upwards of 315 000 [4]. below average for the year at 277.6 mm [1]. After their establishment, the Australian colonies were responsible for Australia’s present population of 25.4 M is less than 2% of that of regulations. Having established colonial legislatures, their consequent China. Australia has an average population density of 3/m2 with the policies developed independently of each other, though were generally densest settlements along the eastern and southern coastline and in the based on English precedents. south west. It has become a highly urbanised country, with two-thirds of The federation of the Australian colonies in 1901 through the the population living in the five mainland states’ capital cities (Brisbane, Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act resulted in the Common- Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide and Perth) and the nation’s capital wealth having powers for “Trade and commerce with other countries and

* Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (J.C. Radcliffe), [email protected] (D. Page). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watcyc.2020.05.005 Received 14 April 2020; Received in revised form 19 May 2020; Accepted 22 May 2020

2666-4453/© 2020 The Authors. Publishing Services by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communications Co. Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). J.C. Radcliffe, D. Page Water Cycle 1 (2020) 19–40

Fig. 1. The states of the Commonwealth of Australia showing their capital cities (shown in capital letters), the national capital (Canberra), and the distribution of average annual rainfall (Bureau of Meteorology). among the States” [s. 51 (i)] and “external affairs” [s. 51 (xxix)]. Section their initial construction. Tasmania (24 340 106 m3, mainly for hydro- 100 precluded the Commonwealth from “abridging the right of a State or electricity generation) and (24 814 106 m3) have the its residents therein to the reasonable use of the waters of rivers for largest storage capacity, while the Australian Capital Territory (124 conservation or irrigation”. Water cycle management remained a states’ 106 m3) and South Australia (261 106 m3) have the least. issue. Local government, established within the colonies prior to feder- Considerable differences developed in the water storage provisions ation, became a third tier of government. However, the Commonwealth for the different cities. Brisbane could store six years’ water supply, has influenced matters primarily of state responsibility, by providing principally in its which also served as a flood control finance to the states to bring in common policies, a mechanism that dam. Sydney could store four years’ supply, Melbourne that for three became increasingly important in the latter part of the 20th century years, while Adelaide could store only about ten months’ supply as it had through the evolution of environmental, natural resources and water since the 1940s been taking much of its urban water from Australia’s management policies. longest river system, the River Murray [6]. Perth became dependent for This paper describes the key elements of the history of how water up to 60% of its water supply on groundwater from the Gnangara Mound, recycled from wastewater, stormwater, roof catchments, and desalina- part of the Yarragadee groundwater system. tion of sea and brackish waters, has increasingly added supply diversity to Australia’s traditional catchment and groundwater water supplies. 2.2. Wastewater management

2. Historical background – Urban water Wastewater was initially dealt with through use of open channels, cesspits and collection with night carts. Sydney discharged raw sewage 2.1. Storage of catchment water into Sydney Harbour from the 1850s, but later built a sewage farm at Botany, operating from 1887 to 1916, by which time it was so overloaded As the Australian colonies grew, each with a capital city, they that it was replaced by ocean discharge. About 90% Sydney sewage after accessed water courses and ground water, and in due course began to only primary treatment, is still discharged to ocean by 4 km deep ocean build catchment dams as a water supply. Capital city water supply au- outfall pipes at North Head, Malabar and Bondi [7–9]. Melbourne thorities developed, owned since Federation by their state governments. developed its 100 km2 Werribee Sewage Farm in 1897 for beef produc- The last major storage dam construction for urban water supplies tion, and the Melbourne Water Corporation still operates the property, occurred between 1950 and 1990 (Fig. 3). The largest included Warra- albeit having evolved it into a modern tertiary WWTP producing recycled gamba (2000 106 m3, supplying 80% of Sydney’s water, completed water for industrial and agricultural use. The land area, now known as 1960), Thomson (1123 106 m3, 60% of Melbourne’s water, completed the Western Treatment Plant, has become one of the most popular sites 1986) and Wivenhoe (1165 106 m3, 51% of Brisbane’s supply, for birdwatching in Victoria, with 284 species of birds recorded there completed 1986). Some minor capacity increases were completed after from south-eastern Australia and east Asia.

20 J.C. Radcliffe, D. Page Water Cycle 1 (2020) 19–40

Fig. 2. Major Koppen€ climate classification distribution in Australia http://www.bom.gov.au/jsp/ncc/climate_averages/climate-classifications/index.jsp? maptype¼kpngrp#maps.

schemes could be considered early examples of water reuse. It should be noted that unlike much of Europe and North America, no Australian cities except a small part of central Launceston, in Tasmania, adopted combined sewage-stormwater systems.

3. 1977: The first recycled water recommendations

An Australia-wide study commissioned in 1977 into strategies to- wards the use of [13] recommended.

A national program of research, demonstration and education An integrated approach to water supply, sewerage and solid Fig. 3. Water storage capacity of large dams, Australia-1857-2001 [5](1GL¼ disposal as an integral part of one planning process 1 106 m3). Smaller, simpler sewer networks based on regional plants located near opportunities for reuse, Adelaide, settled in 1836, had 7000 cesspits under the city by 1877 A major thrust towards irrigation, both landscape and agricultural, and two years later built an underground water-borne sewerage system with agricultural use reoriented to agricultural gain rather than that discharged effluent to land at a 1.9 km2 sewerage farm at Islington, disposal, north of the city. It continued in use until 1966 [10]. The scheme resulted Use for conserving water resources in rivers and streams and in a 40% reduction in deaths in Adelaide from 23.5 per thousand pop- recharging aquifers providing nutrients were controlled ulation in 1880 to 14.3 per thousand in 1886 as a result of the almost The then current world potable water standards be extended, related complete elimination of typhoid in urban areas during that period [11]. to Australian conditions and applied to existing situations of inad- Brisbane and Perth did not develop sewerage systems until 1911. In parts vertent use of Australian cities not provided with trunk sewerage systems, night carts Melbourne being seen as offering scope for a variety of reclaimed were replaced by the septic tanks. These are not well understood or water uses maintained by householders to this day [12]. In South Australia, schemes Assessing the substitution of recycled water for freshwater in Ade- were established called Septic Tank Effluent Drainage Schemes (STEDS) laide and inadvertent groundwater recharge in Perth fl bringing together the ef uent from the tanks for further treatment, and in Assessing the elasticity of demand for various uses of water and the some cases, leading to the production of recycled water. All of these real cost of providing for variations in demand

21 J.C. Radcliffe, D. Page Water Cycle 1 (2020) 19–40

Representative studies of the economics of reclaimed water projects Table 1 where reclaimed water might be economic, encompassing issues of Water recycling Guidelines for the state of victoria, 2003 [18]. fi ‘ ’ the de nition of the reclaimed water system , to take into account Class A (Highest Quality) savings in conventional water supply and waste disposal systems, use fi QUALITY of marginal costs rather than average or historical costs and de ni- <10 E. coli org/100 ml; Turbidity < 2NTU (24 h median), <5 NTU (max) tions of methods of financing reclaimed water schemes where com- <10 mg/L BOD; <5 mg/L Suspended Solids pH 6–9 (90 percentile) parisons over the total ‘system’ including social costs, show this to be Cl₂ residual: >1 mg/L after at least 30 min contact time where human contact, <1 mg/L economically preferable at point of use. <10 E coli/100 ml, < 1 helminth/L,; <1 protozoa/50 L, & <1 virus/50 L Development of conceptual models, pilot applications and some full PERMITTED USES ‘ ’ scale projects, particularly for the interception method (presumably Urban (non-potable) with uncontrolled public access ‘sewermining’) and the ‘dual pipe’ supply concept. Agricultural – e.g. human food crops eaten raw Industrial – open systems with worker exposure potential In a follow-up report for Victoria it was concluded that water deficits TYPICAL TREATMENT Tertiary treatment & pathogen reduction with sufficient log reductions to achieve would become a problem by 2000 [14]. There was little immediate above. response to these studies. Where schemes pose a significant risk of direct off-site movement of reclaimed water, nutrient reductions to nominally 5 mg/L total N and 0.5 mg/L total P will be 4. 1990–2000: Water recycling driven by the imposition of required. Dept Health Services endorsement of plant WWTP discharge standards Class B (or 2nd highest quality) QUALITY At about the time of the release of the Ecologically Sustainable Devel- <100 E. coli org/100 ml; <20 mg/L BOD, <30 mg/L Suspended Solids; pH 6–9 (90 opment Report in 1991, the Australia states began establishing environ- percentile) ment protection agencies and authorities. The potential environmental Treatment includes Helminth reduction for cattle grazing use schemes fl PERMITTED USES damage from inadequately treated sewage ef uent being discharged to Agricultural e.g. Dairy Cattle grazing oceans, rivers and estuaries became recognised. Regulations were Industrial e.g. Washdown water brought in setting standards for discharges. Sewage utilities sought to TYPICAL TREATMENT achieve regulatory standards by improving the composition of effluent Secondary treatment and pathogen reduction discharges to water courses and water bodies, or alternatively, seeking Class C (or 3rd highest quality) uses for the discharges in the form of saleable recycled water. QUALITY In 1992, in recognition of the need to better manage water resources <1000 E. coli org/100 ml; <20 mg/L BOD; <30 mg/L Suspended Solids pH 6–9 (90 as a significant component of natural resource management, govern- percentile) ments had created two Ministerial Councils comprising Commonwealth Treatment includes Helminth reduction for cattle grazing use schemes PERMITTED USES and States/Territories Ministers for agriculture, the environment and Urban (non-potable): with controlled public access conservation. These were the Agricultural and Resource Management Agricultural: e.g. human food crops cooked/processed, grazing/fodder for livestock Council of Australia and New Zealand (ARMCANZ) and Australian and Industrial: systems with no potential worker exposure New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council (ANZECC). These TYPICAL TREATMENT Ministerial Councils endorsed the development and implementation of a Secondary treatment and pathogen reduction National Water Quality Management Strategy (NWQMS). The NWQMS Class D (or lowest quality) involved governments jointly developing national water quality policies, QUALITY processes, and guideline documents. The NWQMS initially comprised <1000 E. coli org/100 ml, <20 mg/L BOD, <30 mg/L Suspended Solids pH 6–9 (90 policy and principles (Guidelines 1–3); specific guidelines on water percentile) – PERMITTED USES quality management and monitoring (4 10); and treatment and man- fl – fl Agriculture: Non-food crops including instant turf, woodlots, owers agement of sewage systems (11 15 encompassing ef uent management, TYPICAL TREATMENT trade , sludge/biosolids management, reclaimed water use and Secondary treatment sewage system overflows) [15]. Specific industry effluent guidelines (16–20, covering dairy sheds and processing plants, intensive piggeries, aqueous wool scouring and carbonising, tanneries and wineries and fl fi distilleries) were also developed [16]. The sewage system documents occulation, ltration and disinfection, initially including ozonation but provided a basis for developments that included effluent and/or storm- subsequently with UV irradiation and super-chlorination. Care had to be water recycling. From the national guidelines, the states developed their taken to ensure there was no cross-contamination of the two water sys- own guidelines for the use of different qualities of recycled water for tems through incorrect pipe connections, especially through the house specific purposes, incorporated into regulations as necessary. Although construction phase. Rouse Hill was a learning experience for the builders the details differed between states, essentially there were four categories and plumbers. Over 50 cross-connections were found between the recy- of recycled water. Those adopted by the Victorian EPA are given in cled and drinking water systems and had to be removed before the Table 1. Comparable figures for Australian National Recycling Guidelines recycled water was brought on stream. Recycled water was conveyed in (which did not use categories), South Australia, Tasmania and California lilac (commonly called purple) coloured 25 mm diameter pipes while Title 22 are also available [17]. drinking water was in conventional 20 mm pipes. Each line was managed Two recycled water projects stand out as exemplars responding to the through separate meters. The meter for recycled water was purple- fl fi need to manage the environmental impacts of discharges from WWTPs. coloured. Back ow devices were tted to the drinking water lines but In 1993, New South Wales through its Recycled Water Coordination not to the recycled water [19]. The principal objective of the Rouse Hill Committee, developed the NSW Guidelines for Urban and Residential use of Water Recycling Scheme was to reduce the nutrient loads on the Reclaimed Water (now superseded). This guidance placed a reliance on Hawkesbury-Nepean River system caused by the discharge of treated end point testing and monitoring. Using these guidelines to obviate wastewater, so environmental performance was assigned the highest damaging environmental discharges to Second Pond Creek, a residential weight. There were two license standards for Rouse Hill, one for “dual pipe” scheme with both drinking and recycled water supplies, was discharge to the environment and the other for distribution to the recy- installed in the rapidly developing new Sydney suburb of Rouse Hill. Its cled water system. Households used 40% less drinking water by having fl WWTP could treat 4.4 103m3/day for reuse, with coagulation, access to recycled water for toilet ushing, clothes washing, garden

22 J.C. Radcliffe, D. Page Water Cycle 1 (2020) 19–40 watering and car washing but used more water overall than the average half the units in four buildings using an activated-sludge (aeration) tank, Sydney household [20]. The Rouse Hill WWTP is now servicing 32 000 with secondary filtration in a 400 m2 native wetland and sand filtration homes using purple pipes and fittings for supplying recycled water [21]. on the site. Recycling of the combined grey/stormwater for sub-surface A second seminal demonstration of the use of recycled water as a garden irrigation and toilet flushing was provided across the entire response to environmental pollution risks occurred in Adelaide, where development [25]. water from the Bolivar WWTP, Adelaide’s largest plant, was redirected to New Haven Village was developed as 65 medium density dwellings agricultural production. Adelaide’s treated effluent had previously been on 0.02 km2 at Lefevre Peninsula, some 20 km northwest of central discharged to Gulf St Vincent. During the period 1949 to 1995, some 40 Adelaide, South Australia, being implemented with public and private km2 of seagrass was lost along the Adelaide coastline [22]. The Adelaide participation in 1995. It operates an innovative water and wastewater metropolitan WWTPs were required to develop Environmental management system including on-site treatment and re-use of household Improvement Plans to upgrade the quality of the effluents they were sewage (black and grey water) and a stormwater system which collects discharging to ocean. There was concern that the marine ecosystem was the first 50 m3 of a given rain event, the remainder being diverted to a being degraded by the 1300 t of nitrogen and 200 t of phosphorus in the sports field acting as a retention basin. This means that virtually no 40 106 m3 of outflow being discharged from the Bolivar WWTP wastewater leaves the site. Recycled water for the New Haven Village is annually, leading to loss of density in mangrove forests and the prolif- treated from wastewater, using primary sedimentation, aeration, and eration of large quantities of macroalgae as well as the loss of seagrass. disinfection. It is used for house gardens, toilet flushing and an adjacent The initial response was to plan the building of a biological nutrient oval with irrigation systems that are no access sub-surface [26]. In a removal treatment plant. However, it was also recognised that Northern survey of residents, although 95% of respondents initially said they had Adelaide Plains vegetable growers were withdrawing each year a total of no concerns, all described problems relating to water quality at some 18 106 m3 of groundwater from aquifers that could only sustainably point in the interview. Every respondent reported occasional problems support an annual abstraction of 6–10 106 m3/yr. The groundwater experienced with toilet flushing involving odour, a murky colour or cone of depression thus caused was resulting in saltwater being drawn sediment (or a combination of all of these). In all, 65% (13 respondents) into aquifers from the adjacent gulf, leading to deteriorating irrigation described past, and less frequent, disruptions to the service that became water quality. Bolivar WWTP effluent could be used as a resource to evident through odour or the water being cut off. Although sub-surface support horticultural irrigation on the Northern Adelaide Plains. The irrigation was originally stipulated, except for the system installed on Bolivar plant was converted from trickling filters with secondary sedi- the adjacent oval, public open spaces have always been irrigated with mentation and lagoon sedimentation to activated sludge. A Dissolved Air sprays and the original display homes featured above ground micro Floatation/Filtration (DAFF) plant was installed. The DAFF plant incor- sprays as well as sub-surface drippers. Of the 20 respondents, 35% porated alum and polymer coagulation, flocculation, dissolved air floa- adapted their irrigation systems to suit their needs when problems were tation, granular multi-media filtration and chlorine disinfection. The experienced with clogging of drippers and micro sprays [27]. The oper- stabilisation lagoons were retained for their natural biological and toxi- ation of the system is managed by a contractor under the aegis of the Port cological capacity, and as a buffer to minimise water quality deteriora- Adelaide – Enfield Council, a rate surcharge to the 62 properties being tion from any abnormal industrial waste discharges. With a total volume imposed to cover costs. The use of the recycled water is not metered. of 4 106 m3, they also provide 2 106 m3 of additional storage to These and many other recycling projects were described in a 2004 enable more water to be committed for sale in the summer. The outcome review of Australia’s water recycling [17]. It established that by 2001-2, was the Virginia Pipeline Scheme, managed by a private company, Water over 500 WWTPs in Australia were recycling some or all of their treated Reticulation Systems Virginia Pty Ltd, which from 1999 provided access wastewater. Treatment technologies underpinning the production of to 15 106 m3/yr of tertiary treated Class A recycled water suitable for recycled water (however defined) included aerated lagoon; extended unrestricted horticultural use including spray irrigation of salad crops aeration; Pasveer channel; biological nutrient removal; activated sludge; [17]. Produce from the scheme soon gained ready market acceptance. A oxidation and high rate oxidation lagoons; and trickling and high rate similar project followed soon afterwards from the Christies Beach WWTP trickling filters. The first projects to harvest and treat stormwater had where the Willunga Basin Water Company, privately funded by growers, also been set in place. provided supplemental irrigation to the groundwater used for wine grape Inland country towns were earlier adopters of water recycling than production [23]. coastal and capital cities. This was well illustrated from figures from rural NSW where towns west of the Great Dividing Range recycled 50% of 4.1. Small urban recycling developments their wastewater, those east of the range recycled 20%, but coastal WWTPs were recycling only 2.5% of their wastewater. Whilst many of Although it was realised that retrofitting large urban areas for use of the WWTPs used their recycled water internally as process water, other recycled water could be difficult and uneconomic, innovative small de- uses were identified. These included amenity horticulture, beef pastures, velopments were being introduced in housing subdivisions where former bowling clubs, sugarcane fields, cattle feedlots, cemetery irrigation, industrial sites were being repurposed for housing. At Fig Tree Place, cotton growing, dairy pastures, dune stabilisation, environmental water Newcastle, New South Wales, a 27-unit subdivision on the site of a former supplementation, forestry and woodlots, gold mines, golf courses, tram depot in 1998 had incorporated water cycle management with groundwater recharge, hydroponics; irrigated army firing range, lucerne Water Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD). Roof rainwater was collected in growing, mineral processing water, native vegetation maintenance, underground tanks. Surplus rainwater and stormwater from paving nursing home gardens, parks, polo grounds, power generation/cooling, around the site was remediated in gravel-filled trenches, percolated to racecourses, showgrounds, sports fields, processing. technical and groundwater. The planning provided for the scheme to supply 50% of the further education college use, turf grass production, vegetables, and in-house needs for hot water and toilet flushing, all domestic irrigation vineyards. The review [17] went on to suggest that wider use of recycled needs of the site, and supplement groundwater for all the bus-washing water should be undertaken where water of drinking quality was not and irrigation needs of the adjacent Hamilton bus depot. Rainwater required. It was also suggested that there might be scope for use of in- collection on the site reduced mains water consumption on the site by direct potable water recycling, but its introduction should only be pro- 54%, while stormwater run-off from the site was eliminated [24]. gressed after community acceptance of its necessity. On the site of the former St Kilda Municipal Depot at Inkerman Street, A small number of examples was identified where recycling was un- St Kilda, Victoria, a site subject to 70% flooding, a 236-unit housing dertaken within the confines of a single property. The most widely complex was developed. The initiative supported enhanced recycling of publicised was the house of lawyers Michael Mobbs and Heather Arm- domestic greywater (bathroom basins, baths and showers), from about strong, who developed a pioneering example of onsite recycling on their

23 J.C. Radcliffe, D. Page Water Cycle 1 (2020) 19–40 two-storey nineteenth century terrace house, on a block 35 m long and 5 reform of the Australian water industry has been agreed in 1994 at the m wide. It became one of the world’s first inner-city self-sufficient homes, Council of Australian Governments (COAG) comprising the Prime Min- located in the densely populated inner-west Sydney suburb of Chippen- ister, State Premiers and Territory Chief Ministers and a representative of dale. By developing a carefully protected roof catchment, they collected the Australian Local Government Association. The Commonwealth all rainfall, following an initial diversion, to a tank below the house-deck. encouraged the States/Territories to adopt the reforms by providing All sewage from the house was collected in an underground concrete tank incentive payments when they had done so [32]. The reforms included containing three filter beds and undergoing biological amelioration. The separating the titles for land from rights to water, with both becoming 100 m3/yr of effluent outflow, after UV disinfection, was used for toilet separately tradable. Water resource management was separated from the flushing, clothes washing and garden watering, with any excess going to water supply functions which were to be transferred to identifiably a dry reedbed. Initially, there were occasional shortages of rainwater, and separate commercial corporatised entities, albeit mostly still government the sewage management scheme took about one year to function owned. Soon afterwards, those entities began imposing demand man- acceptably [28]. The house was totally disconnected from Sydney Wa- agement policies and water restrictions on their customers in all the ter’s drinking water and wastewater systems as well as from the elec- mainland capital cities. The Australian community became increasingly tricity system through use of solar panels. Putting his house on the concerned that they would run out of water. Urban water issues were market in 2019, Mobbs noted that his aerated wastewater treatment front and centre in the newspapers and discussed regularly on talk-back system recycling all grey and blackwater, had ensuring no raw sewage radio. Domestic users began to conserve their “grey water” (from baths, has left the premises in 23 years. But in recent years he had to increas- showers and washing machines), for use on their gardens, though for ingly rely on his neighbour’s garden hose to top up his storage tanks due reasons of health and safety, they were discouraged from storing it longer to recent drought years with declining natural rainfall on his than 24 h before use. Industries were required to introduce water effi- self-contained roof catchment [29]. ciency measures. In some cases, they developed internal water recycling New South Wales had adopted a strong planning framework through programs to maintain their commercial production systems. the Environmental Planning and Assessment Act 1979 (NSW) and the Local The developing drought acted as an incentive to pursue further water Government Act 1993 (NSW) setting objectives, policies and requirements reforms. During 2004–2006, the Commonwealth and the States and for developments of defined state or regional significance. A further Territories progressively signed a 108 clause Intergovernmental Agreement extension was the Building and Sustainability Index (BASIX) scheme, on the National Water Initiative (NWI) [33]. The agreement encompassed driven through the Environmental Planning and Assessment Regulation clauses on water entitlements, water markets and trading, water pricing, of 2000 and the 2004 State Environmental Planning Policy. Probably management of environmental water, water accounting, urban water, influenced by the public interest created by Mobbs’ house, BASIX, among community partnerships and adjustment, and knowledge and skills. It other attributes, requires a 40% reduction in potable mains water use for had objectives of ensuring healthy, safe and reliable water supplies; all new residential developments and redevelopments compared with the increased domestic and commercial water use efficiency; facilitating average NSW annual potable water consumption from the residential water trading between and within the urban and rural sectors; encour- sector of 90 m3 of water per person per year [30]. aging innovation in water supply sourcing, treatment, storage and ACTEW, the then Australian Capital Territory (ACT) water utility, discharge; and achieving improved pricing for metropolitan water. Spe- undertook trial installations of domestic-sized wastewater treatment cific references to water recycling included to: plants in each of six houses in urban Canberra, commencing in 1994-5. The wastewater was either treated aerobically to a high standard and develop pricing policies for recycled water and stormwater congruent transferred to a holding tank on each block, or was managed with an with pricing policies for potable water, and stimulate efficient water intermittent activated sludge process, in which an air stream was used to use no matter what the source, by 2006. keep organic material in suspension, but was periodically turned off, the develop national health and environmental guidelines for priority suspended material then being allowed to settle and the clear effluent elements of water sensitive urban designs (initially recycled water decanted from just below the surface. The treated and disinfected efflu- and stormwater) by 2005. ents from the systems were pumped for use within their respective review institutional and regulatory models for integrated urban water property boundaries for toilet flushing and irrigation. A UV disinfection cycle planning and management and develop best practice guidelines; system was included at one site. The hydraulic loading of 100 m2 per - review incentives to stimulate innovation. person from three adult users per household generated an irrigation loading of 600 mm/yr (The estimated average supplementary irrigation The National Water Commission (NWC) was established in March demand in Canberra is 643 mm/yr) Householders were encouraged to 2005, initially attached to the Office of the Prime Minister, though later replace grass areas with deep-rooted trees, use low flush toilets, low flow transferred to the portfolio of the Minister responsible for water re- shower roses, short showers to minimise water use in winter, and to use sources. The NWC was an independent statutory body created to drive detergents sparingly to minimise salt loading in summer. The trial the national reform agenda and assist with the effective implementation established from the user perspective that the approach was successful. of the NWI. The NWC undertook two-yearly evaluations of progress by The local standard that the effluent turbidity be < 2 NTU could not be the states and territories in implementing the NWI. met, but in practice would not have been required in the water, which The NWC became an unambiguous supporter of expanded use of was fit for the purpose it was being used. The total operating cost of recycled water, subject to four conditions, namely that cost/benefit and $5000/yr to continue the trial over the 6 houses was considered risk analyses were conducted - taking full account of social and envi- acceptable. However, a health requirement that samples be collected and ronmental externalities and avoided costs; the best available science is analysed fortnightly to meet biological monitoring standards at a cost of utilised; the project is subject to best practice regulatory arrangements $5000/yr by the year 2000 for each dwelling was not acceptable at an (based on the Australian Guidelines for Water Recycling); and the com- individual household level [31]. munity participates in decisions to introduce recycling. Subsequent management arrangements were to be transparent and accountable. 5. 2000–2011: The millennial dought – security of supply as a The NWC was responsible for recommending to the Prime Minister, driver for recycling but later to the Minister for Environment and Water Resources, in- vestments from the five-year $2B Australian Commonwealth Govern- At the beginning of the twenty-first century, Australia entered a ment Water Fund. This included two programs administered by the period of reduced rainfall, ultimately recognised as the “millennium Commission. The first was the $1.6B Water Smart Australia program, drought”, extending for nearly ten years. A strategic framework for the targeted at large-scale projects to accelerate the development and uptake

24 J.C. Radcliffe, D. Page Water Cycle 1 (2020) 19–40 of smart technologies and practices in water use across Australia. After Table 2 2008, this program was administered by the Department of Environment, Required log reductions for recycled water, calculated from exposures associated Water, Heritage and the Arts. The Water Smart Australia program pro- with specific uses and treatment capability [38]. vided for investment in the conservation and more effective utilisation of Activity Exposure Total log reduction required water resources. “Diversity” through the provision of alternative water Litres per Cryptosporidium Virus Campylobacter sources, became the new driver to ensure water security. This strength- year ened interest in water recycling as a component of ensuring reliability of Residential use – 0.67 5 6.5 5 supply. The Commonwealth government contributed financially to toilet flushing, recycling and desalination initiatives across Australia. Within two years, gardens Commercial crops – 0.49 5 6 5 48% of the investment had been directed towards for water recycling salad vegetables projects. State governments also supplied complementary funds. Irrigation of parks – 0.05 4 5 4 Projects were being developed as some cities faced “near emergency public access conditions”. For example, a statistically significant reduction in rainfall Drinking water 300–750 8 9.5 8 was recorded in Melbourne, the extended drought period being the worst Treatment Total log reduction required fl on record with a probability of occurrence of cumulative in ow Bacterial Viruses Protozoa (1997–2006) being less than 0.002. It was concluded that the 39% – – – fl Chlorination 2.0 6.0 1.0 3.0 0 1.5 reduction in long term average stream ows that had occurred since UV light 2.0 - > 4.0 1.0 - > 3.0 >3.0 1996 could represent a new planning base for Melbourne [34]. The City Filtration and disinfection >55–63–4 of Brisbane saw its water supply decline markedly, hitting a low point of <17% of storage capacity in August 2007. Under a long-term continua- tion of the 1997 to 2006 climate and then current water sharing ar- Water Guidelines and WHO potable reuse guidelines. rangements, average surface water availability for the Murray region from which Adelaide received much of its water, the surface catchment 5.2. Indirect potable water recycling and desalination would decrease by 30% [35]. The mean annual run-off from Perth’s catchments in 2001–2008 was 49% of what it had been in 1980–1999, Examples of de facto indirect potable recycling (IPR) can be found in and 30% of what it had been between 1911 and 1979 [36]. Water au- numerous places. An obvious example is treated effluent from Canberra’s thorities and policy makers began thinking in terms of opportunities in Lower Molonglo WWTP ultimately flowing into the River Murray which the whole water cycle rather than what could be harvested from land can provide up to 80% of Adelaide’s drinking water in dry seasons [39]. surface catchments. These processes are little recognised by the consuming public. Although To aid public understanding of key water issues, the National Water some states had previously announced policy bans on IPR, the first test of Commission published 90 reports on key water issues including rain- the introduction of IPR water into a drinking water system occurred in water tanks, groundwater, desalination, recycled water for drinking and 2007 in , , located on the crest of the Great managed aquifer recharge in its “Waterlines” series [37]. Dividing Range 130 km inland from Brisbane. A proposal was developed for the recycling of wastewater from the upgrading of the Wetalla WWTP 5.1. Guidelines for recycled water, stormwater and managed aquifer for agricultural irrigation and for IPR via the . The Australian recharge Government agreed to contribute $22.9 M to the then $67.8 M cost from the Water Smart Australia programme subject to community support in a A prerequisite for the greater use of recycled water was to develop a referendum. In the event, the debate became very polarised around set of guidelines to cover the potential use of recycled water, storm water various personalities and the underlying principles were not well and Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR) as components of an urban water appreciated by the community. A review identified biases in information system. This was achieved under the auspices of ARMCANZ, ANZECC processing, with supporters and opponents selectively attending to in- and the National Medical Health and Research Council (NHMRC) formation aligned with their own values [40]. The referendum to adopt through the development of a new set of National Water Quality Man- the use of purified recycled water was lost 32 220 (61.6%) to 19 983 agement Strategy Guidelines for water recycling. These were Phase 1 – (38.2%) of the votes cast [41]. Ultimately, in early 2010, Toowoomba Managing Health and Environmental Risks, and Phase 2 – Augmentation of was connected to the Water Grid at a cost of $187 Drinking Water Supplies; Stormwater Harvesting and Reuse; and Managed M, with the Toowoomba Council required to pay more than half the costs Aquifer Recharge. It has been observed that where these guidelines have of this much more expensive option. The chosen solution had an opera- been incorporated into state’s regulations, the use of MAR has been tional energy cost of 3.11 kWh/m3 compared to 2.22 kWh/m3 for the confidently facilitated, for example with recycled water [38] In 2011 the original Wetalla Advanced Wastewater Treatment Plant (AWTP) supply Australian Drinking Water Guidelines were redeveloped [15]. The Austra- to the domestic tap [42]. lian Guidelines for Water Recycling have defined safety using Disability Despite the result of the Toowoomba referendum, the position in Life Years (DALYs). Microbial safety is defined as <10 6 DALYs per Brisbane was becoming dire. Brisbane’s daily consumption was reduced person per year (identical to the WHO guidelines) which is equivalent to from 300 L to 139 L per person. The proceeded 1 day of diarrhoeal illness per 1000 people per year. DALYs measure to develop AWTPs adjacent to three WWTPs at Bundamba, Luggage Point impact in terms of severity and time. Specific log reductions to be ach- and Gibson Island. The scheme, known as the Western Corridor Scheme, ieved and potential treatment capabilities are set out in Table 2. was based on the manufacture of 84 106 m3/yr of what was described Cooking can achieve 5–6 log reductions. Using drip rather than spray as purified recycled water by microfiltration, reverse osmosis and irrigation may be worth 2 log reductions, while sub-surface irrigation advanced oxidation [43]. The recycled water was to be pumped to the may be worth 4 log reductions. By applying combinations of treatment Wivenhoe Dam as a form of indirect potable use. The Queensland Pre- and on-site control, potentially all sewage can be recycled. Minor re- mier advised that government research showed that 78% of people visions to the Phase 1 – Managing Health and Environmental Risks were supported the scheme. Portion of the flow was directed to two power circulated for comment in February 2020 by the Chair of the Environ- stations which were then using 10% of Brisbane’s daily drinking water mental Health Committee (enHealth) Water Quality Expert Reference consumption. From August 2007 to September 2008, the power stations panel. The principles and the basic structure of the Guidelines were were provided with 25 106 m3 of water for cooling from the Advanced strongly supported and have not been changed. The draft update pro- Water Recycling Plants. Brisbane’s water resources were linked together vides consistency with the more recently revised Australian Drinking to form a newly constructed water grid. The project components were

25 J.C. Radcliffe, D. Page Water Cycle 1 (2020) 19–40 completed urgently within 2 years [44]. The total infrastructure cost of additional drinking water for Perth. The three-year research project the South East Queensland developments was $2.5B. The scheme completed in December 2012, was evaluated by regulators from the through its connection via the Wivenhoe Dam to the Queensland water Department of Environment and Conservation, Department of Health and grid has the potential to supply IPR water to Toowoomba as well as Department of Water. They indicated that the trial had met all the project Brisbane. objectives and that groundwater replenishment was feasible. An associ- Other direct and IPR proposals were discussed in Queensland, ated communications approach with tours and an interpretive centre, including for Noosa, Caloundra and Maroochy and Caboolture. In each of proved successful with the 2012 Annual Community Survey indicating these cases as well as in Toowoomba, vocal community groups had arisen that community support for a full-scale groundwater replenishment under the title of CADS (“Citizens Against Drinking Sewage”) and none of scheme remained steady at around 76% [49]. In consequence, an these proposals were implemented [45]. advanced water recycling plant of capacity 14 106 m3/yr was built by Proposals were also explored in New South Wales and the Australian 2016 for managed aquifer recharge. This was followed by a stage 2 Capital Territory. Community consultations for IPR water recycling to be expansion in 2019 involving an adjacent advanced water recycling plant, adopted in Goulburn NSW were held in 2006 [46], but the alternative of drilling four new recharge bores and four new monitoring bores in a pipeline from the Wingecarribee was ultimately adopted. Wanneroo and Neerabup and building a 13 km recharge pipeline con- Canberra ACT conducted community consultations in April–June 2007 necting the advanced water recycling plant with the new bores [50]. for a for adding recycled water to its Cotter dam, but the scheme was finally total replenishment capacity of 28 106 m3/yr. deferred [47]. The millennium drought resulted in the construction in a very short Despite some community concerns regarding their high energy con- space of time of eleven major plants for the production of recycled water sumption, seawater desalination plants were urgently developed for suitable for contributing to drinking water systems. These major urban Sydney (90 106 m3/yr), Melbourne (150 106 m3/yr), Queensland’s water recycling and desalination plants are summarised in Table 3. Gold Coast (Tugun, 45 106 m3/yr), Adelaide (100 106 m3/yr), and Perth (45 106 m3/yr). These plants involved a variety of design, funding, and technical development methods, but all were fundamentally 5.3. Recycling within industry dependent on energy intensive reverse osmosis. Perth completed its fi desalination plant at Kwinana first, and then built a second plant (100 Meanwhile, water restrictions and water ef ciency audits were 106 m3/yr) at Binningup, 150 km south of the city, its electricity needs leading to an increased demand for recycled water by industry. Oil re- fi secured by purchasing all outputs from two renewable resources. The neries in Geelong (Victoria) and Brisbane adopted the use of recycled ’ power requirements for the desalination plants varied from 3.6 to 5.0 water within their production systems. Foster s Brewery at Yatala, Bris- kWh/m3 of water produced, compared to 1.0 kWh/m3 for the Western bane, after a one-twentieth scale pilot trial, established its own internal Corridor Advanced Water Recycling Plants in Brisbane, pumped trans- plant for recycling washwater used in the brewery. From 2005, the plant 3 3 port to the Wivenhoe Dam representing another 1.0 to 1.5 kWh/m3 [48]. averaged 1.5 10 m /d water recovered, equivalent to 65% of its fl fi Western Australia began exploring a major approach to recycling ef uent stream. The nal recycled product is considerably purer than through groundwater replenishment. At the Western Australian Water supply, typically 80 mg/L TDS. (The water is not used in fi Corporation’s Beenyup WWTP, MF/RO and advanced oxidation were the nal production of the beer.) The amount of water used to produce 1 3 3 fl introduced in a pilot plant to produce recycled water for injection into m of beer was reduced from 6.0 to 2.2 m and the resultant ef uent, 3 3 the Leederville aquifer where it was being further remediated by natural mainly washwater, was reduced from 4.5 to 0.9 m /m beer with major groundwater processes, injection being at a location remote from existing savings in water and discharge costs [51]. In Western Australia, by 2004, 3 3 drinking water bores The plant potentially provided 1.5 106 m3/yr of the Kwinana Water Reclamation Plant was taking 24 10 m /d of secondary treated wastewater from the Woodman Point WWTP to

Table 3 – Major urban water recycling and desalination plants, their capacity in relation to local annual demand, how constructed and status since completion.

City/Location (State) Capacity (106 % annual Delivery method Owner Contract Status (2020) m3/yr) demand (years)

Advanced Water Treatment Plants – Indirect Potable Recycling Brisbane – Bundamba 24 30 Alliances – three treatment Queensland Manufactured Water 10 Decommissioned 2012 (Q) plant alliances, Authority (WaterSecure) Refitting commenced 2019 Brisbane – Gibson 36 plus two other transfer Queensland Bulk Water Supply 10 Decommissioned 2012 Island (Q) system (pipelines) alliances Authority () from 1 July Refitting commenced 2019 Brisbane – Luggage 24 2011 10 Decommissioned except two Point (Q) trains 2012 Refitting commenced 2019 Perth – Beenyup-I 14 10 Competitive Alliance Water Corporation (Operator - n.a. Operation 2016 (Groundwater (WA) Aroona PPP; replenishment) Perth – Beenyup-II 14 Competitive AllianceWater Corporation from mid-2020) Full Operation 2019 (WA) (Groundwater replenishment) Seawater Desalination Plants Sydney – Kurnell 90 15 Design, Build, Operate for 50 year lease to Sydney Desalination 50 Used 2010; Care & (NSW) Sydney Water, then lease Plant Pty Ltd Maintenance from 2012 Full capacity 2019 Melbourne – 150 33 Build, own, operate - public Private owner - Aquasure 30 Care & Maintenance 2012 Wonthaggi (Vic) private partnership (PPP) First water contract 2017 Full capacity 2019-20 Gold Coast/Brisbane - 45 18 Alliance – Design, build, Seqwater 10 “Hot Standby”, occasional Tugun (Q) operate operation Adelaide – Lonsdale 100 Up to 50 Alliance – Design, build, SA Government 20 Standby (10% production) (Port Stanvac) (SA) operate, maintain Full capacity from 2019 Perth – Kwinana (WA) 45 16 Competitive Alliances Water Corporation 25 Full capacity Perth – Southern 100 35 Design, construction and Water Corporation 25 50-80 6 m3/yr. Binningup (WA) operation 100 6 m3/yr in drought

26 J.C. Radcliffe, D. Page Water Cycle 1 (2020) 19–40 provide 17 103 m3/d of high-quality industrial grade water (40–50 systems in new “greenfield” suburbs. Two thousand apartments at mg/L TDS) for five large Kwinana heavy industries. Newington were provided by the Authority with recycled water from microfiltration/reverse osmosis by combining effluent sources from the Olympic Park WWTP, sewer mining from 5.4. Localised urban WWTP recycling schemes Sydney Water and wetland-remediated stormwater collected from old brick pits [55]. Sydney Water developed a long-term view of the poten- By 2008, there were 14 recycling schemes in place in and near Syd- tial for wider use of recycled water in dual pipe domestic systems. Ten- ney, the majority for irrigation, each usually having only one customer ders were called for provision of infrastructure to ultimately service 14 (Table 4)[52], 000 homes and industrial demand in the south-west growth area based One of the largest NSW schemes was south of Sydney, the Northern on Hoxton Park [56,57]. Sydney Water was aiming to have 25 more Shoalhaven Reclaimed Water Management Scheme undertaken by the water recycling schemes in place by 2015, supplying 12% of Sydney’s Shoalhaven City Council in 2002 to beneficially re-use 80% of the water needs [52]. Planning ultimately provided that the Western Sydney reclaimed water produced by six WWTPs in the Shoalhaven region. After Recycled Water Initiative (WSRWI) would provide recycled water via a successful process of community, stakeholder and end-user consulta- dual reticulation to 160 000 new homes to be built in suburbs in Sydney’s 2 tion occurring over a 12-year period, the scheme supported 5 km of North-West and South-West (Fig. 4). irrigation on 20 dairying properties [53]. It was being further extended in The Declaration of Sewage Services by the National Competition 2019 with WWTP upgrades at Bombaderry and Nowra brought on-line. Council followed the Tribunal recommendation in favour of an applica- A significant example of Industrial use developed from the 50 tion by the company Services Sydney to have the Sydney sewerage ser- 3 3 10 m /day of recycled water from the Wollongong WWTP activated vices market opened to private competition [59]. This resulted in the sludge plant. Tertiary treated UV and chlorinated recycled water was New South Wales parliament passed the Water Competition Act (2006) introduced for coal washing at Port Kembla Coal and irrigation of local which allowed private sector companies to develop and sell water parks and the Wollongong Golf Club. From this was also generated 20 products in competition with the previous monopoly supplier, the state 3 3 10 m /d of very high-quality recycled water by microfiltration/reverse government-owned Sydney Water Corporation. The first to do so was osmosis for use in manufacturing at BlueScope Steel. Any not required is AquaNet Sydney Pty Ltd, a joint venture created in 2008 between the discharged to ocean [54]. Effluents from the St Mary’s, Quakers Hill and Jemena Corporation (owned by State Grid Corporation of China and Penrith WWTPs were brought together at St Marys WWTP to generate 8 Singapore Power) and Veolia. Using ultra filtration, reverse osmosis and 3 3 10 m /d of environmental flows into the Hawkesbury-Nepean River cation exchange, the Jemena Rosehill Recycled Water scheme includes to replace upstream abstractions for economic use. Hunter Water crea- the Fairfield Recycled Water Plant with a capacity of 20 103 m3/d, two tively developed recycling at Newcastle, NSW for use in cooling in the pump stations and three connected by 20 km of pipeline. Some Eraring Power Station, but unexpectedly lost some of its potential in- of the pipelines were repurposed redundant gas pipelines. The plant dustrial market when the city’s steelworks closed, highlighting the produces 4.3 106 m3/yr recycled water for major industrial and com- importance of ensuring continuity of demand when developing recycling mercial customers in Rosehill and Smithfield, thereby reducing demands projects. on drinking water supplies. Approved uses are water for cooling tower Sydney continued to develop plans for many more urban dual piping make-up, industrial process, wash-down, fire fighting, irrigation, washing machine (cold water tap only) and toilet flushing [60]. The Table 4 scheme is now owned by Water Utilities Australia. Water recycling schemes in and near Sydney, New South Wales 2009 [52]. During the Millennium drought, the regional NSW city of Orange 2 Scheme Type Year End uses Number of incorporated stormwater from its 34 km Blackmans Swamp and Started customers Ploughman’s Creeks catchments, 67% of which were urban streetscapes, Rouse Hill Residential 2001 Toilet flushing 18 000 into its drinking water supply. The scheme used wetland remediation 3 3 Outdoor use with a 200 10 m settling pond, followed by coagulating batch ponds Fire Fighting leading to the existing Suma Park Dam. Subsequent water treatment was Washing machines by coagulation, sedimentation, filtration, ozonation, biological activated Ornamental Ponds Wollongong Industrial 2006 Industrial open 1 carbon (BAC) and chlorination. The annual yield from the stormwater 6 3 Stage 1 system system is 1.3 10 m [61]. The scheme has been reviewed as a case Fire fighting, study [62]. Wollongong Industrial & 2009 Industrial open 3 By 2008, “fit-for-purpose” recycled water in various forms had also Stage 2 irrigation system progressively evolved for use in third pipe reticulation systems to new Fire fighting, irrigation housing developments in other Australian cities. Recycled water was Bombo Irrigation 1995 Controlled access 1 being supplied through dual reticulation in the Melbourne (Victoria) irrigation suburb of Aurora by 2009. A population of 25 000 residents was antici- Castle Hill Irrigation 1983 Uncontrolled 1 pated. In the next 25 years, 50 000 Melbourne homes were expected to access irrigation Liverpool Irrigation 1980 Controlled access 2 have dual reticulation. Other areas developed include Cranbourne irrigation (encompassing Sandhurst Park and Hunt Club Estate) based on the Gerroa Irrigation 2001 Uncontrolled 1 Eastern Irrigation Scheme’s original ultrafiltration/chloramination plant access irrigation located near to Melbourne Water’s Eastern Treatment Plant. After Penrith Irrigation 1994 Controlled access 1 considering the results from an experimental comparison of four reverse- Scheme 1 irrigation ’ Penrith Irrigation 2007 Uncontrolled 1 osmosis based membrane treatment trains, Melbourne Water s Eastern Scheme 2 access irrigation Treatment plant was redeveloped using ozonation and biological acti- Picton Irrigation Agriculture 1 vated carbon media filtration for its Advanced Tertiary Treatment Plant Quakers Hill Irrigation 1974 Uncontrolled 1 which now supplies the Eastern Irrigation scheme directly [63], the access irrigation original plant being bypassed. Class A recycled water (5 103 m3/d Richmond Irrigation 1967 Uncontrolled 2 access irrigation capacity) was being supplied from the Western Water Corporation St Mary’s Irrigation 1999 Uncontrolled 1 Melton WWTP based on a MF/UV/chloramination treatment train for access irrigation availability in subdivisions at Eynesbury and Melton South [64]. Mel- West Camden Irrigation 2007 Agriculture 1 bourne retailer City West Water operated from mid-2007, a scheme in the

27 J.C. Radcliffe, D. Page Water Cycle 1 (2020) 19–40

Fig. 4. Water recycling plants, areas served, schemes under construction and long term suggested recycling supply areas, Sydney, 2009 [58].

Werribee Technology Precinct drawing Class A recycled water (Table 1), per year is also available for greens irrigation. which had UV and chlorine disinfection, from Melbourne Water’s In northern Victoria, the Bendigo Epsom WWTP, operated by Coliban Western Treatment Plant via a 6 km pipe which was supplying 315 103 Water, was upgraded to tertiary status to produce Class A recycled water m3/yr for non-residential use. The Werribee recycled water was available (Table 1) using a treatment train of biological nutrient removal, UV ra- to vegetable growers through Southern Rural Water from mid-2006, with diation, chlorination, dechlorination, with a side-stream UF/RO plant for capacity to supply 8.5 106 m3/yr to 100 growers. Increasing recycled salinity reduction for amenity and domestic non-potable use [66]. During water salinity and consequent soil impacts became a problem. From time the drought, water was supplied to droughted 60 103 m3 Lake Weer- to time, the recycled water has been diluted with river water. However, oona for water sports, it having been estimated that with the potential salinity increased as a result of continued salt intrusions and reduced ingestion of recycled water by rowers of 0.3 L/person/yr, the water influent volume to the Western Treatment Plant as Melbourne’s millen- quality risks assessment were considered acceptable [67]. nium drought water restrictions increased [65]. In eastern Victoria, the Gippsland Water Factory was brought on-line Recycled water was also being adopted more widely throughout in 2011 to treat 35 103 m3/d of wastewater from nine Gippsland towns, Victoria for parks and sporting amenities, industries, environmental flow and Australian Paper’s Maryvale mill using anaerobic pre-treatment and substitution, and to achieve discharge standards to receiving waters now a membrane bioreactor to generate 8 103 m3/d Class A recycled water required of wastewater treatment plants. Urban examples included City (Table 1) for industry. The factory’s Vortex Centre, which was built over West Water, which upgraded its WWTP in industrial Altona using a constructed, 3.5 m deep lake, includes a public education facility where Intermittently Decanted Extended Aeration (IDEA) to supply 1.5 106 people, including children, can learn more about the water cycle, water m3/yr recycled water to plastics manufacturer Qenos, Kooringal and conservation and sustainable water management. Sanctuary Lakes Golf Course and the Altona Green reserve. An innovative The Queensland government established the Queensland Water approach was taken at Sunshine, where a developer was establishing a Recycling Strategy [68] with implementation by the Queensland Envi- new golf course with a small recycling plant for the Sunshine Golf Club in ronmental Protection Agency, to enable Queensland to use recycled exchange for the old golf course which was developed into Callaway water more effectively and efficiently, to accommodate increases by 40% Park, a 640 lot subdivision. The recycling plant takes influent by mining in population over the following 21 years and to support economic an adjacent sewer, then uses two identical Extended Aeration activated growth while helping to protect the environment and safeguarding sludge packaged treatment plants, each capable of operating indepen- public health. dently with common tertiary filtration and UV disinfection. After , a business unit of Gold Coast City Council in south- completion, the recycling plant passed from the developer to City West east Queensland, established the Pimpama-Coomera Waterfuture project Water for operation. It generates 90 103 m3/yr. To provide for heavy to investigate the sustainable provision of urban water services. The summer golf course irrigation demand, a 30 103 m3 winter storage has project area is located south of Brisbane in an area whose population was been built on the golf course. A total of about 10 103 m3 of stormwater growing fast with an additional 150 000 residents anticipated by 2050.

28 J.C. Radcliffe, D. Page Water Cycle 1 (2020) 19–40

The then current housing stock of 2500 was predicted to reach 26 756 by with each toilet using just 1.0 L of water per flush. Meanwhile, the 2021. The region is water resource constrained and treated water release Melbourne City Council had built “Council House 2” which encompasses sites are adjacent to environmentally sensitive areas. The Gold Coast City the daily extraction of 100 m3 of raw sewage by sewer mining from Little Council embarked on a new integrated urban water management plan- Collins Street adjacent to the building, adding it to wastewater from the ning approach. In 2002, it initiated an Advisory Committee involving a building itself. After treatment, the recycled water is added to harvested broad range of stakeholders, including community members, to develop rainwater and supplies 100% of the building’s needs for cooling water, the Master Plan from its earliest stage. Targets were set in comparison to toilet flushing and amenity plants watering [74]. A nineteenth century a business-as-usual model, including: Melbourne office building at 60 Leicester Street Carlton occupied by the Australian Conservation Foundation was retrofitted for full water recy- replacing 25% of drinking water with other sources for non-drinking cling incorporating rainwater harvesting, waterless urinals and an uses; in-house biological WWTP, with water from it being used to flush toilets setting a maximum of 40 kg nitrogen release per day from the and irrigate the internal and rooftop gardens [75]. The South Australian regional WWTP, Water Corporation moved to a new building in Victoria Square which releasing <12.5 103 m3/d treated water with 5% less stormwater had water efficient taps, toilets and waterless urinals with AAAA rating. flow, and a 15% reduction in peak instantaneous water demand rates, The building used 70% less mains water than a conventional office 30% reduction in potable water system retention, building – saving 11 103 m3/yr water by using recycled water and 20% net reduction in greenhouse gas emissions, rainwater for toilets. Self-contained treatment systems may also have defer or eliminate the need for new surface water storages, advantages where additional available sewerage capacity is limited. improved consumer acceptance response to the service provided and improved local amenity. 5.6. Rainwater no increase in the whole-of-life cost to the community for all services Rainwater, (sometimes called tankwater), is the traditional form of It was determined following consideration of the report [69] that all conservation for reuse in areas without reticulated water supply. A 1994 houses built in Pimpama-Coomera after August 2005 were to have Class survey by the Australian Bureau of Statistics showed that 13% of all Aþ recycled water (Table 1) in third pipe systems. Australian households used a tank as a source of drinking water, the In South Australia, the dual reticulation Adelaide suburb of Mawson mean across all capitals being only 6.5%, while 30.5% of rural house- Lakes, developed between 2005 and 2010, uses a mixture of recycled holds had one [76]. The highest use was in South Australia with 37% of wastewater from the dissolved air flotation filtration (DAFF) plant at the households having tanks, with 82% of the South Australian rural popu- Bolivar WWTP and wetland-recycled stormwater stored by MAR from the lation having rainwater as their primary source of drinking water City of Salisbury’s Salisbury Water Company. The scheme serves 10 000 compared to 28% in metropolitan Adelaide [77]. Even with the provision residents in 4000 homes together with 6000 workers and 7500 students of first flush diversion devices, it can be difficult to achieve drinking in educational institutions [70]. To the south of Adelaide, Water Smart water biological standards in urban rainwater tanks. Urban areas, as well Australia funding contributed to the initiation of dual reticulation for having a native bird and mammal population, also have a considerable 8000 homes at Seaford Meadows, based on an upgrade of the Christies population of feral animals and domestic pets, primarily cats and dogs. Beach WWTP using Integrated Fixed-Film Activated Sludge technology. Rainwater tanks can be contaminated by faecal droppings and various Recycled water, produced by ultrafiltration and chlorination/UV steri- species that can enter the tank, apart from the risk of mosquito breeding lisation from the Glenelg WWTP, is used to service Adelaide airport and the potential increased risk of mosquito-borne diseases such as toilets and gardens and keep the Adelaide Parklands green throughout Murray Valley Encephalitis and Ross River Fever virus diseases. Natural the year. A minimum of 1.3 106 m3 is supplied annually through purple attenuation of potentially pathogenic organisms can occur in rainwater pipes to enable the parklands irrigation which also serves to offset the tanks as well as in stormwater ponds, sewage lagoons and groundwater “heat island’ effect of the city. Irrigation of the surrounds of Adelaide basins provided there is an adequate dwell time [78]. However, tanks are airport runways to reduce heat effects has also been shown to reduce fuel frequently poorly maintained by owners. Some local governments pro- consumption and increase take-off maximum loads on hot mid-summer hibited the collection of rainwater [79]. A revised edition of Guidelines for days [71]. Glenelg recycled water is also provided for toilet flushing to the Use of Rainwater Tanks was released in 2011 by the Environmental residents in the inner Adelaide suburb of Bowden [72]. Health Committee (enHealth) of the Australian Health Protection Com- At the Perth coastal suburb of Cottesloe, stormwater previously dis- mittee, which brings together top Environmental Health officials at the charged through ten ocean outfalls, is now being injected into the un- Federal and State/Territory level [80]. Rainwater is also covered in the derlying aquifer after underground stormwater treatment using storage NWQMS stormwater recycling guidelines. and recharge tanks with the addition of 280 roadside soak pits. The The millennium drought changed attitudes to rainwater collection at recharge offsets use from numerous domestic bores and reduces the risk the domestic scale from home roofs. The drought that began afflicting of potential saline intrusion. Both projects were supported by Smart much of Australia from 2001 to 2003 resulted in water restrictions being Water Australia [73]. imposed in Sydney, Melbourne, Canberra, Perth and South-East Queensland. A re-evaluation of the use of rainwater tanks in urban 5.5. Internal recycling in high-rise buildings areas occurred. Incentives were introduced to encourage their installa- tion. The New South Wales government had a subsidy scheme until 30 The process of demonstrating the potential to recycle water within June 2005 to encourage tank purchases and installation. The scheme the designs of new buildings was led by several of the water corporations provided subsidies ranging from $150 for tanks of 2000–2999 L capacity themselves. Sydney Water occupied a new head office at from to $500 for tanks >7000 L. An additional $150 was offered if a toilet and/ 2009 incorporating using 75% less drinking water with wastewater dis- or washing machine were connected to the rainwater tank. The Victorian carded to the sewerage system being reduced by 90%. On-site recycled government introduced a subsidy of $20 on $100 worth of water saving wastewater was used for toilet flushing, cooling towers, fire system- equipment. Buyers of a 600 L rainwater tank could get a rebate of $150. testing and irrigation supplemented by a 100 m3 rainwater tank. Mel- Installing a greywater recycling system, which previously attracted $150, bourne Water Corporation moved to a new building in La Trobe Street in from 1 January 2004 became eligible for a $500 grant where the 2012, featuring 50 m3 of rainwater storage, which is filtered for use in installation had cost >$1500 [17]. However, a major increase in energy hand basins and showers. Vacuum-flush toilets (like those used on requirement occurs if pressurised rainwater tanks with domestic pumps aircraft) have been utilised to significantly reduce water consumption, are introduced as can arise, for example, in using rainwater and

29 J.C. Radcliffe, D. Page Water Cycle 1 (2020) 19–40 pasteurisation for the hot water system. Properties with self-contained water utilities. The data for 2012-13 from 410 water recycling sites and rainwater and greywater domestic systems, which depended on small 88 desalination sites showed a capacity of 1831 106 m3/yr and a electric pumps and UV disinfection units for their successful functioning, production in that year of 410 106 m3. However, it has proved difficult had an average energy use of 4.3 kWh/d, compared with a water and to secure data from individual plants since then. The location of these sewage grid supply equivalent value of about 0.6 kWh/d [81]. sites and the interactive dashboard for resilient water resources is shown Ultimately, the Water Smart Australia program ran until June 2012 in Fig. 5. It will be noted that many inland desalination plants, though and contributed funding of $1.48B towards 78 projects with total costs of small, access saline groundwater for local community use. $4.96B [82]. 6. 2010–2019: After the millennium drought – economics the 5.7. Recycling and desalination research resources new driver

The millennium drought also served to strengthen research initiatives The millennium drought came to a close in some areas at the end of into water cycle management and pursuit of diversity of supply. A 2008 when rains returned to north-eastern Australia. As Brisbane’s comprehensive set of 77 papers was presented at the International Wivenhoe dam was filling from catchments and no water had yet been Conference in Water Recycling held in Wollongong in February 2005 added from the Western Corridor Scheme, there seemed no need to top [83]. To continue the development of new technologies to underpin the up the dam. Standing at 70% full, the Queensland government deter- adoption of alternative water resources, the mined that recycled water would be added in the future only if the agreed in 2009 to support five years’ funding totalling $20 M each for the Wivenhoe storage fell below 40% of capacity. The period from late creation of Centres of Excellence in water recycling and desalination. The November 2010 to mid-January 2011 was extremely wet through much Australian Water Recycling Centre of Excellence (AWRCoE), established of eastern Australia. There was widespread flooding including in down- in March 2010, was hosted in Brisbane by Western Corridor Recycled town Brisbane. Its Wivenhoe dam, which also served as a flood attenu- Water Pty. Ltd. (“WaterSecure”), followed by the Queensland Bulk Water ation dam, filled to 200% of its maximum water storage capacity. All the Supply Authority (Seqwater). Founding partners were University of east coast desalination plants and advanced water recycling plants Queensland, Griffith University, University of New South Wales and the (Table 3) were virtually taken out of service once their validation and Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), contract proving stages were completed. The Gold Coast Tugan plant was along with industry partners including Veolia Water Australia Pty. Ltd. fleetingly reactivated when Cyclone Ostwald in 2013 dumped huge and GHD Pty. Ltd. A Strategic Research Plan identified 44 Priority rainfalls on the Wivenhoe catchment, the subsequent massive silt load Research topics that were allocated across the four goals, viz Goal 1 - The causing major problems for Brisbane’s Mount Crosby water treatment social/economic/environmental value of Water Recycling; Goal 2 - A plant. national validation framework for Water Recycling that would underpin The end of the millennium drought in eastern Australia changed future recycling technologies and installations; Goal 3 - Reclaimed water community, industry and government policy focus in strengthening the for augmenting drinking water supplies; and Goal 4 - A national knowl- security of water supply (at almost any cost) to one of pursuing economic edge, training and education program for Water Recycling. With efficiency and containing consumers’ water charges and prices. The new co-investment in its projects, the Centre operated for seven years and driver was that of economics. Large government grants for infrastructure undertook thirty projects with a total investment of over $50 M. Projects may have led to perverse outcomes. Most States/Territories had intro- included the evaluation of various recycling projects and lessons learned duced independent economic regulators. Considerable criticism devel- [23], the development of a small potable recycling plant suitable for use oped of how urban water supplies were secured and the extent of at an Antarctic base [84] and validation processes as components of investment in alternative water sources. The costs to consumers and the accrediting water recycling, marketed as “Waterval” [85]. Excellent community during and after the Millennium drought were large. Water collaboration developed with the US WateReuse Research Foundation restrictions were likely to have cost the nation in excess of a billion (now the Water Research Foundation), partly encouraged by the dollars per year from the lost value of consumption alone [90]. After the increasing severity of drought in California and the recognition that drought, attention turned to economics, particularly the debt loads that Australia and West Coast USA have each something to learn from the the alternative water source plants had generated, and the impact of other. A range of AWRCoE “Water 360” educational and media products perceptions and increased costs and prices on water consumers. Having discussing recycled water for drinking have been adapted for use in signed the Intergovernmental Agreement on the National Water Initiative, California [86]. Links were also established with the South Africa Water governments had committed themselves to full cost recovery, including Research Commission. Output from AWRCoE research may be found at debt servicing. Supply augmentation in Melbourne and Perth, for the Water Research Access Portal [87]. example, could cost consumers and communities up to $4.2B over 20 The National Centre of Excellence in Desalination Australia (NCEDA) years. was hosted in Perth by Murdoch University, the other initial partners The Australian National Audit Office concluded that when considered being Curtin University of Technology, Edith Cowan University, Flinders against Commonwealth program guidelines, grants for the Adelaide University, University of New South Wales, University of Queensland, Desalination Plant did not demonstrably satisfy the program’s merit University of South Australia, Victoria University, University of Western criteria [91]. There were considerable differences in the capital costs and Australia and the Western Australian Water Corporation. Its priority operating costs between each of the desalination plants and with the research themes were Pre-treatment; Reverse osmosis desalting; Novel Western Corridor Advanced Water Treatment plants. When the plants are desalting; Concentrate management; and Social, environmental and not in use, the costs of debt servicing and care and maintenance may still economic issues. The NCEDA initiated 44 research projects. It completed exceed half the total operating costs at full production [92]. The Victo- a Pilot Scale Test Facility and Desal Discovery Centre to educate rian Auditor-General noted that over five years 2008–2012, interest schoolchildren in Perth [88]. The Centre continued to function until bearing liabilities increased by 248%, with finance costs by then ac- September 2016, but efforts to secure subsequent funding through the counting for 21% of the Victorian water industry’s total operating costs Cooperative Research Centres Program were unsuccessful. [93]. Regulated prices were established for Sydney desalination plant Towards the end of the millennium drought, AWRCoE and NCEDA after its private leasing, including for various periods of non-production jointly funded the development of an interactive database of resilient and for start-up costs after a period of closure [94]. water resources including recycled water and desalination plants [89]. The data were to be managed by the Australian Government’s Bureau of Meteorology through its annual collection of performance data from

30 J.C. Radcliffe, D. Page Water Cycle 1 (2020) 19–40

Fig. 5. Bureau of Meteorology Dashboard with map showing location of water recycling and desalination plants 2013 {89}.

6.1. Comparative costs uses were excluded from the catchment base calculation. The energy costs for water to the tap including pumping from the Western Corridor Where possible, water supply systems are gravity-fed from reservoirs. plants to the Wivenhoe Dam and then flowing down the Brisbane River Sydney, Melbourne, and South East Queensland normally have relatively for subsequent treatment at Mt Crosby have been estimated at 2.45 low water supply costs because of the height of their major reservoir off- kWh/m3, from the raw water source to the consumers’ tap via the Tugun takes above their city supply areas. The water supplying Brisbane, South- desalination plant at 4.30 kWh/m3, and raw water from Wivenhoe and East Queensland’s major city, is treated and pumped to homes for con- the Brisbane River to the consumers’ tap via Mt Crosby water treatment sumption at an energy cost of 0.67 kWh/m3. For the Gold Coast, the plant at 0.40 kWh/m3 [97]. Submissions to a Queensland Parliamentary second largest SEQ city, the figure is a lower at 0.22 kWh/m3, by virtue of inquiry (now lapsed) suggested that the Western Corridor scheme would the large gravity head from the and simpler treatment re- be much more economically effective if recycled water were piped quirements [95]. By contrast, Adelaide has very high water supply directly as potable water to the Mount Crosby Water Treatment Plant pumping costs attributable to having to pump water from the River rather than being pumped a considerable distance as a form of IPR to the Murray over the Adelaide Hills to metropolitan reservoirs, representing Wivenhoe Dam and then flowing down the Brisbane River to Mt Crosby 1.6 kWh/m3 [39]. In contrast to other capital cities, Perth is highly [98]. dependent on accessing groundwater. Inter-basin transfers may be regarded as an alternative water source. Water recycling plants are generally at the lowest point of a water and A small amount of water for agricultural use can represent a relatively wastewater distribution system while sea water desalination plants will large amount of water for urban users. However, apart from its pumping be just above sea level, so both require pumping to supply the water costs, it may involve considerable local community angst. One approach produced. Saline groundwater plants will even require pumping to access is to purchase water, redirecting it from agricultural users for urban the water resource before treatment. The energy cost of pumping is supply. The South Australian Water Corporation as well as owning per- dependent on friction loss (a function of the pipe diameter, material manent water entitlements purchased from NSW and Victoria and roughness and distance) and lift involved. In the absence of losses, transferred within the Southern Murray Darling Basin to South Australia, pumping one cubic metre of water for 1 m requires 0.0027 kWh of energy also purchased temporary (seasonal) allocations in 2008-9 and 2009–10 [39]. In Brisbane, the direct operating cost of producing manufactured [99]. In Victoria, scope was provided for a substantial transfer of irri- water from the Gold Coast desalination plant in 2011–2012 was esti- gation water with the Sugarloaf Pipeline, completed in 2010 for $750 M. mated at $959/103 m3; from the Advanced Water Treatment plants of the It connects the Goulburn River to Sugarloaf Reservoir and was expected Western Corridor scheme $834/103 m3; while that harvested from the to supply 75 106 m3 of water to Melbourne each year when in use. catchment base which had constituted 96% of Brisbane’s water, cost However, following considerable disquiet expressed by irrigators in the $67/103 m3 [96]. It is assumed, that the costs of maintaining the form of a “Plug the Pipe” campaign, the Victorian Government imposed a catchment environment or income foregone from alternative catchment policy ban, determining that the pipeline is not to be used except in the

31 J.C. Radcliffe, D. Page Water Cycle 1 (2020) 19–40 case of critical human need for water in metropolitan Melbourne [90]. water to housing in Cranbourne, Clyde, Lyndhurst, Pakenham and Offi- The 90 106 m3/yr capacity Sydney desalination plant operated cer. City West Water has provision for recycled water to be provided to from 2010 and used 257.7 GWh of power in its first and only full year of 6200 homes in Werribee, Wyndham Vale and Manor Lakes. The recycled operation [48], representing an energy cost of 2.86 kWh/m3. The plant water comes from Melbourne Water’s Western Treatment Plant at Wer- was taken off-line in June 2012 when Sydney reservoirs were at 98% ribee, though some drinking water may be included in recycled water capacity. A fifty-year lease of the plant was sold by the Sydney Water lines. Homes in Vineyard Estates were to be added in late 2019. Yarra Corporation on behalf of the NSW Government to a consortium of Valley Water has mandated recycled water in the development of Aurora Ontario Teachers’ Pension Plan Board, The Infrastructure Fund and Estate and Epping North East; Wollert; Craigieburn West; Croydon/ Utilities Trust of Australia with a buy-back water contract with Sydney Lilydale (Quarry development), Beveridge/Wallan, Greenvale, Doncaster Water. The contract provides for the plant to be brought back into Hill and Kalkallo, the latter also incorporating stormwater and rainwater operation if Sydney Water storages fall <60% and it will be mothballed from the roofs of industrial buildings. Manuals are provided for de- again when storage rises >70%. The plant is operated by Veolia Water velopers covering the connection costs and building requirements for the Australia, which has eight months to bring it into operation when inclusion of recycled water in new housing and industrial developments requested. Pricing for the purpose and monopoly supply is set by the New [108]. South Wales Independent Pricing and Regulatory Authority (IPART). In A large specific purpose water recycling plant, located underground January 2019, water levels fell <60% and by July 2019, the plant had for aesthetic reasons, is in Yarra Park adjacent to the Melbourne Cricket been activated to full capacity [100]. Ground (MCG). It was funded by the Melbourne Cricket Club (MCC) In 2011, Sydney Water confirmed that it had no intention of building ($18 M) and Victorian Government ($6 M). It treats sewage from the any further recycled water plants to serve domestic third pipe systems local sewerage network to Class A recycled water standards (Table 1). because they were too costly [101]. The Hoxton Park scheme, previously The treatment train consists of screening and grit removal, biological announced for 14 000 houses as one of 15 schemes to have been oper- treatment of the sewage and coagulation for phosphate removal, filtra- ating by 2015, is now seeking 6500 home owners to opt into scheme tion via membrane bioreactor and ultra-filtration membrane systems, (4000 have already done so), with the result that recycled water might be before finally disinfection via ultraviolet and chlorination. More than flowing through the already constructed purple pipes by 2021 [102]. 180 103 m3 of recycled water is produced annually, reducing the Despite Sydney Water withdrawing from dual piping systems to MCC’s use of potable water by 50%. The water is primarily re-used as supply recycled water following the end of the Millennium drought, the irrigation in Yarra Park, as well as for cleaning and toilet flushing at the which manages the Central Business District, developed a MCG and at nearby Punt Road Oval [109]. Decentralised Water Master Plan 2012–2030 for the City of Sydney area In South-East Queensland, the Gold Coast Desalination Plant was founded on the principles of integrated water cycle management [103]. retained in ‘hot standby’ condition after completion, able to provide 33% Adopting the principle that sewage and stormwater are to be treated as a production capacity within 24 h and full capacity within 72 h. It has been water resource rather than waste to be discharged, the City encouraged operated to meet demand when other local Water Treatment Plants are its adoption by private sector developers who were building new busi- off-line for maintenance or planned upgrades, and during severe weather ness and residential towers. Outcomes include Sydney Park, which hosts events [110]. the City of Sydney’s largest stormwater harvesting system, recycling Brisbane’s Western Corridor Scheme involving three WWTPs was 0.85 106 m3/yr. The Sydney Park wetlands will contribute to the 2030 almost totally decommissioned in 2012 and the remaining infrastructure targets for 30% of water demand being met through local water capture placed in care and maintenance until the Wivenhoe storage fell below and reuse and a 50% reduction in suspended solids and 15% reduction in 40% capacity [111]. A detailed review of the development of this scheme nutrients discharged to local waterways via stormwater run-off. Initially, has been undertaken [112]. Modelling indicated that there would be the water will be reused to top up the wetlands and irrigate parks and <5% chance of the key water storages falling to the 40% trigger within subsequently reuse will expand to surrounding commercial, industrial the next 15 years. The microfiltration and reverse osmosis membranes and residential areas. The first major infrastructure project in Sydney’s were discarded from most treatment trains except two used to produce Green Square is a new stormwater drainage system built in partnership recycled water for use in the Luggage Point plant. It has been estimated with Sydney Water. The Barangaroo development of three office build- that it would take up to two years to bring the scheme back on-line [113]. ings and 1000 apartments includes a plant that can produce 0.2 106 Planning for this process was initiated in 2018. m3/yr of recycled water [104]. In regional New South Wales, Ballina However, the Gold Coast City Council resolved on 12 December 2013 became the first town to open a local purple pipe dual reticulation system to discontinue the supply of recycled water to 6700 houses provided with [105] aimed to ultimately supply 7200 homes. dual reticulation systems in Pimpama-Coomera by mid-2017. After The 150 106 m3 annual capacity Victorian Desalination Plant re- considering costs to operate and maintain the recycled water network, quires 90 MW of power supplied underground through a 220 kV high the then current and future recycled water and potable water demand voltage alternating current power cable. The plant was built by a Public- and the infrastructure yet to be installed by the Council, home-site de- Private Partnership with Aquasure which contracted to finance, build, velopers and home owners, it was concluded that the high cost of the maintain and operate the project for 30 years. Aquasure’s fixed price for Class Aþ recycled water scheme for the City and the Gold Coast com- construction of the whole project was $3.5B. The plant was placed into munity outweighed the value to the city [114]. This is the only know case preservation mode after completion in 2012 until its power was recon- of a dual pipe supply system being abandoned in Australia, though there nected in March 2017 to respond to its first 50 106 m3 supply notice for are other examples where completed dual supply systems have yet to be desalinated water to be delivered between 1 July 2016 and 30 June supplied with recycled water [115]. 2017. A further order followed for 15 106 m3. The plant returned to In South Australia, following acceptance, the Adelaide 100 106 m3/ preservation mode in August 2017. Power consumption was offset with yr desalination plant was run at 10% of its production capacity, all the renewable energy certificates [106]. Due to drying climatic conditions, production banks of reverse osmosis membranes being maintained by 125 106 m3 of water has been ordered from the plant for 2019–2020, to regular operation in rotation. The plant was operated at 100% capacity prevent Melbourne’s water storages dropping to a point where they pose for a few hours on a monthly basis. It was assumed that only a small a significant risk to water security. This represents one quarter of Mel- amount of water would be drawn from the Adelaide Desalination Plant bourne’s annual consumption [107]. due to its high operating and energy costs, so the plant was to work Melbourne has three retail water companies which have continued to primarily as a backup supply during drought years with low rainfall and/ provide and extend recycled water, much of it for amenity use and or high demand. The Mount Lofty Ranges catchments are generally the agricultural and pasture irrigation. South East Water provides reticulated preferred source for the potable water supply for Adelaide due to their

32 J.C. Radcliffe, D. Page Water Cycle 1 (2020) 19–40 low cost and energy demand, followed by the River Murray, even though streamflow enhancement [121]. The need to again have an independent pumping over the Mount Lofty Ranges is required. In 2019, SA Water sold agency overseeing continued progress with water reform policies was rec- some of its River Murray water allocation as a temporary transfer to the ognised by the nation’s independent infrastructure advisor, Infrastructure Commonwealth Government which wished to assist struggling drough- Australia, [122]. It has also been noted that water researchfunds, which had ted Victorian dairy farmers by providing more water for growing fodder never had any recurrent base, were reducing [123]. for their stock [116]. Effectively, the Commonwealth water purchase However, during the post-millennium drought period, the various underwrote the costs of producing 100 106 m3 of desalinated water for state-owned water utilities had been quietly improving their technical Adelaide. The transaction demonstrated a win-win outcome by using the and energy efficiency in response to increasing energy costs and aspira- water trading provisions in the National Water Initiative. tions to achieve greenhouse gas reductions. Hydro-electricity systems Adelaide has also seen a continuation of dual piping systems in new were included in water reservoirs and sewage effluent and marine saline subdivisions. South of the city, the recycled water from the Christies outfalls. Mini-hydro plants were added to trunk water lines and biogas Beach WWTP has been extended to Seaford Heights, while the north- from digesters was controlled and utilised for power generation. Some eastern suburb of Lightsview has been reticulated by Lightsview Rewa- sewage plants with large land curtilages or pond surfaces used them for ter, a private sector subsidiary company owned by Water Utilities installing solar-voltaic arrays. Despite the increasing power demands of Australia Pty Ltd, using water from the Salisbury Water Company’s MAR utilities from wider production of “manufactured water” from recycling scheme. MAR has been widely adopted in Adelaide following its initial or desalination, some WWTPs became net energy exporters [48]. introduction by the Salisbury Council from the 1990s. By 2017, there The total volume of recycled water produced from WWTPs in 2017- were 58 MAR schemes in the Adelaide metropolitan area involving 18 by major urban utilities reporting to the Bureau of Meteorology was harvests between 1 103 m3/yr and 1 106 m3/yr. Ten local govern- 151.7 106 m3 compared to 137.2 106 m3 in the preceding year. The ment councils, a private company and the South Australian Water Cor- annual figures from 2013 to 14 to 2017–18 (Table 5) showed consider- poration have been involved in the separate schemes, for which 750 km able seasonal variation between years in consumption of recycled water of reticulation piping has been laid [117]. reported to the Bureau in table W26 of its Annual Performance Report A solar thermal power plant driving seawater desalination was [124]. established in 2016 as part of the innovative business of Sundrop Farms in arid northern South Australia near Port Augusta. This takes seawater, 6.3. The future for direct potable recycling for multiple effect distillation, generates up to 39 MW of power with an array of 23 000 solar heliostats, produces 450 103 m3/yr of fresh water Following the drought, the future adoption of direct potable recy- which is used to grow 17 000 tonnes of tomatoes in a 0.2 km2 hydroponic cling (DPR) was explored. The Australian Academy of Technological glasshouse complex [118]. Sciences and Engineering (ATSE) concluded that advances in the sci- In April 2018, a major $155.6 M expansion of the Northern Adelaide ence and engineering of water treatment, and recent international Plains irrigation area was commenced. A project, independent of the developments in DPR prompted consideration of DPR as a potential Virginia Pipeline Scheme commenced twenty years earlier, is to provide future component of Australian water supply systems. The potential an additional 12 106 m3 of recycled water from the Bolivar WWTP to obstacles or disadvantages for DPR, relative to IPR, were primarily be distributed through a new 28 km water main and distribution infra- related to public perception and acceptance. Importantly, ATSE structure north of the Gawler River to underpin an economic develop- considered that the scientific and engineering hurdles to implementing ment initiative for large-scale advanced glasshouse horticulture, safe and reliable DPR were manageable. However, technical issues nurseries, floriculture, protected orchards and vine crops, premium irri- relating to the functions of an engineered buffer in DPR would need to gated field crops, feedlots and intensive poultry businesses. This initia- be addressed to the satisfaction of the general community. Key among tive has clearly identified economic development as a further driver for these issues is the need to ensure reliability. It was apparent from a introduction of recycled water and incorporates local expertise in the use review of Australian legislation and regulations that existing frame- of MAR as a management tool within the water cycle. works for the planning, approval, management, and oversight of The end of the millennium drought in the rest of Australia had little drinking water quality and recycled water in Australia could accom- impact in Western Australia which had long recognised the early signs of modate a well-designed and operated DPR project as a water resource climate change. Its two desalination plants were retained operating at full management option. Advanced risk assessment and risk management capacity while the development of groundwater replenishment for Perth, tools were now available which could be considered for the imple- described earlier, was continued. mentation of DPR projects, relative to more established or conven- tional water sources [125]. 6.2. Governance changes Water Research Australia had identified rapid progress in the devel- opment of new potable reuse projects, as well as the governance and At the national level, following the end of the millennium drought, regulatory structures required to support them in international locations. priorities had turned away from water. Intergovernmental and statutory In order to ensure that Australian water managers and decision makers institutional structures were abolished. The mandate of the Standing were well informed of these developments, it commissioned a timely and Council on Environment and Water which had been responsible for coor- technically robust update on developments in potable recycling to dinating Commonwealth/States/Territories water policies was revoked on include a summary of key developments and current status of potable 13 December 2013 [119]. The National Water Commission, responsible for reuse practice and an understanding of the drivers and incentives which driving water reform in Australia, was effectively closed as a budgetary have underpinned this progress. The update included an overview of saving from 31 December 2014 [120]. Water policy complacency became recently produced guidelines and best practice documents, and how in- evident and reform impetus was being lost, though a National Water Reform ternational and Australian regulators had approached the regulation of Committee is still undertaking work to identify national water reform pri- potable reuse for the full protection of public health. It was concluded orities. A Productivity Commission review identified that backsliding that the incentives for potable reuse – as for any water supply option - against early reform commitments had occurred, with some governments will ultimately lie in how the various available water supply options appearing to have forgotten the reasons for agreeing to water reforms and compare among key criteria, such as costs, environmental impacts and taken for granted the benefits they generated. Urban water reform was social considerations. These are highly geographically specific consid- perceived to need further development. It was suggested that water enti- erations and thus different conclusions can be expected to be drawn by tlement frameworks should be amended to enable inclusion of recycled different cities. Nonetheless, there is ample evidence to observe that water and stormwater to facilitate their use in situations such as MAR and some cities have identified planned potable reuse as an attractive water

33 J.C. Radcliffe, D. Page Water Cycle 1 (2020) 19–40

Table 5 Total recycled water supplied (- 103 m3) from major urban centre water utilities between 2012-13 and 2017-18 - Bureau of Meteorology Annual Performance Report 2017–18 [124].

Major urban centre 2013–14 2014–15 2015–16 2016–17 2017–18 Change from 2016 to 17 (%)

Adelaide 25 515 29 177 28 481 21 316 25 564 þ25 Canberra 4372 4352 4053 33 210 30 296 10 Darwin 347 492 80 541 451 17 Melbournea 27 890 36 428 34 892 32 442 42 085 þ30 Perth 10 029 9354 10 212 9569 12 100 þ26 SE Queenslanda 23 082b 18 774c 19 822c 14 755 13 056 12 Sydney 46 943 43 075 43 342 38 340 42833 þ12

Data for 2016-17 and earlier years were sourced from last year’s published report since definitions changed for 2017-18. a Melbourne and South East Queensland figures are the aggregated figures for the bulk utility and retailers. b Redland City Council did not report against the indicator in 2013-14. c Seqwater did not report against the indicator in 2014-15 and 2015-16.

supply option, based on considerations of criteria including water supply perceived need for storage time. This situation may change significantly availability, costs and energy consumption. By international standards, in the next five years [128]. the water quality regulatory landscape in Australia was widely consid- ered to be world-leading. Potable water reuse is not held up by a lack of 7. 2019 – Again in drought technical ability to build and design effective schemes, but potentially by other less technical aspects. The authors noted the WHO statement that By the end of 2019, it was widely recognised that much of eastern “the ability to gain public confidence and trust through a productive, two-way Australia was once again in drought. Unprecedented bushfires occurred engagement process with key stakeholders” is central to the success of any from December 2019 to February 2020. Debate revolved around potable reuse project. To plan for safe, sustainable and affordable water whether this was an expression of developing climate change. Many supply systems of the future, Australia needs a national strategy for urban regional towns in New South Wales and Queensland, where domestic management, supported by an appropriate national body tasked with water supplies are managed by local government rather than a state responsibility for overseeing implementation and suitably funded to water utility, were approaching a supply crisis. Queensland was un- meet this responsibility. Recognising the water industry’s aging work- dertaking the two-year process of finally introducing purified recycled force, a strategy for increased skills and competence assurance for water into the Brisbane water supply via IPR through the depleted advanced water treatment processes should be developed. Long-term Wivenhoe dam [129].Atthesametime,Seqwaterisbeginninga community engagement strategies should be developed. Urban Water three-year process to validate process performance and gain community Planning Principles should consider the full portfolio of water supply and acceptance and regulatory approval for indirect potable reuse through demand options [126]. its Western Corridor Recycled Water Scheme. A component study The peak organisation for Australian urban water utilities, the Water reviewed the success of water reuse schemes and demonstration pro- Services Association of Australia (WSAA), also recently entered the field grams in south-west United States, through site visits and engagement of reviewing the use of potable water recycling. It aimed to bring together with industry representatives [130]. Infrastructure Australia reported world-wide insights and perspectives regarding community engagement that there could be severe water shortages or restrictions in many parts on purified recycled water. The report recognises that purifying recycled of the country. For example, New South Wales was then currently water for drinking is becoming commonplace across the globe. Some 35 experiencing the most severe drought on record. The Barwon-Darling cities now rely on it (many for decades), and many more are looking at it. River, Macquarie River and Lower Darling all had critical water short- The report aimed to assist in the consideration of engagement strategies ages. For regional towns, their water utilities often rely on a single around the introduction of purified recycled water, encompassing both supply source, with no physical link to an alternative bulk water supply. IPR and DPR [127]. The lack of supply diversification was creating further water security Perth has been used as an example where IPR is already accepted, to risks for these communities (Fig. 6). discuss the scope to move onward with DPR. In doing so, the ap- Infrastructure interventions for towns and cities could involve new proaches in two US cities have been contrasted in determining the water sources, such as additional groundwater sources, recycling and storage time in an engineered buffer (which might equate to an IPR desalination. Long-term urban water planning will need to be supported environmental buffer) before addition into the drinking water system. by stronger institutional arrangements, as recognised in the High Priority San Diego, with a history of rejection of recycled water has adopted an Initiative for a National Water Strategy, which is separately included on asset response time of 60 days required before delivery, a scheme with the Infrastructure Australia Priority List [132]. In 2019, the Australian the least risk of socio-political rejection. In contrast, El Paso represented Government established the National Water Grid Authority, which is to the least cost asset response time of 30 min to manage the technical risk, collaborate with states and territories to identify where new infrastruc- with limited influence to meet socio-political factors. Storage time in the ture can increase water supply and security to support regional growth Perth Groundwater Replenishment System amounts to many years. In a and meet the needs of a growing population. It also established the Na- workshop with a group of people in favour of adding recycled water to tional Drought Fund which begins with an initial credit of $3.9B. Earn- the drinking water system and another workshop of people inherently ings will be reinvested until the balance reaches $5B (expected in opposed, it was found that in contrast to the consistent and reliable 2028–29). From 1 July 2020, $100 M will be made available each year to support for groundwater replenishment, support for DPR is significantly support Australian farmers and communities [133]. Whilst much of these more “fickle”–the realm of uncertainty in support is possibly in the investments may be oriented to farming, there should be scope for in- region of 20–30%. This would be difficult to present to a government as vestment in rural township water infrastructure which could include a confidence builder for DPR as a source option. From the workshop alternative water sources. responses, it was concluded that DPR is not currently cost effective in In January 2020, the New South Wales government announced plans comparison to groundwater replacement as a water source for Perth, to double the capacity of the Sydney desalination plant to 180 106 m3/ with the main constraints being socio-political, associated with the yr. During mid-February 2020, a major summer storm passed over much

34 J.C. Radcliffe, D. Page Water Cycle 1 (2020) 19–40

Fig. 6. Towns in New South Wales and South-East Queensland with insecure water supplies as at 15 February 2020 - adapted from Page and Marinoni [131]. of the eastern Australia coastline. As a result, the , natural monopoly) encouraged the development of water quality guidelines Sydney’s main catchment resource, increased from 43% capacity to 82% and the introduction of a policy framework for use of water in Australia via capacity, representing nearly 800 106 m3 in about one week (Fig. 7) the Intergovernmental Agreement on the National Water Initiative. while the Wivenhoe dam serving Brisbane rose from 43.5% to 51.7% and Brisbane’s total water storage rose by 12%. 8.2. The continuity of supply driver

8. Discussion and conclusions The Millennium drought resulted in a new driver of ensuring conti- nuity of supply and led to seeking a diversity of water sources. In a threat 8.1. The environmental driver of failing water shortages and the need to conserve remaining supplies of drinking water or even underpin drinking supplies, wastewater recycling Water recycling in Australia has been driven by a succession of policy was introduced. However, in no location was recycled wastewater ulti- drivers. Initially, recycling for alternative uses was the driver in response to mately used to augment drinking water before the drought broke. The the imposition of environmental composition restraints of effluent dis- potential water shortage crisis did lead to building numerous plants to charges from WWTPs to receiving waters. This led to redirection for use in recycle sea water, though after plant acceptance and validation, only in agriculture with benefits from plant nutrients in the effluent stream, and in Perth was the potential for desalinated water immediately delivered into other cases for industrial use where drinking qualitywater was not required. the drinking water system. The response to the drought did demonstrate Often the recycled water offered was priced very low to encourage its up- Australia’s capacity to plan, develop and build quickly, major water take, the cost of producing it being largely borne by the water utility’sretail recycling infrastructure in the face of a potential crisis. But the Millen- customers as a necessary expense of meeting or avoiding discharge re- nium drought also demonstrated that while drought encourages adopting quirements. The increased environmental awareness and the introduction recycled water, the breaking of the drought allows its deferral or rejec- of policies governing competition (though water provision is largely a tion and can result in policy complacency.

35 J.C. Radcliffe, D. Page Water Cycle 1 (2020) 19–40

8.4. The technical driver

The question also arose as to how to physically manage the plants when there was little or no demand for the produced water. All depended on membranes for their operations. There was only limited experience in their management when not in use. Ultimately, most of Brisbane’s Western Corridor Scheme was shut amid political rancour by a subse- quent incoming government that regarded the scheme as a “white elephant”. Membranes were disposed of from their casings, noting that there was no standardisation of membranes between the three Advanced Water Treatment Plants. An estimate of two years was determined to reinstate the plant if it became necessary. The Gold Coast and Adelaide desalination plants were kept fully operational by running the plants at low level, rotating the treatment trains in use. The Sydney and Mel- bourne desalination plants were put in preservation mode after construction. Water utilities have difficulty in determining how to manage their demands for alternative water sources compared with their surface water catchment supplies which are in dams already built with the capital costs likely “sunk” and represent the cheapest sources of bulk water. As well as economic judgements, technical judgements must be made about man- aging membrane plants, whether to have them contributing to base water supplies or as drought insurance. Risk assessments will be required about the probability of conventional water sources again becoming available. Risk assessments will also be needed in considering whether production systems for “manufacturing water” may become obsolescent and replaced by newer technologies within the asset life of technologies that have been adopted. In the next decade, particularly if drought continues in the short term, thought will need to be given to addressing the need for alternative water supplies in remote and regional Australia, especially in New South Wales and Queensland where local government-managed water utilities have prime responsibility for supply. This may involve water recycling, saline groundwater desalination, and recourse to MAR for strategic storage when immediate access is not required. This may provide the opportunity for introducing new WWTP technologies which include potable water production as a component of base water supply. A variety of trains are becoming available [134]. Some have relatively small footprints, such as the use of membrane bioreactors. The portable potable water plant developed at the Self’s Point WWTP in Hobart for use in the Antarctic – Fig. 7. Warragamba Dam capacity February 25 2020 (Bureau of Meteorology [84] is a good example of the potential for such plants for small rural Water Storage App version 2.0.0.bld). areas. However, as higher technology plants are established by regional utilities, there will be a greater need for additional trained operatives [126] to supplement the consultants now accessed. 8.3. The economics driver Non-membrane technologies may have a wider role in the future. As an example, research has been published on requirements for additional Following the end of the drought, capital city utilities were left with treatment to be used if wetland-managed aquifer recharged storm water large pieces of recycling kit that was more expensive to operate than purveyed by the Salisbury Water Company were to be made suitable for accessing their available catchment water again. The recycling plants had addition to the drinking water supply [135]. fi incurred a high capital cost, the debts of which still had to be serviced. It is dif cult to determine the future of dual pipe systems. They appear fi These costs resulted in increased water utility bills for customers, though to have a continuing adoption in high rise of ce and apartment buildings in some cases these were controlled by extending debt repayments over and with their own self-contained WWTPs and recycling facilities in longer time frames so that the annual costs became less, even though the house where water is managed by a single entity. (The cost of dual total combined debt and interest repayment exceeded those originally plumbing systems has been estimated to increase plumbing capital costs budgeted. Economics became the next driver in the potential use of in buildings over seven stories by only 9% [136].) Sydney Water is only recycled water. The New South Wales government, though Sydney Water slowly progressing recycled water in those to which it expressed enthu- Corporation, sought to recoup debt for its desalination plant by leasing it siastic commitment ten years ago. The risk of cross connection remains a fi for 50 years with an associated contract to pay the annual resting concern, and identi cation may take a long time after an original maintenance costs and the production initiation and operating costs connection had been inadvertently approved. An example took eight when water was required. The Melbourne desalination plant was con- years to be detected in a family home at Mawson Lakes, South Australia ’ structed by a public-private partnership with operating rights for 30 before being corrected. The concluding observation was that the family s years. The operation of most large water recycling and desalination health had not been at risk as the recycled water provided met Australian plants was contracted out to private service providers by the state-owned drinking water guideline standards from a health perspective, but not water corporations. from a water aesthetics perspective [137]. It may well be that where

36 J.C. Radcliffe, D. Page Water Cycle 1 (2020) 19–40 recycled water is to be used in an urban area adjacent to a WWTP, it may reflection followed the end of the drought. Indirect potable recycling is be cheaper to process it to direct potable standard to augment existing being adopted, but community debate on direct potable recycling has yet drinking water supplies rather than having the cost of a suburb-wide dual to be held. piping system and its additional risks and maintenance costs. Declaration of competing interest 8.5. The broader picture The authors declare that they have no known competing financial The future of water planning, management, wastewater treatment interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence and water recycling needs to brought within the compass of a broader the work reported in this paper. picture that encompasses the role of integrated water cycle management and the role of water in urban amenity, including offsetting increasing Acknowledgments urban heat island effects in cities from climate change, the more effective integration with urban planning and the achievement of biodiversity The constructive suggestions of Dr Graham Bonnet and two anony- conservation objectives. These policy decisions are often set without mous referees are gratefully acknowledged. clear and transparent evidence and analysis [138]. References 8.6. Community acceptance [1] BoM, Annual Climate Statement 2019, Bureau of Meteorology Melbourne, 2020. http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/current/annual/aus/. (Accessed 29 January An important component of managing the introduction of new tech- 2020). nologies to achieve greater diversity of supply is how the community is [2] ABS, 3101.0 - Australian Demographic Statistics, Jun 2019, Australian Bureau of brought into the communication and decision-making process, an issue Statistics, Canberra, 2019. https://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/[email protected]/0 /D56C4A3E41586764CA2581A70015893E?Opendocument. (Accessed 29 raised in the development of many recycling proposals. Most of the large January 2020). schemes developed in response to Australia’s millennium drought were [3] World Bank, Population Growth (Annual %), World Bank, Washington, DC, 2019. conceived and constructed in short time frames with limited public https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.GROW. (Accessed 29 January 2020). consultation. Several produced opportunities for political posturing for or [4] ABS, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Population. 1301.0 - Year Book against the proposed infrastructure with opportunistic political grand- Australia, Australian Bureau of Statistics, Canberra, 2008. https://www.abs.gov standing. The difficulties experienced in communication in Queensland .au/ausstats/[email protected]/0/68AE74ED632E17A6CA2573D200110075?ope contrast with those used in Singapore and Orange County [139] and in ndocument. (Accessed 11 March 2020). [5] ABS 4610.0 - Water Account, Australia, 2000-01, Australian Bureau of Statistics, Perth. Canberra, 2001. https://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/[email protected]/ProductsbyRele Although there have been three major reviews of DPR issues for aseDate/8C8DD6F104A627DDCA257233001CE4A8?OpenDocument. (Accessed Australia in the past half-decade, their consideration has been largely 19 May 2004). (Accessed 14 March 2020). [6] J. Marsden, P. Pickering, Securing Australia’s Urban Water Supplies: among water professionals. The debate over recycling domestic house- Opportunities and Impediments - A Discussion Paper Prepared for the Department hold waste into three or four streams encompassing combined food and of the Prime Minister and Cabinet, November 2006. https://webarchive.nla.gov. garden organics, glass, combined paper, plastic and metals, and separate au/awa/20070101215513/http://pandora.nla.gov.au/pan/66739/20070102- 0000/urban_water_research.pdf, 30.02.20. residual waste has generally been won among the urban community. The [7] S. Beder, From sewage farms to septic tanks: trials and tribulations in Sydney, necessary debate about water recycling has yet to be embraced with the J. Roy. Aust. Hist. Soc. 79 (1993) 72–95, parts 1 & 2, https://documents.uow.e consuming public. The AWRCoE “Water 360” information package on du.au/~sharonb/sewage/history2.html. (Accessed 9 March 2020). [8] Sydney Water, The History of Sydney Water, Sydney’s Water Supply and potable recycling, though used in California, has seen little use in Wastewater Treatment, Sydney Water Corporation, Sydney, 2019. http://www.s Australia, where it has been transferred to WSAA [140]. That debate ydneywater.com.au/web/groups/publicwebcontent/documents/document/zgrf/ needs to be gently started, so that if potable water recycling is introduced mdux/~edisp/dd_051446.pdf. (Accessed 29 January 2020). ’ [9] Sydney Water, Wastewater Treatment Plants, Sydney Water Corporation, Sydney, in a future drought-driven water crisis or in response to Australia s 2020. https://www.sydneywater.com.au/SW/water-the-environment/how-we burgeoning population increase in an inherently dry country, the con- -manage-sydney-s-water/wastewater-network/wastewater-treatment-plants/inde sumers will be comfortable with such an approach. x.htm. (Accessed 14 March 2020). As the early 2020 dry record conditions in some parts of Australia [10] C. Ball, Improved Sewerage System for Adelaide, SA History Hub, History Trust of South Australia, 2019. http://sahistoryhub.com.au/subjects/improved-sewerage- meant that as the community was focused on water, it could be a good system-for-Adelaide. (Accessed 29 January 2020). time for conversations about long-term supply options. WSAA empha- [11] E&WS, History of Sewerage, Engineering and Water, Supply Department, sises that no decisions have been made to pursue purified recycled water Adelaide, 1986. [12] K.J. Levett, J.L. Vanderzalm, D.W. Page, P.J. Dillon, Factors affecting the in most Australian states, apart from Western Australia and the Western performance and risks to human health of on-site wastewater treatment systems, Corridor scheme in South East Queensland (currently off-line), though Water Sci. Technol. 62 (7) (2010) 1499–1509, https://doi.org/10.2166/ the Orange City Council (NSW) operates another example of IPR, albeit wst.2010.434. [13] GHD, Strategies towards the Use of Reclaimed Water in Australia, Gutteridge, using stormwater rather than advanced wastewater recycling. Good Haskins and Davey Pty Ltd (Reclaimed Water Committee, Ministry of Water water industry planning involves looking at all the water supply options Resources and Water Supply, Melbourne, August 1977. as agreed in the National Water Initiative. The experiences of overseas [14] GHD, Planning for the Use of Reclaimed Water in Victoria, Gutteridge, Haskins and Davey Pty Ltd (Reclaimed Water Committee, Ministry of Water Resources and utilities provide a positive framework while highlighting the importance Water Supply, Melbourne, February 1978. of bringing the community to confident acceptance. Yet attention to [15] Water Quality Australia, National Water Quality Management Strategy Guidelines, water issues must not be allowed to be overtaken by even more recent 2019. https://www.waterquality.gov.au/guidelines. (Accessed 5 February 2020). fi [16] Water Quality Australia, Effluent Management Guidelines (Historical Guidelines), events such as bush res or pandemics. Australia needs water for its long 2019. https://www.waterquality.gov.au/guidelines/effluent-management. term economic and social success. (Accessed 5 February 2020). [17] J.C. Radcliffe, Water Recycling in Australia, Australian Academy of Technological Novelty statement – Radcliffe and Page paper Sciences and Engineering, Melbourne, 2004, p. 233. https://www.atse.org.au/wp -content/uploads/2019/01/water-recycling-in-australia.pdf. (Accessed 30 January 2020). Australia began adopting recycled water in the early 1990s, accom- [18] EPA Victoria, Guidelines for Environmental Management – Use of Reclaimed panied by the first quality standards. Progress was driven by the impo- Water, Environment Protection Authority Victoria, Southbank, Victoria, September 2002. Publication 464.2, https://www.epa.vic.gov.au/-/media/epa/fi sition of discharge standards from WWTPs, then by the millennium les/publications/464-2.pdf. (Accessed 28 January 2020). drought when all states developed recycling and desalination projects to diversify water sources for urban and agricultural use. Economic

37 J.C. Radcliffe, D. Page Water Cycle 1 (2020) 19–40

[19] I.B. Law, Rouse Hill – Australia’s first full scale domestic non-potable reuse [41] J.C. Radcliffe, Advances in water recycling in Australia 2003-2007, in: S.J. Khan, application, Water Sci. Technol. 33 (10–11) (1996) 71–78, https://doi.org/ R.M. Stuetz, J.M. Anderson (Eds.), Water Reuse and Recycling, Australian Water 10.2166/wst.1996.0663. Association, Sydney, 2007, pp. 387–406. [20] Z. Chen, H.H. Ngo, W. Guo, X. Wang, Analysis of Sydney’s recycled water [42] M. Hall, J. West, J. Lane, D. de Haas, B. Sherman, Energy and Greenhouse Gas schemes, Front. Environ. Sci. Eng. 7 (4) (2013) 608–615, https://doi.org/ Emissions for the SEQ Water Strategy, Urban Water Security Research Alliance, 10.1007/s11783-012-0468-x. https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007% Brisbane, 2009. Technical Report No. 14. 2Fs11783-012-0468-x.pdf. (Accessed 3 February 2020). [43] J.C. Radcliffe, Water recycling in Australia – during and after the drought, [21] Sydney Water, Rouse Hill Water Recycling Plant, Sydney Water Corporation, Environ. Sci.: Water Res. Technol. 1 (2015) 554–562, https://doi.org/10.1039/ Sydney, 2020. https://www.sydneywater.com.au/web/groups/publicwebconte c5ew00048c. nt/documents/document/zgrf/mdq2/~edisp/dd_046179.pdf. (Accessed 4 [44] W. Traves, K. Davies, Australian water association, Water J 35 (4) (2008) 65–69. February 2020). https://issuu.com/australianwater/docs/2008_-_4_june. (Accessed 5 February [22] South Australia, State of Environment Report, Environment Protection Authority, 2020). Adelaide, 2003 108pp. www.epa.sa.gov.au/files/4771457_soe_index.pdf. [45] V. Uhlmann, B.W. Head, Water Recycling: Recent History of Local Government (Accessed 3 February 2020). Initiatives in South East Queensland. Technical Report No. 45, Urban Water [23] C. Mitchell, Making Better Recycled Water Investments, Institute for Sustainable Security Research Alliance, 2011. Brisbane, http://www.urbanwateralliance.org.a Futures, University of Technology, Sydney, 2020. http://waterrecyclinginvest u/publications/UWSRA-tr45.pdf. (Accessed 7 February 2020). ment.com/. (Accessed 28 February 2020). [46] SMH, Recycled Water Possible for Goulburn, Sydney Morning Herald, 27 May [24] P.J. Coombes, J.R. Argue, C. Kuczera, Figtree Place : a case study in water 2006. https://www.smh.com.au/national/recycled-water-possible-for-goulburn-2 sensitive urban development, Urban Water J. 1 (4) (2000) 335–343, https:// 0060527-gdnmnt.html. (Accessed 7 February 2020). doi.org/10.1016/S1462-0758(00)00027-3. (Accessed 15 February 2020). [47] S. Corbell, Securing Canberra’s Water Supply, Media release, 25 March 2009. http [25] M. Goddard, Urban greywater reuse at the D’LUX Development, Desalination 188 ://info.cmtedd.act.gov.au/archived-media-releases/media0028.html? (2006) 135–140. https://doi:10.1016/j.desal.2005.04.110. (Accessed 15 v¼7841&s¼158. (Accessed 7 February 2020). February 2020). [48] J.C. Radcliffe, The water energy nexus in Australia – the outcome of two crises, [26] F.A. Rabone, New haven village, Thesis, Master of Engineering Science, in: The Water-Energy Nexus 1 (2018) 66–85, https://doi.org/10.1016/ Challenge of Implementing Water Harvesting and Reuse in South Australian j.wen.2018.07.003. Towns, Part 2, University of Adelaide, November 2006, https://digital.library. [49] V. Moscovis, Groundwater Replenishment Trial Final Report, Water Corporation, adelaide.edu.au/dspace/bitstream/2440/51216/5/05part2B.pdf. (Accessed 15 Western Australia, Perth, 2013. https://www.watercorporation.com.au/-/media/ February 2020). files/residential/water-supply/gwrt/gwrt-final-report.pdf. (Accessed 2 March [27] J. Marks, N. Cromar, H. Fallowfield, D. Oemcke, M. Zadoroznyj, Community 2020). Experience and Perceptions of Water Use. 3rd World Water Congress of the IWA, [50] Water Corporation, Groundwater Replenishment Scheme Stage 2 Expansion, Melbourne, 7-12 April 2002. paper e20559a. Water Corporation, Western Australia, Perth, 2019. https://www.watercorporatio [28] M. Mobbs, Sustainable House, Choice Books, Australian Consumers Association, n.com.au/water-supply/ongoing-works/groundwater-replenishment-scheme. Marrickville NSW, 1998. (Accessed 4 March 2020). [29] J. Israel, Sustainability Expert Michael Mobbs: I’m Leaving the City to Prep for the [51] C. Foxall, Towards Sustainability in Beverage Manufacturing Using Natural Apocalypse, The Guardian, 29 September 2019. https://www.theguardian Biological Processes, Industrial Biotechnology Workshop, Brisbane, 3 November .com/environment/2019/sep/29/sustainability-expert-michael-mobbs-im-leavin 2008. g-the-city-to-prep-for-the-apocalypse. (Accessed 15 February 2020). [52] B. Blayney, P. Chapman, G. Landers, M. Storey, Implementing the New National [30] J.C. Radcliffe, History of water sensitive urban design/low impact development, Recycled Water Guidelines within an Existing Quality Management System, adoption in Australia and internationally, in: A. Sharma, T. Gardner, D. Begbie Ozwater’09 Australian Water Association, Sydney, 2009. Paper 048. (Eds.), Approaches to Water Sensitive Urban Design, Elsevier Ltd, Oxford, 2018, [53] W. Moore, Shoalhaven Reclaimed Water Management Scheme – Innovation and pp. pp1–24. Effective Partnerships Lead to Success. 7th IWA World Congress on Water [31] W. Bencke, Domestic Wastewater Recycling Trial – Implementing on Site Reclamation and Reuse, 20-25 September 2009, (Brisbane, Australia) Wastewater Recycling in Urban Areas – Lessons Learned, ActewAGL, Canberra, [54] Sydney Water, Wollongong Water Recycling, Plant Sydney Water Corporation, ACT, June 2001. Sydney, 2020. https://www.sydneywater.com.au/SW/education/Wastewater [32] NCC Compendium of National Competition Policy Agreements, second ed., -recycling/Water-recycling/wollongong-water-recycling-plant/index.htm. National Competition Council, Melbourne, June 1998. http://ncp.ncc.gov.a (Accessed 7 February 2020). u/docs/PIAg-002.pdf. (Accessed 30 January 2020). [55] A. Listowski, Innovative Recycles Water Scheme – Challenges and Opportunities, [33] NWI, Intergovernmental Agreement on a National Water Initiative, Department of Sydney Olympic Park Authority, Sydney, October 2014. https://www.awa.asn.au/ Premier and Cabinet, Canberra, 25 June 2004. https://www.pc.gov.au/inquirie documents/Innovative%20Recycles%20Water%20Scheme%20%E2%80%93%20 s/completed/water-reform/national-water-initiative-agreement-2004.pdf. Challenges%20and%20Opportunities.pdf. (Accessed 11 February 2020). (Accessed 30 January 2020). [56] K. Schott, Diversification Strategies. Keynote 02, Australian Water Association [34] R. Skinner, Whole of water life cycle innovations, in: The Australian Water Project Ozwater 09 Conference, 17 March 2009. Melbourne. - Crisis and Opportunity: Lessons of Australian Water Reform, CEDA – the [57] K. Schott, Tenders called to build residential recycled water scheme, Sustain. Committee for Economic Development of Australia, November 2011. https Matter. (20 April 2010). https://www.sustainabilitymatters.net.au/content/wate ://www.ceda.com.au/CEDA/media/Attachments/pdf/15335~waterprojectdigit r/news/tenders-called-to-build-residential-recycled-water-scheme-943055448. al.pdf. (Accessed 5 February 2020). (Accessed 11 February 2020). [35] CSIRO, Water Availability in the Murray. A Report to the Australian Government [58] I. Hammerton, Water4life – Water Recycling in Sydney, National Water Recycling from the CSIRO Murray-Darling Basin Sustainable Yields Project, CSIRO, & Reuse Technology Conference, Melbourne, 24-26 June 2009. Australia, 2008, p. 217pp, in: https://publications.csiro.au/rpr/download?pid¼pr [59] Australian Competition Tribunal, Application for review of the deemed decision ocite:cfc7ab48-acf5-4cff-87aa-f398cfb0287f&dsid¼DS1. (Accessed 1 March by the premier of new south wales dated 2 February 2005 under Section 44h(9) of 2020). the Trade Practices Act 1974 (Cth) in relation to the application for declaration of [36] S. Murphy, Water Forever – towards Climate Resilience – Water Corporation, sewage interconnection and transportation services provided by Sydney Water Perth, Western Australia, October 2009. https://www.watercorporation.co Corporation by Services Sydney Pty Limited, Australian Competition Tribunal No m.au/-/media/WaterCorp/Documents/Our-Water/Sustainability-and-Innovation 1 of 2005, https://www.accc.gov.au/system/files/public-registers/other/85259 /Securing-Supply/Water-forever-50-year-plan.pdf. (Accessed 13 May 2020). 0-1-Declaration.pdf. (Accessed 13 February 2020). [37] NWC, Waterlines, a Series of Commissioned Key Water Issue Works, National [60] IPART, Rosehill Recycled Water (Network) - Current Licence as Varied - Network Water Commission, Canberra, 2009. https://webarchive.nla.gov.au/awa/20130 Operator, New South Wales Independent Pricing and Regulatory Tribunal, 318063509/http://pandora.nla.gov.au/pan/139145/20130318-1530/archive. Sydney, 2015. https://www.ipart.nsw.gov.au/files/sharedassets/website/trimh nwc.gov.au/library/waterlines3cfa.html. (Accessed 18 February 2020). oldingbay/current_licence_as_varied_-_sgsp_rosehill_network_pty_ltd_-_network_ [38] P. Dillon, D. Page, J. Vanderzalm, S. Toze, C. Simmons, G. Hose, R. Martin, operator_-_26_july_2015.pdf. (Accessed 10 February 2020). K. Johnston, S. Higginson, R. Y Thompson, Morris, Lessons from 10 years of [61] Orange, Water - Stormwater Harvesting, Orange City Council, NSW, 2019. htt experience with Australia’s risk-based guidelines for managed aquifer recharge ps://www.orange.nsw.gov.au/water/stormwater/. (Accessed 19 February 2020). (2020), Water 12 (2020) 537, https://doi.org/10.3390/w12020537. (Accessed 6 [62] CRCWSC, Case Study — Orange Stormwater to Potable. Cooperative Research March 2020). Centre for Water Sensitive Cities, Clayton, Victoria, May 2018, p. 40. https [39] B. Spies, G. Dandy, Sustainable Water Management – Securing Australia’s Future ://watersensitivecities.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/Orange-stor in a Green Economy, Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and mwater-to-potable-Case-Study-180503-V8_WEB.pdf. (Accessed 17 February Engineering, Melbourne, 2012, p. 148. https://www.atse.org.au/wp-content/upl 2020). oads/2019/01/sustainable-water-management-report.pdf. (Accessed 27 February [63] J. Blackbeard, J. Lloyd, M. Magyar, J. Mieog, K.G. Linden, Y. Lester, 2020). Demonstrating organic contaminant removal in an ozone-based water reuse [40] J. Price, K. Fielding, Z. Leviston, Supporters and opponents of potable recycled process at full scale, Environ. Sci.: Water Res. Technol. 2 (2016) 213–222, https:// water: culture and cognition in the Toowoomba referendum, Soc. Nat. Resour. 25 doi.org/10.1039/c5ew00186b. (Accessed 6 March 2020). (10) (2012) 980–995, https://doi.org/10.1080/08941920.2012.656185. https [64] EPA Victoria, Melton South Class A Recycled Water Scheme - Statutory Audit ://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/08941920.2012.656185?scroll (s.53V) 2013 Final Report, Environment Protection Authority, Victoria, 31 August ¼top&needAccess¼true. (Accessed 5 February 2020). 2014. https://apps.epa.vic.gov.au/EnvAuditFiles/53V/67653-2/67653-2_a.pdf. (Accessed 7 March 2020).

38 J.C. Radcliffe, D. Page Water Cycle 1 (2020) 19–40

[65] F. Barker, R. Faggian, A.J. Hamilton, A history of wastewater irrigation in [91] ANAO, Grants for the Construction of the Adelaide Desalination Plant, Australian Melbourne, Australia, J. Water Sustain. 1 (2) (2011) 183–202. https://pdfs.sema National Audit Office, Canberra, 2013. https://www.anao.gov.au/sites/default/fi nticscholar.org/f77b/d140bef24a25ab5aab65a115f0e0c3acbc6d.pdf?_ga¼2.795 les/201213%20Audit%20Report%20No%2032.pdf. (Accessed 29 February 41396.1830561064.1581485689-1036189305.1580712279. (Accessed 12 2020). February 2020). [92] QAO Maintenance of Water Infrastructure Assets, 2013. Report to Parliament 14 [66] L. Cella, 25 years of innovative water treatment, Utility (10 August 2016). https:// for 2012–13. Queensland Audit Office, Brisbane, https://www.qao.qld.gov.au utilitymagazine.com.au/25-years-of-innovative-water-treatment/. (Accessed 7 /sites/default/files/reports/rtp_maintenance_of_water_infrastructure_assets.pdf. February 2020). (Accessed 29 February 2020). [67] C. Byrt, A. Kelliher, Use 0f Recycled Water in an Urban Recreational Lake, [93] VAGO, Water Entities: Results of the 2012–13 Audits, Victorian Auditor-General’s Australian Water Association Ozwater09 Conference, Melbourne, 15-18 March Office Government Printer, Melbourne, 2013, p. 106. https://www.audit.vic.gov.a 2009. u/sites/default/files/20121114-Water-Entities.pdf. (Accessed 20 February 2020). [68] D. Wells, Queensland Water Recycling Strategy, Environment Protection Agency, [94] IPART, Review of Water Prices for Sydney Desalination Plant Pty Limited, Brisbane, October 2001. December 2012, New South Wales Independent Pricing and Regulatory Tribunal, [69] Gold Coast, Water Futures – Pimpama Coomera Water Futures Project-Master Plan Sydney, 2012. https://www.ipart.nsw.gov.au/files/sharedassets/website/trimhol Options Report, Gold Coast City Council, Queensland, July 2003. dingbay/determination_-_prices_for_sydney_desalination_plant_pty_limiteds_water [70] J.C. Radcliffe, D. Page, B. Naumann, P. Dillon, Fifty years of water sensitive urban _supply_services_-_december_2011.pdf. (Accessed 29 February 2020). design, Salisbury, south Australia, Front. Environ. Sci. Eng. 11 (4) (2017) 7–16, [95] S.J. Kenway, A. Priestley, S. Cook, S. Seo, M. Inman, A. Gregory, M. Hall, Energy https://doi.org/10.1007/s11783-017-0937-3. Use in the Provision and Consumption of Urban Water in Australia and New [71] G. Ingleton, E. Mann, L. Gapp, Adelaide Airport Heat Reduction Trial, Australian Zealand. CSIRO Water for a Healthy Country Flagship Report Series ISSN:1835- Water Association Ozwater18 Conference, Brisbane, May 2018, p. 397. https://sto 095X, 2008. https://publications.csiro.au/rpr/download?pid¼csiro:EP11 rage-ap-152.sharefile.com/download.ashx?dt¼dtaf20fed1da0848fd9c55251e1 6078&dsid¼DS1. (Accessed 17 February 2020). 477f081&h¼TqWN72FvgII1c6%2f5CCd5as7%2fbJHAnvjXwedT59lzWAE% [96] S. Warner, Maintenance of Water Infrastructure Assets, SEQ Catchments. 3d. (Accessed 19 February 2020). Submission to the State Development, 2015. Infrastructure and Industry [72] S.A. Water, Water Recycling, South Australian Water Corporation, Adelaide, 2020. Committee Inquiry into Queensland Audit Office Report 14 to Parliament 2013, https://www.sawater.com.au/community-and-environment/our-water-an http://www.parliament.qld.gov.au/documents/committees/SDIIC/2013/ d-sewerage-systems/recycled-water. (Accessed 12 February 2020). 12-WaterInfraAssets/submissions/008.pdf. (Accessed 27 February 2020). [73] SEWPaC, Water Smart Australia Program - Review and Lessons Learnt, Final [97] M. Hall, J. West, J. Lane, D. de Haas, B. Sherman, Energy and Greenhouse Gas Report, Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water Population and Emissions for the SEQ Water Strategy, September 2009. Technical Report No. 14, Communities, Canberra, July 2012. https://webarchive.nla.gov.au/awa/2013090 Urban Water Security Research Alliance, Brisbane, https://publications.csiro.au/r 5200236/http://www.environment.gov.au/water/publications/urban/pubs/w pr/download?pid¼csiro:EP116385&dsid¼DS2. (Accessed 18 March 2020). ater-smart-review-report.pdf. (Accessed 13 February 2020). [98] AWRCoE/WSAA, Submission 018 to the State Development, Infrastructure and [74] Melbourne, CH2 – How it Works, City of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, 2020, Industry Committee Inquiry into Queensland Audit Office, Australian Water 2020, https://www.melbourne.vic.gov.au/SiteCollectionDocuments/CH2-how-it- Recycling Centre of Excellence/Australian Water Association/Water Services works.pdf (accessed 19.02.20). Association of Australia, 2013. Report 14 to Parliament 2013, http://www.parl [75] J. Anderson, J. Bradley, J. Radcliffe, Water reuse in Australia and New Zealand, in: iament.qld.gov.au/documents/committees/SDIIC/2013/12-WaterInfraAssets/ B. Jimenez, T. Asano (Eds.), Water Reuse - an International Survey of Current submissions/018.pdf. (Accessed 28 February 2020). Practice, Issues and Needs, International Water Association, London, 2008, [99] S.A. Water, Annual Report for the Year Ending 30 June 2012, South Australian pp. 105–121. Water Corporation, Adelaide, 2012. https://www.sawater.com.au/__data/assets [76] ABS, Environmental Issues, People’s Views and Practices, Australian Bureau of /pdf_file/0018/6642/AnnualReport201112.pdf. (Accessed 7 March 2020). Statistics, Canberra, 1994. June 1994, https://www.ausstats.abs.gov.au/ausstats/ [100] Sydney Desal, Sydney Desalination Plant Timeline, Sydney Desalination Plant Pty free.nsf/0/042D49966B3B630ECA2572250004961D/$File/46020_0694 Ltd, Kurnell NSW, 2020. https://www.sydneydesal.com.au/who-we-are/our-his .pdf. (Accessed 25 February 2020). tory/. (Accessed 27 February 2020). [77] J.S. Heyworth, E.J. Maynard, D. Cunliffe, Who consumes what: potable water [101] Sydney Water, Recycling in Retreat Daily Telegraph, Sydney, 27 October 2011, consumption in South Australia, Water 25 (1) (1998) 9–13. p. 15. [78] W. Ahmed, K. Hamilton, S. Toze, S. Cook, D. Page, A review on microbial [102] Sydney Water Hoxton Park Recycled Water Scheme, Sydney Water Corporation, contaminants in stormwater runoff and outfalls: potential health risks and Sydney, 2020. https://www.sydneywater.com.au/SW/water-the-environment/wh mitigation strategies, Sci. Total Environ. 692 (2019) 1304–1321, https://doi.org/ at-we-re-doing/current-projects/recycled-water/hoxton-park-recycledwater-sche 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.07.055. me/index.htm. (Accessed 27 February 2020). [79] G. Workman, R. Herbert, G. Tink, Overview of Plumbing Legislation Reform [103] GHD, City of Sydney Recycled Water Plan, Gutteridge, Haskins and Davey Pty Ltd, Needed for Urban Water Recycling. CD-ROM, Water Recycling Australia, 2nd Sydney, 5 June 2012. https://www.cityofsydney.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf National Conference Brisbane, Australian Water Association, Sydney, 1-3 _file/0007/151198/Recycled-Water-Plan.pdf. (Accessed 28 February 2020). September 2003. [104] AWA, Barangaroo to Export Recycled Water, Australian Water Association Water [80] enHealth, Guidance on Use of Rainwater Tanks, Department of Health, Canberra, Source, 31 January 2018. https://watersource.awa.asn.au/environment/built-en 2011, p. 56pp. https://www1.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/Con vironment/barangaroo-to-export-recycled-water/. (Accessed 28 February 2020). tent/0D71DB86E9DA7CF1CA257BF0001CBF2F/$File/enhealth-raintan [105] Ballina, Your Guide to Living with Recycled Water in the Ballina Shire, Ballina k.pdf. (Accessed 25 February 2020). Shire Council, 2016. https://ballina.nsw.gov.au/files/FINAL-bsc339_rRecycled_ [81] T. Gardner, A. Vieritz, The role of rainwater tanks in Australia in the twenty-first water_A4_folded_to_A5_v2.pdf. (Accessed 28 February 2020). century, Architect. Sci. Rev. 53 (1) (2010) 107–125, https://doi.org/10.3763/ [106] Aquasure. https://www.aquasure.com.au/, 2018. (Accessed 28 February 2020). asre.2009.0074. [107] Victoria, Water Grid and Markets – Desalination, Department of Environment, [82] GHD, Review of Water Smart Australia and Lessons Learnt, - Final Report - Land, Water and Planning, Victoria, 2020. https://www.water.vic.gov.au/water- Gutteridge, Haskins and Davey Pty Ltd, July 2012. https://webarchive.nla.gov. grid-and-markets/desalination. (Accessed 28 February 2020). au/awa/20130905200236/http://www.environment.gov.au/water/publ [108] Yarra Valley, Yarra Valley Future Water – Land Development Manual. Yarra Valley ications/urban/pubs/water-smart-review-report.pdf (accessed 05.02.20. Water, Mitcham, Victoria, September 2019, p. 58. https://media-2.yvw.com. [83] S.J. Khan, M.H. Muston, A.I. Schafer€ (Eds.), Integrated Concepts in Water au/inline-files/Land-Development-Manual-Dec19.pdf. (Accessed 29 February Recycling 2005, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, 2005, p. 784. 2020). [84] S. Gray, J. Zhang, M. Duke, A. Knight, M. Packer, K. Northcote, P. Hillis, [109] MCG, Water Recycling, Melbourne Cricket Ground, Melbourne, 2020. https:// D. Dharmabalan, P. Scales, Robust Water Recycling Plant for the Antarctic. www.mcg.org.au/about-us/policies/water-recycling. (Accessed 28 February Australian Water Association Ozwater15 Conference, 12-14 May 2015. Adelaide, 2020). http://www.awa.asn.au/documents/046%20SGRAY.pdf (accessed 28.02.20. [110] Seqwater, Water Supply Planning Water Security Program Annual Report 2018, [85] WaterRA, Waterval. Water Research Australia, 2020. Adelaide, https://www.wate Queensland Bulk Water Supply Authority, Brisbane, 2018. https://www.seqwater rra.com.au/research/waterval/ (accessed 28.02.20. .com.au/sites/default/files/2019-08/2018%20Water%20Security%20Program% [86] WateReuse, Water 360, Watereuse Association, Alexandria, VA, USA, 2020. 20Annual%20Report%20.pdf. (Accessed 27 February 2020). https://watereuse.org/educate/water-reuse-101/global-connections/ (accessed [111] Seqwater, Annual Report 2012-13, Queensland Bulk Water Supply Authority, 25.02.20). Brisbane, 2013. https://www.parliament.qld.gov.au/documents/tableOffice/Tabl [87] Water Research Access Portal. https://www.waterportal.com.au/search? edPapers/2013/5413T3533.pdf. (Accessed 27 February 2020). q¼AWRCoE, 2020. (Accessed 14 February 2020). [112] R. Carr, J. Marsden, P. Jacob, Case Study #1 (Of 3) – South East Queensland [88] N. Palmer, Desalination Research for Regional Australia, AWA SA Regional Western Corridor Recycled Water Project, November 2012. Project Report, Conference, Adelaide, 17 August 2012. https://www.awa.asn.au/documents/Neil Australian Water Recycling Centre of Excellence, http://legacywater360.server30 %20Palmer%20-%20NCED.pdf. (Accessed 14 February 2020). 9.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/Case-Study-1-Western-Corridor-Recycled [89] BoM, Climate Resilient Water Resources 2012-13, 2014. http://www.bom.gov. -Water-Project.pdf. (Accessed 27 February 2020). au/water/crews/. (Accessed 25 February 2020). [113] Jacobs, Independent Review of Cost Forecasts, Seqwater Western Corridor [90] Productivity Commission Australia’s, Urban Water Sector, Report No. 55, Final Recycled Water Scheme. SKM (Jacobs) Project QE06934. Queensland Competition Inquiry Report, Productivity Commission, Canberra, 2011. http://www.pc.gov.a Authority, 2014. Brisbane, https://www.qca.org.au/wp-content/upload u/inquiries/completed/urban-water/report/urban-water-volume1.pdf. (Accessed s/2019/05/25636_Seqwater-submission-Appendix-D-1.pdf Appendix-D.aspx. 27 February 2020). (Accessed 27 February 2020).

39 J.C. Radcliffe, D. Page Water Cycle 1 (2020) 19–40

[114] Gold Coast, Pimpama Coomera Recycled Water Scheme - Quarterly Public Report 374/Public%20Health%20Risk%20Assessment%20Final%20Report%20June% April to June 2017, Gold Coast Council, 2017. https://www.goldcoast.qld.gov. 202014.pdf. (Accessed 6 March 2020). au/documents/bf/pimpama-coomera-recycled-water-report-q2-2017.pdf. [136] US EPA, Water Recycling and Reuse: the Environmental Benefits, United States (Accessed 27 February 2020). Environmental Protection Agency, Washington D.C, 2002. https://nepis.epa.gov/ [115] C. West, S. Kenway, Z. Yuan, Risks to the Long-Term Viability of Residential Non- Exe/ZyPDF.cgi/P1009AAO.PDF?Dockey¼P1009AAO.PDF. (Accessed 6 March potable Water Schemes: a Review, Cooperative Research Centre for Water 2020). Sensitive Cities, Melbourne, Australia, 2015. https://watersensitivecities.org.au/ [137] C. Slessor, SA Couple Left to Drink and Bathe in Recycled Water for Eight Years wp-content/uploads/2016/05/TMR_C3-1_RisksViabilityNonPotableWater.pdf. Following Connection Bungle, Australian Broadcasting Corporation, Radio (Accessed 2 April 2020). Adelaide, 31 July 2019. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-07-31/couple-le [116] S. Marshall, White elephant no more: feds will pay SA to fire up desal plant, Daily ft-to-drink-and-bathe-in-recycled-water-for-eight-years/11369210. (Accessed 6 7 November 2019, Adelaide, https://indaily.com.au/news/2019/11/07/whit March 2020). e-elephant-no-more-feds-will-pay-sa-to-fire-up-desal-plant/. (Accessed 2 March [138] J. Doolan, Integrated Urban Water Management — Why a Good Idea Seems Hard 2020). to Implement. Productivity Commission Research Paper, March 2020. Canberra, [117] P. Kretchmer, Managed Aquifer Recharge Scheme in the Adelaide Metropolitan https://www.pc.gov.au/research/completed/water-cycle/integrated-urban-wa Area, Government of South Australia, Department of Environment, Water and ter.pdf. (Accessed 23 March 2020). Natural Resources, Adelaide, 2017. DEWNR Technical Report 2017/22, [139] C. Tortajada, S. Nambiar, Communications on technological innovations: potable https://www.waterconnect.sa.gov.au/Content/Publications/DEW/Managed% water reuse, Water 11 (2019) 251–280, https://doi.org/10.3390/w11020251. 20Aquifer%20Recharge%20Schemes%20in%20Adelaide_Final.pdf. (Accessed 18 [140] Water 360, Water360 Educational and Engagement Material, Water Services March 2020). Association of Australia, Sydney, 2015. http://legacy.water360.com.au/. [118] S. Vorrath, Sundrop Farms Sells Solar Tower Powered Greenhouse Business. (Accessed 19 March 2020). Renew Economy, 15 May 2019. https://reneweconomy.com.au/sundrop-farms -sells-solar-tower-powered-greenhouse-business-16995/. (Accessed 2 March 2020). ABBREVIATIONS [119] SCEW, Latest News, Standing Council for Environment and Water, 15 December 2014. https://webarchive.nla.gov.au/awa/20141215061635/http://www.scew. $: Australian dollar (AUD), not inflation corrected gov.au/. (Accessed 1 March 2020). ACT: Australian Capital Territory [120] , National Water Commission (Abolition) Act 2015, 2015. ACTEW: ACT water utility https://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/C2015A00063 01.06.20.pdf. ANZECC: Australia and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council (Ministerial [121] Productivity Commission, National Water Reform – Report No 87. Productivity level) Commission, 19 December 2017. Canberra, http://www.pc.gov.au/__data/asset ARMCANZ: Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand s/pdf_file/0009/228177/water-reform-overview.pdf. (Accessed 4 March 2020). (Ministerial level) [122] Infrastructure Australia, Reforming Urban Water - A National Pathway for Change, ATSE: The Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering 2017. https://www.infrastructureaustralia.gov.au/sites/default/files/2019-06/re AWRCoE: Australian Water Recycling Centre of Excellence forming_urban_water_web_version.pdf. (Accessed 5 March 2020). B: billion (109) [123] P. Dillon, N. Palmer, R. Vertessy, J. Radcliffe, Research investment in the BAC: biological activated carbon Australian urban water industry - towards an optimal level and a funding model, BASIX: New South Wales Building and Sustainability Index Water e J. 3 (4) (2018), https://doi.org/10.21139/wej.2018.042. (Accessed 6 BNR: Biological Nutrient Removal March 2020). BOD: biological oxygen demand [124] BoM, Annual Performance Report, 2017-18 – Urban Water Utilities, Part A, Bureau “CADS”: “Citizens Against Drinking Sewage” (lobby group) of Meteorology, Melbourne, February 2019. http://www.bom.gov.au/water/npr CSIRO: Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation /docs/2017-18/nationalPerformanceReport2017_18UrbanWaterUtilities.pdf. DAFF: Dissolved Air Flotation Filtration (Accessed 6 March 2020). DALYs: Disability Life Years [125] ATSE Drinking Water through Recycling - the Benefits and Costs of Supplying DPR: direct potable recycling Direct to the Distribution System, Australian Academy of Technological Sciences enHealth: Environmental Health Committee of the Australian Health Protection Committee and Engineering, Melbourne, 10 October 2013, p. 128. https://www.atse.org GL: Gigalitres (106m3) .au/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/drinking-water-through-recycling-full-repor IDEA: Intermittently Decanted Extended Aeration t.pdf. (Accessed 4 March 2020). IFAS: Integrated Fixed-film Activated Sludge [126] S. Khan, A. Branch, Potable Water Reuse –What Can Australia Learn from Global IPART: New South Wales Independent Pricing and Regulatory Authority Experience? WaterRA Project 3039 Water Research Australia, 2019, p. 80. IPR: indirect potable recycling Adelaide, https://www.waterra.com.au/publications/document-search/?down kL: Kilolitre load¼1806. (Accessed 4 March 2020). km: kilometre [127] WSAA, All Options on the Table - Lessons from the Journeys of Others, Water kWh/m3: kilowatt hours per cubic metre (rate of power consumption) Services Association of Australia, Melbourne, 2019, p. 110. https://www.wsaa.as M: million (106) n.au/sites/default/files/publication/download/WSAA%20All%20Options%20on m: metre %20the%20Table%20full%20report.pdf. (Accessed 4 March 2020). m3: cubic metre [128] N. Turner, Is Direct Potable Reuse a Technically and Socially Viable Source Option MBR: membrane bioreactor for Perth? Paper 436, Australian Water Association Ozwater19 Conference, Day 2 MCC: Melbourne Cricket Club Stream 2, 8 May 2019. Melbourne, https://www.ozwater.org/sites/all/files/oz MCG: Melbourne Cricket Ground water/Ozwater19_Online%20Program%20A3_Day%202%20Wednesday_6.pdf. MF: microfiltration (Accessed 4 March 2020). mg: milligram [129] S. Elks, State Looks to Tap into Recycled Water Plan, The Weekend Australian, 25- mg/l: milligram per litre 26 January 2020, p. 7. ml: millilitre [130] D. Healy, D. Middleton, A. Salveson, D. Owen, J. Bishop, N. Turner, Community mm: millimetre acceptance for indirect potable reuse - developing a validation and acceptance NCEDA: National Centre of Excellence in Desalination Australia program for the community, Water e J. 5 (1) (2020), https://doi.org/10.21139/ NHMRC: National Health and Medical Research Council wej.2020.004, 14,05.2020. NSW: New South Wales (state) [131] D. Page, O. Marinoni, Day Zero and pathways to water security for regional towns, NT: Northern Territory Ecos 263 (27 February 2020). https://ecos.csiro.au/day-zero-and-pathways-to NTU: Nephelometric Turbidity Unit (measure of turbidity) -water-security-for-regional-communities/. (Accessed 18 March 2020). NWC: National Water Commission [132] Infrastructure Australia, Infrastructure Priority List - Project and Initiative NWQMS: National Water Quality Management Strategy Summaries, February 2020, p. 204. https://www.infrastructureaustralia.gov.au Pty.Ltd.: Proprietary Limited (a company in which the shares are held privately) /sites/default/files/2020-03/2020_infrastructure_priority_list_low_resolution_-_up Q: Queensland (state) dated.pdf. (Accessed 5 March 2020). QEPA: Queensland Environmental Protection Agency [133] Department of Agriculture, Future Drought Fund. Department of Agriculture, RO: reverse osmosis Water and the Environment, 14 February 2020. Canberra, https://www.agricultur SA: South Australia (state) e.gov.au/ag-farm-food/drought/future-drought-fund. (Accessed 6 April 2020). STEDS: Septic Tank Effluent Drainage Scheme [134] D. Gerrity, B. Pecson, R.S. Trussell, R.R. Trussell, Potable reuse treatment trains TDS: total dissolved solids throughout the world, J. Water Supply Res. Technol. - Aqua 62 (6) (2013) USA: United States of America 321–338, https://doi.org/10.2166/aqua.2013.041. UV: ultra-violet [135] D. Page, D. Gonzalez, P. Dillon, J. Vanderzalm, G. Vadakattu, S. Toze, J. Sidhu, Vic: Victoria (state) K. Miotlinski, S. Torkzaban, K. Barry, Managed Aquifer Recharge Stormwater Use WA: Western Australia (state) Options: Public Health and Environmental Risk Assessment Final Report, Goyder WHO: World Health Organisation Institute for Water Research, Adelaide, South Australia, 2013. Technical Report WSAA: Water Services Association of Australia (peak organisation for major water utilities) 13/17, http://www.goyderinstitute.org/_r399/media/system/attrib/attachment/ WWTP: Wastewater Treatment Plant

40