Cultural Drivers of Plant Biodiversity of District Tor Ghar

Home , Changa Manga, Hassanzai, Madakhel

CULTURAL DRIVERS OF PLANT BIODIVERSITY OF DISTRICT TOR GHAR

ABBAS HUSSAIN SHAH

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY HAZARA UNIVERSITY MANSEHRA

2015 HAZARA UNIVERSITY, MANSEHRA

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY

CULTURAL DRIVERS OF PLANT BIODIVERSITY OF DISTRICT TOR GHAR

ABBAS HUSSAIN SHAH

This research study has been conducted and reported as partial fulfillment of requirements of PhD degree in Botany awarded by Hazara University, Mansehra Pakistan

Mansehra Tuesday, June 16, 2015

CULTURAL DRIVERS OF PLANT BIODIVERSITY OF DISTRICT TOR GHAR

SUBMITTED BY ABBAS HUSSAIN SHAH

RESEARCH SUPERVISOR (DR. AZHAR HUSSAIN SHAH) Assistant Professor Department of Botany HazaraUniversity, Mansehra

CO- SUPERVISOR (DR. SHUJA UL MULK KHAN) Assistant Professor Department of Plant Sciences Quaid-i-Azam University Islamabad

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY HAZARA UNIVERSITY MANSEHRA 2015

Dedication To My parents, Teachers, wife, children, brother and sister

. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

All glory be to Allah and blessings upon his last prophet Muhammmad (peace be upon him) and his pure family and sincere companions. First and foremost, I wish to express special gratitude to my research supervisor Dr. Azhar Hussain Shah for his intellectual support and cooperative attitude through out the study period. I am equally indebted to my co supervisor Dr. Shujah ul Mulk Khan for his logical discussions on my topic, helpful guidelines on the field work, data processing and analysis. I would like to express exceptional and extraordinary thanks to renowned scientist of the country Prof. Dr. Habib Ahmad, vice chancellor Hazara University for his constant encouragement and valuable suggestions. My thanks are due to Prof. Dr. Manzoor Hussain chairman department of Botany, Hazara University for his motivation and guidance. I am highly thankful to Dr. Ghulam Mujtaba shah senior faculty member of Botany department, Hazara University for sharing his research experiences. I can not forget many of my colleagues and friends like Mr. Abdul Majid lecturer in Botany Hazara University, Mr. Khalid Rashid and Mr. Muhammad Farooq lecturers in Botany Govt. College Mansehra, who have had a hand in the preparation of this peace of research work in present shape. Moral support of many of my well wishers like Prof. Saeed ul Haq, Prof. Abdul Majid, Prof. Syed Wajid Ali shah,Mr. Touqir IT engineer,Mr. Mujahid Hussain shah, Mr. Sher Muhammad, Mr. Sheraz Hussain Shah,Mr. Zubair Hussain Shah, Mr. Ghulam Mustafa Shah and Mr. Ijaz Hussain Shahremained a constant source of inspiration throughout this journey of exploration. It was my good fortune to have the dedicated help of staff members of Botany department of Hazara University, Dr. Jan Alam, Dr. Zafar Iqbal, Dr. Uzma Khan, Dr. Niaz Ali, Dr. Aftab,Dr. Faisal Noroz, Dr. Fayaz and Mr. Azhar Khan. I will not forget a figure without whom it would extremely difficult for me to achieve the goal of a supreme academic reward was Mr. Azhar Mehmood Chairman Bioinformatics department Govt. Post Graduate College Mandian Abbottabad, who remained with me during field visits of rugged and harsh mountaineous areas of Tor Ghar. i

Dr. Abdul Nasir T.B specialist and Dr. Ismaeel ENT specialists Battagram are highly acknowledged for facilitating my stay in the Tor Ghar. I express my deepest feelings and gratitude to Mr. Hanif shah (R) DFO for providing necessary documents and suggestions. I warmly thanks the indigenous tribes of district Tor Ghar for allowing me to their settlements and Hujras for interviews and group discussions and also for their hospitality and guidance durig field visits. I am highly grateful to all government departments of the district Tor Ghar for extending every possible cooperation during this study. Last, but not the least, a word of thanks goes to my parents whose untiring efforts and prayers have placed me in the present position, to my wife and my children, who always made time available and gave me constant moral support. However, my little kid Annus Ali Shah missed me during the study and remained angry for not giving him proper attention. (Abbas Hussain Shah)

CONTENTS

CHAPTER -1 INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………1

1.1 Biodiversity ...... 1

1.2 Culture ...... 2

1.3 Relationship between Human culture and Biodiversity ...... 3

1.4 Ethnobotany ...... 6

1.5 Ecosystem Services and Plant Biodiversity ...... 6

1.5.1 Drivers of change in Ecosystem Services ...... 7

1.5.2 Cultural Drivers ...... 8

1.6 Study Area ...... 9

1.6.1 Geography ...... 9

1.6.2 Geology, Rocks and Soil ...... 12

1.6.3 Land Cover Classes ...... 13

1.6.4 Climate ...... 14

1.6.5 Forests...... 14

1.6.6 Livestock and Rangeland ...... 17

1.6.7 Agriculture System ...... 18

1.6.8 Land ownership and Tenancy Traditions ...... 19

1.6.9 Demography...... 20

1.6.10 Torghar Tribes ...... 21

1.6.11 Norms and Traditions ...... 21

1.6.12 Education ...... 22

1.6.13 Health ...... 23

iii

1.7 Rationale of the study ...... 24

1.8 Objectives ...... 25

CHAPTER -2 MATERIAL AND METHODS…………………………………… 27

2.1 Randomized Selection ...... 27

2.2 Tools of Collecting Data ...... 28

2.2.1 Field Visits ...... 28

2.2.2 Household Survey ...... 29

2.2.3 Group Discussion: Ethnobotanical Participatory Appraisal (EPA)...29

2.2.4 Interviews ...... 30

2.2.5 Direct Observations ...... 31

2.2.6 Collection of Secondary Data...... 31

2.2.7 Informants Response ...... 32

2.3 How interviews conducted ...... 32

2.4 Preparation of check list of culturally significant plants ...... 35

2.5 Quantification of Data ...... 35

2.5.1 Cultural Importance Index ( CI)...... 35

2.5.2 Mean Cultural Importance Index (m CI) ...... 36

2.5.3 Cultural importance of families (CIF) ...... 36

2.5.4 Informant Consensus Factor (ICF)...... 36

2.6 Assesment of Conservation Status...... 37

2.6.1 Scale for IUCN Categories...... 39

2.7 Data Analysis...... 39

2.7.1 Analysis of checklist...... 39

2.7.2 MS EXCEL...... 40

2.7.3 Use of CANACO...... 40

2.7.4 DCA...... 40

2.7.5 TWCA...... 41

CHAPTER- 3 RESULTS……………………………………………………………….42

3.1 Qualitative Ethnobotany...... 42

3.2 Cultural uses operating as cultural drivers of ethnoflora of Tor Ghar...... 45

3.3 Cultural Gradient of Plant Biodiversity of District Tor Ghar...... 49

3.4 Quantitative Ethnobotany...... 50

3.4.1 Informant Consensus Factor (ICF)...... 50

3.4.2 Cultural Importance Index (CI)...... 56

3.4.2.1 Estimation of Cultural Importance of species used by Basikhel...... 56

3.4.2.2 Estimation of Cultural Importance of species used by Nusratkhel.57

3.4.2.3 Estimation of Cultural Importance of species used by Akazai ...... 57

3.4.2.4 Estimation of Cultural Importance of species used by Hassanzai..58

3.4.2.5 Estimation of Cultural Importance of species used by Medakhel..58

3.4.3 Cultural Importance of families (CIF)...... 59

3.5 Role of Ethnobiology in Conservation...... 60

3.5.1 Conservation status of herbs...... 60

3.5.2 Conservation status of shrubs...... 61

3.5.3 Conservation status of trees...... 62

3.6 Use of softwares in handling of cultural data...... 64

3.6.1 Detrended correspondance analysis (DCA)...... 64

3.6.2 Results of Two Ways Cluster Analysis (TWCA)...... 69

CHAPTER- 4 DISCUSSION ...... 74

4.1 Richness of ethnoecologically important species...... 74

4.2 Cultural uses as cultural drivers of shaping plant diversity ...... 76

4.3 Cultural Use Categories...... 79

4.4 Quantitative assesment of cultural drivers...... 94

4.4.1 Informant Consensus Factor (ICF)...... 95

4.4.2 Cultural Importance Index (CI)...... 97

4.5 Cultural Importance of Families (CIF)...... 103

4.6 Role of Ethnobiology in Conservation...... 104

4.7 DCA interpretation for CI, CS and number of uses ...... 110

4.8 Conclusions ...... 114

4.9 Recommendations ...... 115

LIST OF FIGURES

Fig.1.1 Map of the district showing tribal belts 10

Fig 1.2 River Indus flowing through the district Tor Ghar 11

Fig.1.3 Panaromic view of Tor Ghar 12

Fig. 1.4 Forest map of district Tor Ghar 16

Fig. 2.1 Field survey of Kalash valley district Tor Ghar 29

Fig. 2.2 A guided tour through Gigni village of Basikhel Tribal belt. 31

Fig. 2.3 An interview conducted in the Hujra- a social gathering place 34

Fig. 3.1 Percentage of families 42

Fig. 3.2 Number of genera and species shown by each group of plants 43

Fig. 3.3 Families showing highest number of genera and species ______44

Fig.3.4 Habitwise percentage of ethnoflora of Tor Ghar 44

Fig. 3.5 The highest number of species reported for important cultural uses 49

Fig. 3.6 Percentage of species used by different tribes 49

Fig. 3.7 Venn diagram showing comparison of plants uses among five tribe 50

Fig. 3.8 The highest ICF values for three use categories among five tribes 56

Fig. 3.9 The highest ICF values showing families of different groups of plan 60

Fig. 3.10Critically endangered herbs of district Tor Ghar. 61

Fig.3.11 Critically endangered shrubs of district Tor Ghar 61

Fig.3.12 Critically endangered trees of district Tor Ghar 62

Fig. 3.13 Number of species of different life formsand IUCN categoriesv 62

Fif. 3.14 Total number of species assigned to IUCN categories______63

vii

Fig. 3.15 Percentage of threatened and secure species of Tor Ghar______63

Fig. 3.16 DCA plot showing the distribution of various cultural use categories among different tribes. 64

Fig. 3.17 DCA plot showing overall tribewise correlation of cultural use categories______65

Fig. 3.18 DCA plot showing cultural importance of families in the district Tor

Ghar______66

Fig. 3.19 DCA plot representing tribewise correlation of CIF. 67

Fig. 3.20 DCA plot showing cultural importance index, number of uses and conservation status among different tribes. 68

Fig. 3.21 A dendrogram showing tribewise clustering of ethnospecies 70

Fig. 3.22TWCA showing clusterization of cultural use categories among five tribes

______72

viii

LIST OF TABLES

Table: 1.1 Percentage of land cover classes 13

Table 1.2 Average rainfall data 14

Table 1.3 Monthly mean maximum and mean minimum temperature 14

Table 1.4 Area Covered by forests 17

Table 1.5 Number of villages and households of Torghar 20

Table 1.6 Number of schools in Torghar 23

Table 1.7 Basic Health Units of District Torghar 23

Table: 2.1 Number of visited villages, tribes and informants 28

Table: 2.2 Scale for IUCN categories 39

Table 3.1The number and %age of species reported from each tribe for various cultural uses 46

Table 3.2 ICF values for different use categories among five tribes of Tor Ghar

Table 3.3 Explanation of the four axes of DCA for ICF 65

Table 3.4 Description of the four axes of DCA for CIF 67

Table 3.5 Explanation of the four axes of DCA for CI, CS and number of uses

------69

Table 3.6 Number of species reported individually by each tribe 70

Table 3.7 Number of common species in different tribes. 71

Table 3.8 Clusters of various use categories among different tribes. 73

LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix 1 Questionnaire for documentation of local wisdom 139

Appendix 2 Consolidated Check list of ethnoflora of district Tor Ghar 140

Appendix 3 List of mean cultural importance index (mCI) of ethnoflora used by five tribes of district Tor Ghar 157

Appendix 4 Cultural importance index of families(CIF) among different tribes of Tor

Ghar 172

Appendix 5 Conservation Status of Plant Species of District Tor Ghar according to

IUCN categories 175

Appendix 6 A comparison between the collected data and other ethnobotanical studies of Pakistan 196

Appendix 7Some important ethno species of Tor Ghar 199

ABSTRACT

Interactions between people and plant diversity are indispensable.

Ethnobiology explores such interactions in a scientific way to unearth the reality that cultureand plant diversity of a region influences each other in a reciprocal manner.

Relations between plants and people are much stronger in remote cultural societies.

District Tor Ghar is one of such remote and rugged mountainous region of the western Himalayas that has historically established tribal cultural values, traditions and customs. There is no evidence of previous qualitative or quantitative ethnobotanical research that tells something about culture of the region. Present PhD project was initiated by selecting a total of 43 villages from 5 tribal belts (Basikhel,

Nusratkhel, Akazai, Hasanzai and Madakhel) using random table number method.

732 informants of all age groups were interviewed via semi-structured questionnaire method during the years 2012 and 2013. Group discussions, Ethnobotanical

Participatory Appraisal (EPA) and extensive field visits were also arranged.

Quantitative ethnobotanical techniques i.e., Informant Consensus Factor (ICF),

Cultural Importance Index (CI), mean Cultural Importance Index (mCI) and Cultural

Importance of Families (CIF) were used to report cultural diversity among 5 tribes of the region. The conservation stata of all culturally significant plant species were also assessed quantitatively by developing first time a special mathematical relation i.e.,

CS =K (OC+AV+CE)/TF x RPwhich was in harmony with IUCN criteria. Cluster

Analysis (CA), Two Ways Cluster Analysis (TWCA) and Detrended Correspondence

Analysis (DCA) were appliedtodraw and understand cultural gradient of the ethno-

xi ecologically important species of the region using robust software packages PCORD version 5& CANACO version 4.5.Our findings show that 295 species of vascular plants providing 33 cultural services in the form of food, medicine, fodder, timber wood, fuel, cosmetics, aesthetic, spiritual and veterinary etc.Assessment of conservation status via newly developed formula confirmed 20 species as critically endangered, 35 as endangered, 56 as vulnerable, 58 near threatened (rare) and 126 least concerned(Secure). The use of multivariate statistics brought forward a pattern in large multivariate data sets to a presentable and structurally recognizable form.

Findings based on CA, TWCA and DCA showed a cultural gradient among the various tribes of the region. There is a significant correlation on the plant use pattern and conservation management of Basikhel to Nusratkhel and Akazai to Hasanzai while a significant diversity of such patterns exist between Madakhel and the remaining tribes.The current study contributes to an enhanced understanding of ecosystem services in the Tor Ghar, cultural uses of mountain vegetation within the context of anthropogenic impacts and the role of indigenous culture in regional plant conservation strategies and priorities.

xii

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Biodiversity

Biodiversity is the variety of life at all levels of biological organization and includes ecosystem, genetic and cultural diversity. The Convention on Biological diversity (CBD) defines biodiversity as “the variability among living organism from all sources including inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystem and ecological complexes of which they are apart and this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystem.”

Biodiversity is an essential resource on which families, communities, nations and future generations are dependent.Biodiversity provides human beings with different ways of conceptualizing and interacting with the world and eventually presents different possibilities for human futures (Milton, 1996).

According to Mace (2005) the term biodiversity is employed to almost every aspect of biological world that encompasses variations within individual, communities, ecosystems, traits and organisms. Biodiversity is an important renewable natural resource with scientific, agricultural, medical, pharmaceutical, educational, cultural and ecological values.

Plant biodiversity is the major contributor of ecosystem services like food, medicines, timber, fuel, fodder, grazing, and recreational activities. These services ultimately become the foundation of agriculture, socio-economic and industrial development (Hegazy, 1999).

1.2 Culture

The concept of culture is multi dimensional. It is usually a system of values, beliefs, customs, taboos, codes, institutions, tools, techniques, works of arts, rituals, ceremonies, symbols and ideas that social groups make use of in experiencing the world in reciprocally meaningful ways (Kuper, 1999). It mediatesthe relationship between humans and their environment (Larid, 1999). Culture also played a crucial role in human evolution, allowing human beings to adapt the environment to their own purposes rather than depend solely on natural selection to achieve adaptive success. Every human society has its own particular culture, or sociocultural system.

Variation among cultures is attributable to such factors differing physical habitats and resources; cultural change takes place as a result of ecological, socioeconomic, political, religious, or other fundamental factors affecting a society. The concept of culture provides the foundation of scientific disciplines such as ecological anthropology and scientific concepts such as bio-cultural diversity (Berkes et al.,

2000).The concept of material culture means the physical expression of culture such as architecture, art and technology whereas the immaterial aspects of culture such as principles of social orginazation, philosophy, mythology, literature and science constitute the intangible cultural heritage of a society (Macionis et al., 2010).

Why this world is not one culture? This key question has many explanations.

One explanation for variations found in human culture is the process of ‘’social stratification’’ which causes differences among humans and ultimately leads to the inequality of human culture. This inequality occurs in every culture, but its degree

2 varies from one culture to another.Presently, the world is divided in to ‘’developed’’ industrialized’’ rich societies and ‘’underdeveloped or developing’’ poor societies.

Culture is the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one category of people from another.Culture consists of patterns, explicit and implicit, of and for behavior acquired and transmitted by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievements of human groups, including their embodiments in artifacts; the essential core of culture consists of traditional ideas and especially their attached values; culture systems may, on the one hand, be considered as products of action, and on the other as conditioning elements of further action. A culture is a configuration of learned behaviors and results of behavior whose component elements are shared and transmitted by the members of a particular society.Different cultures of the world are in accordance with their ideas, meanings, values, beliefs, traditions and habitats.

1.3 Relationship between Human culture and Biodiversity

The interaction between human beings and plant biodiversity is as long as human existence. According to Declaration of Belem (1988) there is an ‘’inextricable link’’ between biological and cultural diversity. The term bio-cultural diversity was coined to describe the concept indicating the link (Posey, 1999). Human beings and their societies are an essential part of biodiversity, and according to their way of utilizing natural resources, they can be promoters of its sustainable use or drivers of its loss (Calvo, 2003).

Local communities have more close association with biodiversity and their cultural practices and life styles influence biodiversity greatly. According to

Convention on Biological Diversity, local communities showing a socially and geographically defined group of people may not homogeneous, living close to biodiversity and protected areas. They may have customary rights of use, distinctive knowledge and skills and direct impact on biodiversity as individuals or groups of individuals. These people are also described as having a close and unique relationship to their natural resources as a community. Locals communities may be dynamic in response to changing rural conditions, and therefore, may change their cultural practices and their perspectives on the importance of natural resources and biodiversity (Wiersum & Shackleton, 2005)

The human-environment relationship is complex one, because the cultural features of this relationship vary among societies and among people (Hart et al.,

1996). However, some general features can be recognized: often the strategies of interaction with the environment consist of a combination of trade, agriculture and subsistence agriculture, and also involve the extraction of resources from the forest

(Coomes, 1996). In order to protect and manage a particular ecological system, its cultural context is considered to be the most important. Humen relation to the natural environment has so for been studied mostly in biophysical terms; but there is now a growing acknowledgment that societies themselves have created detailed procedures to conserve and manage their resources. These methods are entrenched in their cultural values that have to be taken in to consideration if sustainable and reasonable human development is to become a truth (Bridgewater, 2002). These new

4 trends have resulted in a change from a top down to a more community- based approach which aims to work closely with local people, depend on their traditional knowledge, and contribute to their livelihoods (Grimble & Laidlaw, 2002).

Wild biological resources are especially important for populations in rural areas, because these people depend directly on the extraction of local species to fulfill part of their daily requirements, such as wood, food, medicine, and timber

(Boom, 1987; Prance et al., 1987; Phillips et al., 1994). The significance of a plant can be defined by the importance of the role it plays within a specific culture (Hunn,

1982). According to Hays (1974) more a plant used in a particular culture, the greater is its significance. A specific plant’s significance depends upon its ecological and perceptual features of the plant such as abundance, height and colour, as well as its possible uses (Turner, 1988).

The convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) from 1992 stressed on parties to respect, preserve, and maintain knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities having traditional lifestyles relevant for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity, and facilitate their wider involvement with the approval of bearers of such knowledge, innovations and practices, and encourage the reasonable sharing of the gains obtaining from the use of such knowledge, innovations and practices (McNeely, 2000). However, plant biodiversity is also influenced by a number of other factors other than humans, including latitude, climate and topography (Ellis et al., 2012).

1.4 Ethnobotany

The relationship between human culture and plants biodiversity is more specifically studied by Ethnobotany. It deals with the study of relationship between human culture and plant resources. Ethno-botanical investigations are not only concerned with merely economic botany but also the entire range of relations that exist between human and plant biodiversity (Hough, 1898).Ethnobotany is an interdisciplinary science, including natural and social sciences and focuses two important aspects, the cultural one, dealing with the incorporation of plants in to the cultural context of an ethnic group, and the economic one, dealing with the commercial exploitation of the plants.

Ethnobotanist explore the complex relationship between cultures and uses of plants stressing basically on how plants are used, managed and perceived among different human societies. Plants used for food, clothing, currency, ritual, medicine, dye, construction, cosmetic and many more (Deepak & Anshu, 2008).

1.5 Ecosystem Services and Plant Biodiversity

Extensive studies have shown that ecosystem services and human link is a key finding of Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (Jordan et al., 2010). A large number of societies have evolved social systems, including customs, well-defined boundaries, and reciprocities, with which to manage and preserve ecosystem services and human well-being on a local scale (Butler & Willis, 2006).The provisioning of ecosystem services depends on ecosystem functions which can be defined as the ability of natural processes and components to supply goods and

6 services that fulfill human needs, directly or indirectly (De Groot, 1992). As plant biodiversity is the main biotic component of ecosystem, therefore, it plays a crucial role in providing services to humans. In every ecosystem, plant biodiversity not only playing ecological role but also regulating and maintaining abiotic environment.

Direct, services of plant biodiversity are food, grazing, fodder, fuel, timber, and medicinal products. These all services provide foundation for agricultural, socioeconomic and industrial activities (Kremen, 2005; Zobel et al., 2006; Boyed &

Banzharf, 2007). Vegetation directly or indirectly provides a range of services to mankind and it is therefore, important that it is fully evaluated, managed and protected (Anon., 1992).

1.5.1 Drivers of change in Ecosystem Services

The relationship between human culture and ecosystem services is described in terms of ‘’drivers” of ecosystem change. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment

(MA) definition of a driver is any natural or human- induced factor that directly or indirectly causes a change in an ecosystem (Carpenter et al., 2006). According to

(MA) the indirect driver causes change more diffusely by altering one or more direct drivers. The indirect drivers of change are demographic drivers, economic drivers, sociopolitical drivers, cultural and religious drivers, scientific and technological drivers. While direct drivers clearly exert influence on ecosystem processes. These drivers are physical and biological including changes in climate, plant nutrient use, land conversion, diseases and biological invasions.Multiple interacting drivers cause changes in ecosystem services. These drivers can work over time or over levels of organization or they can also happen intermittently. The combined effects of

7 multiple drivers are amplified by reciprocal action and feedbacks (Nelson et al.,

2006).

1.5.2 Cultural Drivers

To understand culture as a driver of ecosystem change, one has to focus on the values, beliefs, customs and norms on the basis of which individual’s perceptions develop how to interact with environment and how does he or she avail ecosystem services?Inter cultural studies on broad basis have not proved useful due to the fact that majority of internal variations in values, beliefs, and norms have been ignored.

However, intra cultural studies in various societies allow for systematic examination of the role of culture without overgeneralizing (Dunlap & Mertig, 1995).

Pakistan has very rich cultural and traditional background. Floristically, the country is gifted with rich plant biodiversity. It has over 5700 species of flowering plants reported in the Flora of Pakistan (Nasir & Ali, 1970) with around 400 endemic species and 4 endemic genera (Douepia, Suleimania, Spiroseris, and

Wendelboa).Pakistan is located at the western edge of the South Asian subcontinent.

Its flora and fauna have the characteristics features of both Palaearctic and Indo-

Malayan elements. However, there are wide geographic, altitudinal, and physiographic variations, from the tropical coast in the south, to the world’s second highest mountain K2 in the north, with altitudinal variation from sea level to about

8000 meters. Roberts (1977) classified the whole country into 9 major zones, covering eighteen habitat types. Pakistan is a land of some of the oldest civilisations of the world. The history of utilization of natural resources is thousands of years old.

Natural habitats have been extensively modified by human activities and very few natural forests remain virgin. The degradation and loss of natural habitats has occurred over thousands of years, but the process has been accelerated in the twentieth century due to speedy developmental activities and population growth.

1.6 Study Area

The study area is located in the northern part of the country and has recently been renamed as Torghar, a pashto word which means black mountain previously called the Kala Dhaka. It was a provincially administrated tribal area of tehsil Oghi, district Mansehra. Torghar has been notified as the 5th district of Hazara division,

Khyber Pakhtunkhawa on 28 January, 2011 under article 246 of the constitution of

Islamic Republic of Pakistan.

1.6.1 Geography

District Torghar lies between 340 32’ and 340 50’ N, and 720 48’ and 720 58’ E. It shares borders on the south by Tanawal; on the west by district Buner; on the east by

Agrore valley of tehsil Oghi. To the north east it shares borders with district

Batagram. Across the river Indus Torghar touches its border with tehsil Martang of district Shangla.

Fig.1.1 Map of the district showing different tribal belts

The river Indus runs through the Torghar from Thakote to Darband and finally flows in to the biggest reservoir of the country Tarbela dam. The major portion of Torghar is located on the eastern bank of the Indus River in the watershed of the mountain range. While the smaller part lies on the western bankof the river in

10 the watershed of the mountain range that separates the Gadoon Ahmazai from the

Indus basin.

Fig 1.2 River Indus flowing through the district Tor Ghar

Torghar is an uneven mountainous area of about 500 Km. The mountainous range has a length of 70 Km from north to south and an elevation of 2438 m above the sea level. The Torghar mountainous range appears as a long, narrow ridge, with higher peaks and valleys found at intervals. The highest peak of the mountainous range is ‘’Machisyer.’’ A large number of spurs projecting from its different sides, forming narrow gorges in which tribal villages are situated. The tops of the ridges and spurs are covered with dense forests, while the slopes are barren and stony. The mountainous range ascends from the Indus basin near the village of Kiara up to its watershed by Bruddur, then it extends northwest from the Chittabut from this point,

11 the range extends due north, finally splits in to two large spurs which descending to the Indus basin again.

Fig.1.3 Panaromic view of Tor Ghar

1.6.2 Geology, Rocks and Soil

No documented geological survey record of the area has so far been available.

However a brief description based on the practical experience gained during field observation regarding soil and the under- lyingchists, granitiod, mica schis rock showed that the parent rocks appear to be geneiss, gneissos sts and shales. Mica schists found in the lower parts and the surface soil is the result of the podosolization of the parent rock and is therefore, loose, friable with a fair amount of clay fit for cultivation but vulnerable to the hazards of erosion. The soil under the

12 forest crop is considerable deep to support good quality crop except on precipitous slopes where cut-crops are visible, indicating the stratification and the basic constituents of the rocks. The soil under fir forests is rich with humus as usual.

1.6.3 Land Cover Classes

Satellite images showingpercentage of land cover classes of the district Torghar.

Table: 1.1 Percentage of Land Cover Classes S.No Land cover classes %age 1 Forest 29.93 2 Shrubs and Bushes 20.00 3 Range Lands 32.17 20.00 4 Agriculture Land 10.79 32.17 5 River Beds 2.94 10.79 6 Glacier and Snow 0.20 2.94 7 Settlements 0.20 8 Barren Land 3.79 Source: Forest Department

1.6.4 Climate

The climate of Torghar is pleasant in spring and autumn. The climate is generally temperate with marked seasonal periods of snow, rain and drought. The winter is severe because of the heavy snow fall especially on tops of mountains. The snow fall occurs usually between 15th December to the end of February each year.

Torghar receives heavy monsoon rain in the months of July and August and the other rainy season is started in the months of February, March and April. The period from September to November is usually dry and visibility is clear and maximum.Climatological data was obtained from the nearest Surface Water

Hydrology Weather Station of WAPDA at Oghi. (As Torghar has no weather

station).The average rainfall data (inches) for the period of three years (2012 to 2014)

is given below:

Table 1.2 Average rainfall data

Year Jan. Feb. March April May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. 2012 2.20 3.70 5.5 7.27 2.57 1.3 11.33 5.5 2.9 1.6 0.89 2.1 2013 4.50 5.54 2.88 3.70 1.33 0 .31 9.62 7.4 3.0 0.75 0.52 1.6 2014 0 .75 9.0 3.75 2.65 2.61 5.87 6.71 5.1 2.7 1.1 1.2 0.2 Source: Weather Station Oghi

Average rain fall of three years is 43.23”= 109.80 cm

Snow fall is up to 8 feet at 3000 m elevation and decreases with the

descending altitude. While monthly mean maximum and mean minimum

temperature (Fahrenheit) of three last years from 2012 to 2014 is given below:

Table 1.3 Monthly mean maximum and mean minimum temperature

Year Jan. Feb. March April May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. 2012 53.6 59.6 60.2 66.5 76.3 90.8 91.5 82.6 80.3 76 61 54.7 Max.Min. 36.9 41.5 42.2 40.7 56.5 67.1 68.4 66 50 54 45 39.2 2013 42.7 51.9 63.8 68.5 77.5 92.1 83.3 82.9 78.1 80 65 49.1 Max.Min. 32.4 35.2 39.3 42.1 57.2 69.5 65.9 67.3 48.2 53 40 34 2014 49.8 55.3 64.1 70.2 78.8 94.1 88.7 83.1 79.3 81 64.1 50.2 Max.Min. 34.2 37.3 40.1 39.7 58.1 68.9 70.2 68.1 49.2 52 43 36 Source: Weather Station Oghi

1.6.5 Forests

The forests of Torghar are Himalayan moist temperate type. According to

Champion et al., (1965) the forests of Torghar fall under the following three major

14 types: (1) Montane Subtropical forests, (2) Montane Temperate forests and (3)

Subalpine forests.

These forests on the basis of species composition can further be grouped in to the following categories: (i) Pure fir and spruce forests, (ii) Mixed fir spruce and blue pine forests, (iii) Pure blue pine forests. These forests are predominantly coniferous type including Cedrus deodara chir pine, blue pine and scattered trees of Abies at high altitude. According to working plan for Black Mountain Forests, the total area of coniferous forests is 26,337 acres. Broadleaved trees includethe genera Aesculus,

Juglans, Populus and Quercus etc. Chir pine is confined to lower altitudes between

3000 feet to 5000 feet above sea level. Pinus wallichiana (blue pine) is predominant species above 5000 feet forming more or less pure stands with an occasional Cedrus deodara.Above 9,000 feet, the vegetation consists of Abies pindrow with occasional

Pinus wallichiana andPicea smithiana.

Fig. 1.4 Forest map of district Tor Ghar

Torghar is dominated by Sino- Japanese type of vegetation. The general vegetation of Torghar is shrub type. The lower limits of Torghar show vegetation like Acacia modesta, Dodonea viscosa, Justacia adhtoda, Indigofera heterantha, Carissa opaca, Robinia pseudocasia, Ailanthusaltissima and Mallotus philippinensis.

The forests are not owned by government even after the creation of new district. These remained as the joint property shared by the natives according to their hereditary code guided by some prevailing customs of a particular tribe. However, forest department conducts plantation, raises nurseries and provides guidelines for

16 sustainable use of forests. Forest department imposed ban on sales of standing timber to timber contractors. The forest department, through its watershed management project, has conducted reforestation programs along the banks of the

Indus.

In the prevailing uncertain circumstances of law and order situation, it seems difficult to enforce any forest conservatory measure till the administrative situation is favourable enough for the field staff to function freely and independently.The area of each block of forests of Torghar is given by the following table.

Table 1.4 Area Covered by forests

S.No Name of Block Area(Acres) 1 Seri Kohani 3570 2 Akazai 6183 3 Gantar 5028 4 Bartuni 4686 5 Shingaldar 2306 Total 21773 Source: Forest Department

1.6.6 Livestock and Rangeland

The area is rich in livestock which is an important source of economy of the area. There is enough range land for grazing and the area due to good rainfall produces sufficient fodder and crops residue to support the livestock.In the lowlands near Indus river, buffalos and cows are found in large number, probably due to the increased availability of crop residues and comparatively plain rangeland for easy grazing of cows and buffalos. In the highlands, number of cows increases

17 and buffalos decreases but goats are found more prevalent. The important breed of goats found in the area is Kaghani breed. In winter, these goats browse the area near the villages but during the summer, goats graze at the higher altitudes. Small numbers of donkeys, mules and horses are also rear up as pack animals.

The range found in Torghar is of three main types. The highland cooler zone of forests; the midlands of scrub vegetation and the lowland areas near the Indus.

There is shortage of palatable grass flora at low and midland ranges due to greater pressure of surroundings population. However, highland zone has a comparatively rich grass flora. Above 9,000 elevations, plain areas have been converted in to pastures by grazing. The main growth period for grasses is the summer monsoon.

There is no range management and overgrazing is found every where in Torghar.

The most prominent overgrazing sites are bare lands around Judbah.

1.6.7 Agriculture System

Torghar is generally divisible in to three agroecological zones that are subalpine pasture, evergreen forests and river valleys of highlands. Area of agriculture land is approximately is 75,000 acres. The agriculture is mainely rainfed but also irrigated. A large amount of cultivatable bottom land was lost by the extension of reservoir of the Tarbela Dam in 1975. Similarly, some arable land had undergone desertification during the construction of Thakote to Darband road.

In highlands cultivation is confined to steep terraced plots and packed flatlands in the surrounding of villages. Majority of cultivation is limited to alluvial low lands of Sinkarai. Little agricultural land is available in the midlands zone.

Torghar lacks sufficient arable land to achieve the survival requirements of its population. Variety of crops is found according to soil composition, climate, altitude, and aspect in each agroecological zone. Wheat is the major crop of winter in the lowlands and midlands of Torghar. While Maize is the predominant crop of summer of highlands. Rice is the third most important cereal crop in Torghar. The main cereals are intercropped with different seasonal vegetables and pulses. Rice crop is also grown in some areas of Torghar. The river Indus banks are also used for cultivating wheat in winter when the water level is lower. The crop is harvested before the flooding of Indus in late summer. This is a good practice of locals to use fertile soil of river temporarily to get better yield. Being backward and remote area, the modern agricultural practices are not in use.

1.6.8 Land ownership and Tenancy Traditions

There are two forms of land ownership rights in Torghar. Among the non- pakhtoon tribes like stanadar (Sayyeds) lands are held by each large family in private capacity. While among the pakhtoon, lands are jointly possessed by the major lineages within each tribal sub-division. Each partilineage has fixed number of units of lands called tora. The size of tora varies according to quality of land. The tora of low fertile land is less than tora of high land. There is another important cultural institution exists in Torghar for periodical redistribution of lands within each pakhtoon sub division called wesh . The process is conducted by drawing straws, representatives of each main partilineage decided to which tora their lineage mates would be entitled. The land is periodically redistributed along with housing, livestock, and fruit trees. However, new owners are bound to compensate previous

19 land owners by cash payment. Wesh is repeated after every 20-25 years. The practice of wesh is a valued customary tradition in the tribal system of Torghar. The local wisdom lies in the practice is the uniform chances of exploiting land resources on rotation basis. This practice is gradually declining especially after the construction of

Terbala dam reservoir that flooded huge lands of the area thus upsetting this cultural institution.

1.6.9 Demography

The human population of Torghar is 174,682 according to 1998 census report published by Pakistan Bureau of statistics. Whereas KDADP socioeconomic survey conducted in 1990 also illustrates the number of villages and households of

Torghar(Table 1.5).

Table:1.5 Number of villages and households of Torghar S.No Tribes Villages Households 1 Akazai 32 3,700 2 Basikhel 92 10,090 3 Hassanzai 43 6,093 4 Madakhel 38 7,123 5 Nusratkhel 23 2,133 Total 228 29,139 Source: KDADP Report

1.6.10 Torghar Tribes

The tribes of Torghar belong to the Isazai and Malazai clans of the Yousafzai

Pathans. The Isazai clan is subdivided in to three sub-clans: Mada Khel, Hassanzai and Akazai. The Malazai clan is subdivided in to two sub-clans that is Basi Khel and

Nusrat Khel. According to KDADP survey report 1991, the five main tribes of

Torghar inhabit 228 villages consisting of 29,139 houses. Basikhel, Nusrat khel and

Akazai are residing on the eastern side of the Indus while Mada khel tribe is residing on the western side of the river Indus. Hassanzai is the only tribe that inhabits on the both sides of Indus.

1.6.11 Norms and Traditions

Torghar has a long established tribal culture.The order of custom prevails over the rule of civil law in Torghar. There is a tribal council called Jirga, which has its own rules and regulations for the settlement of local disputes. The most frequently spoken language in all villages of Torghar is Pashto. The only Hindko- speaking area is Lakwal of Madakhel. Gojri is spoken by Gujar families. They usually lead nomadic life and support heavy livestock especially in the form of goats and sheep.Thedistinctive feature of tribal culture is Hujra, a place of active social gathering. This is a common guest house of all villagers. Guests are warmly welcomed and served here.

Women play a significant role in the economy of the area. They are not merely

‘’homemakers’’, they are most closely associated to natural resources and to nature because of the roles they have to play. Women’s work includes threshing, vegetable growing, wheat storing and winnowing, cattle raising, milk and dairy work, and handling of manure for fuel and fertilizer. They collect fodder and firewood not only for present use but also for storage. These tasks are all unpaid and designated by tradition, even though the women’s contribution some times exceeds that of men.

A Torgharian’s life is simple, filled with the everyday problems of raising a family, agricultural practices and fuel wood collection. With his oxen, donkey, his few sheep and goats and a milk cow or buffalo, he earns a living that allows him few luxuries. His thatch roofed mud- stone home provides shelter for his animals as well as his wife and children, and if he is getting on in age his children’s children. He lives in a village of several hundred people, all of them of same religion, tribe and almost same socioeconomic status.

1.6.12 Education

Educationally, Torghar is one of the most backward district of Khyber

Pakhtunkhawa. There is no general or technical education at college or university level. Data obtained from education department shows the following insufficient number of educational institutions:

Table:1.6 Number of schools in Torghar S.No Level of school Male/Female No

1 Govt.primary schools Males 152

2 Govt.primary schools Females 61

3 Govt. middle schools Males 24

4 Govt. middle schools Females 1

5 Govt.high schools Males 5

6 Govt.high schools Females 0

7 Govt. higher secondary school Males 1 Source: Education Department

1.6.13 Health

Modern health facilities in Torghar are limited. There are a few number of basic health units and dispensaries which lack trained staff and medicines. The majority of people use traditional local herbal medicines.

Table. 1.7 Basic Health Units of District Torghar S.No Name BHU No. of BHU 1 Danda Shungle Dar 1 2 Bartooni 1 3 Dore Mera 1 4 Judbah 1 5 Palosa 1 6 Kamasar 1 7 Mera Medakhel 1 8 Kander Shagai 1 9 Darbani 1 Total 9 Source: Health Department Tor Ghar

1.7 Rationale of the study

The use of culture as a tool for assessment of plant biodiversity and conservation strategies has not been explored in Pakistan as yet. In northern parts of

Pakistan, only ethno-botanical studies of plants have been conducted. According to

Ali and Qaisar, (2009) the Himalayan and the Hindokush regions have merely provided inventories of medicinal plant species. A number of ethnobotanical studies

23 in differenent parts of Pakistan only showed uses of plants without quantitative assessment (Ahmad et al., 2006; Ibrar et al., 2007; Chaudary & Khan, 2008; Quershi et al., 2009; Abbasi et al., 2010; Alam et al., 2011; Haq, 2012; Ilyas, 2013; Khan et al., 2014

). A few researches indicating quantitative assessment as well (Khan et al., 2012; Bibi et al., 2014; Mussarat et al., 2014). A number of ethnobotanical researches also contributing towards conservation assessment (Adnan et al., 2006; Afzal et al., 2009;

Shinwari, 2010; Khan et al., 2011; Shah et al., 2012; Chaudary et al., 2013; Razzaq et al.,

2015 ). However, these researches could not quantify conservation related data.

Torghar, being a newly created district of tribal area has traditional plant lore as a part of its cultural heritage. The study area is an important part of the internationally recognized Western Himalayan province (Takhtajan, 1988) and shows rich floristic diversity and biocultural resources. As the area has recently become a governmental unit, there is a risk of loss of cultural values. People are starting to use allopathic medicines, mechanized farming, frequent transportation and commercial exploitation of natural resources. Prior to cultural globalization, the cultural identity of each region remained preserved over centuries, but recent cultural globalization is diminishing traditional wisdom of all cultures under the influence of industrialization and consumer culture. According to many researchers there is a loss of traditional knowledge of plant resources with the passage of time in many indigenous communities due to change and abandonment of traditional customs (Benz et al., 2000; Byg & Balslev, 2001, 2004).

Present study is the first ever attempt to explore, document and preserve the cultural uses of plant resources by indigenous people who have historically

24 connectedwith pre-invasion and pre-colonial. Although these people were determined to protect, develop and transmit to future generations their ancestral territories and their ethnic identityaccording to their own cultural patterns, social institutions and legal system.But recently Torghar (study area) became a governmental unit as a new district of tribal area and vulnerable to cultural globalization which would diminish the traditional wisdom of all cultures due to industrialization and change of traditional customs.Moreover present study dealt not only with quantitative assessment of all cultural uses of plant resources but also their conservation and assessed first time the cultural drivers of plant biodiversity by using quantitative ethnobotanical techniques and modern software packages with following objectives.

1.8 Objectives

The main objective of the study is to document the range of cultural knowledge of plant biodiversity and possibility of their exploitation among five indigenous tribes of the district. The study will go beyond the inventory of plant biodiversity to their habitat exploration and conservation strategies by indigenous people. The specific objectives of the present study are:

1. To assess the cultural drivers of plant biodiversity qualitatively and

quantitatively.

2. To document the availability of culturally significant plants in the local

ecological conditions

3. To determine the relative magnitude of the utilitarian and cultural value of

plant biodiversity among different tribes of the district

4. To assess the existing threats to culturally significant plants in the study area

5. To evaluate how the cultural values of plant biodiversity contribute towards

conservation

Chapter 2

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The study area was surveyed periodically in different flowering and fruiting seasons during 2012 and 2013.

2.1 Randomized Selection:

A list of villages of five local tribes obtained from district management of Tor

Ghar. There are 252 villages located in five territories of indigenous tribes namely

Basikhel, Nusratkhel, Akazai, Hassanzai and Medakhel. Twenty percent (20%) of villages were randomly selected from each tribal territory using table number method, which was generated by Microsoft Excel 2007. 15 villages were selected from Basikhel tribe, 5 villages from Nusratkhel, 6 villages from Akazai, 9 from

Hassanzai and 8 villages from Medakhel(Fig 1.1). In each village or settlement every third house was selected on willingness basis. If the family head of a house refused for interview then the next house was selected. From each house all volunteer available males, females and children were selected for interviews and groups discussion. The number of informants selected from Basikhel tribe were 200,

Nusratkhel 110, Akazai 89, Hassanzai 163 and Medakhel 170 (Table 2.1). A total of

732 informants shared their local wisdom about 295 culturally significant plants of the district Tor Ghar.

Table 2.1 Number of visted villages, tribes and informants S.No Name of tribe No of villages No of informants Average ageof informants Male Female

1 Basikhel 15 150 50 20-70 year

2 Nusratkhel 5 70 40 18-75 year

3 Akazai 6 60 29 20- 80 year

4 Hassanzai 9 100 63 22- 74 year

5 Madakhel 8 105 65 17-73 year

2.2 Tools of Collecting Data

A combination of qualitative and quantitative data collection methods were used to document the traditional knowledge of culturally significant plants and their services (De Albuquerque, 2009, Da Cunha & De Albuquerque, 2006, Martin, 2004;

Rossato et al., 1999). Quantitative ethnobotanical techniques have great scientific importance as they reflect cultural value systems, and they may also help in conservation of biodiversity (Byg and Balslev, 2001).

2.2.1 Field Visits

A total of 48 weeks was spent for the field work in the study area. The area was visited frequently during the study period. Locals were interviewed mainly concerning their knowledge on food, medicine, fodder from the plants and their parts, local names, with diverse uses. Factors threatening the conservation of plant biodiversity were also noted.

Fig 2.1 Field survey of Kalash valley district Tor Ghar

2.2.2 Household Survey

Household survey was conducted on a random basis to get data on local’s perception on cultural uses and conservation status of plants.

2.2.3 Group Discussion: Ethnobotanical Participatory Appraisal (EPA)

Ethnobotanical participatory Appraisal (EPA) is a joint approach of

Ethnobotany, which guides and evaluates the Ethnobotanical study of an area. The basic concept of EPA is that there must be direct participation of local tribal and rural people in the study. The indigenous people are not only the primary data providers but also took part to design the study and research activity.

2.2.4 Interviews

A semi structured interview method was used for the study. The interview focused on basic questions about the informant’s knowledge of the uses of local plants species. The most asked question was which local plants do you know and/or use?

Depending on the response, more specific questions concerning the variety of uses were gradually formulated, on the basis of which aquestionnaire was designed

(Appendix 1) to get maximum information how the indigenous tribes of the area get benefits from plant biodiversity. Questionnaire was developed in such a way that reflected the information on all possible cultural uses and conservation of the vegetation. Informants were asked about their general uses of plant species as food

(F), fodder (Fd), timber (Ti), fuel (Fu), aesthetic (As), medicinal (Md), basket formation (Bs), broom formation (Br), cosmetics (Cs), detergent (Dt), dye yielding

(Dy), fencing (Fn), fish poison (Fp), furniture (Fur), graveyard (Gr), honey bee (Hn), insecticidal (Ins.), instruments (Im), poisonous plants (Pp), roofing (Rf), rope formation (Rp), shade giving (Sh), antidote for snake biting (Sn), soil binding flora

(Sb), spiritual uses (Sp), stick formation (St), toothbrush (Tb), veterinary (Vt), green manure (Gm), fruit ripening (Fr) and adhesive material (Ad). Uses mentioned by the informants were grouped in the above thirty three categories following the protocol of Phillips et al., (1994), Rossato et al., (1999) Da Cunha & De Albuquerque,

(2006)andDe Albuquerque, (2009).

Fig.2.2 A guided tour through Gigni village of Basikhel Tribal belt.

2.2.5 Direct Observations

A direct and participant observation was applied to collect the information from the inhabitants of each locality. Participant observation was used to supplement the information gathered (Albuquerque & Lucena 2004 a,b).

2.2.6 Collection of Secondary Data

Secondary information was collected from various reports of ethnobotanical surveys, books, national and international journals and documents from related literature (Janni &Bastien, 2004; Ahmad et al., 2006; Ibrar et al., 2007; Chaudary &

Khan, 2008; Ullah et al., 2009; Abbasi et al., 2010; Jamil et al., 2011; Haq et al., 2012;

Khan et al., 2012; Ilyas et al., 2013; Khan et al., 2014; Shuaib et al., 2014). The sole

31 purpose of collection of secondary data is to cross check and validate the primary field data. Cross checking of primary field data make it more reliable and can be quantified in a better way. The criteria of collection of the secondary data was similarity in research works, areas under investigation and scientific vision beyond researches.

2.2.7 Informants Response

Meetings were held with tribal heads and permissions were obtained for semi structured type interviews.The informants were highly cooperative and hospitable.

They honored the guests and extended every possible help. They were happy that their territory was explored first time. However, it was not possible to contact females informants directly. Their cultural values do not allow strangers to contact females. This problem was solved with the help of a female guide. Who was trained how to get information and knew their cultural values and customs. Besides, male members of the family were also requested to get ethnobotanical information from their females.

2.3 How interviews conducted

Hundred percent (100%) household census was chosen in preference to a random sample survey to get accurate data from each household. Each member of a selected house interviewed separately and his /her information recorded on the questionnaire sheet. The informant was asked which plants did you know as medicinal, edible, timber and fuel wood etc. The informants were also facilitated with the help of preserved specimens, photographs and vernacular names of the

32 local plants. A list of possible cultural uses of plants was prepared which enabled the informants for prompt responding to different uses of plants. This list was prepared keeping in view the various preliminary field trips, unstructured interviews, group discussions, personnel observations and literature review. Any other use not mentioned in the list reported by informant was also recorded. All possible uses of plants were told to the informants according to the list and each plant’s uses stated by the informant was recorded. Each interview lasted around 30-

35 minutes and each informant interviewed individually to avoid the influence of other participants on the answers. The local name of the plant and other relevant information was noted on the questionnaire sheet. For every plant a separate sheet was used bearing serial number and name of the informant. When individual interview of selected households finished, a group discussion was arranged to cross check the information. The uses of the plants on which 100% census developed finally recorded for data analysis. After the completion of interviews and group discussion, a ‘’guided-tour’’ technique was employed, consisting of walking through the locality with volunteer informants in order to observe the cited plants in natural habitat. The informants helped in identification of plants and the locally identified plants were collected, tagged, dried in blotting papers and relevant information was entered in the field note book. Each plant species was collected in triplicate, in this way the number of collected plant was high at the beginning of the study but tapered off at the last. By the end, only missing specimens were collected. The non- seasonal plants reported by informants if not found in locality were noted and marked on their respective questionnaire sheets. These plants were identified and

33 collected on the next field trip. In the study area, each village was visited twice in two different flowering seasons. The photography of each plant along with its natural habitat was taken. While latitude, longitude and aspect was noted by GPS readings.

Fig. 2.3 An interview conducted in the Hujra- a social gathering place

The plants collected on the information of questionnaire were properly dried in shade, pressed, poisoned by using 3.5% mercuric chloride in ethyl alcohol, mounted on standard sized “Herbarium Sheets” and labeled. These plants identified with the help of different Herbaria such as Herbarium of Hazara University,

National Herbarium Islamabad, QAU Herbarium, PMNH Herbarium and flora of

Pakistan (Ali and Qaisar, 1998-2005). The properly preserved and identified

34 specimens were deposited in the Herbarium of Hazara University, Mansehra for future studies.

2.4 Preparation of check list of culturally significant plants

A checklist of culturally significant plants was prepared from direct observations in the study area and various enquiries, personal knowledge and group discussions. The check list includes vernacular names of the plants, botanical names, families and uses. Primary information of the checklist was cross checked by secondary information from the relevant literature of ethnobotanical studies.

2.5 Quantification of Data

Following the protocols of Philips and Gentry (1993), modified by Prance et al., (1987) and Byg & Balslev, (2001) two important quantitative ethnobotanical techniques were used. These were Cultural Importance index (CI, CIF and mCI) and

‘’Informant Consensus Factor’’ (ICF) to assess the cultural drivers of plant biodiversity.

2.5.1 Cultural Importance Index (CI)

The cultural importance index (CI) of each species was estimated for each locality as the summation of the use-report (UR) in every use-category mentioned for a species in the locality divided by the total number of survey participants (N) in that locality (Pardo et al. , 2007).

CI index was calculated for each ethnospecies by the following mathematical relation:

C I= ∑ UR/N

The additive index determines the spread of use. It means the number of informants for each species and its diversity of uses. The theoretical maximum value of the index is the total number of different uses categories.

2.5.2 Mean Cultural Importance Index (m CI)

A mean cultural importance index (m C I) was applied to asses culturally significant plants uses in the study area, as a whole. It was taken in to account by considering all localities.

2.5.3 Cultural Importance of Families (CIF)

In order to calculate the cultural importance of plant families ( CIF), the CIS of the species from each family were added (Galeano, 2000).

2.5.4 Informant Consensus factor (ICF)

Informant consensus factor (ICF) factor was determined by the relation :

ICF= (CD- CB) /(CD-1)

Where CB is number of species for the use category and CD is the number of citations for that use category (Moerman, 2007). ICF values range from 0.00 to 1.00. High ICF values show when only one or a few species are recorded by a high proportion of informants for a particular use category, whereas low ICF values indicate that informants disagree over which plant to use.

2.6 Assessment of Conservation Status

Local wisdom is helpful in assessing conservation status of plant species in a particular area. During the study it has been observed that locals adopted conservatory measures. They protect the plants of their interest from fire and grazing and also cultivate useful plants. In this regard, a questionnaire was developed to get maximum information from the locals about conservation status of culturally significant plants of the area. Availability for the last ten years was recorded (increased, decreased or persistent). Occurrence of a plant species

(abundance, moderate or rare) was noted. Threatening factors (over exploitation, fire and grazing) were enlisted as told by informants. Similarly information regarding regeneration potential (high, moderate and low) was gathered. Data obtained from informants was cross checked by direct field observations during extensive field trips and analyzed by the following mathematical relation developed first time by the author.

As Conservation Status(CS) of a species is directly proportional to

Occurence(OC), Availibility(AV) and Conservation Efforts(CE). This is expressed mathematically as

1- CS OC+AV+CE

Similarly Conservation Status(CS) is also directly proportional to Reproductive

Potential(RP) of a species and represented by

2- CS RP

Whereas CS isinversily proportional to Threatening Factors(TF) shown as

3- CS 1/TF

By combining the 1, 2 & 3 and substituting the sign of proportionality with constant K, the following equation was obtained.

CS= K( OC+AV+CE)/TF X RP

Where CS is the conservation status of a plant species, OC is occurrence, AV is availability for the last ten years, CE is conservation effort from locals, TF is threatening factor and RP is regeneration potential of a plant species in a particular habitat.

The constant K was assigned value 1. Degree of occurrence was evaluated by giving values 3 for abundance, 2 for moderate and 1 for rare. Values for availability for the last ten years are 3for increasing, 2 for persistent and 1 for decreasing.

Conservation efforts by locals are assigned a sum of value 4(1 for each conservation effort). Conservation efforts are protection from grazing, cutting and fire. Cultivation of a plant species is also a conservation effort. Threatening factors considered in this formula on the basis of local perception were Over-exploitation, fire and overgrazing/overbrowsing. Each threatening factor was assigned a value 3 for extensive, 2 for moderate, 1 for low and 0 for absence of a threatening factor.

Similarly the values assigned to regeneration potential are 3 for high, 2 for moderate and 1 for low.

All 295 culturally significant plant species of the study area were assessed by the equation of C S and thus local wisdom was quantified.

2.6.1Scale for IUCN categories

On the basis of C S values index plant species were categorized according to IUCN criteria as critically endangered, endangered, vulnerable, near threatened(rare) and least concerned( secure) (Table 2.2).

Table 2.2 Scale for IUCN categories

Name of category C S values

Critically endangered 0 .1 to 1

Endangered 1.1 to 1.5

Vulnerable 1.6 to 2.0

Rare 2.1 to 2.5

Secure 2.6 and above

2.7 Data Analysis

Data analysis was based on locally known useful plants. A number of ethnobotanical methods were employed in order to evaluate the cultural drivers of plant biodiversity.

2.7.1 Analysis of checklist

Two important forms of analysis were used on the checklist. The first was a statistical analysis which hierarchically classified families according to the number of culturally significant plants that these families contained.

The second analysis was more qualitative. It involved the investigation of preferred plants used as medicine, edible, fuel, timber and fodder.

2.7.2 MS EXCEL

MS EXCELwas used to categorize and count the different cultural uses of plants and to draw the basic figures and graphs related to plant biodiversity.

2.7.3 Use of CANACO

The number of uses in each category at each locality was calculated for

CANACO adopting procedure of Chowdhury & Koike, (2010) and Uprety et al.,

(2010). This computer software package was used for Detrended Correspondance analysis (DCA 4.5 version) in order to analyze the multivariate data sets and PCORD version 5.1 was used for TWCA (Two ways cluster analysis). The use of computer software packages aim at making large data sets mentally accessible, structurally recognizable and patterns explainable.

2.7.4 DCA

Among the indirect techniques, Detrended Correspondence Analysis

(DCA)was used to avoid the distortion from results as described by Hill & Gauch Jr.,

(1980), and Ter Braak, (1988). CANODRAW a utility of CANACO was used to plot the data as an ordination plot. The classification results were used to categorize the ordination results for better visual interpretation. The DCA diagram illustrated the cultural gradients and facilitates interpretation of the cluster dendrogram.

2.7.5 TWCA

It was used for clusterization of species and use categories in smaller groups which showed close similarities. Dendrograms were obtained which explained the results more meaningfully and predictably in the form of clusters.

Chapter 3

RESULTS

3.1 Qualitative Ethnobotany

District Tor Ghar was first time explored ethnobotanically and 295 plant species of

230 genera belonging to 100 families were recorded for 33 different cultural uses

(Appendix 2).

The data showed diversity of ethnoflora belonging to 5% pteridophytes, 2% gymnosperms, 81% dicots and 12% monocots families. The highest %age of families was shown by dicots (Fig. 3.1).

Fig. 3.1 Percentage of families shown by different groups of plants

Seven species of 5 genera belonging to 5 families of Pteridophytes were reported for various cultural uses. Six species of 5 genera belonging to 2 families of

Gymnosperms were recorded for different cultural needs. The highest number of species, genera and families were documented from angiosperms. Dicots showed

236 species of 179 genera belonging to 81 families whereas Monocots were represented by 46 species of 41 genera belonging to 12 families (Appendix 3 &Fig

3.2).

Fig. 3.2 Number of genera and species shown by each group of plants

Among pteridophytes family Adiantaceae had 3 species and showed maximum diversity. While in gymnosperms family Pinaceae with 4 genera and 5 species ranked first. Dicots families showed highest diversity among which family

Asteraceae was represented by 17 genera and 19 species. The highest number of genera and species were represented by monocots family Poaceae containing 26 genera and 26 species (Fig. 3.3).

Fig. 3.3 Families showing highest number of genera and species

Habitwise categorization of plant biodiversity showed 195(66%) herbs, 46(16%) shrubs and 54(18%) trees. Herbs constitute the major portion of ethnoflora of district

Tor Ghar (Fig. 3.4).

Fig.3.4 Habitwise Percentage of Ethnoflora of Tor Ghar

3.2 Cultural Uses Operating as Cultural Drivers of Plant Biodiversity

People of district Tor Ghar use plant and plant resources in a variety of ways for a number of their cultural needs and Cultural uses operating as cultural drivers when bring changes in the floristic composition of a region. Data revealed that 295 plant species were effectively utilized by Basikhel, Nusratkhel, Akazai, Hassanzai and

Meakhel tribes for 33 cultural uses. The cultural uses were reported as adhesive material, aesthetic uses, baskets formation, broom formation, cosmetics uses, detergent, dye, fencing, fish poison, fodder, food, fruit ripening, fuel, furniture, graveyard plants, honey bee plants, insecticidal plants, instrument making, manure, medicinal, pen making, poison, roofing, rope formation, shade, antidote for snake bite, snuff formation, soil binding, spiritual uses, stick formation, timber, toothbrush and veterinary. These all cultural uses influence the vegetation structure of the area and operated as cultural drivers of plant biodiversity (Table 3.1).

Table 3.1 The number and percentage of species reported from each tribe for various cultural uses S.No Cultural Use Basikhel Nusratkhel Akazai Hassanzai Medakhel Category No of sp %age No of sp %age No of sp %age No of sp %age No of sp %age

1 Medicinal 150 25 105 23.6 99 21 118 24.4 115 24.57

2 Fodder 104 18 79 17.8 79 16.8 80 16.5 77 16.45

3 Fuel 76 13 54 12.2 66 14 56 11.6 55 11.75

4 Food 57 9.6 45 10.1 51 10.8 49 10.1 41 8.76

5 Instruments 17 2.8 11 2.47 21 4.45 17 3.51 19 4.05

6 Veterinary 29 4.9 21 4.72 22 4.67 18 3.71 18 3.84

7 Fencing 2 0.3 6 1.35 12 2.54 15 3.09 15 3.2

8 Timber 25 4.2 20 4.5 22 4.67 14 2.89 15 3.2

9 Shade giving 19 3.2 8 1.8 17 3.6 11 2.27 12 2.56

10 Insecticidal 0 0 0 0 7 1.48 11 2.27 12 2.56

11 Furniture 10 1.6 8 1.8 9 1.91 10 2.06 11 2.35

12 Roofing 17 2.8 10 2.25 10 2.12 8 1.65 9 1.92

13 Sticks form. 6 1 7 1.57 8 1.69 8 1.65 7 1.49

S.No Cultural Use Basikhel Nusratkhel Akazai Hassanzai Medakhel Category No of sp %age No of sp %age No of sp %age No of sp %age No of sp %age

14 Dye yielding 7 1.1 5 1.12 7 1.48 8 1.65 7 1.49

15 Toothbrush 5 0.8 7 1.57 8 1.48 6 1.23 7 1.49

16 Basket form 0 4 0.9 5 1.06 9 1.85 6 1.28

17 Cosmetics 7 1.1 14 3.15 7 1.48 7 1.44 6 1.28

18 Snake bite 0 0 4 0.9 0 0 6 1.23 6 1.28

19 Detergent 0 0 4 0.9 0 0 5 0.82 5 1.06

20 Rope form. 0 0 4 0.9 0 0 4 1.03 5 1.06

21 Broom form. 4 0.7 4 0.9 4 0.84 3 0.61 4 0.85

22 Manure 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0.85

23 Spiritual 6 1 5 1.12 8 1.69 3 0.61 3 0.64

24 Graveyard pl. 4 0.7 5 1.12 3 0.63 3 0.61 3 0.64

25 Snuf form. 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0.61 3 0.64

26 Adhesive 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0.64

S.No Cultural Use Basikhel Nusratkhel Akazai Hassanzai Medakhel Category No of sp %age No of sp %age No of sp %age No of sp %age No of sp %age

27 Soil binding 10 1.6 12 2.7 0 0 10 2.06 0 0

28 Fruit ripening 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0.2 0 0

29 Pen making 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0.2 0 0

30 Fish poison 0 0 0 0 2 0.42 0 0 0 0

31 Aesthetic 5 0.8 3 0.67 0 0 0 0 0 0

32 Honey bee 16 2.7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

33 Poisonous 9 1.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

The highest number of plant species were recorded for medicinal uses followed by fodder, fuel, food, veterinary and timber (Fig.3.5). Among five tribes of

Tor Ghar, Basikhel tribe used 150(25%), Nusratkhel 105(23.6%), Akazai 99(21%),

Hassanzai 118(24.4%) and Medakhel 115(24.57%) plant species for medicinal purposes. The medicinal plant species were followed by fodder plant species.

Basikhel used 104(18%), Nusratkhel 79(17.8%), Akazai 79(16.8), Hassanzai 80(16.5%), and Medakhel 77(16.45%) plant species for fodder. Plant species exploited for fuel by

Basikhel were 76(13%), Nusratkhel 54(12.2%), Akazai 66(14%), Hassanzai 56(11.6) and Medakhel 55(11.75%). The plants used for food including wild edible fruits and vegetables were utilized by Basikhel 57(9.6%), Nusratkhel 45(10.1%), Akazai

51(10.8%), Hassanzai 49(10.1) and Medakhel 41(8.76%). Ethnoveterinary plant species were recorded for Basikhel 29(4.9%), Nusratkhel 21(4.72%), Akazai

22(4.67%), Hassanzai 18(3.71) and Medakhel 18(3.84%). Timber yielding species were used by Basikhel 25(4.2%), Nusratkhel 20(4.5%), Akazai 22(4.67%), Hassanzai

14(2.89) and Medakhel 15(3.2%).

Besides these important cultural uses, the other cultural use categories along with number of species and %age of species are given in the table 3.1.

Fig. 3.5 The highest number of species reported for important cultural uses

3.3 Cultural Gradient of Plant Biodiversity of District Tor Ghar The plant species reported from five tribes namely Basikhel, Nusratkhel,

Akazai, Hassanzai and Medakhel are presented in the table 3.1. The highest percentage of species were recorded from Basikhel tribe 28% followed by Medakhel

19%, Hassanzai 18%, Nusratkhel 18% and Akazai 17% (Fig. 3.6).

Fig. 3.6 Percentage of species used by different tribes

A total of 33 cultural uses were recorded for 5 tribes of the study area. 19 cultural uses were found common in all tribes. Basikhel has 3 individual uses, Nusratkhel 5,

Akazai 2, Hassanzai 8 and Medakhel 7 uses (Fig. 3.7).

Fig. 3.7 Venn diagram showing comparison of plant uses among the five tribes

3.4 Quantitative Ethnobotany The ethnobotanical data was quantified by the following quantitative techniques and comprehensive results were obtained.

3.4.1 Informant Consensus Factor (ICF)

ICF was calculated for 33 use categories in Basikhel, Nusratkhel, Akazai,

Hassanzai and Medakhel tribes of the study area. The results are presented in the

Table 3.2

Dye yielding species showed highest ICF values for Medakhel (0.86) followed by Nusratkhel (0.81), Basikhel and Hassanzai (0.78). The least ICF value was shown by Akazai (0.72). The plants used for furniture making showed highest ICF values for Hassanzai (0.89), followed by Basikhel (0.86), Medakhel (0.84), Nusratkhel (0.8)

51 and Akazai (0.77). The ICF values in descending order for stick formation plant species were Akazai (0.9), Medakhel (0.84), Nusratkhel and Hassanzai (0.82) and

Basikhel (0.81). Consensus of informants over shade giving trees is highest in

Medakhel tribe (0.84) and lowest in Akazai and Hassanzai tribes (0.76) which showed the same ICF values. While Nusratkhel showed (0.82) and Basikhel (0.77)

(Table 3.2).

In the case of use category of food maximum ICF value was represented by

Hassanzai (0.86) followed by Akazai and Medakhel (0.83), Nusratkhel (0.82) and

Basikhel (0.81). The plant species used for timber showed identical ICF values (0.82) for three tribes Akazai, Hassanzai and Medakhel. Nusratkhel showed (0.81) and

Basikhel showed least value (0.76). The plant species used for green manure were only reported from Medakhel (0.78) (Table 3.2).

Rope formation plant species represent highest ICF (0.86) value for

Nusratkhel, (0.81) for Hassanzai and (0.77) for Medakhel. However, no species was reported from Basikhel. Ethno medicinal plant species were recorded from all tribes showing highest ICF value for Akazai (0.84) followed by Basikhel (0.81), Nusratkhel

(0.79), Medakhel (0.76) and Hassanzai (0.7). Insecticidal plants were recoded from

Akazai, Hassanzai and Medakhel tribes having ICF values 0.75, 0 .69 and 0 .76 respectively. The highest value was shown by Medakhel (0.76)(Table 3.2).

The plant species used for woody instruments indicating highest ICF value for

Nusratkhel (0.81) followed by Basikhel (0.8), Akazai (0.79), Medakhel (0.75) and

Hassanzai (0.58). The lowest value was drastically reduced in case of Hassanzai

(0.58). Fodder species show highest ICF value for Basikhel (0.84) followed by

Nusratkhel (0.83), Akazai (0.81), Medakhel (0.74) and Hassanzai (0.73). Consensus over fodder species was seemed to be lower in Medakhel and Hassanzai tribes as compare to other tribes of the study area (Table 3.2).

Fuel species showed overall lesser ICF values not exceeding 0.79 as the highest value for Akazai. While Medakhel, Nusratkhel, Hassanzai and Basikhel have ICF values 0.71, 0.7, 0.67 and 0.65 respectively. The plants utilized for cosmetics purposes showed highest ICF value for Hassanzai (0.84) followed by Basikhel (0.82),

Nusratkhel (0.79), Medakhel (0.68) and Akazai (0.66). Ethnoveternary plant species in all tribes of the study area showed lesser ICF values not exceeding 0.78 as the highest value for Akazai tribe. While Basikhel, Nusratkhel, Medakhel and Hassanzai showing 0.76, 0.71, 0.67 and 0.65 respectively (Table 3.2).

The ethnospecies exploited for detergent purposes represented highest ICF value for Nusratkhel (0.85) and Basikhel (0.83) while lesser values for Medakhel

(0.66), Hassanzai (0.62) and Akazai (0.57). The plant species used for roofing purposes showing 0.82 as the highest ICF value for Basikhel and 0.81 for Nusratkhel,

0.68 for Akazai and Hassanzai and 0.63 for Medakhel. The plant species used for adhesive material was only reported from Medakhel tribe and showing 0.6 not so high ICF value. The ethnoflora used as antidote of snake bite was reported from three tribes representing highest ICF value 0.81 for Nusratkhel followed by

Medakhel (0.54) and Hassanzai (0.44). In this use category the lowest ICF value is much more less indicating a small proportion of informants agree over the use of plant species. The ethnospecies used for snuff formation were recorded from

Hassanzai and Medakhel tribes. This use category shows minimum ICF values as

53 compare to other use categories. Medakhal showed 0.5 highest value while

Hassanzai showed 0.33 as the lowest value (Table 3.2).

The highest consensus was obtained over the plants used for fencing in

Nusratkhel tribe (0.7) followed by Akazai (0.65), Hassanzai (0.64), Basikhel (0.5) and

Medakhel (0.48). All ICF values (0.7-0.48) showing not so high consensus over plant species used by locals. The plants leaves used for fruit ripening was only reported from Hassanzai tribe and shown maximum ICF value 1. This value indicated 100% consensus over the use of this plant species. The ethnospecies used traditionally for soil binding were reported from three tribes. The highest ICF value was shown by

Basikhel (0.8) followed by Nusratkhel (0.73) and Hassanzai (0.47) (Table 3.2).

The plant species utilized for fish poisoning was only recorded from Akazai tribe showing ICF value (0.88). Similarly the plants used for aesthetic values were recorded from two tribes. The highest ICF value was shown by Nusratkhel (0.84) and lowest by Basikhel (0.63). Poisonous plant species showed ICF value .66 for

Basikhel tribe. These plants were not reported from any other tribe. Honey bee flora was also documented only from Basikhel tribe and shows 0.53 ICF value (Table 3.2).

The maximum ICF value was 01 shown by ethnospecies used for fruit ripening and pen making in Hassanzai tribal belt. High ICF value pointed out that a single species was reported by a high proportion of informants. These species were not reported by any other tribe. The highest ICF values for use categories of 5 tribes that is graveyard flora, broom formation species and spiritual plants species indicated more than 0.80 ICF values (Fig. 3.7). These species were reported by high proportion of informants belonging to all tribes (Table 3.2).

Graveyard flora showed highest ICF values in Medakhel and Hassanzai (0.93) followed by Akazai (0.92), Basikhel (0.91) and Nusratkhel (0.89). The plant species used by indigenous tribes for baskets formation have highest ICF values (0.92) for

Akazai tribe, (0.87) for Nusratkhel and Medakhel and (0.76) for Hassanzai tribe. No species was reported for basket formation from Basikhel tribe (Table 3.2).

Table 3.2 ICF values for different use categories among five tribes of Tor Ghar S.N Use Category Basikhel Nusratkhel Akazai Hassanzai Medakhel Average ICF 1 Pen making 0 0 0 1 0 1 2 Fruit ripening 0 0 0 1 0 1 3 Graveyard plants 0.91 0.89 0.92 0.93 0.93 0.91 4 Spiritual 0.87 0.86 0.88 0.91 0.92 0.88 5 Fish poison 0 0 0.88 0 0 0.88 6 Broom formation 0.84 0.86 0.9 0.84 0.93 0.87 7 Basket form. 0 0.87 0.92 0.76 0.87 0.85 8 Sticks formation 0.81 0.82 0.9 0.82 0.84 0.83 9 Furniture 0.86 0.8 0.77 0.89 0.84 0.83 10 Food 0.81 0.82 0.83 0.86 0.83 0.83 11 Toothbrush 0.9 0.88 0.61 0.86 0.88 0.82 12 Rope formation 0 0.86 0 0.81 0.77 0.81 13 Timber 0.76 0.81 0.82 0.82 0.82 0.80 14 Fodder 0.84 0.83 0.81 0.73 0.74 0.79 15 Dye yielding 0.78 0.81 0.72 0.78 0.86 0.79 16 Shade giving 0.77 0.82 0.76 0.76 0.84 0.79 17 Manure 0 0 0 0 0.78 0.78 18 Medicinal 0.81 0.79 0.84 0.7 0.76 0.78 19 Cosmetics 0.82 0.79 0.66 0.84 0.68 0.75 20 Instruments 0.8 0.81 0.79 0.58 0.75 0.74 21 Aesthetic 0.63 0.84 0 0 0 0.73 22 Insecticidal 0 0 0.75 0.69 0.76 0.73 23 Roofing 0.82 0.81 0.68 0.68 0.63 0.72 24 Veterinary 0.76 0.71 0.78 0.65 0.67 0.71 25 Detergent 0.83 0.85 0.57 0.62 0.66 0.70 26 Fuel 0.65 0.7 0.79 0.67 0.71 0.70 27 Soil binding 0.8 0.73 0 0.47 0 0.66 28 Poisonous 0.66 0 0 0 0 0.66 29 Adhesive material 0 0 0 0 0.6 0.6 30 Snake bite 0 0.81 0.44 0.54 0.59 31 Fencing 0.5 0.7 0.65 0.64 0.48 0.59 32 Honey bee plants 0.53 0 0 0 0 0.53

33 Snuff formation 0 0 0 0.33 0.5 0.41

The highest ICF value for broom formation plants was found in Medakhel (0.93)

followed by Akazai (0.9), Nusratkhel (0.86), Basikhel and Hassanzai (0.84). The

plants used spiritually showed highest ICF value in Medakhel (0.92) followed by

Hassanzai (0.91), Akazai (0.88), Basikhel (0.87) and Nusratkhel (0.86). Toothbrush

species showed highest ICF value for Basikhel tribe (0.9) followed by Nusratkhel and

Medakhel (0.88), Hassanzai (0.86) and Akazai (0.61). In this case Akazai tribe did not

show high ICF value as compare to other tribes (Fig.3.8).

Fig. 3.8 The highest ICF values for three use categories among five tribes

3.4.2 Cultural Importance Index (CI)

Cultural significance of plant species from each tribal belt of the study area

was estimated by cultural importance index. The CI value is directly proportional to

the cultural significance of a species in a society.

3.4.2.1Estimation of Cultural Importance of species used by Basikhel Tribe

The most popularly used herbs species showing highest CI values were

Nasturtium officinale (0.57) followed by Amaranthus viridis (0.54) and Aloe vera (0.5).

The least popular herb species was Gagea lutea (0.11). In the case of shrubs,

Zanthoxylum armatum (0.63) ranked first followed by Skimmia laureola (0.62), Berberis lycium (0.6) and Cotinus coggyria (0.6). The lowest value was shown by Buddleja crispa

(0.12). Amongtrees species Juglans regia (0.7) showed the highest CI value followed by Cedrus deodara (0.68), Ficus palmata (0.67) andMelia azedarach (0.67). Ilex dipyrena

(0.24) was ranked lowest among all trees species used by locals (Appendix 4).

3.4.2.2 Estimation of Cultural Importance of species used by Nusratkhel Tribe

The maximum CI value was manifested by herbs Nasturtium officinale (0.53) followed by Taraxicum officinale (0.5), Aloe vera (0.47) and Artemisia scoparia (0.47). The minimum CI value was shown by Ranunculus muricatus (0.09). While shrubs displayed the highest CI value for Zanthoxylum armatum (0.68) followed by Berberis lycium (0.64) and Skimmia laureola (0.61). Whereas Jasminum nudiflorum (0.12) was the least popular shrub found in Nusrakhel tribal culture.

Tree species with highest CI values were found Cedrus deodara (0.81), Juglans regia (0.8) and Olea ferruginea (0.78) showing the highest IC values. While Bombax ceiba with CI (0.2) showed least popularity among trees of Nusratkhel tribe

(Appendix 4).

3.4.2.3 Estimation of Cultural Importance of species used by Akazai Tribe

The highest CI values were recorded for herbal species Nasturtium officinale

(0.42), Incarvellia emodi (0.39), Duchesnea indica (0.38), Debregeasia salicifolia (0.38) andSolanum nigrum (0.37). The least CI value was shown by Salvia lanata (0.13).

Among Shrubs the highest CI values were displayed by Skimmia laureola (0.56),

Berberis lycium (0.53) and Zanthoxylum armatum (0.49). The lowest CI value was recorded for Isodon rugosus (0.13). The trees species depicting highest CI values were

Juglans regia (0.7), Moras nigra (0.69), Olea ferruginea (0.68) and Melia azedarach (0.67).

The least cited tree species was Phoenix dactylifera (0.19), (Appendix 4).

3.4.2.4 Estimation of Cultural Importance of species used by Hassanzai Tribe

The most culturally significant herbs showing the highest CI values were

Nasturtium officinale (0.41), Duchesnea indica (0.37) and Solanum nigrum (0.37).

Whereas Silene vulgaris (0.12) was ranked lowest among herbs. The highest CI values were represented by shrubs like Berberis lyceum (0.56), Indigofera heterantha

(0.56) and Zanthoxylum armatum (0.51). The lowest CI value was shown by Bambusa glaucescens (0.16). In the case of trees highest CI values were shown by Moras nigra

(0.78) followed by Juglans regia (0.73) and Olea ferruginea (0.69). While Cedrella serrata(

0.21) representing the lowest CI value among trees of Hassanzai tribal belt of district

Tor Ghar (Appendix 4).

3.4.2.5 Estimation of Cultural Importance of species used by Medakhail Tribe

The highest ranked herb species showing maximum CI values such as

Amaranthus spinesus (0.48), Amaranthus caudatus (0.43) andMentha longifolia (0.41). The lowest CI value was shown by Equisetum ramosissimum (0.07). In the case of shrubs maximum CI values were portrayed by Berberis lycium (0.62), Skimmia laureola (0.53),

Zanthoxylum armatum (0.49) and Ziziphus nummularia (0.48). Whereas least CI value was manifested by Withania somnifera (0.11). Among trees species Moras nigra (0.81),

Melia azedarach (0.79) and Juglans regia (0.78) ranked highest CI valued plants. The lowest value of CI was depicted by Butea monosperma (0.2) (Appendix 4).

3.4 Cultural Importance of families (CIF)

CIF for various families of vascular plants was calculated by commulating CI values of all plants of a family. The most culturally significant family of

Pteridophytes was found Adiantaceae showing highest ICF (0.35) value for

Hassanzai, (0.27) for Basikhel tribe, and (0.10) for Nusratkhel. The least significant families were Dryoteridacaea and Pteridaceae representing (0.12) ICF values only for

Basikhel and Hassanzai tribes (Appendix 5).

The most culturally significant family of Gymnosperms was Pinaceae depicting highest CIF values (2.97) for Akazai tribe,( 2.79) for Basikhel tribe, (2.26) for Nusratkhel tribe, (1.98) for Medakhel tribe and (1.82) for Hassanzai tribe. Lowest

ICF value was shown by Taxacaea (0.52) for Akazai tribe and (0.47) for Basikhel tribe

(Appendix 5).

Among monocots families of angiosperms, the family Poaceae was ranked first having CIF value (4.14) for Basikhel, (3.65) for Medakhel, (2.98) for Nusratkhel,

(2.89) for Hassanzai and (1.15) for Akazai tribe. Lowest ranked family was

Cannaceae having only (0.09) ICF value for Medakhel tribe(Appendix 5).

The family Asteraceae of dicots showed the highest ICF value (4.38) for

Basikhel tribe, (4.30) for Nusratkhel tribe, (1.71) for Akazai tribe, (1.57) for Hassanzai tribe and (1.21) for Medakhel tribe. Whereas family Capparidaceae represented the lowest ICF value (0.08) only for Medakhel tribe (Appendix 5).

In whole vascular plant biodiversity of district Tor Ghar, the family

Asteraceae (Dicots) scored maximum ICF value (4.38) followed by Poaceae

(Monocots) (4.14), Pinaceae (Gymnosperms) (2.97) and Adiantaceae (Pteridophytes)

(0.35) (Fig. 3.9).

Fig. 3.9 The highest ICF values showing families of different groups of plants.

3.5 Role of Ethnobiology in Conservation

Conservation status of 295 plant species was assessed tribewise and mean value was calculated for each recorded species. The results are described as below

3.5.1 Conservation status of Herbs

Six species of herbs were found critically endangered (CE) showing CS values up to

1.0 These species are Podophyllum emodi (0.5),Gentiana kurroo (0.85), Dioscorea deltoidea

(0.88),Incarvellia emodi (0.96),Arisaema utile (1.0) and Picris hieraciodes(1.0)(Fig. 3.9).

Thirteen species of herbs were mentioned as endangered ranging CS values from 1.1 to 1.5. Vulnerable species were found 31, rare 41and secure 104 (Appendix 6 &

Fig.3.10).

Fig. 3.10 Critically endangered herbs of district Tor Ghar

3.5.2 Conservation status of Shrubs

Among shrubs 9 species were found critically endangered. These were Skimmia laureola (0.48), Woodfordia fruticosa (0.78),Periploca aphylla (0.88),Hedra nepalensis (01),

Nannorrhops ritchieana (01), Vitis jacquemontii (01),Viburnum grandiflorum(01) andOpuntia dillenii (01)(Fig.3.10). Endangered species were recorded 4, vulnerable

15, rare 11 and secure 9 (Appendix 6 & Fig. 3.11).

Fig.3.11 Critically endangered shrubs of district Tor Ghar 3.5.3 Conservation status of Trees Six trees species were declared critically endangered. These were Cedrus deodara

(0.54), Pistacia integerrima (0.62), Taxus wallichiana (0.83), Ficus carica (0.91), Cornus

62 macrophylla (1) and Bauhinia variegata (1) (Fig. 3.11). Eighteen species of trees were mentioned as endangered, 10 vulnerable, 6 rare and 13 secure (Appendix 6 &

Fig.3.12).

Fig.3.12 Critically endangered trees of district Tor Ghar

Fig. 3.13 Number of species of all life forms and IUCN categories Overall 20 species of all life forms were declared critically endangered, 35 endangered, 56 vulnerable, 58 rare and 126 secure (Fig. 3.14).

Fig. 3.14 Total number of species assigned to IUCN categories

The percentage of threatened flora 38% (7% critically endangered, 12% endangered, 19% vulnerable) 19 % near threatened (rare) was higher as compare to secure(least concerned) flora 43% (Fig. 3.15).

Fig. 3.15 Percentage of threatened and secure species of Tor Ghar 3.6 Use of Softwares in Handling of Cultural Data Multivariate data requires complex mathematical operations. The computer software packages CANOCO was used for Detrended Correspondance Analysis

(DCA 4.5 version) and PCORD version 5.1 for TWCA (Two Ways Cluster Analysis) in order to analyze the multivariate data sets.

3.6.1 Detrended Correspondance Analysis(DCA)

In order to find out the cultural gradients of vegetation of Tor Ghar. DCA was carried out which seemed the most decisive among the indirect ordination methods.

DCA Results of Use Categories

The DCA plot showing the pattern of distribution of cultural use categories among five tribes of district Tor Ghar (3.16).

Fig. 3.16 DCA plot showing the distribution of various cultural use categories among different tribes. DCA Eigenvalues for the first two axes are .130 and .090 suggesting a good dispersion of data along the axes (Table 3.3).

Axes 1 2 3 4 Total inertia 65

Eigenvalues : 0.130 0.090 0.000 0.000 0.345 Lengths of gradient : 1.047 0.826 0.000 0.000 Cumulative percentage of variance : 37.5 63.6 0.0 0.0 Sum of all eigenvalues 0.345 Table 3.3 Explanation of the four axes of DCA for ICF.

DCA Results about correlation of tribes The DCA plot results illustrated a weaker correlation among Basikhel,

Hassanzai and Medakhel tribes, whereas a stronger correlation between Nusratkhel and Akazai tribes in the case of cultural use categories(3.17).

Fig. 3.17 DCA plot showing overall tribewise correlation of cultural use categories

DCA Results of Cultural Importance of Families (CIF)

DCA differentiated the highest CIF values families in the centre of plot while the lowest CIF valued families on the periphery of the plot. Thus the highest CIF

66 values were shown by families Poaceae, Moraceae, Asteraceae, Papilionaceae,

Moraceae, Asteraceae, Pinaceae, Rosaceae, Lamiaceae and Meliaceae etc. whereas the lowest CIF values representing families of the study area are Portulaceae,

Rubiaceae, Aquifoliaceae, Campanulaceae, Nyctaginaceae, Menispermaceae,

Dryoteridaceae, Pteridaceae, Onagraceae, Cannaceae and Capparidaceae (Fig.3.18).

Fig. 3.18 DCA plot showing cultural importance of families in the Tor Ghar

DCA Results of TribewiseCorrelation of CIF

CIF (Cultural importance of families) of ethno species were recorded from five tribes. DCA showed grouping of tribes. One group comprises of Basikhel and

Nusratkhel while the other Hassanzai and Medakhel. Each group shows similar cultural importance of the families. Akazai tribe shows different cultural importance of families (Fig. 3.19).

Fig. 3.19 DCA plot representing tribewise correlation of CIF

Eigen values of the four axes of DCA plot indicating good dispersion of data (Table 3.4). Table 3.4 Description of the four axes of DCA for CIF

Axes 1 2 3 4 Total inertia

Eigenvalues : 0.187 0.112 0.024 0.003 0.383

Lengths of gradient : 1.193 0.857 0.510 0.509

Cumulative percentage of variance : 48.9 78.0 84.4 85.2

Sum of all eigenvalues : 0.383

DCA Results for CI, CS and number of uses

This analysis explored correlation among number of uses, cultural importance and conservation status of the species reported from five tribes. Cultural importance of species and no of uses in Basikhel tribe showed close relationship with cultural importance and number of uses of Nusratkhel tribe. Conservation status of Basikhel

68 tribe showed negative correlation with cultural importance and number of uses.

Whereas conservation status of Nusratkhel tribe showed positive correlation with cultural importance and number of uses. Akazai tribe also depicted positive correlation among cultural importance, no of uses and conservation status.

Hassanzai tribe represented positive correlation among cultural importance, number of uses and conservation status. While Medakhel tribe showed negative correlation among cultural importance, number of uses and conservation status (Fig. 3.20).

Fig. 3.20 DCA plot showing correlation of cultural importance index, number of uses and conservation status among different tribes

The explaination of DCA plot regarding correlation of CI, CS and number of

uses is shown by the table 3.5.

Table 3.5 Explanation of the four axes of DCA for CI, CS and number of uses

Axes 1 2 3 4 Total inertia

Eigenvalues : 0.238 0.123 0.068 0.009 0.895

Lengths of gradient 1.692 1.406 1.260 1.059

Cumulative percentage of variance: 26.5 40.3 47.8 48.9

Sum of all eigenvalues : 0.895

3.6.2 Results of Two Ways Cluster Analysis(TWCA)

The data of 295 species was analyzed by TWCA. A dendrogram was obtained that split the data into 23 clusters (Fig 3.21). Five tribes of the study area were clearly seen in two main branches of dendrogram which represented two main clusters of tribes.

One main cluster comprising Basikhel, Nusratkhel and Akazai tribes sharing maximum common species. While the second main cluster consisting of Hassanzai and Medakhel tribes showing maximum common species.

Fig. 3.21 A dendrogram showing tribewise clustering of ethnospecies

The results showed that 56 species were reported individually by diffrent tribes. The highest number of these species was reported from Medakhel tribe (25), followed by

Basikhel (23), Hassanzai (4), Akazai (3) and Nusratkhel (1) (Table 3.6).

Table 3.6 Number of species reported individually by each tribe S.N Cluster Number No of species Tribe 1 23 25 Medakhel 2 7 23 Basikhel 3 21 4 Hassanzai 4 3 3 Akazai 5 6 1 Nusratkhel

The results also showed 239 species were recorded commonly by different tribes. The highest number of species 68(23%) were found common in all five tribes of district Tor Ghar. Basikhel, Nusratkhel and Akazai tribes shared 23(8%) common species. Basikhel and Nusratkhel had 21(7%) species common. Similarly, Basikhel,

Hassanzai and Medakhel showed 21(7%) species common. Basikhel and Akazai represented 18(6%) species common. Basikhel, Nusratkhel, Hassanzai and Medakhel reported 14(5%) species commonly. Basikhel, Akazai, Hassanzai and Medakhel had

13(4.5%) species common. Basikhel, Nusratkhel, Akazai and Hassanzai shared

12(4%) common species. Similarly, Hassanzai and Medakhel also shared 12(4%).

Basikhel, Nusratkhel, Akazai and Medakhel showed 8(3%) species common. While

Basikhel, Nusratkhel and Hassanzai represented by 7(2.3%) common species.

Basikhel, Nusratkhel and Medakhel shared 5(2%) species common. Whereas

Basikhel and Medakhel also shared 5(2%) species common. Basikhel and Hassanzai have 3(1%) species common. The least common species 1(0.3%) were found between

Akazai and Medakhel. Similarly 1(0.3%) species was found common among

Basikhel, Akazai and Medakhel tribes(Table3.7)

Table 3.7 Number of common species recorded by different tribes S.N Cluster No No of species Tribes 1 8 68 1,2,3,4,5 2 2 23 1,2,3 3 5 21 1,2 4 19 21 1,4,5 5 1 18 1,3 6 17 14 1,2,4,5 7 12 13 1,3,4,5 8 13 12 1,2,3,4 9 22 12 4,5 10 10 8 1,2,3,5 11 14 7 1,2,4 12 15 6 1,3,4 13 18 5 1,2,5 14 20 5 1,5 15 16 3 1,4 16 4 1 3,5 17 9 1 1,3,5 18 11 1 3,4,5

Results of TWCA for use categories among five tribes

When TWCA was applied to 33 use categories of 295 ethnospecies. The use categories were split in to 11 clusters on the basis of presence or absence of a use category in a particular tribe. Five tribes of the study area were clearly depicted by two main branches of dendrogram which represented two main clusters of tribes.

One main cluster comprises Basikhel and Nusratkhel tribes sharing maximum use categories. While the second main cluster consisting of Akazai, Hassanzai and

Medakhel tribes representing the highest number of common use categories(Fig.

3.22).

Fig. 3.22 TWA showing clusterization of cultural use categories among five tribes.

Cluster 5 showsed the highest number of use categories (19) common in all five tribes. These were broom formation, stick, dye, shade, food, spiritual, graveyard flora, timber, cosmetics, furniture, toothbrush, detergent, roofing, fencing, fodder, medicinal, veterinary, instruments and fuel. Clusters 1, 6, 8 and 11 representing two use categories each. Cluster 1 mentioned adhesive material and green manure plants used by only Medakhel tribe. Cluster 6 described rope formation and antidote of snake bite by Nusratkhel, Hassanzai and Medakhel tribes. Cluster 8 showed fruit ripening and pen making plants used among Hassanzai tribe. While cluster 11 depicted honey bee flora and poisonous plants recognized by Basikhel tribe. Clusters

2, 3, 4, 7 and 10 have a single use category each. Cluster 2 mentioned snuff formation by Hassanzai and Medakhel tribes. Cluster 3 showed basket formation by

Nusratkhel, Akazai, Hassanzai and Medakhel. Cluster 4 revealed insecticidal plants used by Akazai, Hassanzai and Medakhel. Cluster 7 illustrated fish poison flora used by Akazai and cluster 10 indicated soil binding flora used by Basikhel, Nusratkhel and Hassanzai tribes (Table 3.8).

Table 3.8 Clusters of various use categories among different tribes. Cluster # Name of use category Tribes 5 Broom, stick, dye, shade, food, spiritual, graveyard 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 flora, timber, cosmetics, furniture, toothbrush, detergent, roofing, fencing fodder, medicinal, veterinary, instruments and fuel. 1 Adhesive and manure 5 2 Snuff 4,5 3 Basket 2, 3, 4, 5

4 Insecticidal 3, 4, 5 6 Rope and antidote snake bite 2, 4, 5 7 Fish poison 3 8 Fruit ripening and pen making 4 9 Aesthetic 1,2 10 Soil binding 1, 2, 4 11 Honey bee and poisonous plants 1 Tribes: Basikhel=1, Nusratkhel=2, Akazai=3, Hassanzai=4, Medakhel=5

Chapter 4

DISCUSSION Himalayas are the largest and youngest mountains of the world.Mountain ecosystems harbor high levels of plant and animal biodiversity which provides direct services for sustainable human life.Floristically the district Tor Ghar occupies a significant location in the western Himalayan Province and dominated by Sino-

Japanese type of vegetation.It falls in a transitional zone between moist temperate and dry temperate vegetation zones (Takhtadzhian & Cronquist, 1986). In the case of

Pakistan for example besides the direct services of plant biodiversity to local people,

74 the mountains are decisive for the resilience of agriculture even in the Indus plain which depends on montane catchments for its water supply (Manandhar & Rasul,

2009, Xu et al., 2009). According to Ali and Qaisar (1986) almost 80 % of endemic species of plants are found in the northern and western mountains of Pakistan.

4.1 Richness of ethnoecologically important species

The present study explored ethnobotanical resources of district Tor Ghar for the first time. The results show 295 species of 230 genera belonging to 100 families are being used by indigenous tribes for 33 cultural uses. The highest percentage that is 28% species were recorded from Basikhel tribe followed by Medakhel 19%species,

Hassanzai 18% species, Nusratkhel 18% and Akazai 17% species. 81% species of culturally important species were reported commonly by all tribes while 19% of such species were not common in all tribes and retain their individuality. Among the 19 % species the highest number was reported from Medakhel tribe i.e., 25 individual, followed by Basikhel 23, Hassanzai 4, Akazai 3 and Nusratkhel 1 species. Highest percentage (81%) of species common among all tribes indicate overall uniform cultural uses of plants while 19% species found not common show intra cultural differences among the tribes. Our findings also depict that Basikhel tribe and

Medakhel tribes showing more cultural differences as compare to rest of the tribes. It may be interpreted as Medakhel tribe is geographically isolated being located on the western bank of Indus river. This geographical isolation makes it culturally more reserved as compare to others tribes. On the other hand Basikhel tribe inhabitson the northern extreme of the district close to the Silk Route showing minor cultural individuality due to communication with rest of the country.

The ethnoflora of the district Tor Ghar is highly diverse including pteridophytes, gymnosperms, dicots and monocots. Habit wise analyses show herbs as the major component of plant biodiversity.The highest number of species, genera and families may be attributed to richness of species and dependance of indigenous people on plant resources. Although the study area is explored for the first time but a number of researches conducted in adjacent areas also show similarity in terms of diversity and cultural uses. Afzal et al., (2009) recorded 135 genera from northern

Pakistan for various cultural needs. An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants of Nandiar Khuwarr catchment ( District Battagram) western Himalayan was carried out and 156 species were reported for treatment of various diseases (Haq et al.,

2011). Khan et al., (2012) studied anthropogenic influences on the natural ecosystems of the Naran Valley in the western Himalayan region and reported 181 plant species for different provisioning services. Haq (2012) also studied 172 taxa ethnomedicinally from Allai valley, western Himalayan.

4.2 Cultural uses as cultural drivers of shaping plant diversity

The results revealed that the people of district Tor Ghar used plants resources in a variety of ways for their 33 cultural needs. There has been found a complex interaction between people and plants. The environmental factors influence the cultural needs of the local communities and in turn cultural utilization of plant resources reshapes the floristic composition, species diversity and vegetation structure of the area. When more and more cultural needs are fulfilled by plant resources, the plant biodiversity of the region would undergo great changes. Human culture not necessarily brings negative changes in floristic composition but this

76 study found positive changes as well. According to Butler and Kosura (2006) many societies had evolved social systems, including customs, acknowledged boundaries, and reciprocities, with which to manage and preserve ecosystem services and welfare of human beings on a local scale. The present study documented cultural needs of Torghariens derived from plant biodiversity such as adhesive material, aesthetic uses, baskets formation, broom formation, cosmetics uses, detergent, dye, fencing, fish poison, fodder, food, fruit ripening, fuel, furniture, graveyard plants, honey bee plants, insecticidal plants, instrument making, manure, medicinal, pen making, poison, roofing, rope formation, shade, antidote for snake bite, snuff formation, soil binding, spiritual uses, stick formation, timber, toothbrush and veterinary. The highest number of cultural uses recorded from this district clearly showing the rich cultural heritage of plants lore. The findings of a number of studies conducted time to time in different parts of the country also mentioned multiple cultural uses. Quershi and Khan (2001) documented 25 herbal species from Kahuta, district Rawalpindi and described different cultural uses such as medicine, food, fodder and shelter etc. Ranyal hills district Shangala adjacent to the study area was explored ethnobotanically by Ibrar et al., (2007) and reported 97 plant species for 22 cultural uses such as fuel, forage, medicines, food, shelter, poisonous, ornamental, baskets formation, ornamental, timber, religious beliefs, adhesive material and pen making etc. Ethnobotanical information about 28 species was gathered which locally used for food, medicine and other cultural uses by women in the southern

Himalayan regions of Pakistan (Quershi et al.,2009). Quershi and Bhatti (2009) studied 6 species of family Amaranthaceae from Nara desert accomplishing the

77 primary cultural needs of local communities for example food, medicine, fodder, fuel and medication of livestock. Ullah et al., (2009) carried out an ethnobotanical survey of ethnoflora of Charkotli Hills, district Batkhela, northern Pakistan. This study revealed indigenous information about 100 species for a variety of local uses such as medicine, food, furniture, fodder, fuel, thatching, fencing, timber, poison, ketchup, oil, tooth brushes, sticks formation, ornamental, cosmetics, tanning, refreshment of milk pots, chewing gum and insect repellent. Lora valley of district

Abbottabad was explored ethnobotanically and 57 plant species were recorded for different cultural uses such as medicine, food, fodder, fuel and shelter (Abbasi et al.,

(2010). Jamil et al., (2011) recorded 43 ethnospecies from Ratwal village, district

Attock, Pakistan. These plant species were traditionally used as food, fodder, timber, fuel and medicine. Ilyas et al., (2013) documented 194 plant species from Qalagai hills, Kabal valley, district Swat for a number of cultural uses such as medicine, fodder, fuel, wild edible fruits, vegetables, ornamentals and ethnoveternary. An inventory of 58 plant species from Banda Daud Shah district Karak was prepared for

11 different cultural uses like fuel wood, sheltering, fodder and agricultural tools etc.(Murad et al.,2013). Similarly, Zereen et al., (2013) carried out an ethnobotanical survey of shrubs of central Punjab and found 35 shrubs used locally as medicine, fuel, shelter, fencing and ornamental purposes. Whereas Ahmed et al.,(2013) gathered ethnbotanical information about 93 plant species from Patriata new Murree and found that Local community exploited this ethnoflora for medicine, food, fodder and fuel. A checklist of 46 medicinal plants from Azad Jammu and Kashmir was also prepared(Bukhari et al., 2013). While Zereen et al., (2013) documented of 102

78 ethnospecies from eight districts of central Punjab traditionally used for fuel, fodder, vegetables, fruits, making of mats and baskets.

Even having such diverse studies of cultural uses in Pakistan we claim that our study is unique in a sense that unlike them we have studied 5 different tribes possessing cultural individuality, traditional specificity and variety of ethnoecological approaches to plant conservation and management. There is a cultural gradient from Basikhel showing similarity to adjacent regions in terms of plants use (close to Silk Route) to Madakhel that’s live in remote part west of River

Indus that remains culturally more reserved.

4.3 Cultural Use Categories

A total of 33 cultural uses of 295 plant species were recorded. 19 cultural uses were found common in 5 tribes. The highest number of uses is shown by Hassanzai tribe that is 27 followed by Medakhel 26 uses, Nusratkhel 24 uses, Basikhel 22 uses and

Akazai 21 uses. The individuality of use categories retained by each tribe is depicted by Hassanzai 8 uses, Medakhel 7 uses, Nusrat khel 5 uses, Basikhel 3 uses and

Akazai 2 uses.When number of cultural uses are compared with %age of species used by each tribe then Basikhel tribe use the highest %age of ethnospecies i.e 28 %.

This tribal belt is gifted with ethnobotanically rich resources but dependance of inhabitants is lesser because of market based economy. The Silk route is nearest to the area. Small markets like Thakote, Shagahi and Judbah are found in the region.

Indigenous peoples though largly dependent upon plants for their number of cultural needs but synyhetic substitutes also lessen the pressure over plants resources. Unlike Basikhel tribe Hassanzai tribe shows 27 uses of plants only for 18

% of ethnoflora of the region. This may be explained as the inhabitants rely on plants very much. There are limited consumer cultural activities in the area. Whereas

Akazai tribe show least number of cultural uses but number of species in this case are also least i.e 17 %. Here it may be argued that due to limited number of species, the number of cultural uses are also limited. This hypothesis is supported by the evidence of scarcity of the ethno flora in Akazai tribal belt. But cultural uses of plants are not much less due to inaccesibility to markets. Medakhel tribe uses 19 % ethnoflora for their 26 cultural needs. This is a geographically isolated belt on the western side of the river Indus. Means of transportation are limited. Ultimately peoples utilize plants resources more and more for their necessties.

The pattern of distribution of cultural use categories was also elucidated by the dendrogram TWCA and DCA plot. Both software analyses show tribe wise distribution of use categories. 58% of use categories found common in all five tribes arebroom, stick, dye, shade, food, spiritual flora, graveyard flora, timber, cosmetics, furniture, toothbrush, detergent, roofing, fencing, fodder, medicinal, veterinary, instruments and fuel. Some of these use categories are basic needs of the tribal culture such as medicine, food,fodder and timber etc. Some are commercially expensive like fuel, detergent, fencing, shade, dye, cosmetics, veterinary medicines and instruments. Certain use categories have no substitute and ultimately inhabitants have no other choice for a use category like graveyard flora, timber, fodder and spiritual plants. There are some common use categories like sticks, brooms and toothbrushes whose synthetic substitutes are not accepted by indigenous tribes. These are a few reasons in support of common occurrence of

80 cultural use categories in different tribes of district Tor Ghar. All 33 cultural use categories recorded in the present study are discussed as below. Prior to this study no documentation of as many cultural uses among different tribes was carried out in our country. Novelty of certain cultural uses of plants like shade andfruit ripening etc. were first time documented in Pakistan. No previous ethnobotanical record of such use categories exists in the country and the present study therefore, provides first hand information. Comparison of different cultural use categories among five tribes and their quantification make the current study a unique piece of research.

Detailed discussion of various use categories is given as follows:

Medicinal

The highest number of plant species were recorded for medicinal uses.

Around 20% of the plant species of the world were estimated to be used in health care systems (Baillie, 2004). Medicinal plants play an important role in the traditional health care systems of the study region as well. A number of studies have been conducted in adjoining valleys show more or less similar results. Haider and Qaiser

(2007) recorded 83 plant species for local uses in Chitral valley especially medicinal plants. Awan et al., (2011) reported 102 plants for medicinal and economic uses from

Kaghan valley. Khan et al., (2012) and (2013a & b) enlisted 183 plant species providing services in the form of timber, fuel, food, fodder, medicines, grazing and aesthetics. Ahmed et al., (2014) identified ethnobotanical uses of important medicinal plants of Chail valley, Swat. The results of these studies showed highest use of medicinal plants as compare to other cultural uses. However, study of Khan et al.,

(2012) represented highest use of fodder plants followed by medicinal plants. Results

81 of the present study also showed highest use of medicinal plants by all tribes of district Tor Ghar. 25% species were used by Basikhel tribe, 24% by Nusratkhel tribe,

21% by Akazi tribe, 24.4% by Hassanzai tribe and 25% by Medakhel tribe. These medicinal plants were used traditionally by the indigenous tribes of Tor Ghar. The inhabitants were satisfied over the use of ethnomedicinal flora. The main reasons for the highest use of medicinal plants by the locals is the unavailability of allopathic medicines, poverty and strong belief of curing diseases with herbal medicines. The ethnomedicinal plants of the region are under great pressure of over exploitation and depleting at the alarming rate. The locals acknowledge the importance of medicinal plants but ignore their conservation.

Fodder

The medicinal plant species were followed by fodder plant species. Basikhel used 18%, Nusratkhel 17.8%, Akazai 16.8, Hassanzai 16.5%, and Medakhel 16.45% plant species for fodder. As most of the people rear cattle in the district for their livelihoods, therefore fodder species are being used enormously. There was a decreasing trend of this use category from Basikhel to Medakhel tribal belts due to cultural and environmental gradients. These fodder species are important for grazing livestock either on the grasslands or in fodder form.Thestudy of Khan et al.,

(2012) alsoshowed the highest use of fodder plants followed by medicinal plants in

Naran valley.Noman et al., (2013) documented 29% fodder species from Ormara,

Gawadar, Pakistan.

Fuel

The plant species exploited for fuel by Basikhel were 13%, Nusratkhel 12.2%,

Akazai 14%, Hassanzai 11.6 and Medakhel 11.75%. The inhabitants completely dependent upon fuel wood as no other source of fuel is available. They collect the fuel wood free of cost from their surroundings and there is no commercial exploitation offuel wood. Fuel wood species were documented in other studies as well.Shinwari et al., (2011) recorded traditional knowledge of plants used as fuel from Kohat Pass Pakistan.

Food

The plants used for food including wild edible fruits and vegetables were utilized by Basikhel 9.6%, Nusratkhel 10.1%, Akazai 10.8%, Hassanzai 10.1 and

Medakhel 8.76%. The people of Tor Ghar rely on wild edible plants as source of food. The limited consumer culture accelerates the consumption of wild edible plants. The wild edible plants have also been documented from northern Pakistan by many researches. Marwat et al; (2011) reported multiple uses of wild edible fruits.Zahoor (2007) mentioned 42 species as minor fruit crop resources of the

Pakistanmountains. Shah (2007) reported 32 species of wild edible fruits from Siran valley. Matin et al; (2001 ) documented seven wild edible fruits from Shogran valley and stressed upon their in situ conservation for their future germ plasm source.

Awan et al., (2011) listed 13 wild edible fruits from Kaghan valley. Similarly Abbasi et al; (2013) assessed some selected wild edible fruits and vegetables from Lesser

Himalaya.

Ethnoveterinary

Ethnoveterinary plant species were recorded for Basikhe 4.9%, Nusratkhel

4.72%, Akazai 4.67%, Hassanzai 3.71% and Medakhel 3.84%. Ethnoveterinary plant species are popularly used among all tribes of Tor Ghar. Cattle rearing is a commom practice in the region. Various ailments of cattle are treated traditionally by local ethnoflora. The documentation of ethnoveterinary species was also done in adjoining areas. Haq et al., (2011) carried out an ethno medicinal survey of medicinal plants of Nandiar Khuwarr catchment (District Battagram) and 156 species were reported for a variety of diseases. Among 156 species, 22 were used for ethnoveterinary.

Timber

Timber yielding plant species were used by Basikhel 4.2%, Nusratkhel 4.5%,

Akazai 4.67%, Hassanzai 2.89 and Medakhel 3.2%. Timber wood is not only utilized locally but also exploited commercially which leads to heavy deforestation. Access to the forests through jeepable tracks further enhances the deforestation. The forests are owned by locals and their existence is at the mercy of landlords. Timber wood has also been documented by Shuaib et al., (2014) from lower Dir.

Instruments

The species used for instruments and appliances were 2.8% reported for

Basikhel, 2.47% for Nusratkhel, 4.45% for Akazai, 3.51% for Hassanzai and 4.05% for

Medakhel. The instruments include agricultural appliances, handles of sickles, axes and digging tools. These instruments are prepared locally from the durable wood.

Such uses of plant species were also recorded from other areas. Murad et al., (2014)

84 mentioned a number of cultural uses of plant species of Banda Daud Shah including woody instrument use category.

Fencing

The species mentioned for fencing were reported from Basikhel 0.3%,

Nusratkhel 1.35%, Akazai 2.54%, Hassanzai 3.09%) and Medakhel 3.2%. There are two types of fencing found in district Tor Ghar. Fencing around the cultivated fields for protecting them from grazing animals and fencing around houses for maintaining privacy. Fencing may be in the form of woods or plants grown around the fields or houses.The fencing around the cultivated fields is made usually thorny.Fencing is a usual cultural practice in most of the rural areas. Zereen et al.,

(2013) studied shrubs of central Punjab for fencing as well.

Shade

The shade giving species were reported from Basikhel 3.2%, Nusratkhel 1.8%,

Akazai 3.6%, Hassanzai 2.27% and Medakhel 2.56%. The shade giving plants are grown in lawn of houses, water springs, worship places and public gathering places.

These trees are often grown at certain spots on paths and ways where passengers take rest for some time. The shade giving trees have more branches with excessive foliation. The shade giving species are grown and protected at lower altitudes of the district. The shade giving species are not only protecting human beings but also animals from intense sunlight of summers. The shade giving trees are mostly protected by locals from cutting therefore, this cultural use category plays an important role in the conservation of these plants and the use category has not been documented in any ethnobotanical study of Pakistan.

Insecticidal plants

Some species of plants identified by locals were used to repel the insects from human beings as well as domestic animals. This is an environment friendly practice.

The present study revealed that this use category is less common in the district and found in three tribes that is Akazai tribe 1.48% species, Hassazai 2.2% species and

Medakhel 2.56% species. The traditional knowledge of insecticidal plants has been documented in some ethnobotanical studies as Ullah et al., (2009) found insects repellent plants from Charkotli Hills, district Betkhaila.

Furniture

The plants used for furniture by Basikhel tribe were 1.6% species, Nusratkhel tribe 1.8% species, Akazai tribe 1.91% specis, Hassanzai tribe 2.06% species and

Medakhel tribe 2.35% species. The plant species used for furniture were reported from each tribe indicating common use of this cultural use category. The people used local made furniture like beds, benches and tables. This use category was also documented by Ullah et al., (2009).

Roofing

Basikhel used 2.8% species, Nusratkhel 2.25% species, Akazai 2.12% species,

Hassanzai 1.65% species and Medakhel 1.92% species for roofing. Muddy roofs were prepared from plant materials in the area. It was observed during field study that first timber wood was used upon which branches, twigs and leaves were placed.

These branches were covered with a layer of dry grasses above which soil was put and pressed. The species used for roofing were also studied by Quershi and Khan

(2001) from Kahuta.

StickFormation

The results showed plant species used for sticks formation were 1% species for Basikhel, 1.57% species for Nusratkhel, 1.69% species for Akazai, 1.65% species for Hassanzai and 1.49% species for Medakhel tribe. Holding a stick in a right hand is a tradition of tribal culture of Tor Ghar. Beautiful sticks were made locally. Aged persons used sticks more frequently. It is considered a symbol of dignity and also used for self defense. It is easy to walk with stick in the hilly areas. Ilyas et al., (2013) also mentioned this use category from Qalagi hills, Kabal valley, Swat.

Dye yielding plants

People of Tor Ghar also utilized plant species for staining leather and cloths.

Basikhel used 1.1% species, Nusratkhel 1.12% species, Akazai 1.48% species,

Hassanzai 1.65% species and Medakhel 1.49% species. Mostly bark was used for this purpose. Dye yielding flora was documented by Amjad and Arshad (2014) from

Kotli, AJK, Pakistan.

Toothbrushes/Miswaks

Woody toothbrushes known as miswaks were frequently used by inhabitants of the study area. Cleaning of teeth with miswak is also a religious practice in a

Muslim society. For this cultural use category Basikhel recognized 0.8% species,

Nusratkhel 1.57% species, Akazai 1.48% species, Hassanzai 1.23% species and

Medakhel 1.49% species. Salvadora persica was recorded an important toothbrush plant species from Dera Ismaeel Khan and used extensively throughout Pakistan

(Marwat et al., 2009).

Basket formation

Results showed that four tribes of the district reported plants for basket formation. Nusratkhel reported 0.9% species, Akazai 1.06% species, Hassanzai 1.85% species and Medakhel 1.28% species. Branches were used for basket formation. Aged persons were found involved in baskets formation. Baskets were used for carrying crop grains and animals’ wastes. Basket formation is common in Head Qadirabad as revealed by Hanif et al., (2013).

Cosmetics

No synthetic cosmetics were used in the study area. The people utilize natural plant based cosmetics. There is a minimum market based economy. Almost all cultural needs are fulfilled by local flora. The most frequently used cosmetic is bark of Juglans regia which is used as lipstick. It is also used as cure of teeth and gum diseases. Most of the plants of this category are used for skin beauty. In this category

Basikhel uses 1.1% species, Nusratkhel 3.15%, Akazai 1.48%, Hassanzai 1.44% and

Medakhel 1.28%.Plants used as cosmetics was also studied by Shaheen et al.,(2014) from Kashmir Himalays. There are a few studies in this case.

Antidote for snake bite

Snake biting was more frequent in the lower altitudinal areas. Some plants have been identified by indigenous tribes as antidote for snake biting. Nusratkhel used 0.9% species, Hassanzai 1.23% species and Medakhel 1.28% species for this purpose. Basikhel and Akazai did not respond to this use category because most of the areas of these tribal belts were located at higher altitudes. Where the number of snakes were limited. Ethnobotanical herbal remedy for snake bite was recorded by

Pervaiz (2014) from district Gujrat.

Detergents

Nusratkhel tribe reported 0.9 species, Hassanzai 0.82% species and Medakhel

1.06% species as cleaning agents. This important cultural use category was reported from three tribes. This reduction in use is attributed to the fact that synthetic detergents have been started to be used. Soap is commonly used for washing clothes but utensils were cleaned with twigs and leaves. Ash of plants is also used as detergent for clothes as well as utensils in far flung localities of the district. Murad et al., (2014) reported detergent plants from Hazar Nao forest, Malakand.

Rope Formation

Plants used for rope formation were also reported from Nusratkhel 0.9% species, Hassanzai 1.03% species and Medakhel 1.06% species. Temporary ropes made up of elastic branches of plants used for tieing grasses and woods. While permanent ropes were made up of fibers and used for making beds and fastening cattle. Such type of plant use was also documented by Zareen and Khan (2012) from central Punjab.

Broom formation

Basikhel tribe utilized 0.7% species for broom formation, Nusratkhel 0.9% species, Akazai 0.84 species, Hassanzai 0.61% species and Medakhel 0.85% species.

The number of species 4 per tribe was same except of Hassanzai which showed 3 species. This result indicating specificity of plants and consensus over their use in all tribes of the study area. The temporary brooms for cleaning open rough places are made up of branches while muddy floor of houses are cleaned with permanent

89 grassy brooms. Traditional knowledge of broom formation was saved by the study of Murad et al., (2012) conducted in Hazar Nao forests, Malakand.

Green Manure

Use of green manure was not a common practice in district Tor Ghar. Only

Medakhel tribe showed 0.85% species used specifically for green manure. The dung was used instead of green manure in the cultivated fields. The fertility of the soil was further increased by the leaves and twigs accidently fall in the fields and converted in to humus. The four tribes occupying the same territorial belt on the eastern side of the Indus river showing same cultural pattern of not using green manure. While the

Medakhel tribal belt is located on the western side of the Indus river and touches the

Hindokush mountainous range having less vegetation cover and less fertile soil. The chances of accidental leaf and twigs fall are lesser as compare to eastern belt of tribes. Therefore, in order to enrich the soil fertility inhabitants of Medakhel tribe use some plants as green manure. This cultural use category was first time reported from

Pakistan.

Spiritual Uses

Different tribes of Tor Ghar used some plants spiritually generation after generation. Basikhel used 6(1%) species, Nusratkhel 1.12% species, Akazai 1.69% species, Hassanzai 0.61% species and Medakhel 0.64% species. The most cited taxon in all five tribes was Skimmia laureola used extensively as evil repellent. Its smoke is given to the patients. Akhtar et al., (2013) also reported plants used for evil repellent from Swat.

Graveyards Plants

The plants grown in graveyards remaind well protected. Locals do not cut these plants considering sacred ones. Boundary walls also protect them from grazing animals. Thus graveyards flora is conserved in its natural habitat. Basikhel tribe reported 0.7% species for this purpose, Nusratkhel 1.12% species, Akazai 0.63% species, Hassanzai 0.61%) and Medakhel 0.64%. The most common tree of the graveyard flora at climax stage was found Olea ferruginea.Most of Torgharians graveyards are seen covered with Olea ferrugineaplants. Khan and Mushraf (2014) recorded graveyard flora from Sheikh Maltoon, district Mardan.

Snuff (Nuswar) Formation

The use of snuff (locally known as nuswar) was a common tradition of tribal culture of Tor Ghar like other tribal cultures. The reason of less number of citations was the preference of prepared snuff which was cheapest and easily available. So the inhabitants do not prepare snuff themselves by using leaves of certain plants. Only two tribes Hassanzai and Medakhel reported 3 species each for this purpose. This cultural use category was studied by Shuaib et al., (2014) in lower Dir.

Adhesive material

Medakhel tribe recorded three species for adhesive material. Milky latex of

Ficus species was used to attach pages. Envelops were made by using this latex. The latex is not used commonly and has been replaced by synthetic gums. A very few studies encompassed this use category as documented by Murad et al., (2012) from

Malakand.

Soil Binding Flora

Three tribes reported soil binding flora. Basikhel reported 1.6% species,

Nusratkhel 2.7% species and Hassanzai 2.06% species. The results show that soil binding flora mostly comprising of grasses. The frequent soil erosion in these tribal areas has been observed during field trips. The main cause of soil erosion was the construction of roads. Ibrar et al., (2007) reported soil binding plants Ranayal hills.

Fruit Ripening Flora

Hassanzai tribe reported only single species Justicia adhatoda for ripening of bananas. No other species reported for ripening of any other fruit. The study area is blessed with a variety of wild edible fruits. Majority of these fruits get ripened still attached with parent plants. Some are ripened during storage. In Hassanzai tribal belt Bananas are found commonly and their fruits are stored in leaves of Justicia adhatoda for ripening. This use category was first time documented in the present research work.

Pens Making Flora

This cultural use category isnot common in the study area. Ready made pens are easily available at low cost. Only Hassanzai tribe reported Arundo donax for pen making. These pens were used to write on woody tablets. The pens improve calligraphy and teachers advise their students to use such pens at primary level.

There is abundance of Arundo donax in Hassanzai tribal belt. This use category was also documented by Ibrar et al., (2007) from district Shangla.

Fish Poisoning Flora

Akazai tribe used two species for fish poisoning. The leafy powder is put in water which make the fishes paralyzed and caught easily. The Indus River flows

92 nearby Akazai tribe that stimulates the fish catching activity of locals. It may the reason that fish poisoning flora was only reported by Akazai tribe. Hussain et al.,

(2006) documented the traditional wisdom about this practice from Kaghan valley as well.

Aesthetic Flora

Basikhel tribe reported 0.8 species and Nusratkhel 0.67 species for aesthetic sense. These plants are grown for pleasure and inner satisfaction. This florais well protected in their natural habitats. Some of them are also grown in lawns of houses.

In the study area some trees with beautiful flowers are also protected for aesthetic purposes such as Butea monosperma in hilly areas of lower altitudes near River

Indus. The study of Khan et al., (2013) also mentioned aesthetic flora of Naran valley.

Honey Bee Flora

Honey bee flora was recorded only from Basikhel tribe consisting of 16 species which is 2.7% of the total useful species. Honey bee hives places are formed in the houses and honey is extracted from the hives. Honey bees rearing is a common practice in Basikhel tribal belt. The famous silk route is also passing nearby this area through which good quality honey is transported to other parts of the country. Shah (2007) recorded honey bee flora from Siran valley as well. The knowledge of honey bee flora is necessary for honey producers.

Poisonous Flora

Poisonous plants were also identified by only Basikhel tribe and reported

1.5% species. The other tribes did not report this particular flora. This may be due to the reason that other tribal belts are located near Darband, Oghi and Battagram

93 markets and use synthetic poisons. Shuaib et al., (2014) documented 9 species that is

3% of total recorded species from lower Dir.

Explaination of DCA Plot

DCA plot findings also illustrate the close relationship between Nusratkhel and Akazai tribes in the case of sharing of cultural use categories. Basikhel,

Hassanzai and Medakhel tribes show wide dispersion on the plot and are not strongly correlated. Geographically these tribal belts are also far away from each others. Medakhel tribal belt is situated on the western side of the river Indus whereas major part of Hassanzai tribal belt is located on the eastern side of the river and some portion also lies on the western side. While Basikhel tribal belt shares its northern edge with Silk route that leads to China. Access to transportation facilities influences the cultural needs of the Basikhel tribe. While geographical barriers make the Medakhel and Hassanzai tribes culturally somewhat different from the rest of tribes. Therefore, they use plant resources differently for their cultural needs.

Nusratkhel and Akazai tribes are located adjacently in middle of the district sharing almost similar climatic and geographical conditions thus showing resemblancein cultural patterns.

4.4 QuantitativeAssessment of Cultural Drivers

The current study is unique in the sense that it explored first time the culturally significant flora of a tribal culture and provided first hand information.

The study area in spite of having rich plant biodiversity could not be explored in past due to its remoteness, inaccessibility and harsh climatic conditions. The present research work is also based upon quantitative ethnobotanical investigations. A

94 limited number of quantitative ethnobotanical studies have been conducted in

Pakistan. Khan et al., (2012) studied quantitatively anthropogenic influences on the natural ecosystems of the NaranValley in the western Himalayan region and explored the link between plant biodiversity and ecosystem services and their role in the support of human well-being. Bibi et al., (2014) quantified ethnobotanical data of

102 medicinal plants of district Mastung, Pakistan. The most popular techniques used were ICF, FL, UV, FC, and RFC. Similarly some selected wild edible fruits and vegetables of Lesser Himalaya were assessed quantitatively (Abbasi, 2013). The cultural drivers of plant biodiversity were quantified by the followings quantitative techniques.

4.4.1 Informant Consensus factor (ICF)

The quantitative ethnobotanical technique ICF was applied to analyze the data and obtain the results.Informants consensus analysis provides a measure of reliable reliability for the given claim of evidence (Malla & Chhetri, 2012). In

Pakistan a few studies showed the use of ICF technique in the case of medicinal plants. Mussarat et al., (2014) documented ethnobotanical knowledge obtained from

120 traditional healers living around Indus River. They recorded 70 plant species to treat various human ailments. The highest ICF values 0.80 were obtained each for gastrointestinal and kidney problems.

A total of 295 species of plants were recorded. These species were assigned to thirty three cultural use categories of plants. Analysis of homogeneity of the ethnobotanical information following the informant consensus factor (ICF) revealed that there is high consistency of plant use among informants, all values tending to

1.0 and two use categories pen making and fruit ripening have maximum values 1.0 show 100% consensus which means that a single species is reported by all informants in each case. High ICF value indicates that a single species is reported by a high proportion of informants. Quantitative variation in use reports among five tribes of the study area and also among different use categories reflected relative frequency and /or preference of uses. Both frequency and preference of use depends on personal choice, availability and abundance of the relevant plant and popularity among informants.

The overall consistency of use of all tribes in descending order was pen making and fruit ripening (01), graveyard flora (0.91), spiritual and fish poison

(0.88), Broom formation (0.87), Basket formation(0.85), stick formation, furniture and food (0.83), toothbrush (0.82), rope formation (0.81), timber (0.80), fodder, dye and shade giving flora (0.79), manure and medicinal (0.78).

Other use categories were below average value (0.76) indicating heterogeneity of uses among informants. Use reports below average were recorded for instruments

(0.74), aesthetic (0.73), insecticidal (0.73), roofing (0.72), veterinary detergent and fuel (0.70), soil binding and poisonous plants (0.66), adhesive (0.6), snake bite and fencing (0.59), honey bee (0.53) and snuff formation (0.41). The lowest ICF for snuff formation use category showing heterogeneity of use reports.

A similar case has been studiedin Ejaji area, west Shoa, Ethopia and showing use categories of higher values than average ICF value like charcoal (0.93), furniture

(0.92), fencing (0.9), commercial (0.89) and edible (0.88) (Amenu, 2007).

The results show that when the number of species are limited to a specific use category and choice of alternative species for that use category is almost nil and no other synthetic source is available for substituting the popular category, there would be maximum consensus for that use category. All use categories showing higher ICF values may meet these criteria.

4.4.2Cultural importance index (CI)

Not all culturally significant plant species are equally important. How much a species is important for a specific culture? To answer this question, CI and mCI index was calculated for all reported species and tribal belts of the area. The CI of each species was estimated for each locality as the summation of the use- report in every use- category mentioned for a species in the locality divided by the total number of respondents in that locality( Pardo et al., 2007). The CI index takes in to account the spread of use of a species. The CI technique was preferred for this study being more relevant to the design of study and also comparatively latest one. While

In Pakistan, a few quantitative ethnobotanical studies have been conducted by using

Use Value technique which is represented by a mathematical relation UV = Σ U/n proposed by Phillips et al., (1994) and modified by Rossato et al. (1999). Khan et al.,

(2013) assessed quantitatively disappearing of local wisdom on medicinally significant plants from Shinaki valley Hunza, Pakistan and recorded 108 plant species out of which 38 ethnomedicinal plant species curing different ailments. A few quantitative ethnobotanical studies were also conducted (Khan et al., 2012:

Abbasi et al., 2013; Bibi et al., 2014).

Cultural Importance of Herbs

The results of present study show that among herbs the highest mCI value is calculated for Amaranthus viridis (0.47), followed by Nasturtium officinale (0.45), Viola odorata (0.405) and Amaranthus spinesus (0.40). These are the culturally most important herbs of the area. These show mCI values 0.40 and above. Inspite of showing highest mCI value, Amaranthus viridis was reported from Basikhel and

Nusratkhel tribes. It is used for 4 different cultural uses like vegetable, fodder, edible seeds and leaves used curing boils.Amaranthus viridis is an agricultural land associated species and found in abundance in agricultural lands of Basikhel and

Nusratkhel tribes. These tribes have comparatively more agricultural lands. It seemed that abundance and usefulness of the species may be the cause of its highest cultural importance. The next culturally important species of herbs is Nasturtium officinale which was reported from all tribes of the district. It is extensively used as vegetable. The other cultural uses are vegetable, fodder, diuretic, carminative, heart and kidney disorders and blood purifier. Viola odorata was recorded for its effective medicinal properties. It was reported from Basikhel and Nusratkhel tribes. Both tribal belts have majority of north facing hilly areas and this aspect favours the growth of Viola odorata. It is used effectively against flu, cough and jaundice. It has been found that a medicinal ethnospecies used effectively against certain disease or diseases is reported frequently irrespective of its abundance in that locality.

However, abundance further enhances its CI value. Amaranthus spinesus (0.40) is also a culturally significant species. It was reported from Basikhel, Nusratkhel,

Hassanzai and Medakhel tribes. There was no report of its uses from Akazai tribe where its uses may be substituted by the uses of other species. It is used as vegetable,

98 fodder, expectorant, diuretic, anti rheumatism and antidote for snake bite. The least cultural importance is shown by the herbs Cleome scaposa (0.08) used spiritually for evil repellent and reported from Medakhel tribe only. Similarly Canna indica (0.09) used for wound healing and Campanula benthamii used for liver disorder and arthritis. These three least important species were recorded only from Medakhel tribe. This tribal belt of the district is geographically isolated from the rest of district by river Indus. It has subtropical and temperate altitudinal variation and showing lesser vegetation cover as compare to others tribal belts. The options of using more species for a use category are limited therefore, least important species are selected.

When the medicinal species do not show high cultural importance, it means their uses are not effective and specific. These are used in one tribal belt due to unavailability of higher CI values species. It has also been found that the plants showing the highest CI values are also obtained from the other tribal belts provided that their uses are specific and effective and cannot be replaced by others species.

The above discussed topmost ranking herbs used as food, fodder and medicinal.

These three use categories indicate that the culturally significant herbs are mostly exploited for food, fodder and medicinal purposes.

Cultural Importance of Shrubs

In case of shrubs of the study area, Berberis lycium (0.59) shows the highest mCI value followed by Skimmia laureola and Zanthoxylum armatum (0.56), Vitis vinifera (0.54) and Vitis jacquemontii(0.51). Berberis lycium, Skimmia laureola and

Zanthoxylum armatum were reported from all tribes. Whereas Vitis vinifera was reported from Basikhel tribe and Vitis jacquemontii from Nusratkhel tribe. These species are popular wild edible fruits of Basikhel and Nusratkhel tribes due to their good taste. Field observations also show their abdunce in these two tribal belts. Their storage life is not enough to be exported to others tribal belts and therefore, not reported from any other tribe. Berberis lycium, Skimmia laureola and Zanthoxylum armatum show multiple cultural uses and reported from all tribes e.g. the first ranked species Berberis lycium used for six cultural needs such as edible fruit, fodder, fuel wood, skin diseases, wound healer, blood purifier, sore throat, anti cancer, fencing of crops and dye yielding. The highest mCI value of Berberis lycium is also in line with findings of Khan et al., (2013) according to which the highest Use Value (UV) was shown by Berberis lycium among the medicinal plants of Shinaki valley, Hunza.

Skimmia laureola is the most specific spiritually used plant of all tribes. No other species substituted it. Though it is not present in Hassanzai and Medakhel tribes yet reported from these tribes as well. Due to unavailability of Skimmia laureola in these tribal belts, it is obtained from Basikhel and Akazai tribes, therefore, also exploited commercially. Its twigs are dried and kept in houses safely. When needed, a small quantity is usually burnt and its smoke is given to the patient for evil repellent.

Another culturally significant shrub of the study area is Zanthoxylum armatum

(0.56)having the same cultural importance status as that of Skimmia laureola (0.56).

This culturally significant ethno species was also recorded from all tribes of the study area and used for a variety of purposes like stomachache, toothache,

100 carminative, stimulent, spices, tooth brushes, Sticks, fodder, fuel, anti diabetics, antipyretic for animals, digestive disorders for animals and edible fruits.

The least important shrubs of the area showing CI values are Withania somnifera (.09) followed by Hedra helix (0.13) and Jasminum nudiflorum (0.14). The first two shrubs Withania somnifera and Hedra helix were reported from Medakhel tribe with a single use each. Withania somnifera is used for muscles strength while Hedra helix is used as ethnoveterinary medicinal plant for foot and mouth disease of cattle.

However, Jasminum nudiflorum in spite of having three uses asaesthetic, fodder and fuel could not show high CI value because more species are available for these uses in Basikhel tribal belt owing to rich plant biodiversity of the area.

Cultural Importance of Trees

When trees species were assessed by using CI index and mCI index, the highest value is shown by Juglans regia (0.74) followed by Moras nigra (0.71) and Olea ferruginea (0.70). These trees were recorded from all tribes of the district and showing

0.70 and above mCI values. Their greatest cultural importance is attributed to the facts that these trees species benefit maximum human beings in the form of multiple services as food, fodder, medicine and timber etc. The first ranked speciesJuglans regia provides a number of services like edible nuts, furniture wood, bark and leaves as cosmetics, anthelmintic, tanning and dyeing, fuel, handles of knives, brain tonic, carminative, thermogenic and toothache. Similarly, the second culturally significant species Moras nigra has multiple uses like edible fruit, fodder, baskets formation, fuel wood, tool for meat cutting, temporary ropes for tieing grass and woods, laxative, anti-throat infection and shade giving. The third ranked species Olea ferruginea also

101 shows multiple cultural uses as fuel, fodder, shade, graveyard plant, toothbrush, roofing, sticks, agricultural appliances, sports goods, astringent, antiseptic, diuretic, toothache, sore throat, analgesic, edible fruits and timber.

The least culturally important trees are Phoenix dactylifera (0.19), Ilex dipyrena

(0.24) andButea monosperma (0.25). Akazai tribe reported Phoenix dactylifera, Basikhel tribe reported Ilex dipyrena while Butea monosperma was recorded by Basikhel,

Akazai, Hassanzai and Medakhel tribes. These all plant species show limited number of uses and rare occurrence which make them least important.

In wake of the above discussion, trees show the highest cultural importance up to CI value (0.74) followed by shrubs showing maximum CI value (0.59) and herbs indicating maximum CI value (0.47). This cultural gradient among trees, shrubs and herbs may be due to the number of species and number of uses of each category. When the number of trees species are less and their cultural uses are more then per species of trees shows more uses. An ethnospecies with more uses is usually cited by many respondents and depicts higher CI value. Same is the case with shrubs. In trees and shrubs the options were limited for respondents due to lesser number of species as compare to herbs. As the number of species of herbs are greater, than other habit forms therefore, for one use category many species were cited. The other reason for highest CI values for trees and shrubs may be their perennial nature that persist throughout the year and provide services constantly to human beings.On the other hand herbs are mostly seasonal and can provide seasonal services. Furthermore, trees and shrubs are prominent members of plant biodiversity and human beings are attracted towards them since childhood.

102

According to“ecological apparency’’ hypothesis of Lucena et al., 2007, the more apparent or salient a species is the more likely that it will be used. Herbal uses like food, fodder, medicine, aesthetic, cosmetics, detergent, veterinary, insecticides, dye yielding, roofing, snake bite, rope formation, detergent, broom formation, green manure, spiritual uses, graveyard flora, snuff etc. can be compensated by using shrubs and trees but the uses of trees and shrubs like timber, sticks, instruments, shade giving, furniture and toothbrushes can not be compensated by herbs.

4.5 Cultural Importance of Families (CIF)

According to findings of the present study the family Asteraceae scores maximum ICF value (4.38) followed by Poaceae (4.14), Pinaceae (2.97) and

Adiantaceae (0.35). These are the top most culturally significant families of each group of vascular flora. Overall the family Asteraceae is the most important family of the area. Its 19 species of 17 genera were documented for various cultural uses.

The floristic diversity of this family makes it culturally the most significant family.

Though family poaceae shows more floristic diversity containing 26 species of 26 genera but ranked second to Asteraceae because this family was mostly documented for a single use as fodder.

The results of DCA show a strong correlation among the culturally significant families by clustering them in the centre of ordination plot. The families with lowest

CIF values show dispersion at the margins of the plot. The values of first two axes of eigenvalues also suggest a good dispersion of data. DCA analysis also explains correlation of the tribes on the basis of CIF values. In this regard DCA shows grouping of tribes. One group comprises of Basikhel and Nusratkhel while the other

103

Hassanzai and Medakhel. Each group shows similar cultural importance of the families. Akazai tribe was not clustered with any other tribe showing unique cultural importance of families. This clusterization of tribes on the basis of cultural gradients is according to geographical position of the tribes. Basikhel and Nusratkhel tribal belts are located adjacent to each other at the same altitudes. Whereas Akazai tribal belt shows the highest altitude among all tribal belts. It reaches up to 3000 m above sea level. Hassanzai and Medakhel tribal belts are located at lower altitudes. The

Medakhel tribe of this group is completely isolated by river Induswhile some portion of Hassanzai tribal belt is located on the western side of the river and adjacent to Medakhel tribal belt. Thus sharing common environmental conditions and showing same pattern of culture.

4.6 Role of Ethnoecology inConservation

Assessment of conservation status cannot be absolute and needs periodic revision but taking various criteria at a time validates the conclusion for a considerable period of time or for a specific geographic locality (Domínguez Lozano et al., 2003, Broennimann et al., 2005).

According to Cotton (1996) over long time, indigenous people have developed their own locality specific knowledge on plant use management and conservation. The United Nations Convention Environment and Development

(UNCED,1992) mentioned the important roles that indigenous populations play in both the conservation and sustainable use of natural resources while in turn maintaining biodiversity. Current use of indigenous knowledge in conservation led to the novel idea of “ethnoconservation” in the late 1990s which is now well known

104 conservation approach around the world (Rajeswar, 2001; Jules et al., 2008; Negi,

2010). Keeping in view this important aspect of conservation, a special questionnaire was designed for recording traditional knowledge about conservation status of plant biodiversity of district Tor Ghar. On the basis of which a simple mathematical relation was developed the detail of which was mentioned in methodology. The categorization of species in to critically endangered, endangered, vulnerable, rare and secure was done according to IUCN categories. Such categorization was also found in other ethnobotanical studies. Hamayun et al., (2006) also evaluated conservation status of 49 medicinal plant species and found that 24 species were threatened. Out of 24 species, 9 were endangered, 7 were vulnerable and 8 were rare.

This study also revealed that locals particularly plants collectors had useful information about plants occurrence, distribution and sites of their maximum availability. These information were cross checked through field surveys and visits.

The field observations include, range extent and area of occupancy, exploitation level, availability, habitat alteration, conservation efforts, plant collection methods, part collected, invasive species and threats to plant biodiversity. On the basis of these observations, the species were then categorized according to IUCN categories as critically endangered, endangered, vulnerable, rare(near threatened) and secure(least concerned).

The results obtained by applying this equation show accuracy and were found in accordance with the majority of results of other studies conducted in adjacent areas as well as different parts of Pakistan. According to this equation six species of herbs were found critically endangered (CE) showing CS values up to 1.

105

These species are Podophyllum emodi (0.5), Gentiana kurroo (0.85), Dioscorea deltoidea

(0.88), Incarvellia emodi (0.96), Arisaema utile (1) andPicris hieraciodes(01). Thirteen species of herbs were mentioned as endangered ranging CS values from 1.1 to 1.5.

Vulnerable species are 31(1.6-2), rare 41(2.1-2.5) and secure 104 (CS value above 2.5).

Among shrubs 8 species were also found critically endangered. These are

Skimmia laureola (0.48), Woodfordia fruticosa (0.78), Hedra nepalensis (1), Nannorrhops ritchieana (1), Vitis jacquemontii (1), Periploca aphylla(01), Opuntia dillenii(01) and

Viburnum grandiflorum(1). Endangered species are 4, vulnerable 15, rare 11 and secure 9.

Six trees species were declared critically endangered. These are Cedrus deodara (0.54),

Pistacia integerrima (0.62), Taxus wallichiana (0.83), Ficus carica (0.91), Cornus macrophylla (1) and Bauhinia variegata (1). Eighteen species of trees were declared as endangered, 10 vulnerable, 6 rare and 13 secure.

Gilani et al., (2006) documented 21 ethnomedicinal herbs from AyubiaNational Park, district Abbottabad and found Podophyllum emodi and Viola canescens as vulnerable species due to overexploitation. While according to the findings of this study

Podophyllum emodi (0.5) is critically endangered but Viola canescens (2.7)issecure.

Podophyllum emodi is under great harvesting pressure, showing minimum occurrence, availability for the last 10 years decreases and its regeneration potential could not keep pace with its overexploitation. Whereas Viola canescens shows the criteria of secure in this study. Afzal et al., (2009) studied that some plant species

Colchicum luetum, Bergenia ciliata, Pimpinella stewartii, Valleriana jatamonsii, Viola serpensand Dioscorea deltoids etc. are rapidly depleting and may become locally

106 extinct in near future. Some of these have also been reported and assessed in present investigation. Colchicum luetum (1.33), Bergenia ciliata (1.76) and Valleriana jatamonsii(1.92)werefound vulnerable. While Dioscorea deltoids (.95) found critically endangered at local level.

Similarly Haq (2012) also conducted ethnoconservation survey of 12 threatened species from district Battagram (adjacent district of Tor Ghar). These species were Acer caesium, Betula utilis, Cedrus deodara, Opuntia dilleni, Paeonia emodi,

Pistacia integerrima, Populus alba, Quercus glauca, Skimmia laureola, Taxus wallichiana,

Ulmus wallichiana and Viscum album. Their conservation status was assessed through direct field observation and the information gathered by locals. The present research work also declared 6 plants Cedrus deodara, Opuntia dilleni, Pistacia integerrima,

Populus alba, Skimmia laureola and Taxus wallichiana as critically endangered species of district Tor Ghar.

Shah et al., (2012) explored Olea ferruginea along with mixed tree species of Monotheca buxifolia and Acacia modesta as dominant ethnoflora of sacred jungles of Kurd sharif and Sho of district Karak showing a traditional way of conserving plant biodiversity.

Similar findings of this research show Olea ferruginea (2.78) andAcacia modesta (3.15) as secure species of the study area.Olea ferruginea is protected in graveyards and considered one of the most important sacred plant species of Graveyards and is not cut for any purpose. Olea ferruginea is also protected by locals from fire by making small circular stony walls around trees.

Ahmad et al., (2012) found 5 plants species critically endangered, 6 endangered, 10 vulnerable, 11 secure and 6 rarely distributed in Sharda, Neelam

107 valley Azad Jammu and Kashmir. This study further revealed the over exploited species are Aconitum heterophyllum, Geranium wallichianum, Ajuga bracteosa, Traxicum officinale, Quercus incana, Berberis lycium, viola canescens and Dyosporus lotus. Majority of them are at the verge of local extinction due to extensive harvesting pressure. The

CS values obtained by present research work also show Geranium wallichianum

(1.56), Ajuga bracteosa (2) and Berberis lycium (2) as vulnerable species, whereas

Traxicum officinale (2.13)and Dyosporus lotus (2.4) as rare species. Similarly Quercus incana (1.22) as endangered species and viola canescens (2.7)as secure species. The result of viola canescens (2.7)as secure species is only different. It may be due to its habitat adjustment or reduced overexploitation. Therefore, viola canescens (2.7) is not considered the threatened species of the district. The field observations also show its moderate occurrence.

In Chakesar valley district Shangala, a plant resource assessment project was carried out ethnobotanically to explore conservation status of some important medicinal plants. Conservation status of 127 plant species was evaluated through IUCN criteria. Among these species 47 were endangered (E), 32 vulnerable (VU), 36 rare

(R) and 12 species were infrequent (IF). Some of the important endangered species of the region are Abies pindrow, Acer oblongum, Aesculus indica, Alnus nitida, Berberis kunawarensis, Celtis australis, Desmodium elegans, Hedra nepalensis, Juglan regia, Olea ferruginea, Paeonia emodi, Picea smithiana, Pinus gerardiana, Pisticia integrima, Quercus semicarfifolia, Vibernum grandiflorum and Woodfordia fruticosa (Shah & Hussain, 2012).

When the results of this study were compared with the results of present research, majority of the species showed similarity in results and however, a few species

108 showed different conservation stata e.g. Abies pindrow,Alnus nitida, Celtis australis and Picea smithiana were declared as endangered species whileHedra nepalensis,

Vibernum grandiflorum and Woodfordia fruticosa as critically endangered species of the research area. Aesculus indica was mentioned as vulnerable species of the district. In these results category of threatening is different. However, Juglan regia and Olea ferruginea showed different results being culturally significant species. These are well protected by local culture and therefore, attained the secure status. Juglan regia is the most popular wild edible plant of the study area. This tree species provides a number of services to the locals in the form of furniture wood, cosmetics and tasteful dry fruit having prolonged storage life. This important species is facing overexploitation pressure but due to cultivation and protection by locals showing secure status in the district Tor Ghar.

Akhtar et al., (2013) assessed ethnobotanically that Aconitum violaceum,

Colchicum luteum and Jasminum humile as vulnerable due to over exploitation.

According to the present study Colchicum luteum (1.33) is endangered and Jasminum humile (2.33) is rare. However, Aconitum violaceum was not reported by any tribe in the current study.

Bibi et al., (2014) pointed out the highest under pressure species Caralluma tuberculata, Citrullus colocynthis, Malva neglecta and Mentha longifolia in district

Mastung of Baluchistan. Caralluma tuberculata (1.32) and Citrullus colocynthis (1.1) were also declared as endangered species, whereas Malva neglecta (3)and Mentha longifolia (4.49) as the most secured species of the area showing highest values of CS.

Malva neglecta is an agricultural land associated plant species and is found

109 abundantly in the study area. Similarly,Mentha longifolia was found secure and grows excessively near aquatic habitats of Tor Ghar.

Mussarat et al., (2014) indicated Morualba and Dalbergia sissoo under great overexploitation pressure and threatened species in the area. While in the present explorationMorus alba (1.5)is endangered and Dalbergia sissoo (2.3) is rare. Dalbergia sissoo is under great overexploitation pressure especially for furniture wood. While

Morus alba is depleting at alarming rate due to other factors because both species of

Morus are facing same overexploitation pressure but Morus nigrashowing (3) CS value as secure species and Morus alba showing (1.5) CS as endangered species.

Amjad et al., (2015) indicated Ajuga bracteosa, Mallotus philippensis, Micromeria biflora, Butea monosperma and Zanthoxylum armatum as critically endangered in Kotli,

Azad Jammu and Kashmir. The present research work showAjuga bracteosa (2) as vulnerable, Mallotus philippensis (3.3) as secure, Butea monosperma (1.37) as endangered species and Zanthoxylum armatum (2.4) as rare species.

In the current study Taxus wallichiana (0.83) was found critically endangered while Pinus wallichiana (1.5) and Abies pindrow (1.33) were found endangered. The study of Adnan et al., (2006) also mentioned these species as rapidly decreasing species in Miandam vally of district Swat.

Cedrus deodara in this study showing (0.54) CS value and declared critically endangered. The study of Sheikh et al., (2002) also revealed that Cedrus deodara had completely eradicated from Naltar valley, northern western Karakorum range.

When the IUCN red list criteria at regional levels were matched with the results of the present study two species were found critically Endangered (CE) in the study

110 area. These species were Cedrus deodara(0.54)and Gentiana kurroo(0.85). Two species were found Endangered/Threatened (EN) in the region i.e., Picea smithiana(1.33)and

Viburnum cotinifolium(1.13). WhileGeranium wallichianum (1.56)and Salvia moorcroftiana (1.87) were mentioned endangered in IUCN criteria but these are vulnerable species according to the present study.Bergenia ciliata (1.76)is vulnerable in IUCN list as well as in the present research. Pinus wallichiana(1.5) was found endangered in this study but vulnerable in IUCN red list.Viola canescens (2.7) is considered as secure locally but vulnerable regionally. This species showed quite different result from the published literature and IUCN red list indicating its conservation status secure locally.

Overall, higher proportion (57%) of flora is threatened that is 7% critically endangered, 12% endangered, 19% vulnerable and 19 % rare as shown by the results.

However, forty three percent flora of the district is secure. Theresults indicating that flora of Tor Ghar is under higher anthropogenic pressure.

The above discussion revealed that the mathematical relation designed first time during this study has been proved useful for evaluating ethnoconservation of local flora. In order to validate the formula, the results were cross checked through extensive published literature and majority were found in accordance with other studies.

4.7 DCA interpretation for CI, CS and number of uses

The results of DCA plot show that Cultural importance of species and their number of uses in Basikhel tribe show close relationship with cultural importance and number of uses of Nusratkhel tribe. These two tribal belts are located adjacently.

111

Conservation status of Basikhel tribe shows weaker correlation with cultural importance and number of uses. This result explains that culturally significant plant species are under great overexploitation pressure that adversely affect the conservation of these plant species. Whereas conservation status of Nusratkhel tribe shows stronger correlation with cultural importance and number of uses. It means this tribe protects the culturally important flora from overgrazing/overbrowsing, fire and overexploitation. Akazai tribe also depicts stronger correlation among cultural importance, no of uses and conservation status. This result also shows protection of ethnoflora by locals. Hassanzai tribe represents positive correlation among cultural importance, number of uses and conservation status. This positive correlation indicating conservation of ethnoflora. While Medakhel tribe shows negative correlation among cultural importance, number of uses and conservation status of plant species. This result depicts that it is not necessary for a culturally significant plant species to be used for many purposes, a plant species may become significant for its one or two important specific uses which can not be substituted by other species and it is the reason that highest proportion of informants reported it. In the absence of alternative species for common uses the locals are dependent upon limited number of species for their cultural needs and ultimately these species undergo tremendous overexploitation pressure and become threatened. The result also shows that inhabitants of Medakhel tribal belt do not care the wastage of plant resources and show poor conservation efforts. Medakhel tribal belt is geographically isolated and showing less altitudinal variation as compare to others belts. This tribal belt also touches the the Hindokush mountainous range and showed less vegetation

112 cover which is mainly due to anthropogenic disturbances therefore, conservation of the local flora is at high risk of extinction.

113

4.8 Conclusions

The present study focuses on cultural services rendered by plant biodiversity.

Moreover it emphasizes conservation status of culturally significant species of the district Tor Ghar of Pakistani Himalaya. Like environmental factors of a region, culture also brings changes in species composition, diversity, vegetation structure and even conservation status of species. The study was designed to assess the cultural drivers of plant biodiversity.This exploration revealed that inhabitants of the research area have close relationship with surrounding plant resources and exploited the resources for a number of their cultural needs. Traditional knowledge about use of plant resources is memory based and inherited generation after generation. This research project also identified that the cultural drivers of plant resources bring gradient changes from Basikhel towards Madakhel tribe. The highest number of plant species were used as medicinal plants for self medication and domestic use. The people of the region are highly dependent on plants for a number of benefits and posing great pressure on certain culturally important plants. The study has quantified the cultural uses of plant biodiversity. The application of modern softwares made the results more meaningful and presentable.

Anthropogenic pressure on vegetation due to these cultural impacts led conservation issues over the period of history and hence assessment of conservation status of all reported plant species according to IUCN criteria was felt necessary.

New formula was designed for this purpose which worked very well and was found in coincidence with IUCN red list criteria. This approach of quantitative

114

Ethnoecology coupled with ethno-conservation management can be adapted for better understanding of ecosystem services and predicting the future threats in other regions as well.

4.9 Recommendations

 The results of present study are applicable and realistics in nature and can be

confidently applied for selecting and pharmacognostic evaluation of medicinal

plants.

 Wild edible plants explored in the study can be used as alternative source of

staple food and their nutritional analysis can be helpful for public

health/nutrition strategies.

 The benefits of ethno flora identified by the local wisdom in the present study

can be compared with other similar Himalayan studies in future for broadening

the scope of Ethnobiology.

 The mathematical relation developed for quantification of local perception for Bio

conservation can be applied for the assessment of coservation status of

ethnofloristic composition of others Himalayan regions especially Pakistan.

 Indigenous cultures can be analyzed in a proper way and their knowledge can be

utilized to achieve targets of sustainable resource management. Each intact tribal

culture has a close relationship with their environment for hundreds of years,

and has the capacity to be involved in sustainable ethnoecological practices.

 Indigenous cultures should be discussed in academia, policy and management as

valuable assets and can be utilized in formulating conservation strategies not

only for present but also for future.

115

 Plant biodiversity of a region can better be understood when cultural drivers are

also taken in to consideration.

 Studies like the present one can be used as a source of basic data for the larger-

scale conservation planning of the Himalayas and adjacent regions.

 There should be a doable policy to stop illegal consumption of natural vegetation

in the study area.

 Measures must be taken for the restoration of plant biodiversity through

reforestation, developing protected areas and protection of threatened species in

natural habitats.

 Natives should be educated regarding the sustainable usage of plant biodiversity.

 Governmental policies should be re-examined and implemented within the spirit

of safeguarding the present natural ecosystems and biodiversity protection laws

should be implemented in the real spirit of the law and special legislation is

urgently required for threatened flora.

 The Himalayas require wide-ranging databases for biodiversity, ecosystems and

suitable documentation of indigenous ethnobiological knowledge.

 Least investigated areas should be explored on top priority basis.

 To make aware the indigenous people of the area about the fact that they are

destroying their future generations by depleting biodiversity and natural

ecosystems.

 To establish seed and gene banks for important threatened species.

116

 Both In situ and Ex situ conservation measures can be carried out. Rare and

endangered species can be protected within habitat by conservation efforts of

locals, GOs and NGOs.

 To set up nurseries for threatened species at village level.

 It is recommended that the current approach must be communicated to

conservationists, planners, politicians and policy makers.

117

REFERENCES

Abbasi, A. M. and M. A. Khan. 2010. Ethnobotanical Survey of Lora Valley District

Abbottabad( Khyber Pakhtun Khawa), Pakistan. Hamdard Med., 53(4): 36-

51.

Abbasi, A. M., M. A. Khan and M. Zafar. 2013. Ethnomedicinal assessment of some

selected wild edible fruits and vegetables of Lesser Himalayas, Pakistan.

Pak. J. Bot; 45 (SI): 251-222.

Abbasi, A. M., M. A. Khan, M. Ahmad, R. Quershi, M. Arshad, S. Jahan, M. Zafar

and S. Sultana. 2010. Ethnobotanical study of wound healing herbs

among the tribal communities in Northern Himalaya Ranges District

Abbottabad, Pakistan. Pak. J. Bot., 42(6): 3747-3753.

Achanya, Deepak and S. Anshu. 2008. Indigenous Herbal Medicines: TribalFormulations

and Traditional Herbal Practices,Jaipur, India. Aavishkor Publishers

Distributors, pp. 440.

Adnan, S. M., A. A. Khan, A. Latif, Z. K. Shinwari. 2006. Threats to the sustainability

of ethno-medicinal uses in northern Pakistan(A case study of Miandam

valley, district Swat, NWFP province, Pakistan). Lyonia, 11(2): 19-100.

Afzal, S., N. Afzal, M. R. Awan, T. S. Khan, A. Gilani, R. Khanum and S. Tariq. 2009.

Ethno-botanical studies from Northern Pakistan. J. Ayub Med. Coll.

Abbottabad, 21(1): 52-56

118

Ahmad, S. S., S. Erum, S. M. Khan, M. Nawaz and A. Waheed. 2014. Exploring the

medicinal plants wealth: A traditional Medico-Botanical knowledge of

local communities in Changa Manga Forest, Pakistan. Middle East J. Sci.

Res., 20(12): 1772-1779.

Ahmad, S., A. Ali, H. Beg, A. A. Dasti and Z. K. Shinwari. 2006. Ethnobotanical

studies on some medicinal plants of Booni valley, District Chitral,

Pakistan. Pak. J. Weed Sci. Res., 12(3): 183-190.

Ahmad, K. S., R. Qureshi, M. Hameed, F. Ahmad and T. Nawaz. 2012. Conservation

assessment and medicinal importance of some plants resources from

Sharda, Neelumvalley, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. Int. J. Agric.

Biol., 14: 997‒1000.

Ahmad, M., M.A. Khan, S. Manzoor, M. Zafar and S. Sultana. 2006. Checklist of

medicinal flora of Tehsil Isakhel, District Mianwali, Pakistan. J. Ethnobot.

leaflets, 10: 41-48.

Ahmed, E., M. Arshad, A. Saboor, R. U. Quershi, G. Mustafa, S. Sadiq and S. K.

Chaudhari. 2013. Ethnobotanical appraisal and medicinal uses of plants in

Patriata New Murree, evidence from Pakistan. J. Ethnobio. &Ethnomed., 9:

13.

Akhtar, N., A. Rashid, W. Murad and E. Bergmeier. 2013. Diversity and use of ethno-

medicinal plants in the region of Swat, North Pakistan. J. Ethnobio.

&Ethnmed., 9: 25.

119

Alam, N., Z. K. Shinwari, M. Ilyas and Z. Ullah. 2011. Indigenous knowledge of

medicinal plants of Chacharzai valley, district Buner, Pakistan. Pak. J. Bot.,

43(2): 773-780.

Albuquerque, U. P. and R. F.P. Lucena. 2005. Can apparency affect the use of plants

by local people in the tropical forests? Interciencia, 30: 506-511.

Albuquerque, U.P. and R. F. P. Lucena.2004a. Selecao e escolha dos informants. Pp.

1935 in Metodes e tecnicas na pesquisa etnobotanica, org. Edited by U. P.

Albuquerque & R. F. P. Lucena. Nupeea, Recife.

Albuquerque, U.P. and R. F. P. Lucena.2004b. Metodas e tecnicas para a coleta de

dadas. Pp. 37-62 in Metodas extecnicas na pesquisa etnobotanica, org.

Edited by U. P. Albuquerque & R. F. P. Lucena. Nupeea, Recife.

Alcorn, J.B. 1981. Huastec non-crop resource management, Human Ecology, 395-417.

Ali, H. and M. Qaiser. 2009. The ethnobotany of Chitral valley, Pakistan with

particular reference to medicinal plants. Pak. J. Bot., 41(4) : 2009-2041.

Ali, S.I. and M. Qaiser.1998-2005. Flora of Pakistan. Department of Botany ,University

of Karachi.

Almeida, C. F. C. B. R. and U.P. Albuquerque.2002. Uso e conservacao de plants e

animais medicinais no estado de Pernambuco: um estudo de caso no

Agresta. Interciencia,27: 276-285.

120

Amenu, E. 2007.Use and Management of Medicinal plants by indigenous people of Ejaji

Area West Soa, Ethopia: An ethnobotanical approach. M. Sc Thesis; ADDIS

Ababa University, Ethopia.

Amjad, M. S., M. Arshad, R. Quershi. 2015. Ethnomedicinal inventory and folk uses

of indigenous plants from Pir Nasoora National Park, Azad Jammu and

Kashmir. Asian Pacific J. Trop. Biomed., 5(3): 234-241.

Amjad, S. M. and M. Arshad. 2014. Ethnobotanical inventory and medicinal uses of

some important woody plant species of Kotli, Azad Kashmir, Pakistan.

Asian Pacific J. Trop. Biomed., 4(12): 952-958.

Anonymous. 1992.CBD(Convention on Biological Diversity). The Convention on

Biological Diversity.

Anonymous. 2010.CBD(Convention on Biological Diversity). The Convention on

Biological Diversity.

Awan, M. R., Z. Iqbal, S.M. Shah, Z. Jamal, G. Jan, M. Afzal, A. Majid and A.Gul.

2011. Studies on traditional knowledge of economically important plants of

Kaghan Valley, Mansehra District, Pakistan,J. Med. Pl. Res., 5(16): 3058-3067.

Baillie, J.E.M. 2004.IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.A Global Species Assessment.

Bano, A., M. Ayub, S. Rashid, S. Sultana and H. Sadia. 2013. Ethnobotany and

conservation status of floral diversity of Himalayan range of AJK-

Pakistan. Pak. J. Bot., 45(SI): 243-251.

121

Bennett, B. C. and G.T. Prance. 2000. Introduced plants in the Indigenous

Pharmacopia of Northern South America. Econ. Bot., 54:90-91.

Benz, U., P. Hofmann, G. Willhauck,I. Lingenfelder and M. Heynen. 2004. Multi-

resolution, object-oriented fuzzy analysis of remote sensing data for GIS-

ready information. ISPRS J. Photogramm., 58: 239-258.

Berkes, F., J.Colding and C. Folk. 2000. Rediscovery of traditional

ecologicalknowledge as adaptive management. Ecol. Appl., 10(5): 613-649.

Bibi, T., M. Ahmad, R. B. Tareen, N. M. Tareen, R. Jabeen, S. U. Rehman, S. Sultana,

M. Zafar, G. Yaseen. 2014. Ethnobotany of medicinal plants in district

Mastung of Balochistan Province-Pakistan. J. Ethnopharmacol.,157: 79-89.

Bokhari, T. Z., R. Raja, U. Younas, E. Bushra and U. Ummara. 2013. Medicinal

importance of few plants from Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan.

FUUAST J. Biol., 3(1 ): 93-99.

Boom, B.M. 1987. Ethnobotany of the Chacobo Indians, Beni, Bolivia. Adv. in econ.

Bot., 1-68.

Boyed, J. and S. Banzhaf. 2007. What are ecosystem services? The need for

standardized environmental accounting units.Ecol. Econ., 63(2-3): 616-626.

Bridgewater,P. B. 2002. Biosphere reserves: Special places for people and nature.

Environ. Sci. & Policy, 5: 9-12.

122

Broennimann, O., P. Vittoz, D. Moser and A. Guisan. 2005. Rarity types among plant

species with high conservation priority in Switzerland. Bot. Helv.,115:95-108.

Butler, C. D., and W. Oluoch-Kosura, 2006.Linking future ecosystem services and

future human well-being.Ecol. & Soc., 11(1):30.

Bye, R. A. 1979. Incipient domestication of mustarad in north-west Mexico.Kiva, 44:

237-256.

Byg, A. and H. Baslev. 2001. Diversity and use de palms in Zahamena, eastern

Madagascar. Biodivers. & Conserv., 10: 951-970.

Calvo, L.M. 2003. EI humano y la gestion de la biodiversidad biologica: Problemas,

potencial idades y tendencies.En : Ibish P. L. y G . Merida (Eds).

Biodiversidad : Lariqueza de Bolivia. Estado de conocimiento y

Conservacion.Ministerio de Desarrollo Sostenible. Editoriallllll FAN ,

Santa cruz de la Sierra- Bolivia.

Carpenter, S.R., R. DeFries, T. Dietz, H.A. Mooney, S. Polasky, W.V. Reid and R. J.

Scholes. 2006. Millennium ecosystem assessment Research needs. Science,

314(5797): 257-258.

Chaudary, M. S. and M. A. Khan. 2008. An ethnomedicinal inventory of plants used

for family plaining and sex diseases in Samahani valley Pakistan. Indian J.

of Tradit. Know., 7(2): 277-283.

123

Chaudary, M. I., F. Ahmed, M. Maqbool and T. Hussain. 2013. Ethnomedicinal

inventory of flora of Maradori valley, district Forward Kahuta, AJK,

Pakistan. American J. of Res. Communication, 1(6): 239-261.

Chowdhury, M.S.H. and M. Koike. 2010. Towards exploration of plant-based ethno-

medicinal knowledge of rural community: Basis for biodiversity

conservation in Bangladesh. New Forests,40: 243-260.

Coomes, O. T .1996 . Income formation among Amazonian peasant household in

northeastern Peru: empirical observation and implications for market-

oriented conservation. Yearbook ,Conference of Latin Americanist

Geographers, 22: 51-64.

Cotton, C. M. 1996.Ethnobotany.Principles and Applications. John Wiley and Sons,

New York. 412 pp.

Da Cunha, L.V.F.C. and U.P. De Albuquerque. 2006. Quantitative ethnobotany in an

Atlantic Forest fragment of Northeastern Brazil- Implications to

conservation. Environ. Monit.Assess., 114(1-3): 1-25.

De Albuquerque, U.P. 2009.Quantitative ethnobotany or quantification in

ethnobotany?Ethnobot. Res. & Appl., 7: 1-4.

De Groot, R. S. 1992. Functions of Nature: Evaluation of Nature in Environmental

Plaining, Management and Decision Making. Wolters Noordhoff BV,

Groningen, The Netherlands.

124

Dobermann, A. Dobson, A. Janetos, M. Levy, D. Marco, N. Nakicenovic, B. O’ Neill,

R. Norgaard, G. Petschel-Held, D. Ojima, P. Pingall, R. Watson, and M.

Zurek. 2006. Anthropogenic drivers of ecosystem change: an overview.

Ecol. & Soc., 11(2): 29.

Domínguez Lozano, F., J. C. Moreno Saiz, H. Sainz Ollero. 2003. Rarity and threat

relationships in the conservation planning of Iberian flora. Biodivers.&

Conserv.,12:1861-1882.

Dunlap, R. E. and A. G. Merting. 1995. Global concern for the environment: Is

influence a prerequisite ?J. social issues, 51(4): 121-137.

Ellis, E. C., E. C. Antill and H. Kreft. 2012. All is not loss: plant biodiversity in the

anthropocene, 7(1): 30 535.

Fabricius, C. 2004. The fundamentals of community- based natural resource

management. In C. Fabricius and E. Koch with H. Magome S. Turner

(eds.), Rights, Resources and Rural Development: Community-based natural

resource management in southern Africa. Earthscan: London and Sterling, 3-

44.

Galeano, G. 2000. Forest use at the Pacific Coast of Choco, Colombia: a quantitative

approach. Econ. Bot., 54: 358-376.

Ghorbani, A. 2005. Studies on pharmaceutical ethnobotany in the region of Turkmen

Sahara, north of Iran (part 1): General results. J. Ethnopharmacol., 102:58-68.

125

Gilani, S. A., R. A. Quershi and S. J. Gilani. 2006. Indigenous uses of some important

ethnomedicinal herbs of Ayubia National Park, Abbottabad, Pakistan.

Ethnobot. leaflets, 10: 285-293.

Grimble, R. and M. Laidlaw. 2002. Biodiversity management and local livelihoods:

Rio plus 10. ODI Natural Resource Perspectives Papers 73, 1-4

Guleano, G. 2000. Forest use at the Pacific coast of choc Columbia.A quantitative

approach. Econ. Bot., 54: 358-376.

Hadi, F., M. Ibrar and N. Zaidi. 2014. Role of Dag Behsud graveyard in conservation

of indigenous medicinal flora of district Nowshera, Pakistan. Scholarly J. of

Agric. Sci., 4(2): 87-89.

Hamayun, M., S. A. Khan, E. Y. Sohn and I. J. Lee. 2006. Folk medicinal knowledge

and conservation status of some economically valued medicinal plants of

district Swat, Pakistan. Lyonia, 11(2): 101-113.

Hanif, U., S. Mushtaq, M. Ajab and S. Ishtiaq. 2013. Ethnobotanical studies on some

wild plants of head Qadirabad and adjoining areas, Pakistan. Int. J.

Phytomed., 5(2013): 373-377.

Haq, F. U., H. Ahmad, M. Alam. 2011. Traditional uses of medicinal plants of

Nandiar Khuwarr catchment ( District Battagram), Pakistan. J. Med. Plant.

Res., 5(1): 39-48.

Haq, F. 2012. The critically endangered flora and fauna of district Battagram,

Pakistan.Adv. in life Sci., 2(4): 118-123.

126

Haq, F. 2012. The ethnobotanical uses of medicinal plants of Allai valley, Western

Himalaya Pakistan.Int. J. of Plant Res., 2(1): 21-34.

Hart, T., R. Cuba and A. Turner . 1996. Plantas utiles de la Zona del Itika Guasu.

CER-DET. Tarija- Bolivia.

Hays, T. E. 1974.Mauna :Exploration in Ndumba Ethnobotany. Ph.D, dissertation,

University of Washington.

Hegazy, A. K. 1999. The United Nations Conservation on biological diversity: From

adoption to implementation In: Hegazy, A. K. 1999. Environment 2000 and

Heinrich, M, Ankli A, Frei B & Weimann sticher O. 1998. Medicinal plants in Mexico:

Healer’s concensus and cultural importance. Social.Sci. & Med., 47:1859-

1871.

Hill, M.O. and Jr. H. G. Gauch. 1980. Detrended correspondence analysis: An

improved ordination technique. Vegetation,42: 47-58.

Hunn, E.S. 1992. The utilitarian facts in Folk Biological Classification.American

Anthropologist, 84(4): 830-847.

Hussain, M., G. M. Shah and M. A. Khan. 2006. Traditional medicinal and economic

uses of Gymnosperms of Kaghan valley, Pakistan. Ethnobot. leaflets, 10: 72-

81.

127

Ibrar, M., F. Hussain and A. Sultan. 2007. Ethnobotanical studies on Plant Resources

of Ranyal Hills, District Shangala, Pakistan. Pak. J. Bot., 39(2): 329-337.

Ilyas, M., R. Quershi, Z. K. Shinwari, M. Arshad, S. N. Mirza and Z. Haq. 2013. Some

ethnoecological aspects of the plants of Qalagai hills, Kabal valley, Swat,

Pakistan. Int. J. Agric. Biol., 15: 801-810.

Jamil, M., Noor and U. Kalsoom. 2011. Ethnobotanical studies of selected plant

species of Ratwal village, district Attock, Pakistan. Pak. J. Bot., 43(2): 778-

786.

Janni, K. D. and J. W. Bastien. 2004. Exotic botanicals in the Kallawaya

pharmacopoeia. Econ. Bot., 58 (supp): 274-279.

Jordan, S.J., S.E. Hayes, D. Yoskowitz., L.M. Smith, J. K. Summers, M. Russell and

W.H. Benson. 2010. Accounting for natural resources and environmental

sustainability: Linking ecosystem services to human well-being. Environ.

Sci. & Technol., 44(5):1530-1536.

Jules, P. 2008. How Do Biodiversity and Culture Intersect? Sustaining Cultural and

Biological Diversity In a Rapidly Changing World: Lessons for Global Policy, 2-5

April 2008, American Museum of Natural History‘s Center for

Biodiversity and Conservation, IUCN-The World Conservation

Union/Theme on Culture and Conservation, and Terralingua. pp 01-17.

128

Khan, M. A., G. Mujtaba and M. Hussain. 2012. Ethnobotanical study about

medicinal plants of Poonch valley, Azad Kashmir. J. Animal& plant Sci.,

22(2): 493-500.

Khan, M. and S. Musharaf. 2014. Ethnobotanical studies on plant resources of Sheikh

Maltoon, District Mardan, Pakistan. Med. Plant Res., 4(5): 35-45.

Khan, M., Z. K. Shinwari, M. Shah and S. Musharaf. 2014. An ethnobotanical Survey

of Medicinal and other Useful Plants of Khattak Tribe in Tehsil Karak,

Khyber Pakhtunkhawa, Pakistan. Med. Plant Res., 4(8): 61-74.

Khan, N., M. Ahmed, A. Ahmed, S. S. Shoukat, M. Wahab, M. Ajab,M. F. Siddique

and M. Nasir. 2011. Important medicinal plants of Chitral Gol National

Park (CGNP) Pakistan. Pak. J. Bot., 43(2): 797-809.

Khan, S. M. and H. Ahmad. 2014. Role of Indigenous Arqiyat Distillery in

conservation of Rosa species. Inter. J. of Phytomed., 6(2): 162-164.

Khan, S. M., S. page, H. Ahmad and D. Harper. 2012. Anthropogenic influences on

the natural ecosystem of the Naran valley in the western Himalayas. Pak. J.

Bot., 44 (SI): 231-238.

Khan, M. and S. Ashraf. 2014. Ethnobotanical studies on plant resources of Sheikh

Maltoon, district Mardan, Pakistan. Med. Plant Res., 4(5): 35-45.

Khan, S. M., H. Ahmad, M. Ramzan and M. M. Jan. 2007. Ethnomedicinal plant

resources of Shawar Valley.Pak. J. Biology Scien., 10: 1743-1746.

129

Khan, S. M., S. Page, H. Ahmad and D. M. Harper. 2013. Ethno-ecological

importance of plant biodiversity in mountain ecosystems with special

emphasis on indicator species of a Himalayan valley in the northern

Pakistan. Ecol. Ind., 37(A): 175-185.

Kremen, C. 2005. Managing ecosystem services: What do we need to know about

their ecology? Ecol. Lett., 8(5): 468-479.

Kuper, A. 1999.The Invention of primitive Society: Transformation of an Illusion.

Routledge: London.

Larid, S.A. 1999. Forests, culture and conservation. In D.A. Posey (ed.). Cultural and

Spiritual Values of Biodiversity.UNEP and Intermediate Technology

Publications: London, 345-396.

Lucena, R. F. P., E. L. Araujo, U. P. Albuquerque. 2007. Does the local availibility of

woody caatinga plants ( Northern eastern Brazil) explain their use value?

Econ. Bot., 61: 347-361.

Mace, G. M. 2005. Biodiversity-an index of intactness nature, 434(2005): 32-33.

Macionis, Gerber, John and Linda. 2010. Sociology 7th Canadian edition Toronto,

Ontario: Pearson Canada, p. 53.

Malla, B. and R. B. Chhetri. 2012. Indigenous knowledge on medicinal non-Timber

forest products(NTFP) in Parbatdistrict of Nepal. Indo Global J. Pharm. Sci.,

2(2): 213–225.

130

Manandhar, P. and G. Rasul. 2009. The role of the hindu kush-himalayan (HKH)

mountain system in the context of a changing climate: A panel discussion.

Mount. Res. & Dev.,29:184-187.

Martin, G.J. 2004.Ethnobotany; A methods manual. WWF and HED, Earth scans Camden London. p. 267.

Marwat, M. J. K. 1991. Working plan for Black Mountain Forests of Hazara Tribal Forest

Division.N.W.F.P., Forestry Pre-Investment centre Peshawar.4-11.

Marwat, S. R., M. A. Khan, F. Rehman, M. Ahmed, M. Zafer and S. Sultana.

2009.Salvadora persica, Tamarix aphylla and Zizyphus mauritiana- three

woody plant species mentioned in Holy Quran and Ahadith and their

ethnobotanical uses in north western part (D. I Khan) of Pakistan,Pak. J. Nut.,

8(5): 542-547.

Matin , A., M. A.Khan, M. Ashraf. and R. A. Quershi. 2001. Traditional use of

Herbs , Shrubs , and Trees of Shogran Valley ,Mansehra , Pakistan. Pak. J.

Bot.,4(9): 1101-1107.

McNeely, J.A. 2000. Cultural factors in conserving biodiversity. In Wilkes, A.,

Tillman, H., Salas, M., Grinter, T., Shaoting, Y. (eds.), Links between Cultures

and Biodiversity. Proceedings of the cultures and biodiversity congress.

Yunnan Science and Technology Press: Yunnan P.R. China, 128-142.

Milton, K. 1996. Environmentalism and cultural Theory. Exploring the Role of

Anthropology in environmental Discourse. Routledge: London and New

York.

131

Moeman, D. 2007. Agreement and meaning: Rethinking consensus analysis. J.

Ethnopharmcol., 112: 451-460.

Murad, W., A. Ahmad, G. Ishaq, M. S. Khan, A. M. Khan, I. Ullah, A. Ullah and I.

khan. 2012. Ethnobotanical studies on plant resources of Hazar Nao

Forest, District, Malakand, Pakistan. Pak. J. Weed Sci. Res., 18(4): 509-527.

Murad, W., A. Ullah, M. Adnan, A. Tariq, K. U. Khan, S. Waheed and A. Ahmed.

2013. Ethnobotanical assessment of plant resources of Banda Daud Shah ,

District Karak, Pakistan. J. Ehnobio. & Ethnomed.,9: 77.

Mussarat, S., N. M. A. Salam, A. Tariq, S. M. Wazir, R. Ullah, M. Adnan. 2014. Use of

Ethnomedicinal Plants by the People Living around Indus River. Evid.

Based Complement. Alternat. Med., 2014(2014): P 2.

Nasir, E. and Ali, S. I., eds. (1970-85). Flora of Pakistan. Nos. 1-167. Karachi-Islamabad.

Negi, C.S. 2010. Traditional culture and biodiversity conservation: Examples from Uttarakhand, Central Himalaya. Moun. Res. & Dev.,30: 259-265.

Nelson, G. C., E. Bennett, A. A. Berhe, K. Cassman, R. DeFries, T. Dietz, A. Noman,

A., I. Husain, Q. Ali, M. Ashraf, M. Z. Haider. 2013. Ethnobotanical studies of

potential wild medicinal plants of Ormara,Gawadar, Pakistan. Emir. J. Food

Agric., 25(10): 751-759.

Pardo-de-Santayana, M., J. Tardo, E. Blanco, A. M. Carvalho, J. J. Lastra, E. S.

Miguel and R. Morales. 2007. Traditional knowledge of wild edible plants

132

used in the northwest of the Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal): a

comparative study. J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed,. 2007( 3):27.

Pervaiz, M. 2014. Ethnobotanical studies on plant resources of Mangowal, District

Gujrat, Punjab, Pakistan. Avicenna J. Phytomed., 4(5): 364-370.

Phillips, O. and A. H. Gentry. 1993 a. The useful plants of Tambopata, Peru: 1.

Statistical hypothesis tests with a new quantitative technique. Econ. Bot.,

47: 15-32.

Phillips, O. and A. H. Gentry. 1993 b. The useful plants of Tambopata, Peru: 11.

Additional hypothesis testing in quantitative ethnobotany. Econ. Bot., 47:

33-43.

Prance, G. T., W. Balee, B. M. Boom and R. L. Carneiro. 1987. Quantitative

ethnobotany and the case for conservation in Amazonia. Conserv. Biol. 1:

296-310.

Posey, D.A. 1999. Cultural and spiritual values of biodiversity. A complementary

contribution to the global biodiversity assessment. In D.A. Posey (ed.),

Cultural and Spiritual Values of Biodiversity. UNEP and Intermediate

Technology Publications: London, 1-19

Quershi, R. and G. R. Bhatti. 2009. Folklore uses of Amaranthaceae family from Nara

desert Pakistan. Pak. J. Bot., 41(4): 1565-1572.

Quershi, R., A. Waheed, M. Arshad and T. Umbreen. 2009. Medico-ethnobotanical

inventory of Tehsil Chakwal, Pakistan. Pak. J. Bot., 41(2): 529-538.

133

Quershi, S. J. and M. A. Khan. 2001. Ethnobotanical study of Kahuta from

Rawalpindi district. Pak. J. Biol. Sci., 1(1): 27-30.

Rajeswar, J. 2001. Conservation ethics versus development: How to obviate the

dichotomy. Sustainable Development,9: 16-23.

Ram J. 2004. Assessment of habitat diversity, forest vegetation and human dependence in

the buffer zone of Nanda Devi Biosphere of Himalaya. Ph.D. Thesis. Kamaun

University, Nainital, India.

Rasual, G. 2010. The role of the Himalayan mountain systems in food security and

agricultural sustainability in South Asia. Intern. J. Rural Manag., 6(1):

2010:95-116.

Razzaq, A., F. Hadi, A. Rashid, M. Ibrar and U. Ali. 2015. Exploration of Medicinal

Plants and their Conservation Status at higher altitude of district Shangala,

Khyber Pakhtunkhawa, Pakistan. American-Eurasian J. Agric. & Environ.

Sci., 15(3): 328-331.

Roberts, T. J. 1977. The Birds of Pakistan. Oxford University press , Karachi.

Rossato, S. C., H. F. Leitao-Filho and A. Begossi. 1999. Ethnobotany of Caricaras of

the Atlantic Forest Coast ( Brazil). Econ. Bot.,53: 387-395.

Sarwar, S. 2006. Proceedings of the National Conference held at Baragali, NWFP, Pakistan, August 22-26.

Shah, A., S. Hussain, N. U. Din, K. H. Bhatti, A. Khan, S. K. Marwat, M. Zafar and M.

Ahmad. 2012. Sacred Jungles. A traditional way of conserving endangered

134

ecosystems and biodiversity in semi- tribal area Kurd sharif & Sho(

District Karak, Khyber Pakhtunkhawa) Pakistan. Sci. Tech. and Dev.

31(4):312-326.

Shah, G. M. 2007. Plant and Plant Resources of Siran Valley, Mansehra, N.W.F.P.,

Pakistan. PhDThesis. Department of Plant Sciences, Quaid- i- Azam

University, Islamabad, Pakistan.

Shah, M. and F. Hussain. 2012. Conservation Assesment of Plant Resources of

Chakaser valley, District Shangla, KPK, Pakistan. Pak. J. Bot., 44(SI): 179-

186.

Shaheen, H., J. Nazir, S. S. Firdous and A. U. R. Khalid. 2014. Cosmetic ethnobotany

practiced by tribal women of Kashmir Himalayas. Avicenna J. Phytomed.,

4(4): 239-250.

Sheikh, K., T. Ahmad and M. A. Khan. 2002. Use, Exploitation and Prospects for

Conservation: people and plant biodiversity of Naltar Valley, northern

western Karakorum, Pakistan. Biodivers. & Conserv., 11(4): 715-742.

Shinwari, Z. K. 2010. Medicinal plants research in Pakistan. J. Med. Plant Res., 4(3):

161-176.

Shinwari, S., R.U. Quershi and E. Baydoun. 2011. Ethnobotanical study of KohatPass

( Pakistan). Pak. J. Bot., 43: 135-139.

135

Shuaib, M., I. Khan, S. Ullah, R. Khan, H. Ullah, S. Mubarik and R. Naz.2014.

Ethnobotanical studies of spring flora of district Dir (Lower), Khyber

Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Pak. J. Weed Sci. Res.,20(1): 37-49.

Takhtajan, A. 1986.Floristic Regions of the world(Translated by T.J. Crovello & A.

Cronquist) University of California press, Berkely. ter Braak, C.J. F. 1988. CANOCO-an extension of DECORANA to analyze species-

environment relationships. Vegetation,75:159-160.

Torre- Cuadros, M. A. and G.A. Isleba. 2003. Traditional ecological knowledge and

use of vegetation in southeastern Mexico: a case study from Solferino,

Quintana Roo. Biodivers. & Conserv., 12: 2455-2476.

Turner, N. 1988. The importance of a rose. Evaluating the cultural significance of

plants in Thompson and Lillooet Interior Salish. The American

Anthropologist, 90: 272-290.

Ullah, B., M. Ibrar and F. Hussain. 2009. Ethnobotanical studies of plants of Charkotli

Hills, Batkhela district Malakand, Pakistan. Frontiers of Biology in China,

4(4): 539-548.

Uprety, Y., R. C. Poudel, H. Asselin and E. Boon. 2010. Plant biodiversity and

ethnobotany inside the projected impact area of the Upper Seti

Hydropower Project, Western Nepal. Environ. Dev. & Sustain.,1-30.

136

Wiersum, K. F. and C. M. Shackleton. 2005. Rural dynamics and biodiversity

conservation in southern Africa. In M.A.F. Ros-Tonen and T. Dietz (eds.),

African Forests between Nature and livelihood Resources: Interdisciplinary

Studies in Conservation and Forest Management. -92 Edwin Mellen Press:

U.K., pp. 67.

Xu, J., R. E. Grumbine, A. Shrestha, M. Eriksson, X. Yang, Y. Wang, A. Wilkes. 2009.

The melting Himalayas: Cascading effects of climate change on water,

biodiversity, and livelihoods. Conserv. Biol.,23: 520-530.

Zahoor, A. 2007. Country Report on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture,

Pakistan Agricultural Research Council. 86 p.

Zareen, A. and Z. U. D. Khan. 2012. A survey of ethnobotanically important trees of

central Punjab, Pakistan. Biologia (Pakistan), 58(1 & 2): 21-30.

Zereen, A., Z. D. Khan and A. A. Sardar. 2013. Ethnobotanical studies of wild herbs

of central Punjab, Pakistan. Bangladesh J. Plant Taxom., 20(1): 67-76.

Zereen, A., Z. U. D. Khan and M. A. Khan. 2013. Ethnobotanical evaluation of the

shrubs of central Punjab, Pakistan,Biologia ( Pakistan), 59(1): 139-146.

Zobel, M., M. Opik, M. Moora and M. Partel. 2006. Biodiversity and ecosystem

functioning: It is time for dispersal experiments. J. Veg. Sci., 17(4): 543-547.

137

APPENDICIES

Appendix 1: Questionnaire for documentation of local wisdom

No: Dated: Name of Locality: Bio data of Respondent: Name: Age: Gender: Education:Occupation: Ethnic group: Information about the Plant Biodiversity: Local Name of the Plant: Botanical Name: Family: Flowering Period: Habit: Life Cycle: Annual/Biennial/Perennial Plant used by indigenous culture as: Part used: Other Uses: INFORMATION ABOUT THE CONSERVATION STATUS: Occurrence: Rare/ Moderate/ Abundant Availability for the last 10 years: Increased/ decreased/ Persistent Conservation effort by locals: Protection from grazing/Cutting/Fire Overexploitation: High/ Moderate/Low/Nil Fire: Extensive/Moderate/Low Overgrazing/Overbrowsing: Extensive/Moderate/Low Cultivated/Not cultivated Regeneration Potential: High/ Moderate/Low

138

139

Appendix 2 Consolidated Check List of ethnoflora of district Tor Ghar Botanical Name Local Name Habit Families Cultural Uses Achillea millifolium L. Karkarah Herb Asteraceae Wound healer,diaphoretic,antipyretic Achyranthes bidentata Blume. Geshay/Spay Herb Amaranthaceae Toothache, boty backache,fodder,snake bite,abdominal pain Achyranthus aspera L. Puth Kanda Herb Amaranthaceae Diuretic,analgesic,antisposmod ic,vegetable,fodder, Acorus calamus L. Skhaweja Herb Araceae Stomach disorder Adiantum capillus- veneris L. Sumbel Herb Adiantaceae Demulcent,diuretic,expectoran t Adiantum incisum Forssk. Sumbel Herb Adiantaceae skin diseases& utensils wash Adiantum venustum D. Don. Babozai Herb Adiantaceae Diuretic,emitec,expectorant,sna ke bite Aerva javanica (Burm.f) Juss. Spin booti Herb Amaranthaceae Anti cancer,Treatment of joints inflamation of cattles,rheumatism,antipyretic, analgesic,anti emetic Aerva sanguinolenta (Linn.) Blume. Spin Botee Herb Amaranthaceae Diuretic,anticancer

Aethusa cynapium L. Herb Apiaceae poisnous plant Agave sisalana Perrine ex Engelm. Herb Agavaceae Fibres used for making ropes

Agrostis stolonifera L. Herb Poaceae Fodder, soil binder Ajuga bracteosa Wall., Benth. Guti Herb Lamiaceae Headache,earache,anti- malerial,hypertension,blood purifier, sore throat,refrigent,antipyretic Ajuga reptan L. Guti Herb Lamiaceae Tonic,blood purifier,antidiabetics Alliaria petiolata (M.Bieb)Cavara & Gangli thom/ Herb Brasicaceae Fodder, gastrointestinal Grande. Balu disorders Allium griffithianum Boiss. Herb Alliaceae fodder, anti-flu,anti hypertensive Alloteropsis cimicina (L.) Stapf. Wakhay Herb Poaceae Fodder

Aloe vera (L.) Burm. Zaqam botay Herb Asphodelaceae Anti diabetic,laxative,stomachic,car minative,skin diseases,cosmetic Amaranthus caudatus L. Chaleray Herb Amaranthaceae Vegetable,fodder,blood purifier Amaranthus spinesus L. Karsusa Herb Amaranthaceae Vegetable,fodder,expectorant,d iuretic,rheumatism,snake bite Amaranthus viridis L. Ganhar Herb Amaranthaceae Vegetable,fodder,edible seeds,leaves used cuuring boils, Anisomeles indica (L.) O. Kuntze. Herb Lamiaceae Skin disease, fever

140

Botanical Name Local Name Habit Families Cultural Uses Apluda aristata L. Wakhay Herb Poaceae Fodder,soil binder Arisaema flavum (Forssk.)Schott. Marjaarei Herb Araceae Anti pyretic,vermifuge,fruit poisonous,pain killer Arisaema jacquemontii Blume. Marjaarei Herb Araceae pain killer, stimulant

Arisaema utile Hook.f.ex. Schott. Tora marjarai Herb Araceae Toothache, backache

Aristida depressa Retz. Herb Poaceae Fodder,soil binder Artemisia absinthium L. Tarkha Herb Asteraceae Anthelmintic,urinary tract infection, broom formation Artemisia scoparia Waldst. & Kit. Gandi booti/ Herb Asteraceae Antimalarial,broom Jaokae formation,purgative,anthelmin tic Artemisia vulgaris L. Joakay Herb Asteraceae applied on tumors, antipyretic Arthraxon prionodes (Steud.) Dandy. Wakhay Herb Poaceae Fodder Arundo donax L. Nara Herb Poaceae Soil binding,Pen making,roofing, fencing ,pen making,fuel Asparagua adscandens Roixb. Spin tindoray Herb Asparagaceae Aphrodisiac, antidiarrheal,antispasmoidic,di uretic Asparagus capitatus Baker. Tindoray Herb Asparagaceae Antidiarrheal,diuretic,tonic,aga inst coughing of sheep Asparagus officinalis L. Tindoray Herb Asparagaceae General body tonic,dysentary,antisposmoidic ,milk production Asplenium septentrionale (Linnaeus) Wakha Herb Aspleniaceae Cattles Oral cavity infection, Hoffmann. rangaey diuretic Astragalus amherstianus Royle ex Asli Batawach Herb Paplionaceae Vegetable,fodder Benth. Astragalus graveolens Buch.-Ham.ex Bitawach E Herb Paplionaceae Vegetable,fodder,wound Benth. Naqli/Azgha healer kay Avena fetua L. Jawdar Herb Poaceae Fodder,emollient,refrigerant,di uretic Bergenia ciliata Sternb. Koerat Herb Saxifragaceae Antipyretic, Dyspepsia, bronchitis, colon cancer, wound healing , tonic, anti ulcer, analgesic, cosmetics Bistorta amplexicaulis (D.Don) Greene. Rain Herb Polygonaceae willd edible vegetable

Borreria articularis (L.F.) FN . Will. Herb Rubiaceae Anti diabetics

Bothriochloa ischaemum (L.) Keng. Wakhay Herb Poaceae Fodder

Brachiaria ramosa (Linn.) Stap. Wakhay Herb Poaceae Fodder Bupleurum falcatum L. Herb Apiaceae Liver tonic,respiratory diseases

141

Botanical Name Local Name Habit Families Cultural Uses Calamagrostis decora Hook. f., Fl. Herb Poaceae Fodder Bri. Calendula arvensis L. Ziar Guley Herb Asteraceae Tonic,anthelmentic,fodder,hon ey bee plant Caltha alba Camb Makhanr Path Herb Ranunculaceae Wound healing Campanula benthamii Wall. Herb Campanulaceae Liver disorders, Effective against arthritis Canna indica L. Herb Cannaceae Wound healing ointment is prepared Cannabis sativa L. Bhang Herb Cannabaceae Insecticidal,sedative,anodyne,n arcotic,relished by horses& mules Capsella bursa-pestoris L. Bambaesa Herb Brasicaceae Fodder,diuretic,astringent,anti pyretic Caralluma tuberculata N.E. Brown. Choung Herb Asclepiadaceae Vegetable, against rheumatism,against diabetics Cardamine hirsuta L. Chargh butay Herb Brasicaceae Laxative,purgative,increase eggs production, hoofs infection of cattles Cardiospermum halicacabum L. Khubara plt Herb Sapindaceae Vegetable , medicinally used as refrigent for liver Carthmus oxycantha M.Bieb. Kareza Herb Asteraceae Fodder,edible seeds,antidiuretic,laxative,diap horetic,hedge plant Centaurea iberica Trevir & Spreng. Herb Asteraceae Blood disorder,honey bee plant

Chamaemelum nobile (L.) All. Herb Asteraceae Tonic,digestive disorder,antiseptic Chenopodium album L. Larmay Herb Chenopodiaceae Sarmea Vegetable,fodder,Anthelmintic, laxative,diuretic,blood purifier,purgative,anti- jaundice,urinary tract infections,snake bite treatment, Chenopodium ambrosioides L. Benakai Herb Chenopodiaceae Stimulant,anthelmintic,antispasmodic,carminative,fodder Chenopodium botrys L. Skha Khawra Herb Chenopodiaceae Anthelmintic,laxative,jaundice, wound healer,vegetable,fodder Chenopodium murale L. Skha Botey Herb Chenopodiaceae Fodder,laxative Chrysopogon serrulatus Trin. herb Poaceae Fodder

Cichorium intybus L. Hanshamake Herb Asteraceae vegetable,abdominal pain, y/ Kasny cough Cissampelos pareira L. Katoon Herb Menispermaceae Digestion disorder, Snake bite Citrullus colocynthis (Linn.) Schrad. Tumba / Herb Cucurbitaceae Poisonous plant,fruits used for Manzil/ intestinal disorders of Markundai livestock,insecticidal Clematis grata Wall. Chenjan Wala Herb Ranunculaceae Gastrointestinal disorders,Anti pyretic, headache 142

Botanical Name Local Name Habit Families Cultural Uses Cleome scaposa DC., Prodr. Herb Capparidaceae spiritually used as evil repellent Codonopsis clematidea (Schrenk) Herb Campanulaceae Mouth and foot disease of C.B.Clarke. cattles Colchicum luteum Baker. Herb Colchicaceae Anti-inflamatory and analgesic oinment, skin diseases Colocasia esculenta (Linn.) Schott. Karchalo Herb Araceae Vegetable,laxative,vermifuge, cure of fur shedding of animals Commelina benghalensis L. Kanchara Herb Commelinaceae Fodder, Vegetable, Laxative

Commelina poludosa Blume. Kanjuna Herb Commelinaceae Fodder, Skin diseases

Convolvulus arvensis L. Pirwathai Herb Convolvulaceae Cosmetic,fodder, diuretic Conyza canadensis (L.) Corgn. Maloocheii Herb Asteraceae Diuretic,astringent,diarrhea,dy sentery,fodder Corchorus trilocularis L. Herb Tiliaceae Antipyretic

Coronopus didymus Hazar dani Herb Brassicaceae Wound healing, cough,skin (L.) Sm. diseases, fodder,oral infection of animals Crotolaria mediginea Lamk. Herb Papilionaceae Used against oral infection

Cuscuta gigantea Griff. Ooloe Herb Cuscutaceae Hair tonic,anti poisonous agent Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. Zeara Zeelai Herb Cuscutaceae Diuretic,anti-diabetics,blood purifier, hair tonic Cynodon dactylon ( L.) Pers. Kabal Herb Poaceae Fodder,soil binder,washing utensils,astringent,diuretic,toni c,skin diseases,leprosy Cynoglossum lanceolatum Forssk. Pachy Herb Boraginaceae Demulcent,anti- inflammatory,fodder Cyperus cyperoides L. Della Herb Cyperaceae Diuretic,anthelmentic,regulariz e menstruation,anti- diarrheal,dysentary, roots tonic for cattles,sedative,fodder Dactylotenium aegyptium (L) P.Beauv Wakhay Herb Poaceae Fodder, soil binder

Datura stramonium L. Batoora Herb Solanaceae Urinary disorders,softening boils,antispasmodic,anti inflamatory,skin diseases Deschampsia caespitosa L. Broom grass Herb Poaceae Fodder,Broom formation Desmostachya bipinnata (L.) Stapf. Drab Herb Poaceae Fodder

Dichanthium annulatum (Forssk) Wakhay Herb Poaceae Fodder Stapf.

143

Botanical Name Local Name Habit Families Cultural Uses Dicliptera bupleuroides Nees. Herb Acanthaceae Wound healing, cough,skin diseases,fodder Digitaria nodosa Perl. Wakhay Herb Poaceae Fodder Dioscorea deltoidea Wall.ex Kunth. Konel Herb Dioscoraceae Anti- diabetics,diuretic,expectorant,a nthelmentic, Insecticidal,fish poison,spiritually used as evil repellent Duchesnea indica (Andr.)Focke. Mewa Herb Rosaceae Edible fruits,fodder,astringent,refriger ant,mental disorders Equisetum ramosissimum Desf. Bandakay Herb Equisetaceae Anti-lice,tonic,diuretic,renal disorders,insecticidal Eragrostis ciliaris (L.) R.Br. Wakhay Herb Poaceae Fodder

Erophila verna L. Herb Brasicaceae Gastrointestinal disorders Eryngium sp. Herb Apiaceae Diuretic,aphrodisiac,fodder

Euphorbia helioscopia L. Mandro Herb Euphorbiaceae Vermifuge,laxative,fish poison,insecticidal Euphorbia hirta L. Skha Botay Herb Euphorbiaceae Wound healer,expectorant Euphorbia hispida Boiss. Herb Euphorbiaceae Insecticidal, anti piles Euphorbia prostrata Aiton. Herb Euphorbiaceae Anthelmentic

Euphorbia wallichii Hk. Zangly Herb Euphorbiaceae Poisonous plant,highly Mandaro laxative,skin diseases,honey bee plant,also laxative for animals,cosmetics Evolvulus alsinoides (L.) Sargulay Herb Convolvulaceae Mouth & foot disease of animals Foeniculum vulgare Mill. Sounf Herb Apiaceae Carminative, brain tonic,edible,increases milk production, diaphoretic, improves eye sight Fragaria nubicola (Hook.f.) Lindl. ex Da Herb Rosaceae Edible Lacaita. zimakaytoot fruits,fodder,antidiarrheal,dyse ntery,diuretic,astringent Fumaria indica (Hausskn) Pusley. Papra Herb Fumariaceae Fodder,blood purifier,diaphoretic,antipyretic ,antimalarial,respiratory disorders Fumaria officinalis L. Herb Fumariaceae fodder, anti hypertensive Gagea lutea (L) Ker-Gawl. Qaimat Gulay Herb Liliaceae Poisonous plant

Galinsoga parviflora Cavanilles. Herb Asteraceae Anti diabetic

Galium aparine L. Herb Rubiaceae Improves vision Gentiana kurroo Royle. Nilkant Herb Gentianaceae Hepatic

144

Botanical Name Local Name Habit Families Cultural Uses disorders,tonic,anthelmintic,ast ringent Geranium lucidum L. Herb Geraniaceae Fodder, skin diseases Geranium wallichianum Sargrrai Herb Geraniaceae Tonic,analgesic,anti- D.Don ex Sweet. diarrehal,shoots as fodder,tonic for cattles Hypericum perforatum L. Warmang Herb Guttiferae / Fodder,carminative,stimulent,a Booty Hypericaceae nti cancer Impatiens bicolor Royle. Herb Balsaminaceae Tonic,diuretic, skin beauty Impatiens edgeworthii Hk. F. Ziar athreng Herb Balsaminaceae Urinary tract infections

Imperata cylindrica (L)P. Beauv. Herb Poaceae Fodder

Incarvellia emodi Kora Herb Solanaceae used as ghutti for infants Lactuca serriola L. Herb Asteraceae Wound healing Lathyrus aphaca L. Korkamani Herb Paplionaceae Fodder,wound healer,anti cough,laxative,vegetable Lepidium aucheri Boiss. Halam Herb Brasicaceae Given to cattles for flatulence Leptochloa panicea (Retz.) Ohwi. Wakhay Herb Poaceae Fodder

Malva neglecta Wall. Panerak Herb Malvaceae Vegetable,fodder,purgative for young cattle Malva sylvestris L. Samchal Herb Malvaceae Vegetable , fodder Marrubium vulgare L. Gandana Herb Lamiaceae Gastrointestinal disorders Medicago polymorpha L. Shpeshtiary Herb Paplionaceae fodder,vegetable,laxative,tonic, anti coagulant,epilepsy of cattles Melilotus officinalis (L.)Desr. Lewanay Herb Paplionaceae Fodder,anti- coagulantant,manure,vegetable ,epilepsy of cattles Mentha arvensis L. Podina Herb Lamiaceae Stomach disorders,febrifuge,anti- emetic,antispasmodic,stimulent,diuretic,h oney-bee sp.,toothache,also used as salad Mentha longifolia (L.) Huds. Vanaley Herb Lamiaceae Carminative,anti-emetic,antiseptic,febrifuge,used as salad,toothache,refrigerant Mentha spicata L. Zangli Podina Herb Lamiaceae Carminative,stimulant,toothac he,mouth wash,refrigerant,used in salad Mirabilis jalapa L. Gul e badam Herb Nyctaginaceae Purgative,cathartic,emetic,wou nd healing,diuretic Narcissus tazetta L. NargisGulae Herb Amaryllidaceae Graveyard plant,Honey bee,flowers are purgative and emetic,aesthetic Nasturtium officinale R. Br. Tarmera Herb Brasicaceae Vegetable,fodder,diuretic,carm inative,heart and kidney disorders,blood purifier

145

Botanical Name Local Name Habit Families Cultural Uses Nepeta cataria L. Jalbang Herb Lamiaceae Respiratory tract infections,stomach disorder Neslia apiculata Fisch. Herb Brasicaceae Fodder, ulcerated skin of cattles,liver tonic Oenthera rosea L. Herb Onagraceae Eye diseases Onosma hispida Wall.Ex G. Don. Kairry Herb Boraginaceae Purgative,bronchitis,asthma

Opuntia dillenii Haw. Zakoom Shrub Cactaceae Anti- inflamatory,purgative,edible fruit,hedge plant,wound healing Oxalis carniculatus L. Threwakey Herb Oxalidaceae Fodder,stomach disorder of cattles,honey bee plant,anti jaundance,wound healer,anti spasmodic Periploca aphylla Dcne. Bata/Barara Shrub Asclepiadaceae Purgative & milky juice is applied on tumors and swellings, ash is used for oral infections,fuel Persicaria hydropiper (L.) Spach. Herb Polygonaceae Aphrodisiac

Phalaris minor Retz. Herb Poaceae Fodder Phragmites australis (Cay.) Trin. Herb Poaceae Fodder

Picris hieraciodes L. Sra booti Herb Asteracae Decoction of roots is nerve tonic Plantago lanceolata L. Shalet Herb Plantaginaceae Fodder,anti-diarrheal,antiseptic Plantago major L. Baltanga jabai Herb Plantaginaceae Fodder,anti-diarrheal,antiseptic,tonic,dysentery,aphrodie sic Poa bulbosa L. Wakhay Herb Poaceae Fodder,skin diseases Podophyllum emodi Wall. ex Royle. Ban kakri / Herb Podophyllaceae Hepatic stimulent,pain Banwangun killer,emetic, Polygonatum multiforum (L.) All. Noor e Alam Herb Convallariaceae Tonic,antispasmodic,Respirato ry diseases,fodder Polygonatum Verticillatum Noor e Alam Herb Convallariaceae Analgesic,aphrodisiac, increases milk production Polygonum aviculare Linnaeus Pal poluk Herb Polygonaceae Fodder,cosmetic, strengthening horns Polygonum plebejum R. Br. Herb Polygonaceae Epilepsy

Polystichum lonchitis L. Herb Dryoteridaceae Wound healing Portulaca oleracea L. Warkharay Herb Portulaceae Vegetable,fodder Pteris cretica Linnaeus. Qinchi panra Herb Pteridaceae Curing hysteria, vegetable, mud roof making, cattles cough

146

Botanical Name Local Name Habit Families Cultural Uses Pulicaria crispa (Forssk.) Oliv. Herb Asteraceae Wound healing, vegetable, fodder Ranunculus arvensis L. Chaghchejaka Herb Ranunculaceae Fish poisoning,insecticide i Ranunculus muricatus L. Ziar guley Herb Ranunculaceae purgative for livestock Ranunculus scleratus L. Jashaghai Herb Ranunculaceae Antipyretic,asthma,purgative for livestock Ricinus communis L. Arharhanda Herb Euphorbiaceae Wound healer,laxative,analgesic,oil is purgative and lubricant,manure,fuel,used laxative for cattles,cosmetics,green manure, Rumex acetosa L. Tarokey Herb Polygonaceae Vegetable, against rheumatism,against diabetics,fodder,carminative Rumex dentatus L. Shalkhay Herb Polygonaceae Vegetable,fodder,diuretic,dem ulsent.laxative for cattles, wound healer Rumex hastatus D. Don. Prodr. Tarokai Herb Polygonaceae Fodder,ocasionally fuel,carminative,purgative,diur etic,astringent,jaundice,antisep tic,wound healing Rumex vesicarius L. Torokay Herb Polygonaceae Fodder, wound healing,carminative,anti allergic Salvia lanata Roxburgh. Khathriki Herb Lamiaceae Wound healer,diaphoretic,antipyretic Salvia moorcroftiana Wall. ex Benth. Kali jarhi / Herb Lamiaceae Edible peeled off branches, Khar ghoagh warmed oily leaves wraped on boils,fodder,honey bee plant,refrigerant,anti-cough and cold,spiritually used for strengthening body Senesio chrysanthemoides DC. Ghopga Herb Asteraceae Diarrhea,abdominal pain,antipyretic,fodder,washin g utensils Silene conidea L. Babrai Herb Caryophyllaceae Fodder,weed,laxative,purgativ e,anthelmintic Silene vulgaris (Moench) Garcke. Matranga Herb Caryophyllaceae Fodder,stomach disorder

Silybum marianum (L) Gaertn. Karizaghena Herb Asteraceae Respiratory tract infections,urinary tract infection of cattles Sisymbrium irrio L. Oorae Herb Brasicaceae Fodder,carminative, flatulence of cattles, tonic Solanum incanum L. Herb Solanaceae Respiratory disorder Solanum nigrum L. Karmacho Herb Solanaceae Edible fruits,vegetable,fodder,wound healing,carminative,antidiarrh eal,antipiles, tonic for cattles

147

Botanical Name Local Name Habit Families Cultural Uses Solena amplexicaulis (Lam.)Gandhi. Kakora Herb Cucurbitaceae Antipyretic, milk production

Sonchus asper (L) Hill. Shodapae Herb Asteraceae Fodder,tonic,diuretic,purgative ,improves eye vision Sorghum haleeparse (L) Pers. Dadam Herb Poaceae Fodder

Stachys parviflora Benth. Spera Botay Herb Lamiaceae Leaves are used as bandage for wound healing, toothache Stellaria media (L.) Vill. Laroley Herb Caryophyllaceae Fodder,laxative,analgesic,arthr itis Swertia ciliata (G. Don)B.L. Burtt. Chirata/Mom Herb Gentianaceae Tonic,febrifuge,eye diseases era

Taraxicum officinale Webb. Ziar guley Herb Asteraceae Vegetable,Diabetics,jaundice,fo dder, blood disorders Thymus linearis Benth. Da Ghar sper Herb Lamiaceae Anti- kay pyretic,sedative,toothache,sto mach disorder,tea is also prepared Torilis leptophylla (L.) Reichb. Herb Apiaceae Antipyretic

Tragus roxburghii Panigrahi. Wakhay Herb Poaceae Fodder Trichodesma indicum (L.) R. Br. Prodr. Herb Boraginaceae Fodder,anti hypertensive

Trifolium pratense L. long lvs Herb Paplionaceae Fodder,milk production increases Trifolium repens L. Shaotal Herb Papilionaceae Vegetable,fodder,honey bee,washing utensils,green manure Tulipa clusiana (Hook.) Regel. Gantul Herb Liliaceae Flowers collected for ornamental spurposes,fodder,edible bulbs, anti jauandance Urtica dioica L. Jelbung Herb Urticaceae Fodder,increasing milk production,diuretic,anti- allergic Valeriana jatamansi Jones. Mushk bala Herb Valerianaceae Given to cattles for milk production,root as insecticide used in clothes,sedative Verbascum thapsus L. Kharghwagh Herb Scrophulariaceae Demulcent,emollient,stimulant ,anthelmintic,anti-diarrheal for livestock Verbena officinalis L. Shmoakai Herb Verbenaceae. Nerve tonic,rheumatism,artherititis,a pplied on snake bite,verbifuge Vernonia Sinerea (L.)Lees. Tor Zeera Herb Asteraceae Anti hypertension,carminative,anti diabetics, fodder

148

Botanical Name Local Name Habit Families Cultural Uses Vicia hirsuta (Linn.) S.F.Gray. Marghaikhpa Herb Paplionaceae Kidney disorders

Viola canescens Wall. ex Roxb. Herb Violaceae Throat infection,soothing effect,cough,cold,fever Viola odorata L. Banafsha Herb Violaceae Flu,cough,jaundice Xanthium strumarium L. Ghishkey Herb Asteraceae Anti malarial,demulcent,anti cancer Boenninghausenia albiflora (Hook.) Pissu mar Herb Rutaceae Insecticide Reichb. Andrachne cordifolia (Wall. ex Decne.) Kurkun Shrub Euphorbiaceae Poisnous , Vermifuge for Muell. cattle,skin diseases,insecticidal Bambusa glaucescens (Willd.) Sieb. Bans Shrub Poaceae Soil binding, ladder making,Roofing,Fencing, Spirtual,sticks,young shoots as vegetable Berberis lycium Royle. Kwaray Shrub Berberidaceae Edible fruit,fodder,fuel wood,skin diseases,wound healer,blood purifier,sore throat,anti cancer,fencing of crops,dye Buddleja crispa Bth. Booe Shrub Buddlejaceae Skin diseases,stomach disorder,sticks,fuel,spiritual Buxus wallichiana Bill. Shrub Buxaceae Edible fruits, fuel,poisonous Caesalpinia decapitala (Roth) Alston. Jara Shrub Caesalpinaceae Anti- pyretic,analgesic,spiritual,fuel Calotropis procera (Ait.) Ait. F. Spulmay Shrub Asclepiadaceae Skin diseases,snake bite, dog bite,dysentary,dandruff remover,dye,tooth paste,toothache Carissa opaca Stapf. en Haines. Granda Shrub Apocynaceae Male dysfunction,edible fruit,fuel wood,heart tonic Clematis montana Buch. shrub Ranunculaceae Wound healing, cough,skin diseases,spiritually used Colebrookia oppositifolia Smith. Balbadarh/ Shrub Lamiaceae Fuel, Oral cavity infec. of Benda goats, seeds burnt for evil repellent Cotinus coggyria Scop. Chamy- Shrub Anacardiaceae Basket,Fuel,Tooth brush, arlakhta / ropes,tanning of hides Paan Cotoneaster bacillaris Wall. ex Lindl. Looni Shrub Rosaceae Fuel,Sticks, edible fruits

Cotoneaster nummularia Fish & Mey. Mamana Shrub Rosaceae Fodder,fuel, edible fruit

Daphne mucronata Royle. Laighonai Shrub Thymeliaceae Poisonous plant,purgative,skin diseases, flies repellent of dogs. Debregeasia salicifolia (D.Don) Rendle. Chewr Shrub Urticaceae Fodder,edible fruit,fuel wood,fencing & thatching

149

Botanical Name Local Name Habit Families Cultural Uses Dodonaea vescosa (L.) Jacq. Ghoraskai Shrub Sapindaceae Fuel,roofing,broom formation,hedge plant,soil binder, tool handles,fish poison,insecticidal Hedra nepalensis K.Koch. Parweta shrub Araliaceae Removal of leaches from nasal cavities of cattles Hypericum oblongifolium L. Shin Chai Shrub Guttiferae Diuretic,analgesic,antiseptic,fo dder Indigofera heterantha Wall.ex rand. Ghoraja Shrub Papilionaceae Roofing,hedges,baskets,birds cages,ropes,fodder,fuel,washin g utensils,ash for snuff,honey bee plant,demulcent,anti- cancerous,diuretic,carminative, urinary diseases,brooms Isodon rugosus (Wall. ex Benth.) Khangere/ Shrub Lamiaceae Honey bee flora, washing Codd. Salasla utensils,carminative,spiritually used,appetizer, Jasminum humile L. Konkoni Shrub Oleaceae Ringworms cure,tonic,astringent,honey bee plant,cosmetic Jasminum nudiflorum Zangli Shrub Oleaceae Aesthetic,fodder,fuel Lindl. Chambeli Justicia adhatoda L. Baikar Shrub Acanthaceae Blood purifier,respiratory diseases,leaves used for ripening of bananas.fuel wood,honey bees plant,soil binding plant,fuel wood,ulcerated skin of animals Mallotus philippensis (Lam.)Muess. Kambella Shrub Euphorbiaceae Anthelmentic,astringent,fuel ,skin diseases of animals Maytenus royleanus (Wall. ex Patakhi / Shrub Celastraceae Handles of fans,sticks,hedge Lawson) Cufodontis Azghakay plant,fuel wood,toothache,eye inflammation

Myrsine africana L. Khukhar Shrub Myrsinaceae Fodder,anthelmintic,fuel,soil binding Nannorrhops ritchieana Mazri palm Shrub Palmae Baskets (Griff.) Aitchison.

Nerium indicum Mill. Gandirey Shrub Apocynaceae Diuretic,anthelmintic,toothbru sh, fuel Nerium oleander L. Kaneer Shrub Apocynaceae Skin diseases,snake bite, honey bee plant,cosmetic,fuel Otostegia limbata (Bth) Boiss. Spinaghzai Shrub Lamiaceae Plateable for goats&sheep,wound healer,anti-jaundance,hedge plant,fuel,ash for snuff & detergent Rubus ellipticus Smith. Karwara Shrub Rosaceae Edible fruits,antidiarrheal,cough,diur etic,fodder,fuel,hedge plant

150

Botanical Name Local Name Habit Families Cultural Uses Rubus fructicosus Hook .f. Karwara Shrub Rosaceae Carminative, diarrhea,edible fruit,hedge for fields borders,fuel wood,fodder Sarcococca saligna (D.Don) Muell. Ladan Shrub Buxaceae Joint pain,antiseptic,laxative,soil binder,fuel,honey bee plant Skimmia laureola (DC.) Sieb. & Zucc. Nameer/ Shrub Rutaceae Aromatic,dried leaves are ex Walp. Nazar pana burnt for evils repel,clean nasal route,febrifuge,carminative,ant ispasmodic,toothache Viburnum grandiflorum Wall. ex DC. Chamiaray Shrub Caprifoliaceae Astringent,antispasmodic,fodd er,fuel,edible fruit Viburnum cotinifolium D. Don. Ghanpmzewa Shrub Caprifoliaceae Edible fruits,tonic,fodder,fuel

Vitex negundo L. Marghondai Shrub Verbenaceae Anti-septic,tooth brush,fuel wood,soil binding plant,pain releaver of chest,back and legs,graveyards plant,wound healing Vitis parvifolia Roxb. Dakh Shrub Vitaceae Edible fruit, plant sap is hair tonic, general body tonic Vitis vinifera L. Kwar Shrub Vitaceae Edible fruit, plant sap is hair tonic Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal. Shrub Solanaceae Muscles tonic

Woodfordia fruticosa (L.)S.Kurz. Thawi Shrub Lythraceae Fodder,fuel,asthema,cosmetics, cardiac disorders,anti menorrhagia,dysentery Yucca aloifolia L. Shrub Agavaceae Ropes making, hedge plant

Zanthoxylum armatum DC. Dambara Shrub Rutaceae Stomachache,toothache,carmin ative,stimulent,spices,tooth brushes,Sticks,fodder,fuel,anti diabetics,antipyretic for animals,digestive disorders for animals,edible fruits Ziziphus nummularia (Burm. f.) Wight Karkanda Shrub Rhamnaceae Edible fruit,fodder,fuel,hedge & Arn. plant,leaves ointment used on boils and scabies,fodder,fuel, Ziziphus oxyphylla Edgew. Elanai Shrub Rhamnaceae Edible fruit,fodder,fuel

Abies pindrow Royle. Achal Tree Pinaceae Timber,furniture & fuel wood,agricultural tools,carminative,tonic,antispa smodic,anti-asthma Acacia modesta Wall. Palosa Tree Mimosaceae Fodder,fuel wood,gum used as tonic after delivary,toothbrush,honey bee plant,roofing,fencing

151

Botanical Name Local Name Habit Families Cultural Uses Acacia nilotica L. Kikar Tree Mimosaceae Furniture,sticks,tooth brush,fuel,cloth tanning,fodder,timber Aesculus indica (Wall.ex Camb.)Hk. Ashanr Tree Hippocastanacea Timber,fuel,agriculture e tools,fodder,furniture,anti-colic in horses &for stamina in cattle.Shade giving tree,anthelmintic,treating jaundice Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle. Lagan Tree Simarubaceae Fuel wood,fodder,timber,roofing,gu m used for dysentary,insecticidal Albezzia lebbek (L) Benth. Srikh Tree Mimosaceae Fuel,shade,astringent,antipiles,anti-diarrheal,skin diseases,spiritual Albezzia procera (Roxb) Benth. Tree Mimosaceae Fuel, Shade,Spirtual,anti diabetics Alnus nitida (Spach.) Endl. Girae/ Sharol Tree Betulaceae Fuel wood, shade giving, soil binding plant, timber, making instruments Azadiracha indica L. Neem Tree Meliaceae Timber,furniture,fuel,tooth brush,antiseptic,toothache,skin diseases of cattles,human skin diseases Bauhinia variegata L. Kulhar Tree Caesalpiniaceae Vegetable,fuel wood,fodder,tonic,carminative, tanning Bombax ceiba L. Simble Tree Bombacaceae Fuel wood, timber, making instruments, aesthetic,making handles of weapons Broussonetia papyrifera (L.)L’ Herit ex Kaghazi toot Tree Moraceae Shade Vent. plant,fodder,furniture,sport goods,roofing,fuel,fencing Butea monosperma (Lam.) O. Kuntz. Tree Papilionaceae Fuel,handles of instruments

Cedrella serrata Royle. Daravi Tree Meliaceae Liver tonic,furniture wood, fuel Cedrus deodara (Roxb. ex D. Don). G. Lamb. / Tree Pinaceae Timber wood,furniture Don. Ranzhra wood,fuel wood,fencing,astringent,diaph oretic,antiseptic,diuretic,anti- leprosey,skin diseases,anti fever,roofing, tools Celtis australis L. Taghagaha / Tree Ulmaceae Agricultural Batkar tools,fuel,fodder,edible fruit,shade giving,graveyard plant,anti colic and anti allergic, Cornus macrophylla Wall. ex Roxb. Kandara Tree Cornaceae Timber,fuel wood,fodder,shade giving plant

152

Botanical Name Local Name Habit Families Cultural Uses Cydonia oblonga Miller. Pub Tree Rosaceae Edible fruit, cardiac tonic Delbergia sisso Roxb. Shaewa Tree Papilionaceae Furniture,sticks,timber,sports goods,agricultural tools,fuel,soil binder,fodder,ash for snuff,stimulent,gonorrhea,astri ngent,anti-piles, detergent Diospyrus lotus L. Tor Amlok Tree Ebenaceae Edible fruits,fodder,fuel,timber,agricu ltural tools,handles,furniture,carmina tive Euclaptus spp. Leichi Tree Myrtaceae Timber,toothache,mosquitoes repellent, manure,furniture,fuel,roofing,a ntiseptic Ficus benghalensis L. Barh Tree Moraceae Shade, fuel,Spirtual,latex used for skin beauty Ficus carica Forsk. Inzar Tree Moraceae Edible fruit,young leaves as vegetable, shade,fuel,fodder,latex used as adhesive material,laxative,tonic,demulce nt.instruments Ficus palmata Forsk. Inzar Tree Moraceae Edible fruit,young leaves as vegetable, shade,fuel,utensils,fodder,latex used to remove thorns from body,laxative,tonic,demulcent, adhesive material Ficus racemosa L. Armol Tree Moraceae Edible fruit, fuel,shade,astringent,carminati ve Grewia optiva Drummond .ex Burret. Pastaw-oney Tree Tiliaceae Fodder,increasing milk production,fuel wood,astringent, edible fruits, rope formation, Baskets Ilex dipyrena Wall. Tree Aquifoliaceae fuel wood Juglans regia L. Ghuz Tree Juglandaceae Edible nuts,furniture wood, bark and leaves as cosmetics,anthelmintic,tanning and dyeing,fuel, handles of knives,brain tonic,carminative,thermogenic, toothache Melia azedarach L. Bakaina/Laga Tree Meliaceae Timber,furniture & fuel n wood,fodder,insecticide,fruits carminative for goats,leaves are used in rice padies,anthelmintic,anti- lice,tonic,antidiabetics,antidote for scorpion bite,blood purifier,anti-

153

Botanical Name Local Name Habit Families Cultural Uses pyretic,reheumatism,hypertens ion,shade, seeds as tonic for bulls,instruments

Moras nigra L. Tor toot Tree Moraceae Edible fruit,fodder,baskets formation,fuel wood, tool for meat cutting, temperory ropes for tieing grass and woods.laxative,anti-throat infection, shade giving Morus alba L. Spin Toot Tree Moraceae Edible fruit,fodder,baskets formation,fuel wood, tool for meat cutting, temporary ropes for tieing grass and woods.laxative,purgative,anthe lmintic,shade Olea ferruginea Royle. Khoona Tree Oleaceae Fuel,fodder,shade,grave yard plant.toothbrush,roofing,sticks, agricultural appliances,sports goods,astringent,antiseptic,diu retic,toothache,sore throat,analgesic,edible fruits,timber, Phoenix dactylifera L. Zangli Tree Palmae Edible fruits, basket formation Khajoor Phoenix sylvestris (L.) Roxb. Zangli khajur Tree Palmae Edible fruits, baskets

Picea smithiana (Wall.) Boiss. Nakhtar Tree Pinaceae Timber wood,furniture wood,fuel wood,rheumatism,abdominal pain and antiseptic Pinus roxburghii Sargent. Nakhtar Tree Pinaceae Timber,fuel,furniture,dye leather,edible seeds, roofing,fencing ,stimulent,diuretic,resin as adhesive material Pinus wallichiana A. B. Jackson. Pewach Tree Pinaceae Timber wood,fuel wood,fencing,roofing, Pistacia integerrima J.L.Stewart. Shanae Tree Anacardiaceae Tonic,expectorant,whooping Brandis cough and asthma,fuel wood,timber, agricultural instruments, Platanus orientalis L. Chinar Tree Platanaceae Shade tree,fuel,roofing. Populus alba L. Watani Tree Salicaceae Timber,fuel,furniture,sports sperdar goods,roofing,soil binder,antidiabetics(bark decoction)

154

Botanical Name Local Name Habit Families Cultural Uses Prunus armeniaca L. Khubanai Tree Rosaceae Edible fruits,fuel,fodder,fruits are refrigerant,laxative,tonic,honey bee tree Punica granatum L. Narsaw-ay/ Tree Punicaceae Edible fruit,spices,fuel Anunghoray wood,leaves are plateable for goats,carminative,anti emetic,whooping cough,dysentary, Pyrus communis L. Nashpati Tree Rosaceae Edible fruits,antipyretic,sedative,astri ngent,fuel,fodder Pyrus pashia Ham ex D. Don. Tangai Tree Rosaceae Edible fruits,fuel,fodder,fruits are refrigerant,laxative,tonic,honey bee tree,Sticks,timber,cosmetic Quercus dilatata Lindle. ex Royle Tor banj Tree Fagaceae Timber wood,fuel,fodder,agricultural tools,shade giving,seeds are purgative&astringent.Children play with seeds Quercus floribundla Lindl. Brungi Tree Fagaceae Timber,fuel,fodder

Quercus incana Roxb. Spin banj Tree Fagaceae Fuel,making utensils& agricultural tools,seeds are astringent,diuretic,anti- diarrheal,asthma,shade giving,roofing Quercus leucotrichophora A. Camus. Rin Tree Fagaceae Timber,fuel,fodder,agricultural appliances Robinia pseudoacacia L. Toor kiker Tree Papilionaceae Timber,furniture,fuel,fodder,sh ade giving,soil binder,honey bee attractant,aesthetic,dye.woody templates for shoes fittings Salix tetrasperma Roxb.. Walla Tree Salicaceae Timber,fuel wood,sport goods,agricultural tools,baskets,tanning,bark is antipyretic Sapindus mukorossi Gaertn. Ritha Tree Sapindaceae Fruit used as soap,fuel,timber,

Taxus wallichiana (Zucc.)Pilger. Bunya Tree Taxaceae Timber wood,fuel wood,edible fruits Vitis jacquemontii Parker. Tree Vitaceae Edible fruit, cosmetic

Ziziphus jujuba Mill. Sezen Tree Rhamnaceae Flu,cough,anti-diarrheal &dysentary,edible fruit,fuel,fodder, fencing,tonic,anti throat infection

155

Appendix 3 List of mean cultural importance index(mCI) of ethnoflora used by five tribes of district Tor Ghar CI Name of Species mCI Habit Basikhl Nusratkhel Akazai Hassanzai Medakhel Amaranthus viridis Herb 0.54 0.41 0 0 0 0.475 L. Nasturtium Herb 0.57 0.53 0.42 0.41 0.33 0.452 officinale R. Br. Viola odorata L. Herb 0.36 0.45 0 0 0 0.405 Amaranthus Herb 0.43 0.4 0 0.29 0.48 0.4 spinesus L. Solanum nigrum L. Herb 0.42 0.34 0.37 0.37 0.37 0.374 Aloe vera (L.)Burm. Herb 0.5 0.47 0 0.31 0.2 0.37 Amaranthus Herb 0.41 0.36 0.31 0.31 0.43 0.364 caudatus L. Duchesnea indica Herb 0.38 0.33 0.38 0.37 0.35 0.362 (Andr.)Focke. Malva neglecta Herb 0.31 0.44 0.3 0.32 0.35 0.344 Wall. Taraxicum officinale Herb 0.39 0.5 0.31 0.29 0.23 0.344 Webb. Fragaria nubicola Herb 0.4 0 0.31 0.31 0 0.34 (Hook.f.) Lindl. ex Lacaita Incarvellia emodi herb 0 0 0.39 0 0.29 0.34 Mentha longifolia Herb 0.32 0.39 0.24 0 0.41 0.34 (L.) Huds. Achyranthes Herb 0.45 0.22 0 0 0 0.335 bidentata Blume. Podophyllum emodi Herb 0.34 0.4 0.31 0.28 0 0.3325 Wall. ex Royle. Foeniculum vulgare Herb 0.43 0.28 0 0.28 0 0.33 Mill. Mentha arvensis L. Herb 0.35 0.42 0.23 0.32 0 0.33 Ricinus communis Herb 0.41 0.28 0 0.3 0.32 0.3275 L. Caralluma Herb 0.33 0.41 0.21 0.3 0.34 0.318 tuberculata N.E. Brown. Bergenia ciliata Herb 0.32 0.35 0.28 0 0 0.31667 Sternb. Chenopodium album Herb 0.28 0.28 0.34 0 0.36 0.315 L.

156

CI Name of Species mCI Habit Basikhl Nusratkhel Akazai Hassanzai Medakhel Valeriana jatamansi Herb 0.34 0.37 0.27 0.28 0 0.315 Jones. Oxalis carniculatus Herb 0.31 0.38 0.21 0.34 0.32 0.312 L. Portulaca oleracea Herb 0.31 0 0 0 0 0.31 L. Viola canescens Herb 0.41 0 0.21 0 0 0.31 Wall. ex Roxb. Aerva javanica Herb 0.42 0.3 0.31 0.24 0.27 0.308 (Burm.f) Juss. Rumex dentatus L. Herb 0.28 0.38 0.26 0 0.31 0.3075 Colocasia esculenta Herb 0.27 0.34 0 0.24 0.37 0.305 (Linn.) Schott. Medicago Herb 0.43 0.31 0.18 0.27 0.31 0.3 polymorpha L. Rumex acetosa L. Herb 0.31 0.31 0.27 0 0 0.29667 Rumex hastatus D. Herb 0.29 0.29 0.28 0.28 0.32 0.292 Don. Prodr. Cynodon dactylon ( Herb 0.41 0.28 0.28 0.23 0.23 0.286 L) Pers. Astragalus Herb 0.34 0 0.23 0 0 0.285 graveolens Buch.- Ham.ex Benth. Artemisia Herb 0.33 0.31 0.21 0 0 0.28333 absinthium L. Melilotus officinalis Herb 0.38 0.3 0.17 0 0 0.28333 (L.)Desr. Artemisia scoparia Herb 0.32 0.47 0 0.23 0.11 0.2825 Waldst. & Kit. Arundo donax L. Herb 0.34 0.31 0.27 0.28 0.21 0.282 Mentha spicata L. Herb 0.37 0.29 0 0 0.18 0.28 Astragalus Herb 0.3 0.31 0.22 0 0 0.27667 amherstianus Royle ex Benth. Colchicum luteum Herb 0.43 0.21 0.19 0 0 0.27667 Baker. Malva sylvestris L. Herb 0.33 0 0 0.21 0.28 0.27333 Artemisia vulgaris Herb 0.28 0.45 0 0 0.09 0.27333 L. Trifolium repens L. Herb 0.33 0.26 0.21 0.26 0.28 0.268 Sonchus asper (L) Herb 0.32 0.42 0.2 0.2 0.19 0.266 Hill.

157

CI Name of Species mCI Habit Basikhl Nusratkhel Akazai Hassanzai Medakhel Achyranthus aspera Herb 0.35 0.27 0.21 0.23 0 0.265 L. Swertia ciliata (G. Herb 0.17 0.35 0 0 0 0.26 Don) B.L. Burtt.

Opuntia dillenii Herb 0.16 0.16 0.31 0.27 0.37 0.254 Haw. Trifolium pratense Herb 0.28 0 0 0.21 0.27 0.25333 L. Cyperus cyperoides Herb 0.23 0.24 0 0.27 0.27 0.2525 L. Cannabis sativa L. Herb 0.41 0 0.19 0.23 0.16 0.2475 Conyza canadensis Herb 0.31 0.38 0 0.17 0.12 0.245 (L.) Corgn. Hypericum Herb 0.27 0.27 0.19 0 0 0.24333 perforatum L. Datura stramonium Herb 0.31 0.28 0.18 0.17 0.27 0.242 L. Salvia moorcroftiana Herb 0.24 0.28 0.21 0.23 0 0.24 Wall. ex Benth. Chenopodium Herb 0.2 0 0 0.28 0.23 0.23667 ambrosioides L. Ajuga bracteosa Herb 0.31 0.19 0.21 0 0 0.23667 Wall. Benth. Dioscorea deltoidea Herb 0.31 0.18 0.27 0.26 0.14 0.232 Wall.ex Kunth. Aethusa cynapium Herb 0.23 0 0 0 0 0.23 L. Calendula arvensis Herb 0.27 0.26 0.16 0 0 0.23 L. Nepeta cataria L. Herb 0.23 0 0 0 0 0.23 Clematis grata Herb 0.29 0 0 0 0.17 0.23 Wall. Sisymbrium irrio L. Herb 0.25 0.29 0.19 0.21 0.21 0.23 Clematis montana Herb 0.27 0.21 0.21 0 0 0.23 Buch. Carthmus Herb 0.23 0.32 0.19 0.22 0.18 0.228 oxycantha M.Bieb. Commelina Herb 0.33 0.19 0.21 0.18 0 0.2275 benghalensis L. Poa bulbosa L. Herb 0.19 0.32 0.17 0 0 0.22667

158

CI Name of Species mCI Habit Basikhl Nusratkhel Akazai Hassanzai Medakhel Senesio Herb 0.18 0.27 0 0 0 0.225 chrysanthemoides DC. Deschampsia Herb 0.24 0.29 0.2 0.14 0.24 0.222 caespitosa L. Persicaria Herb 0 0 0 0 0.22 0.22 hydropiper (L.) Spach. Digitaria nodosa Herb 0.28 0.2 0.21 0.19 0.21 0.218 Perl. Xanthium Herb 0.23 0.29 0.13 0 0 0.21667 strumarium L. Aerva Herb 0 0 0 0.17 0.26 0.215 sanguinolenta (Linn.) Blume. Plantago major L. Herb 0.2 0.23 0 0 0 0.215

Chenopodium Herb 0.32 0 0 0.19 0.13 0.21333 murale L. Avena fetua L. Herb 0.27 0 0.15 0.2 0.23 0.2125 Capsella bursa- Herb 0.23 0.26 0 0.21 0.15 0.2125 pestoris L. Allium Herb 0 0 0 0.19 0.23 0.21 griffithianum Boiss. Lathyrus aphaca L. Herb 0.23 0.28 0.16 0.17 0 0.21 Eryngium Sp. Herb 0.21 0 0 0 0 0.21 L. Lepidium aucheri Herb 0.18 0.32 00 0.13 0 0.21 Boiss. Rumex vesicarius L. Herb 0.18 0 0 0.27 0.18 0.21 Cichorium intybus Herb 0.21 0.21 0 0 0 0.21 L Onosma hispida Herb 0.18 0.23 0 0 0 0.205 Wall. Ex G. Don. Polygonatum Herb 0.23 0 0.18 0 0 0.205 Verticillatum Aristida depressa Herb 0.23 0.21 0.17 0 0 0.20333 Retz. Periploca aphylla Herb 0.23 0.21 0.17 0 0 0.20333 Dcne. Apluda aristata L. Herb 0.19 0.31 0.19 0.17 0.15 0.202

159

CI Name of Species mCI Habit Basikhl Nusratkhel Akazai Hassanzai Medakhel Calamagrostis Herb 0.26 0.18 0.18 0.19 0.2 0.202 decora Hook. f. Fl. Bri. Achillea millifolium Herb 0.18 0.23 0.19 0 0 0.2 L. Arisaema flavum Herb 0.18 0.23 0.19 0 0 0.2 (Forssk.)Schott. Arisaema utile Herb 0.2 0 0 0 0 0.2 Hook.f.ex. Schott. Centaurea iberica Herb 0.2 0 0 0 0 0.2 Trevir & Spreng. Commelina Herb 0.23 0 0 0.17 0 0.2 poludosa Blume. Cardamine hirsuta Herb 0.17 0.25 0 0 0.17 0.19667 L. Dactylotenium Herb 0.21 0.27 0.18 0.13 0.19 0.196 aegyptium (L) P.Beauv. Geranium Herb 0.21 0.18 0 0.2 0 0.19667 wallichianum D.Don ex Sweet. Asparagus capitatus Herb 0.23 0.3 0 0.15 0.1 0.195 Baker. Chenopodium botrys Herb 0.21 0 0 0 0.18 0.195 L. Cynoglossum Herb 0.21 0.18 0 0 0 0.195 lanceolatum Forssk. Dichanthium Herb 0.21 0 0.19 0.2 0.18 0.195 annulatum (Forssk) Stapf. Dicliptera Herb 0.19 0.2 0.19 0 0 0.19333 bupleuroides Nees. Asparagua Herb 0.3 0 0 0.16 0.12 0.19333 adscandens Roixb. Ajuga reptan L. Herb 0.19 0 0 0 0 0.19 Bupleurum falcatum Herb 0 0 0 0.19 0.19 L. Polygonatum Herb 0.21 0.17 0 0 0 0.19 multiforum (L.) All. Silybum marianum Herb 0.21 0.19 0.18 0.19 0.18 0.19 (L) Gaertn. Verbena officinalis Herb 0 0 0 0.21 0.17 0.19 L.

160

CI Name of Species mCI Habit Basikhl Nusratkhel Akazai Hassanzai Medakhel Salvia lanata Herb 0.23 0.27 0.12 0 0.13 0.1875 Roxburgh. Tulipa clusiana Herb 0.21 0.18 0.18 0.18 0 0.1875 (Hook.) Regel. Agave sisalana Herb 0 0 0 0.19 0.18 0.185 Perrine ex Engelm. Phalaris minor Herb 0.2 0 0.14 0.21 0.19 0.185 Retz. Bistorta Herb 0.23 0 0.16 0.16 0 0.18333 amplexicaulis (D.Don) Greene. Cardiospermum Herb 0.21 0 0 0.21 0.12 0.18 halicacabum L. Borreria articularis Herb 0 0 0 0 0.18 0.18 (L.F.) FN . Will. Chamaemelum Herb 0.18 0 0 0 0 0.18 nobile (L.) All. Mirabilis jalapa L. Herb 0 0 0 0 0.18 0.18 Polygonum Herb 0 0 0 0 0.18 0.18 plebejum R. Br. Thymus Herb 0.18 0 0 0 0 0.18 linearis Benth. Urtica dioica L. Herb 0.18 0 0.18 0 0 0.18 Solanum incanum Herb 0.18 0 0 0.18 0.17 0.17667 L. Brachiaria ramosa Herb 0 0 0 0.18 0.17 0.175 (Linn.) Stap. Vernonia Sinerea Herb 0.21 0 0.14 0 0 0.175 (L.)Lees. Agrostis Herb 0.2 0.18 0.21 0 0.11 0.175 stolonifera L. Impatiens bicolor Herb 0.18 0.17 0 0 0 0.175 Royle. Asparagus Herb 0 0 0.18 0.21 0.13 0.17333 officinalis L. Polygonum Herb 0.15 0.19 0.18 0 0 0.17333 aviculare L. Silene conidea L. Herb 0.23 0.15 0 0.14 0 0.17333 Stellaria media (L.) Herb 0.23 0 0 0.16 0.13 0.17333 Vill. Adiantum Herb 0 0 0 0.17 0.17 venustum D. Don. 0

161

CI Name of Species mCI Habit Basikhl Nusratkhel Akazai Hassanzai Medakhel Arisaema Herb 0.17 0 0 0 0 0.17 jacquemontii Blume. Caltha alba Camb. Herb 0.17 0 0 0 0 0.17 Desmostachya Herb 0.18 0.2 0.17 0.17 0.13 0.17 bipinnata (L) Stapf. Euphorbia hirta L. Herb 0.14 0 0 0.19 0.18 0.17 Plantago lanceolata Herb 0.23 0 0.16 0.16 0.13 0.17 L. Vicia hirsuta Herb 0 0 0 0 0.17 0.17 (Linn.) S.F.Gray Boenninghausenia Herb 0.17 0 0 0 0.17 albiflora (Hook.) Shady Reichb. forest 0 Convolvulus Herb 0.18 0.16 0 0 0 0.17 arvensis L. Phragmites australis Herb 0 0 0 0.18 0.16 0.17 (Cay.) Trin. Asplenium Herb 0.16 0.17 0 0 0 0.165 septentrionale (Linnaeus) Hoffmann. Fumaria indica Herb 0.15 0.17 0 0.21 0.13 0.165 (Hausskn) Pusley. Marrubium vulgare Herb 0.17 0 0.16 0 0 0.165 L. Verbascum thapsus Herb 0.12 0 0 0.16 0.21 0.16333 L. Cissampelos pareira Herb 0 0 0 0.18 0.14 0.16 L. Coronopus didymus Herb 0.18 0.18 0.14 0 0.14 0.16 (L.) Sm. Impatiens Herb 0.19 0.13 0 0 0 0.16 edgeworthii Hk. F. Lactuca serriola L. Herb 0.16 0 0 0 0 0.16 Ranunculus Herb 0.15 0 0.17 0 0 0.16 arvensis L. Torilis leptophylla Herb 0 0 0 0 0.16 0.16 (L.) Reichb. Alliaria petiolata Herb 0.15 0.17 0 0 0 0.16 (M.Bieb)Cavara & Grande. Cuscuta reflexa Herb 0.21 0.13 0 0.18 0.11 0.1575

162

CI Name of Species mCI Habit Basikhl Nusratkhel Akazai Hassanzai Medakhel Roxb. Trichodesma Herb 0.17 0 0 0.18 0.12 0.15667 indicum (L.) R. Br. Prodr. Anisomeles indica Herb 0.13 0 0.18 0 0 0.155 (L.) O. Kuntze. Narcissus tazetta L. Herb 0.19 0.09 0 0 0.17 0.15 Neslia apiculata Herb 0 0 0 0.17 0.13 0.15 Fisch. Adiantum incisum Herb 0.15 0 0 0 0 0.15 Forssk. Equisetum Herb 0.13 0 0 0.25 0.07 0.15 ramosissimum Desf. Eragrostis ciliaris Herb 0 0 0 0 0.15 0.15 (L.) R.Br. Leptochloa panicea Herb 0 0 0 0 0.15 0.15 (Retz.) Ohwi. Ranunculus Herb 0.18 0 0 0 0.12 0.15 scleratus L. Sillene vulgaris Herb 0.18 0 0 0.12 0 0.15 (Moench) Garcke. Citrullus Herb 0.13 0 0 0.19 0.12 0.14667 colocynthis (Linn.) Schrad. Imperata cylindrica Herb 0.18 0 0.13 0.13 0 0.14667 (L)P. Beauv. Stachys parviflora Herb 0.16 0.15 0 0.14 0.12 0.1425 Benth. Arthraxon Herb 0 0 0 0 0.14 0.14 prionodes (Steud.) Dandy. Chrysopogon herb 0 0 0 0 0.14 0.14 serrulatus Trin. Corchorus Herb 0 0 0 0.16 0.12 0.14 trilocularis L. Cuscuta gigantea Herb 0.15 0 0 0.17 0.1 0.14 Griff. Erophila verna L. Herb 0.14 0 0 0 0 0.14 Gentiana kurroo Herb 0.17 0.11 0 0 0 0.14 Royle. Pulicaria crispa Herb 0.17 0 0 0.14 0.11 0.14 (Forssk.) Oliv.

163

CI Name of Species mCI Habit Basikhl Nusratkhel Akazai Hassanzai Medakhel Solena Herb 0.14 0 0 0 0 0.14 amplexicaulis (Lam.)Gandhi. Sorghum haleeparse Herb 0.18 0 0.13 0.13 0.11 0.1375 (L) Pers. Adiantum capillus- Herb 0.12 0.1 0 0.18 0 0.13333 veneris L. Euphorbia Herb 0.13 0 0 0.15 0.12 0.13333 helioscopia L. Alloteropsis Herb 0 0 0 0.13 0.13 cimicina (L.) Stapf. Euphorbia hispida Herb 0 0 0 0 0.13 0.13 Boiss. Galinsoga parviflora Herb 0 0 0 0.13 0 0.13 Cavanilles. Galium aparine L. Herb 0.13 0 0 0 0 0.13 Ranunculus Herb 0.17 0.09 0 0 0 0.13 muricatus L. Acorus calamus L. Herb 0.21 0.15 0 0.15 0 0.1275 Codonopsis Herb 0 0 0 0 0.12 0.12 clematidea (Schrenk) C.B.Clarke. Picris hieraciodes L. Herb 0 0 0.12 0 0 0.12

Crotolaria Herb 0 0 0 0 0.12 0.12 mediginea Lamk. Euphorbia Wallichii Herb 0.12 0.12 0 0 0 0.12 Hk. Evolvulus alsinoides Herb 0 0 0 0.12 0 0.12 (L.) Fumaria officinalis Herb 0 0 0 0 0.12 0.12 L. Geranium lucidum Herb 0 0 0 0 0.12 0.12 L. Polystichum Herb 0.12 0 0 0 0 0.12 lonchitis L. Pteris cretica L. Herb 0 0 0 0.12 0 0.12 Tragus roxburghii Herb 0 0 0 0 0.12 0.12 Panigrahi . Bothriochloa Herb 0 0 0 0 0.11 0.11 ischaemum (L.) Keng.

164

CI Name of Species mCI Habit Basikhl Nusratkhel Akazai Hassanzai Medakhel Euphorbia prostrata Herb 0 0 0 0 0.11 0.11 Aiton. Gagea lutea (L) Herb 0.11 0 0 0 0.11 Ker-Gawl. Oenthera rosea L. Herb 0 0 0 0 0.11 0.11 Campanula Herb 0 0 0 0 0.1 0.1 benthamii Wall. Companula Herb 0 0 0 0 0.1 0.1 benthamii Wall. Canna indica L. Herb 0 0 0 0 0.09 0.09 Cleome scaposa DC. Herb 0 0 0 0 0.08 0.08 Prodr. B N A H M Habit CI Name of Species Berberis lycium Shrub 0.6 0.64 0.53 0.56 0.62 0.59 Royle. Skimmia laureola Shrub 0.62 0.61 0.56 0.49 0.53 0.562 (DC.) Sieb. & Zucc. ex Walp. Zanthoxylum Shrub 0.63 0.68 0.49 0.51 0.49 0.56 armatum DC. Vitis vinifera L. Shrub 0.54 0 0 0 0 0.54 Vitis jacquemontii Shrub 0.51 0 0 0 0.51 Parker . Ziziphus oxyphylla Shrub 0.45 0 0 0 0 0.45 Edgew. Cotinus coggyria Shrub 0.6 0.43 0.31 0.37 0 0.4275 Scop. Ziziphus Shrub 0.39 0 0 0.39 0.48 0.42 nummularia (Burm. f.) Wight & Arn. Indigofera Shrub 0.49 0.32 0.31 0.56 0.37 0.41 heterantha Wall.ex rand. Dodonaea vescosa Shrub 0.46 0.43 0.38 0.34 0.38 0.398 (L.) Jacq. Rubus ellipticus Shrub 0.38 0 0.41 0.42 0.38 0.3975 Smith. Viburnum Shrub 0.4 0.39 0 0.38 0 0.39 cotinifolium D. Don.

165

CI Name of Species mCI Habit Basikhl Nusratkhel Akazai Hassanzai Medakhel Viburnum Shrub 0.37 0 0.37 0 0 0.37 grandiflorum Wall. ex DC. Carissa opaca Stapf. Shrub 0.37 0.21 0.39 0.38 0.39 0.348 en Haines. Debregeasia Shrub 0.37 0.27 0.38 0 0 0.34 salicifolia (D.Don) Rendle. Nannorrhops Shrub 0 0 0 0.44 0.23 0.335 ritchieana (Griff.) Aitchison. Rubus fructicosus Shrub 0.42 0.28 0.31 0 0.32 0.3325 Hook .f. Vitex negundo Linn Shrub 0.37 0.36 0.24 0.32 0.31 0.32 Cotoneaster Shrub 0.29 0 0.35 0 0 0.32 bacillaris Wall. ex Lindl. Vitis parvifolia Shrub 0 0.31 0 0 0.31 Roxb. Cotoneaster Shrub 0.31 0 0.29 0 0.28 0.29333 nummularia Fish & Mey. Justicia adhatoda L. Shrub 0.32 0.36 0.23 0.27 0.21 0.278 Calotropis procera Shrub 0.31 0.39 0.19 0.21 0.29 0.278 (Ait.) Ait. F. Daphne mucronata Shrub 0.29 0 0 0.28 0.26 0.27667 Royle. Bambusa Shrub 0.37 0 0 0.16 0 0.265 glaucescens (Willd.) Sieb. Woodfordia Shrub 0.28 0.32 0.25 0.23 0.24 0.264 fruticosa (L.)S.Kurz. Otostegia limbata Shrub 0.32 0 0.23 0.26 0.23 0.26 (Bth) Boiss. Buxus wallichiana Shrub 0.17 0 0.33 0 0 0.25 Bill. Caesalpinia Shrub 0.23 0 0.23 0.18 0.28 0.23 decapitala (Roth) Alston. Maytenus royleanus Shrub 0.21 0.17 0.28 0.24 0.24 0.228 (Wall. ex Lawson) Cufodontis.

166

CI Name of Species mCI Habit Basikhl Nusratkhel Akazai Hassanzai Medakhel Buddleja crispa Bth. Shrub 0.12 0.3 0.18 0.32 0.22 0.228 Nerium indicum Shrub 0.23 0 0 0 0.22 0.225 Mill. Myrsine africana L. Shrub 0.21 0.17 0.23 0.28 0.23 0.224 Mallotus Shrub 0.27 0.19 0.18 0.21 0.25 0.22 philippensis (Lam.)Muess. Hypericum Shrub 0.24 0 0.21 0.19 0.21 0.2125 oblongifolium L. Sarcococca Shrub 0.19 0.22 0.21 0 0 0.20667 saligna (D.Don) Muell. Nerium oleander L. Shrub 0.19 0.19 0 0 0.23 0.20333 Colebrookia Shrub 0.2 0.15 0.18 0.21 0.22 0.192 oppositifolia Smith. Jasminum humile L. Shrub 0.19 0 0.18 0.18 0 0.18333 Hedra nepalensis shrub 0.22 0.13 0.17 0 0 0.17333 K.Koch. Yucca aloifolia L. Shrub 0 0 0 0.21 0.13 0.17 Isodon rugosus Shrub 0.21 0.17 0.13 0 0.13 0.16 (Wall. ex Benth.) Codd. Jasminum Shrub 0.17 0.12 0 0 0 0.145 nudiflorum Lindl. Withania somnifera Shrub 0 0 0 0 0.11 0.11 (L.) Dunal. B N A H M Name of Species Habit CI B N A H M Juglans regia L. Tree 0.7 0.8 0.7 0.73 0.78 0.742 Moras nigra L. Tree 0.58 0.72 0.69 0.78 0.81 0.716 Olea ferruginea Tree 0.64 0.78 0.68 0.69 0.74 0.706 Royle. Melia azedarach L. Tree 0.67 0.69 0.67 0.63 0.79 0.69 Ficus palmata Tree 0.67 0.69 0.63 0.67 0.68 0.668 Forsk. Pinus roxburghii Tree 0.59 0.72 0.52 0.63 0.76 0.644 Sargent. Diospyrus lotus L. Tree 0.62 0.7 0.61 0 0 0.64333 Cedrus deodara Tree 0.68 0.81 0.48 0.54 0.67 0.636 (Roxb. ex D. Don).G. Don.

167

CI Name of Species mCI Habit Basikhl Nusratkhel Akazai Hassanzai Medakhel Pinus wallichiana Tree 0.63 0.73 0.61 0.65 0.55 0.634 A. B. Jackson. Prunus armeniaca Tree 0.51 0.63 0 0 0 0.57 L. Bauhinia variegata Tree 0.57 0.44 0.49 0.49 0.53 0.504 L. Grewia optiva Tree 0.53 0.47 0.51 0.51 0.47 0.498 Drummond .ex Burret. Pistacia integerrima Tree 0.59 0.45 0.42 0.51 0.52 0.498 J.L.Stewart. Brandis. Delbergia sisso Tree 0.44 0.46 0.43 0.58 0.54 0.49 Roxb. Pyrus pashia Ham Tree 0.47 0.41 0.52 0.5 0.52 0.484 ex D. Don. Ficus racemosa L. Tree 0.49 0.58 0.42 0.43 0 0.48 Celtis australis L. Tree 0.52 0.38 0.52 0.48 0.48 0.476 Acacia modesta Tree 0.41 0.45 0.52 0.52 0.47 0.474 Wall. Pyrus communis L. Tree 0.48 0 0.46 0 0 0.47 Abies pindrow Tree 0.48 0 0.43 0 0 0.455 Royle. Robinia Tree 0.44 0.39 0.46 0.43 0.51 0.446 pseudoacacia L. Punica granatum L. Tree 0.53 0.4 0.42 0.42 0.34 0.422 Broussonetia Tree 0.45 0.31 0.48 0.42 0.41 0.414 papyrifera (L.)L’ Herit ex Vent. Taxus wallichiana Tree 0.47 0 0.34 0 0 0.405 (Zucc.)Pilger. Salix tetrasperma Tree 0.43 0 0 0.38 0.39 0.4 Roxb. Quercus incana Tree 0.42 0.4 0.48 0 0.29 0.3975 Roxb. Aesculus indica Tree 0.37 0 0.39 0 0.43 0.39667 (Wall.ex Camb.)Hk. Morus alba L. Tree 0.44 0 0.45 0.34 0.35 0.395 Picea smithiana Tree 0.41 0 0.38 0 0 0.395 (Wall.) Boiss. Azadiracha indica L. Tree 0.42 0.41 0.37 0.33 0.44 0.394 Ficus benghalensis Tree 0.47 0.21 0.49 0.39 0.37 0.386

168

CI Name of Species mCI Habit Basikhl Nusratkhel Akazai Hassanzai Medakhel L. Euclaptus spp. Tree 0.28 0 0 0.41 0.45 0.38 Populus alba L. Tree 0.34 0.37 0 0.43 0.37 0.3775 Ziziphus jujuba Tree 0.46 0.26 0.34 0.38 0.43 0.374 Mill. Platanus orientalis Tree 0.37 0 0 0 0 0.37 L. Ficus carica Forsk. Tree 0.41 0 0.34 0.37 0.31 0.3575 Alnus nitida Tree 0.36 0.34 0.38 0.32 0 0.35 (Spach.) Endl. Quercus floribundla Tree 0.41 0 0.29 0 0 0.35 Lindl. Ailanthus altissima Tree 0.43 0.27 0.33 0.31 0 0.335 (Mill.) Swingle. Quercus dilatata Tree 0.35 0 0.32 0 0 0.335 Lindle. ex Royle. Cydonia oblonga Tree 0.29 0 0 0 0.37 0.33 Miller. Acacia nilotica L. Tree 0.32 0.21 0.38 0.34 0.34 0.318 Quercus Tree 0.32 0 0.31 0 0 0.315 leucotrichophora A. Camus. Cornus macrophylla Tree 0.34 0.28 0.31 0 0 0.31 Wall. ex Roxb. Phoenix sylvestris Tree 0 0 0 0.31 0.31 0.31 (L.) Roxb. Sapindus mukorossi Tree 0.3 0 0 0 0 0.3 Gaertn. Albezzia procera Tree 0.31 0.34 0.31 0.23 0.28 0.294 (Roxb) Benth. Cedrella serrata Tree 0.31 0 0.31 0.21 0.32 0.2875 Royle . Albezzia lebbek (L) Tree 0.28 0 0.3 0.28 0 0.28667 Benth. Bombax ceiba L. Tree 0.31 0.2 0.29 0.29 0.23 0.264 Butea monosperma Tree 0.3 0 0.21 0.29 0.2 0.25 (Lam.) O. Kuntz. Ilex dipyrena Wall. Tree 0.24 0 0 0 0 0.24 Phoenix dactylifera L.

169

Appendix 4 Cultural Importance index of families( CIF) among different tribes of Tor Ghar CIF Values Name of S.N family Basikhel Nusratkhel Akazai Hassanzai Medakhel

Pteridophytes 1 Adiantaceae 0.27 0.1 0 0.35 0 2 Aspleniaceae 0.16 0.17 0 0 0 3 Dryoteridaceae 0.12 0 0 0 0 4 Equisetaceae 0.13 0 1.4 0.26 0.07 5 Pteridaceae 0 0 0 0.12 0 Gymnosperms 1 Pinaceae 2.79 2.26 2.97 1.82 1.98 2 Taxaceae 0.47 0 0.52 0 0 Monocots 1 Poaceae 4.14 2.98 1.15 2.89 3.65 2 Araceae 1.03 0.72 0.19 0.39 0.37 3 Commelinaceae 0.56 0.19 0.21 0 0 4 Colchicaceae 0.43 0.21 0.19 0 0 5 Liliaceae 0.32 0.18 0.3 0 0 6 Dioscoraceae 0.31 0.18 0.61 0.27 0.14 7 Cyperaceae 0.23 0.24 0 0 0.27 8 Amaryllidaceae 0.19 0.09 0 0 0.17 9 Alliaceae 0 0 0 0.19 0.23 10 Asparagaceae 0 0.3 0.18 0.52 0.35 11 Agavaceae 0 0 0 0.4 0.31 12 Cannaceae 0 0 0 0 0.09 Dicots 1 Asteraceae 4.38 4.3 1.71 1.57 1.21 2 Papilionaceae 3.96 2.63 0.16 2.77 2.77 3 Rosaceae 3.93 1.65 0.38 1.88 1.94 4 Moraceae 3.51 2.51 0.86 3.4 2.93 5 Lamiaceae 3.44 2.72 0.25 1.16 1.24 6 Amaranthaceae 2.6 1.96 0.83 1.24 1.44 7 Brasicaceae 1.87 2 0.75 1.13 1.13 8 Fagaceae 1.5 0.4 0.39 0 0.29 9 Polygonaceae 1.44 1.17 0.42 1.02 1.21 10 Rutaceae 1.42 1.29 0.28 1 1.02 11 Meliaceae 1.4 1.1 3.5 1.17 1.53 12 Mimosaceae 1.32 1 0.23 1.37 1.09 13 Rhamnaceae 1.3 0.26 1.05 0.77 0.91 14 Ranunculaceae 1.23 0.3 3.03 0 0.29 15 Euphorbiaceae 1.21 0.73 0.4 1.03 1.24 16 Anacardiaceae 1.19 0.88 0.73 0.88 0.52

170

17 Apiaceae 1.06 0.28 0 0 0.16 Chenopodiaceae 1.01 0.34 0.47 0.9 18 0.28 19 Oleaceae 1 0.9 0.19 0.87 0.74 20 Sapindaceae 0.97 0.69 0.33 0.55 0.87 21 Solanaceae 0.91 0.62 0.51 0.72 1.21 22 Asclepiadaceae 0.87 1.01 0.57 0.51 0.63 23 Caesalpinaceae 0.8 0.44 0.72 0.67 0.81 24 Apocynaceae 0.79 0.4 0.39 0.28 0.84 25 Caprifoliaceae 0.77 0.39 0.37 0.23 0 26 Violaceae 0.77 0.45 0.21 0 0 27 Juglandaceae 0.7 0.8 0.18 0.19 0.78 28 Caryophyllaceae 0.64 0.15 0 0.52 0.13 29 Malvaceae 0.64 0.44 1.51 0.53 0.63 30 Ebenaceae 0.62 0.7 0.39 0 0 31 Berberidaceae 0.6 0.64 0.53 0 0.62 32 Boraginaceae 0.56 0.31 0 0.29 0.12 33 Urticaceae 0.55 0.27 0.21 0 0 34 Vitaceae 0.54 0.51 0.31 0 0 35 Punicaceae 0.53 0.4 0.42 0.12 0.34 36 Tiliaceae 0.53 0.47 0.27 0.67 0.59 37 Acanthaceae 0.51 0.56 0.42 0.27 0.21 38 Ulmaceae 0.52 0.38 0.24 0.48 0.48 39 Guttiferae 0.51 0.27 0.7 0.19 0.21 40 Asphodelaceae 0.5 0.47 0 0 0.2 41 Convallariaceae 0.44 0.17 0.18 0 0 42 Plantaginaceae 0.43 0.23 0.31 0.16 0.13 43 Simarubaceae 0.43 0.27 0.34 0.16 0 44 Cannabaceae 0.41 0 0.19 0 0.16 45 Balsaminaceae 0.37 0.3 0 0 0 Hippocastanaceae 0.37 1.66 0 0.43 46 0 47 Platanaceae 0.37 0 0 0 0 48 Verbenaceae 0.37 0.36 0.24 0.53 0.48 49 Betulaceae 0.36 0.34 0.38 0.56 0 50 Cuscutaceae 0.36 0.13 0 0.35 0.21 51 Cornaceae 0.34 0.28 0.31 0 0 52 Gentianaceae 0.34 0.46 0 0 0 53 Podophyllaceae 0.34 0.4 0.31 0.28 0 54 Valerianaceae 0.34 0.37 0.31 0.48 0 55 Saxifragaceae 0.32 0.35 0.94 0 0 56 Bombacaceae 0.31 0.2 0.29 0.32 0.23 57 Oxalidaceae 0.31 0.38 2.58 0.34 0.32 58 Portulaceae 0.31 0 0 0 0 59 Thymeliaceae 0.29 0 0.56 0.28 0.26

171

60 Lythraceae 0.28 0.32 1.35 0.18 0.24 61 Myrtaceae 0.28 0 0 0.28 0.45 62 Cucurbitaceae 0.27 0 0.27 0.12 0.12 63 Aquifoliaceae 0.24 0 0 0 0 64 Araliaceae 0.22 0.13 0.3 0 0 65 Celastraceae 0.21 0.17 0.28 0 0.24 66 Geraniaceae 0.21 0.18 0 0.21 0.12 67 Myrsinaceae 0.21 0.17 0.28 0.23 68 Buxaceae 0.19 0.22 0.54 0 0 69 Convolvulaceae 0.18 0.16 0 0.17 0 70 Cactaceae 0.16 0.16 0.31 0.32 0.37 71 Fumariaceae 0.15 0.17 0 0 0.25 72 Buddlejaceae 0.12 0.3 0.18 0 0.22 73 Scrophulariaceae 0.12 0 0 0.16 0.21 74 Campanulaceae 0 0 0 0 0.22 75 Capparidaceae 0 0 0 0 0.08 76 Menispermaceae 0 0 0 0 0.14 77 Nyctaginaceae 0 0 0 0 0.18 78 Onagraceae 0 0 0 0 0.11 79 Palmae 0 0 2.42 0.75 0.54 80 Rubiaceae 0 0 0 0 0.31 81 Salicaceae 0 0.37 0 0.81 0.76

172

Tribe wise CS values

Name of Species Habit Basikhel Nusratkhel Akazai Hassanzai Medakhel Mean Categories Podophyllum emodi Wall. ex Royle. Herb 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 NR 0.5 CE Gentiana kurroo Royle. Herb 0.85 0.85 NR NR 0.85 CE Dioscorea deltoidea Wall.ex Kunth. Herb 0.66 1.33 0.66 0.132 2 0.95 CE Incarvellia emodi Herb 0.6 1.32 0.96 CE Arisaema utile Hook.f.ex. Schott. Herb 1 1 CE Picris hieraciodes L. Herb 1 1 CE Citrullus colocynthis (Linn.) Schrad. Herb 1 1.32 1 1.1 E Asparagus officinalis L. Herb 1.3 1.5 1 1.2 E Caralluma tuberculata N.E. Brown. Herb 1 1.5 1.3 1.32 1.5 1.32 E Asparagua adscandens Roixb. Herb 0.5 1.5 2 1.33 E Astragalus graveolens Buch.-Ham.ex Herb 2 0 2 Benth. 1.33 E Colchicum luteum Baker. Herb 1 2 1 1.33 E Allium griffithianum Boiss. Herb 1.5 1.2 1.35 E

173

Tribe wise CS values

Name of Species Habit Basikhel Nusratkhel Akazai Hassanzai Medakhel Mean Categories Arisaema flavum (Forssk.)Schott. Herb 1 2 1.33 1.44 E Aerva sanguinolenta (Linn.) Blume. Herb 1 2 1.5 E Agave sisalana Perrine ex Engelm. Herb 2 1 1.5 E Crotolaria mediginea Lamk. Herb 1.5 1.5 E Geranium lucidum L. Herb 1.5 1.5 E Rumex vesicarius L. Herb 1.5 1 2 1.5 E Geranium wallichianum Herb 1.6 1.6 1.5 D.Don ex Sweet. 1.56 V Salvia lanata Roxburgh. Herb 1 1 1.5 3 1.62 V Impatiens bicolor Royle. Herb 2 1.5 1.75 V Bergenia ciliata Sternb. Herb 1.3 2 2 1.76 V Asparagus capitatus Baker. Herb 1 1.2 2 3 1.8 V Polygonatum Verticillatum Herb 2.6 1 1.8 V Hypericum perforatum L. Herb 1.6 2 2 1.86 V Salvia moorcroftiana Wall. ex Benth. Herb 2 2 2 1.5 1.87 V Valeriana jatamansi Jones. Herb 1.5 1.2 2.4 2.6 1.92 V

174

Tribe wise CS values

Name of Species Habit Basikhel Nusratkhel Akazai Hassanzai Medakhel Mean Categories Arthraxon prionodes (Steud.) Dandy. Herb 1.98 1.98 V Alliaria petiolata (M.Bieb)Cavara & Herb 2 2 Grande. 2 V Arisaema jacquemontii Blume. Herb 2 2 V Cichorium intybus L. Herb 2 2 2 V Codonopsis clematidea (Schrenk) Herb 2 C.B.Clarke. 2 V Convolvulus arvensis L. Herb 2 2 2 V Corchorus trilocularis L. Herb 2 2 2 V Erophila verna L. Herb 2 2 V Euphorbia hispida Boiss. Herb 2 2 V Evolvulus alsinoides (L.) Herb 2 2 V Fumaria officinalis L. Herb 2 2 V Mirabilis jalapa L. Herb 2 2 V Poa bulbosa L. Herb 2 2 2 2 V Polygonatum multiforum (L.) All. Herb 2 2 2 V Swertia ciliata (G. Don) B.L. Burtt. Herb 2 2 2 V

175

Tribe wise CS values

Name of Species Habit Basikhel Nusratkhel Akazai Hassanzai Medakhel Mean Categories Thymus linearis Benth. Herb 2 2 V Vicia hirsuta (Linn.) S.F.Gray. Herb 2 2 V Viola odorata L. Herb 2.4 1.6 2 V Bistorta amplexicaulis (D.Don) Greene. Herb 3 0 2.6 2.6 2 V Cissampelos pareira L. Herb 2.6 1.5 2 V Artemisia scoparia Waldst. & Kit. Herb 2 2 2 2.25 2 V Ajuga bracteosa Wall., Benth. Herb 2 1.6 2.6 2 V Tulipa clusiana (Hook.) Regel. Herb 2 2 2.4 2 2.1 R Taraxicum officinale Webb. Herb 2 2 2 2.25 2.4 2.13 R Aristida depressa Retz. Herb 2.14 2.14 2.14 2.14 R Narcissus tazetta L. Herb 3 1.5 2 2.16 R Astragalus amherstianus Royle ex Herb 2 2 2.6 Benth. 2.2 R Calendula arvensis L. Herb 2 2 2.6 2.2 R Cardamine hirsuta L. Herb 2 2 2.6 2.2 R Clematis montana Buch. Herb 2 2.6 2 2.2 R

176

Tribe wise CS values

Name of Species Habit Basikhel Nusratkhel Akazai Hassanzai Medakhel Mean Categories Dicliptera bupleuroides Nees. Herb 2.6 2 2 2.2 R Lepidium aucheri Boiss. Herb 2 2 2.6 2.2 R Silene vulgaris (Moench) Garcke. Herb 2.4 2 2.2 R Vernonia Sinerea (L.)Lees. Herb 2.4 2 2.2 R Brachiaria ramosa (Linn.) Stap. Herb 1.98 2.49 2.23 R Bothriochloa ischaemum (L.) Keng. Herb 2.25 2.25 R Commelina benghalensis L. Herb 2.5 2.5 2 2 2.25 R Apluda aristata L. Herb 2.14 2.14 2.14 2.5 2.49 2.28 R Commelina poludosa Blume. Herb 1.6 3 2.3 R Cynoglossum lanceolatum Forssk. Herb 2.6 2 2.3 R Senesio chrysanthemoides DC. Herb 2 2.6 2.3 R Verbena officinalis L. Herb 2 2.6 2.3 R Sisymbrium irrio L. Herb 1.6 1.6 2.6 2.8 3 2.32 R Artemisia absinthium L. Herb 2 2 3 2.33 R Achillea millifolium L. Herb 2.6 2.6 2 2.4 R

177

Tribe wise CS values

Name of Species Habit Basikhel Nusratkhel Akazai Hassanzai Medakhel Mean Categories Achyranthus aspera L. Herb 3 2 2 2.6 2.4 R Acorus calamus L. Herb 2 2.6 2.6 2.4 R Tragus roxburghii Panigrahi. Herb 2.4 2.4 R Stellaria media (L.) Vill. Herb 2.4 2.25 2.6 2.41 R Calamagrostis decora Hook. f., Fl. Bri. Herb 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.5 2.4 2.42 R Deschampsia caespitosa L. Herb 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.5 2.4 2.42 R Trifolium pratense L. Herb 2.5 2.4 2.4 2.43 R Datura stramonium L. Herb 2.6 2 2 2.6 3 2.44 R Imperata cylindrica (L)P. Beauv. Herb 2.66 2.4 2.4 2.48 R Dactylotenium aegyptium (L) P.Beauv. Herb 2.4 2.4 2.4 3 2.25 2.49 R Chrysopogon serrulatus Trin. Herb 2.49 2.49 R Eragrostis ciliaris (L.) R.Br. Herb 2.49 2.49 R Agrostis stolonifera L. Herb 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.49 2.49 R Euphorbia Wallichii Hk. Herb 2.5 2.5 2.5 R Impatiens edgeworthii Hk. F. Herb 3 2 2.5 R Phragmites australis (Cay.) Trin. Herb 2.4 2.6 2.5 R

178

Tribe wise CS values

Name of Species Habit Basikhel Nusratkhel Akazai Hassanzai Medakhel Mean Categories Colocasia esculenta (Linn.) Schott. Herb 2.6 3 1.5 3 2.5 R Ricinus communis L. Herb 3 2 2.6 2.6 2.5 R Carthmus oxycantha M.Bieb. Herb 2 2 2.6 3.32 3 2.58 S Avena fetua L. Herb 3 2.4 1.98 3 2.59 S Achyranthes bidentata Blume. Herb 2.6 2.6 2.6 S Amaranthus spinesus L. Herb 3 2 2.4 3 2.6 S Borreria articularis (L.F.) FN . Will. Herb 2.6 2.6 S Caltha alba Camb. Herb 2.6 2.6 S Campanula benthamii Wall. Herb 2.6 2.6 S Cardiospermum halicacabum L. Herb 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.6 S Centaurea iberica Trevir & Spreng. Herb 2.6 2.6 S Gagea lutea (L) Ker-Gawl. Herb 2.6 2.6 S Galium aparine L. Herb 2.6 2.6 S Lactuca serriola L. Herb 2.6 2.6 S Oenthera rosea L. Herb 2.6 2.6 S Onosma hispida Wall. Ex G. Don. Herb 2.6 2.6 2.6 S

179

Tribe wise CS values

Name of Species Habit Basikhel Nusratkhel Akazai Hassanzai Medakhel Mean Categories Persicaria hydropiper (L.) Spach. Herb 2.6 2.6 S Polygonum aviculare L. Herb 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.6 S Polygonum plebejum R. Br. Herb 2.6 2.6 S Stachys parviflora Benth. Herb 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.6 S Torilis leptophylla (L.) Reichb. Herb 2.6 2.6 S Sorghum haleeparse (L) Pers. Herb 3 2.4 2.66 2.4 2.61 S Phalaris minor Retz. Herb 3 2.5 2.5 2.49 2.62 S Fumaria indica (Hausskn) Pusley. Herb 2.5 2.5 2.6 3 2.65 S Aethusa cynapium L. Herb 2.66 2.66 S Bupleurum falcatum L. Herb 2.66 2.66 S Nepeta cataria L. Herb 2.66 2.66 S Dichanthium annulatum (Forssk) Herb 3 3 2.15 2.5 Stapf. 2.66 S Artemisia vulgaris L. Herb 2.5 2.5 3 2.66 S Cuscuta gigantea Griff. Herb 3 3 2 2.66 S Mentha spicata L. Herb 3 3 2 2.66 S

180

Tribe wise CS values

Name of Species Habit Basikhel Nusratkhel Akazai Hassanzai Medakhel Mean Categories Pulicaria crispa (Forssk.) Oliv. Herb 3 3 2 2.66 S Silene conidea L. Herb 3 3 2 2.66 S Digitaria nodosa Perl. Herb 2.5 3 3 2.5 2.49 2.69 S Cynodon dactylon ( L) Pers. Herb 2.5 2.5 3 2.5 3 2.7 S Viola canescens Wall. ex Roxb. Herb 3 2.4 2.7 S Rumex hastatus D. Don. Prodr. Herb 2.4 3 3 2.4 3 2.76 S Medicago polymorpha L. Herb 3 3 3 2.5 2.4 2.78 S Clematis grata Wall. Herb 2.6 3 2.8 S Fragaria nubicola (Hook.f.) Lindl. ex Herb 3 3 2.4 Lacaita. 2.8 S Chenopodium murale L. Herb 3 3 2.6 2.86 S Rumex acetosa L. Herb 2.6 3 3 2.86 S Solanum incanum L. Herb 3 2.6 3 2.86 S Chenopodium album L. Herb 2.4 2.4 3 3.75 2.88 S Desmostachya bipinnata (L) Stapf. Herb 3 3 3 3 2.49 2.89 S Rumex dentatus L. Herb 3 3 3 2.6 2.9 S Ajuga reptan L. Herb 3 3 S

181

Tribe wise CS values

Name of Species Habit Basikhel Nusratkhel Akazai Hassanzai Medakhel Mean Categories Alloteropsis cimicina (L.) Stapf. Herb 3 3 S Asplenium septentrionale (Linnaeus) Herb 4 2 Hoffmann. 3 S Canna indica L. Herb 3 3 S Chenopodium botrys L. Herb 3 3 3 S Cleome scaposa DC. Prodr. Herb 3 3 S Coronopus didymus Herb 2 2 5 3 (L.) Sm. 3 S Euphorbia hirta L. Herb 4 2 3 3 S Euphorbia prostrata Aiton. Herb 3 3 S Lathyrus aphaca L. Herb 3 3 3 3 3 S Leptochloa panicea (Retz.) Ohwi Herb 3 3 S Malva neglecta Wall. Herb 3 3 3 3 3 3 S Malva sylvestris L. Herb 3 3 3 3 S Marrubium vulgare L. Herb 4 2 3 S Melilotus officinalis (L.)Desr. Herb 3 3 3 3 S Oxalis carniculatus L. Herb 3 3 3 3 3 3 S

182

Tribe wise CS values

Name of Species Habit Basikhel Nusratkhel Akazai Hassanzai Medakhel Mean Categories Plantago major L. Herb 3 3 3 S Trifolium repens L. Herb 3 3 3 3 3 3 S Verbascum thapsus L. Herb 3 4 2 3 S Trichodesma indicum (L.) R. Br. Prodr. Herb 2.6 3.9 2.6 3 S Sonchus asper (L) Hill. Herb 3 2 3.6 3 3.75 3 S Aerva javanica (Burm.f) Juss. Herb 2 4 4 2 3.75 3.15 S Amaranthus caudatus L. Herb 3 3.75 3 3 3 3.15 S Duchesnea indica (Andr.)Focke. Herb 3.75 2.5 3 3 3.75 3.2 S Plantago lanceolata L. Herb 3 3 3.9 3 3.2 S Amaranthus viridis L. Herb 3.5 3 3.25 S Chamaemelum nobile (L.) All. Herb 3.3 3.3 S Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. Herb 2.6 2.6 4 4 3.3 S Equisetum ramosissimum Desf. Herb 3 4 3 3.33 S Solanum nigrum L. Herb 2.5 3 3.75 3.75 3.75 3.35 S Nasturtium officinale R. Br. Herb 3.75 3 5 3 2.25 3.4 S Conyza canadensis (L.) Corgn. Herb 3.75 3.75 3.75 2.5 3.43 S Arundo donax L. Herb 3 3.75 3.75 3.75 3 3.45 S 183

Tribe wise CS values

Name of Species Habit Basikhel Nusratkhel Akazai Hassanzai Medakhel Mean Categories Neslia apiculata Fisch. Herb 3.9 3 3.45 S Capsella bursa-pestoris L. Herb 2.6 2.5 3.75 4.98 3.45 S Cyperus cyperoides L. Herb 2.5 2.5 4.98 4 3.49 S Anisomeles indica (L.) O. Kuntze. Herb 4 3 3.5 S Urtica dioica L. Herb 3 4 3.5 S Chenopodium ambrosioides L. Herb 3 3.9 4 3.63 S Aloe vera (L.) Burm. Herb 3 4 4 4 3.75 S Cannabis sativa L. Herb 4 4 3.75 4 3.93 S Silybum marianum (L) Gaertn. Herb 5 2.6 3.9 4.98 3.32 3.96 S Adiantum incisum Forssk. Herb 4 4 S Galinsoga parviflora Cavanilles. Herb 4 4 S Portulaca oleracea L. Herb 4 4 S Pteris cretica L. Herb 4 4 S Ranunculus arvensis L. Herb 4 4 4 S Ranunculus scleratus L. Herb 4 4 4 S Solena amplexicaulis (Lam.)Gandhi. Herb 4 4 S

184

Tribe wise CS values

Name of Species Habit Basikhel Nusratkhel Akazai Hassanzai Medakhel Mean Categories Boenninghausenia albiflora (Hook.) Herb 4 Reichb. 4 S Foeniculum vulgare Mill. Herb 4.5 4 3.75 4 S Adiantum capillus- veneris L. Herb 5 4 4 4.33 S Xanthium strumarium L. Herb 5 5 3.3 4.43 S Mentha longifolia (L.) Huds. Herb 5 4 4 4.98 4.49 S Mentha arvensis L. Herb 5 5 5 4 4.75 S Adiantum venustum D. Don. Herb 5 5 S Eryngium Sp. Herb 5 L. 5 S Polystichum lonchitis L. Herb 5 5 S Ranunculus muricatus L. Herb 5 5 5 S Euphorbia helioscopia L. Herb 7.5 4.98 4.98 5.82 S Skimmia laureola (DC.) Sieb. & Zucc. Shrub 0.5 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.5 ex Walp. 0.48 CE Woodfordia fruticosa (L.)S.Kurz. Shrub 1 0.33 0.4 1 1.2 0.78 CE Periploca aphylla Dcne. Shrub 1 0.66 1 0.88 CE Opuntia dillenii Haw. Shrub 1 0.75 1 1 1.32 1 CE

185

Tribe wise CS values

Name of Species Habit Basikhel Nusratkhel Akazai Hassanzai Medakhel Mean Categories Hedra nepalensis K.Koch. Shrub 0.5 1 1.5 1 CE Nannorrhops ritchieana Shrub 1 1 (Griff.) Aitchison. 1 CE Vitis jacquemontii Parker. Shrub 1 1 CE Viburnum grandiflorum Wall. ex DC. Shrub 0.6 1.5 1 CE Viburnum cotinifolium D. Don. Shrub 1.2 1.2 1 1.13 E Buxus wallichiana Bill. Shrub 1 1.3 1.15 E Buddleja crispa Bth. Shrub 1 1 2 1.5 1.5 1.4 E Vitis parvifolia Roxb. Shrub 1.5 1.5 E Carissa opaca Stapf. en Haines. Shrub 1.5 2 1 1.2 2 1.54 V Hypericum oblongifolium L. Shrub 2 1 1.2 2 1.55 V Colebrookia oppositifolia Smith. Shrub 0.75 0.75 1 2.6 3.32 1.68 V Cotoneaster bacillaris Wall. ex Lindl. Shrub 1.5 2 1.75 V Justicia adhatoda L. Shrub 2 1.5 2 2 1.5 1.8 V

186

Tribe wise CS values

Name of Species Habit Basikhel Nusratkhel Akazai Hassanzai Medakhel Mean Categories Caesalpinia decapitala (Roth) Alston. Shrub 1.5 2 1.5 2.4 1.85 V Cotoneaster nummularia Fish & Mey. Shrub 1.2 2 2.4 1.86 V Bambusa glaucescens (Willd.) Sieb. Shrub 1 3 2 V Daphne mucronata Royle. Shrub 2 2 2 2 V Jasminum nudiflorum Shrub 2 2 Lindl. 2 V Otostegia limbata (Bth) Boiss. Shrub 2 2 2 2 2 V Yucca aloifolia L. Shrub 2 2 2 V Ziziphus oxyphylla Edgew. Shrub 2 2 V Maytenus royleanus (Wall. ex Lawson) Shrub 2 2 1.6 2.6 2 Cufodontis. 2 V Berberis lycium Royle. Shrub 2.5 2.1 2.4 1 2.49 2 V Debregeasia salicifolia (D.Don) Rendle. Shrub 2.4 1.6 2.4 2.1 R

187

Tribe wise CS values

Name of Species Habit Basikhel Nusratkhel Akazai Hassanzai Medakhel Mean Categories Isodon rugosus (Wall. ex Benth.) Shrub 2 2 2.6 2 Codd. 2.15 R Sarcococca saligna (D.Don) Muell. Shrub 2 3 1.5 2.16 R Nerium oleander L. Shrub 2.6 2 2 2.2 R Rubus fructicosus Hook .f. Shrub 2 2.5 2.4 2 2.25 R Andrachne cordifolia (Wall. ex Decne.) Shrub 2.4 2.4 2 2.6 2 Muell. 2.28 R Jasminum humile L. Shrub 2 2 3 2.33 R Vitex negundo L. Shrub 2 2.6 2.5 2 2.6 2.34 R Zanthoxylum armatum DC. Shrub 2 2.6 3 2 2.4 2.4 R Cotinus coggyria Scop. Shrub 2.4 2.4 2.6 2.4 2.45 R Vitis vinifera L. Shrub 2.6 2.6 S Myrsine africana L. Shrub 3 3 3 2.4 2.4 2.76 S Indigofera heterantha Wall.ex rand. Shrub 2.5 2.5 3 2.5 3.6 2.82 S Calotropis procera (Ait.) Ait. F. Shrub 2.6 2.6 4 2 3 2.84 S Rubus ellipticus Smith. Shrub 2.5 3 3 3 2.87 S

188

Tribe wise CS values

Name of Species Habit Basikhel Nusratkhel Akazai Hassanzai Medakhel Mean Categories Ziziphus nummularia (Burm. f.) Wight Shrub 2.6 2.4 3.75 & Arn. 2.91 S Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal. Shrub 3 3 S Dodonaea vescosa (L.) Jacq. Shrub 3.75 2.6 3 3 3 3 S Mallotus philippensis (Lam.)Muess. Shrub 4 3.75 2 3.75 3 3.3 S Nerium indicum Mill. Shrub 4 2.6 3.3 S Cedrus deodara (Roxb. ex D. Don), G. Tree 0.5 0.4 0.5 0.66 0.66 Don. 0.54 CE Pistacia integerrima J.L.Stewart. Tree 0.66 0.5 0.66 0.66 0.66 Brandis. 0.62 CE Taxus wallichiana (Zucc.)Pilger. Tree 0.66 1 0.83 CE Ficus carica Forsk. Tree 0.66 1 0.66 1.32 0.91 CE Cornus macrophylla Wall. ex Roxb. Tree 1 1 1 1 CE Bauhinia variegata L. Tree 1.2 1.2 1 1 1 1 CE Quercus dilatata Lindle. ex Royle. Tree 1.2 1 1.1 E

189

Tribe wise CS values

Name of Species Habit Basikhel Nusratkhel Akazai Hassanzai Medakhel Mean Categories Quercus leucotrichophora A. Camus. Tree 0.75 1.5 1.12 E Quercus floribundla Lindl. Tree 1 1.3 1.15 E Quercus incana Roxb. Tree 1 0.6 1.3 2 1.22 E Populus alba L. Tree 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 E Abies pindrow Royle. Tree 0.66 2 1.33 E Picea smithiana (Wall.) Boiss. Tree 0.66 2 1.33 E Butea monosperma (Lam.) O. Kuntz. Tree 1 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.37 E Grewia optiva Drummond .ex Burret. Tree 1.6 0.75 1.42 1.6 1.66 1.4 E Bombax ceiba L. Tree 1 0.75 2 2.6 1 1.47 E Celtis australis L. Tree 1.2 1.2 1.5 2 1.5 1.48 E Alnus nitida (Spach.) Endl. Tree 0.66 1 3 1.32 1.49 E Cydonia oblonga Miller. Tree 1.5 1.5 1.5 E Morus alba L. Tree 1.5 1.5 2 1 1.5 E Phoenix dactylifera L. Tree 1.5 1.5 E Phoenix sylvestris (L.) Roxb. Tree 1 2 1.5 E

190

Tribe wise CS values

Name of Species Habit Basikhel Nusratkhel Akazai Hassanzai Medakhel Mean Categories Pinus wallichiana A. B. Jackson. Tree 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 E Sapindus mukorossi Gaertn. Tree 1.5 1.5 E Acacia nilotica L. Tree 1 1 2 2 2 1.6 V Ficus benghalensis L. Tree 1.5 1.5 2 1.5 1.5 1.6 V Aesculus indica (Wall.ex Camb.)Hk. Tree 1.33 1.5 2 1.61 V Albezzia procera (Roxb) Benth. Tree 1.5 1.5 3 1.5 1 1.7 V Pyrus communis L. Tree 1.5 2 1.75 V Ziziphus jujuba Mill. Tree 1.6 1.6 2 1.2 2.6 1.8 V Albezzia lebbek (L) Benth. Tree 1.5 2 2 1.83 V Pyrus pashia Ham ex D. Don. Tree 2 1.33 2 2 2 1.86 V Ficus racemosa L. Tree 2 2 2 2 2 V Ilex dipyrena Wall. Tree 2 2 V Cedrella serrata Royle. Tree 2 1.5 3 2 2.12 R Azadiracha indica L. Tree 2.66 3.3 2 1 2 2.19 R Delbergia sisso Roxb. Tree 2 2 2.6 2.6 2.5 2.34 R Punica granatum L. Tree 2.5 2.6 2 2 2.6 2.34 R Diospyrus lotus L. Tree 2.5 2.3 2.5 2.43 R

191

Tribe wise CS values

Name of Species Habit Basikhel Nusratkhel Akazai Hassanzai Medakhel Mean Categories Salix tetrasperma Roxb. Tree 1.5 2 4 2.5 R Olea ferruginea Royle. Tree 3 2.4 2.5 3 3 2.78 S Pinus roxburghii Sargent. Tree 2 2 3.32 3.32 3.32 2.7 S Ficus palmata Forsk. Tree 3 3.5 2.5 3 2.5 2.9 S Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle. Tree 3 3 2 4 3 S Robinia pseudoacacia L. Tree 3 2.25 3 2.5 4.5 3 S Moras nigra L. Tree 3 3 3.5 3 2.8 3 S Melia azedarach L. Tree 3 3.5 3 3 3 3.1 S Acacia modesta Wall. Tree 3 3 3.75 3 3 3.15 S Juglans regia L. Tree 3 4.2 3 3 3 3.24 S Prunus armeniaca L. Tree 3 3.6 3.3 S Euclaptus sp. Tree 2 6 4 4 S Broussonetia papyrifera (L.)L’ Herit ex Tree 4.5 4.5 5 4.98 4.98 Vent. 4.79 S Platanus orientalis L. Tree 5 5 S

192

Appendix 6: A comparison between the collected data and other ethnobotanical studies of Pakistan

S.N Use Reported Reported Name of Literature citations category in present in other other study study studies area of Pakistan

1 Pen making R R Buner Ibrar et al., 2007

2 Fruit R NR _ _ ripening

3 Graveyard R R Mardan Khan & Musharaf, 2014 plants

4 Spiritual R R Swat Akhtar et al., 2013

5 Fish poison R R Kaghan Hussain et al., 2006 valley

6 Broom R R Banda Murad et al., 2014 formation Daud Shah

7 Basket R R Head Hanif et al., 2013 form. Qadirabad

8 Sticks R R Kabal Ilyas et al., 2013 formation valley

9 Furniture R R Charkotli Ullah et al., 2009 hills

10 Food R R Lora valley Abbasi et al., 2010 Abbottabad

11 Toothbrush R R D. I Khan Marwat et al., 2009

12 Rope R R Central Zareen &Khan, 2012 formation Punjab

193

S.N Use Reported Reported Name of Literature citations category in present in other other study study studies area of Pakistan

13 Timber R R Attock Jamil et al., 2011

14 Fodder R R Ormara Noman et al., 2013 Gawadar

15 Dye R R Kotli,AJK Amjad & Arshad, 2014 yielding

16 Shade R NR __ __ giving

17 Manure R NR __ __

18 Medicinal R R Chitral, Haider & Qaiser, 2007; Chail Ahmed et al., 2014 valley Swat

19 Cosmetics R R Kashmir Shaheen et al., 2014

20 Instruments R R Banda Murad et al., 2014 Daud Shah

21 Aesthetic R R Naran Khan et al., 2012 valley

22 Insecticidal R R Charkotli Ullah et al., 2009 hills

23 Roofing R R Kahuta Quershi & Khan, 2001

24 Veterinary R R Battagram Haq et al., 2011

25 Detergent R R Hazar Nao Murad et al., 2014 forests

194

S.N Use Reported Reported Name of Literature citations category in present in other other study study studies area of Pakistan

26 Fuel R R Kohat Pass Shinwari et al., 2011

27 Soil R R Ranayal Ibrar et al., 2007 binding hills

28 Poisonous R R Lower Dir Shuaib et al., 2014

29 Adhesive R R Malakand Murad et al., 2012 material

30 Snake bite R R Gujrat Pervaiz et al., 2014

31 Fencing R R Central Zereen et al., 2013 Punjab

32 Honey bee R R Siran valley Shah, 2007 plants

33 Snuff R R Lower Dir Shuaib et al., 2014 formation Reported= R Not Reported=NR

195

Appendix 7. Some important ethno species of Tor Ghar

Justicia adhatoda, animportant medicinal shrub of the area

196

Punica granatum, a valuable small sized tree with multiple cultural uses

Ficus benghalensis, a shade giving tree

197

Duchesnea indica, a wild edible fruit

Hypericum oblongifolium, a medicinal shrub of the area

198

Berberis lycium, a shrub with multiple cultural uses

Calotropis procera, an ethnomedico species of Tor Ghar

199

Ficus racemosa, wild edible fruit of the study area

Nasturtium officinale, a culturally significant wild vegetable

200

Silybum marianum, Common medicinal herb found at lower elevations

201