ART DECO INFLUENCES ON WOMEN'S DRESS

FROM 1915 TO 1925

A Thesis

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for

the degree Master of Science in the

Graduate School of the Ohio State University

by

Robyn Gibson-Quick, B.Ed.

* * * * *

The Ohio State University

1990

Master's Examination Committee: Approved by

Gwendolyn S. O'Neal .

Nancy A. Rudd -~-ll_d.~---Advisor College of Human Ecology Lucy R. Sibley To my best friend

ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to convey my appreciation to Dr. Lucy Sibley for her insight, guidance, and words of encouragement throughout the research. Thanks go to the other members of my committee, Dr. Gwendolyn O'Neal and Dr. Nancy Ann Rudd, for their comments and suggestions.

The assistance of the curators and their staff at the

Ohio State University Historic Costume and Textiles

Collection, the Mary C. Doxsee Collection for Historic

Costume and Textiles at the Ohio University, the Western

Reserve Historical Society, Cleveland, the Kent State

University Museum and the Cincinnati Art Museum, is gratefully acknowledged.

To my husband, Shayne, I offer a special thanks for your encouragement, patience and belief in my abilities.

iii VITA

November 8, 1957 . Born - Sale, Victoria

1979 . B. Ed., Melbourne College of Advanced Education, Melbourne, Victoria

1979 . Elementary Teacher, Woodville Primary School, Werribee, Victoria

1980-1986 . Art/Craft Specialist, Altona North Primary School, Melbourne, Victoria

1988-1989 . Graduate Teaching Associate, Department of Textiles & Clothing, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio

1989-1990 . Graduate Administrative Associate, Historic Costume & Textiles Collection, Department of Textiles & Clothing, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio

FIELDS OF STUDY

Major Field: Human Ecology

Studies in Historic Costume

]. v TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS iii

VITA iv

LIST OF FIGURES vii

LIST OF TABLES ix

LIST OF PLATES x

CHAPTER PAGE

I. INTRODUCTION 1

Statement of Problem 6 Research Questions 8 Research Objectives 9 Justification 9 Assumptions . . 10 Limitations 11 Definitions 11

II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE 13

Aesthetic Model of Fashion 13 Art Movement Model 15 The Relationship between Art & Dress 17 The Art Deco Style 31 The Art Deco Era 37 History of 1915 to 1925 Dress 51 Summary .... 61 Research Hypotheses 62

III. METHOD ..... 64

Sampling Procedures 64 Instrument Selection & Development 67 Data Collection . . . 71

v IV. PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS . 74

1. Review of Selection Process 75 2. Presentation of Analyses 77 Capes 78 Coats 92 Evening Dresses 109 Day Dresses 134 Summary 158 3. Discussion of Hypotheses 159 Linearity 159 Geometry . 161 Structural Design 165 Color 168 Applied Design . 170 Geometric/Stylized Motifs 173 Surface Texture 175 Metallic Surfaces 178 Summary 180

V. SUMMARY 183

Introduction 183 Major Findings 187 Implications 193 Recommendations 196 Conclusions 198

LIST OF REFERENCES 200

APPENDICES

A. Typical Art Deco Motifs . . 206

B. Questionnaire for Identification of Art Deco Garments . 208

C. Dress Features for Analysis of Art Deco Influences 210

D. Art Deco Trait Checklist 213

E. Glossary 215

Vl LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURES PAGE

1. Schematic of the interrelationships between art and dress . 28

2. Paul Iribe's illustration for the album 'Les Robes de Paul Poiret', 1908 41

3. Cover and inside page of the album 'Les Choses de Paul Poiret' illustrated by Georges Lepape, 1911 43

4. Costume for the ballet 'La Peri' by Leon Bakst, 1911 45

5. Detail of Cleveland evening cape 81

6. Detail of Ohio State evening cape 84

7. Frank Lloyd Wright's leaded glass doors for D. D. Martin House, Buffalo, N.Y. 88

8. Radiator cover by Edgar Brandt 90

9. Glass 'fountain' by Rene Lalique for interior of the Parfumerie Francoise at the Paris 1925 Exhibition . 91

10. Detail of Cincinnati evening coat 97

11. Detail of Ohio State evening coat 100

12. Erte's costume for Gaby Deslys 102

13. Cover of the catalogue for the 9th Salon de la Artistes Decorateurs, 1914 by Charles-Louis Schmeid . 104

14. Three-legged corner cabinet by Emile-Jacques Ruhlmann 106

vii 15. Leather binding by Pierre Legrain . 108 16. Wrought iron, aluminum and applied copper firescreen by Paul Feher . 110

17. Detail of Kent State evening gown 114

18. Detail of Kent State evening dress 118

19. Detail of Cleveland evening dress . 120

20. Erte's street suit from April 25 issue of ~~~E~~~~ ~~~~~~ . 123 21. Knotted rug by Bruno da Silva Bruhns 127

22. 'Les Amants' by Jean Dunand . 129

23. Elevator doors of the Chrysler Building, New York 131

24. Glass vase manufactured by Charles Schneider . 133

25. Detail of Cincinnati ensemble 137

26. Detail of Cincinnati afternoon dress 140

27. Detail of Ohio day dress 143

28. Illustration by Georges Lepape for the album 'Les Choses de Paul Poiret', 1911 146

29. Picasso's costume for the Chinese conjuror in the ballet 'Parade' 147

30. Carpets designed by Maja Andersson Wirde 149

31. Ebony chair overlaid in shagreen designed by Clement Rousseau 152

32. Morocco binding by Soudee . 153

33. Frank Lloyd Wright's Barnsdale (Hollyhock) house, Los Angeles, designed in 1917 155

34. Three knotted rugs manufactured by Bruno da Silva Bruhns . 157

viii LIST OF TABLES

TABLE PAGE

1. Summary of Art Deco characteristics expressed in dress . 70

2. Summary of secondary criteria for selection of Art Deco garments . 76

3. Summary of linearity trait distribution 160

4. Summary of geometry trait (geometric forms) distribution . 163

5. Summary of geometry trait (structural design) distribution . 166

6. Summary of color trait distribution 169

7. Summary of geometry trait (applied design) distribution . 172

8. Summary of geometry trait (motifs) distribution . 174

9. Summary of surface texture trait distribution . 177

10. Summary of metallic surface treatment trait distribution . 179

ix LIST OF PLATES

PLATES PAGE

I. Black satin evening cape£~~£~ 1920 from the Western Reserve Historical Society, Cleveland, Ohio , 79

II. Teal velvet evening cape £i~£~ 1920 from The Ohio State University Historic Costume and Textiles Collection, Columbus, Ohio 83

III. Gray satin evening coat designed by Leffingwell's of New York, Chicago and Paris £ire~ 1915 from the Cincinnati Art Museum, Cincinnati, Ohio 94

IV. Backview of gray satin evening coat 95

V. Gold and black lame evening coat £iE£~ 1920 from the Kleibacker Collection on loan to The Ohio State University Historic Costume and Textiles Collection, Columbus, Ohio 98

VI. Formal black satin evening gown £i~£~ 1925 from The Kent State University Museum, Kent, Ohio 112

VII. Mauve evening dress designed by Hattie Carnegie £ire~ 1925 from The Kent State University Museum, Kent, Ohio . 115

VIII. Informal black evening dress £i~£~ 1925 from the Western Reserve Historical Society, Cleveland, Ohio 119

IX. Orange dress and coat ensemble £i~£~ 1925 from the Cincinnati Art Museum, Cincinnati, Ohio 135

x X. Green and gold afternoon dress £i~£~ 1921/23 from the Cincinnati Art Museum, Cincinnati, Ohio 138

XI. Informal black and green day dress ci~ca 1925 from the Mary C. Doxsee Collection for Historic Costume and Textiles at The Ohio University, Athens, Ohio . 141

xi CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Arts Decoratifs or Art Deco is the eclectic decorative style which dominated the period between the First and Second

World Wars. It was an evolving style, which did not start nor cease at a particular moment in history, For convenience, Kery (1986) suggests the beginning date could be

/ 1908; the apogee, 1925; and the final year, 1939, However the term "Art Deco" was not coined until the 1960s when Bevis

Hillier (1968) used it to describe the works of leading

European designers and artists who exhibited in the celebrated L'Exposition Internationale des Arts Decoratifs et

Industriels Modernes held in Paris in June 1925.

It is somewhat surprising that Art Deco should be so readily associated with the period between the wars since

Behling (1979) observed that the beginnings of the movement are visible as early as 1904 in designs by Josef Hoffmann and

Charles Rennie Mackintosh. The works of these artists were not precursors of Art Deco but full-blown Modernist works.

They were hardly distinguishable from some designs of the

1 2

1920s (Arwas, 1980) . In fact, according to Brunhammer

(1983), "Art Deco, with its favourite themes and colors, was fully present in the work of the Weiner Werkstatte before the First World War" (p. 10) . These designers represented the extreme avant garde of the twentieth century design movement. The essence of the Art Deco style, clear clean lines, angular geometric shapes, and bright acid colors, is more generally observed after 1908, although there is still some discrepancy between researchers as to the exact year the Art Deco style came into being. For the purpose of this research, however, it will be assumed that the

Art Deco style began around 1908/9, reached its culmination in 1925, and its decline in 1939.

The majority of Art Deco literature concentrates on the year 1925 and the period immediately after since that year witnessed the culmination of the Art Deco movement at the

Exposition des Arts Decoratifs. This was historically significant since it was the first major world fair to be exclusively concerned with the display and promotion of original works in the decorative arts (Robinson, 1988).

Although experimental forms of Art Deco had been developing during the latter part of the first decade of the twentieth century, they had been somewhat erratic. As early as 1907, the General de L'Exposition Internationale and several influential art authorities confirmed the belief that 3

European design was on the verge of a new era of artistic achievement by proposing that an International Exhibition of

Decorative Arts should be held in Paris in 1914 (Arwas,

1980) . The outbreak of World War I forced this exhibition to be postponed for over a decade. However most literature has ignored the fact that Art Deco was an evolving decorative style.

Art Deco is an eclectic style which borrows from various sources. Each were unrelated and at times irreconcilable but were poignant forces in the art world during the first quarter of the twentieth century (Duncan, 1988). However it is not the aim nor within the scope of this study to distinguish and isolate differences which contributed to the

Art Deco style since they are manifold and complex.

Robinson (1988) offers an excellent insight when he suggests that many innovators helped rid Western society of the outdated morals and merchandise of the nineteenth century, thereby establishing Art Deco as a truly twentieth century style of design.

The original Art Deco style had developed out of the ideas from 19th century proto-modern designers such as Christopher Dresser and Michael Thanet, from the theories of William Morris, Walter Crane and members of the British Arts and Craft Movement and the earlier industrial philosophers, and from the aestheticism of Japanese master-craftsmen. The individual contributions of Henry voide Velde, Josef Hoffmann, Peter Behrans and Charles Rennie Mackintosh, the colors of the Fauves, the visual impact of Leon Bakst and Diaghilev's Ballets Russes made further 4

contributions, as did the revolutionary dress styles of Madeleine Vionnet and Paul Poiret, and the writings of Havelock Ellis and Sigmund Freud (p. 144)

Art Deco developed during a unique period when the distinction between art and fashion became less distinguishable. In fact, at times during the early part of the twentieth century they often complemented and influenced each other (Bowman, 1985). Yet in England during the preceeding century, the two branches of decorative and the fine arts had divided to such an extent that the word

"decorative" had developed derogatory connotations. This was partly due to the notion that decoration was not considered a serious artistic pursuit (Battersby, 1974), which is very much in keeping with the tenuous argument often used by historians who dismiss dress as of little importance, unworthy of the scholarly attention given to painting, sculpture, and architecture (Squire, 1974). Unlike the fine arts, dress usually fails to qualify as serious in itself since clothes themselves are considered trivial (Hollander,

1978) . Fortunately France has always taken fashion seriously, and, during the first quarter of the 20th century, all the arts including dress were moving in a new revolutionary direction, at times blending together to create almost a synthesis of the arts (Behling, 1977). Thus the line that had once separated fine art and decorative art became far less rigid. This was most evident in Europe since 5 the United States claimed to possess no modern decorative art movement (Duncan, 1986; Klein, McClelland & Haslam, 1986 &

Loring, 1979) .

In response to changing times, the first quarter of the century was a period of creative energy in all fields of human endeavor (Robinson, 1988). In fashion, the years between the turn of the century and World War I witnessed a fundamental, almost radical, change in the way women dressed.

The importance of this period has been addressed by Laver (1937) when he stated that " . the fundamental change in dress in 1910 was of greater importance than anything that has taken place since 11 (p. 89) . The opulence and flamboyance of the Belle Epoque and the rhythmic curves and pastel colors of Art Nouveau which had dominated fashion since the 1890s, were replaced by an Art Deco style emphasizing simple, straight lines, angular geometric shapes and clear, bright colors. Thus the bell-shaped gown with its tightly corsetted waist popular at the beginning of the century, was replaced by a straight, more natural Empire style within ten years.

This change has been referred to by some as a 11 fashion revolution•• (Battersby, 1977; Steele, 1988). Whether it was a revolution or perhaps evolution, costume historians have been unable to reach consensus on this issue. To suggest that one person, source or event was the primary agent-of­ change, as has been done in the past, would seem to over- 6 simplify a rather complex issue (Behling, 1977). However writers focusing on early twentieth century fashion have tended to overemphasize the importance of the French couturier, Paul Poiret, suggesting that he was in some way the catalyst for this revolutionary change in women's dress during 1900-1914. Others (Russell, 1983; Nunn, 1984) maintain that issues of social change, in particular the rising interest in women's suffrage movements, was in some way responsible. Numerous others (Lepape, 1983; Klein, 1986,

Steele, 1988; Battersby, 1977) suggest that the Ballets

Russes, in particular 'Les Orientales', dramatically affected the fashion of the day. Behling (1979) suggests that there were three interrelated sources which influenced fashion between 1909-1925. These are the art world, the theater, and the publishing trade.

Statement of Problem

Each of these social factors, that is, the art world, the theater, and the publishing world, affected women's dress in some way during the early part of the twentieth century.

Fashion is an expression of the spirit of the age and as such reflects the cultural milieu of the period (Storm,

1987) . The beginning of the century witnessed sensational change not only with new forms of art, music and literature but in a new attitude to life and a revolutionary way of 7 thinking that would ignite a desire for modernity.

Ultimately this would result in a complete severing of everything relating to the preceeding century including the

Art Nouveau style, in favor of Art Deco, However a problem appears evident within the existing literature. Works relating to Art Deco architecture, interior design, furniture, sculpture and jewelry are numerous while those which specifically examine Art Deco dress are less numerous.

Furthermore the accounts of Art Deco dress are in fact general descriptions of 1920s and 1930s fashions which may or may not be influenced by the Art Deco style. According to

Mc Cl int on (1972) , "Not al 1 art of the 1920s and 1930s is Art

Deco, and not all Art Deco has the same characteristics"

(p .10) . Likewise related works tend to be purely descriptive accounts of the main characters and events of the era.

Although the term "Art Deco" is mentioned in almost every description of the period, the actual art style, its essential characteristics and how they interplay and affect fashion, is rarely addressed.

While there is a body of literature which claims to discuss Art Deco dress per se, there is still no real comprehension of what Art Deco dress is. What constitutes

Art Deco dress as opposed to Art Nouveau dress is another neglected area of investigation. The relationship between art and clothing is yet again a little explored area. 8

Costume historians agree that the Art Deco style influenced fashion during the early part of the twentieth century; however no empirical work exists which systematically isolates Art Deco features which specifically relate to dress. This research is primarily concerned with the manner in which the Art Deco style manifested itself in clothing. Its purpose is to identify the Art Deco style as it is expressed in women's dress through detailed analysis of selected garments, from the decade 1915 to 1925, using examples from five midwestern historic costume collections -

The Ohio State University Historic Costume and Textiles

Collection, The Kent State University Museum, the Mary C.

Doxsee Collection for Historic Costume and Textiles at The

Ohio University, the Western Reserve Historical Society and the Cincinnati Art Museum.

Using actual garments from costume collections, a number of essential questions were posed to direct the research:

1. Does the garment exhibit Art Deco features?

2. How have these effects been achieved? a. silhouette b. structural design c. color/ color combinations d. fabric e. applied decoration

3. Which Art Deco attributes/traits are most prevalent? 9

4. How do these garments compare to other examples of the Art Deco style? a. architecture b. jewelry c. interior design d. metalwork e. glassware f. bookbinding, etc,

The objectives of the study were:

1. To identify Art Deco influences found in women's one-piece garments i.e. capes, coats, evening and day dresses, from the decade 1915 to 1925.

2. To systematically document, photograph, sketch and analyze, specific Art Deco attributes as they relate to these items using examples in five Ohio costume collections.

Despite the dearth of information relating to Art Deco and its relationship to dress, it was possible to write a comprehensive review of literature. This is not to suggest that sources do not exist but rather that the vast majority of Art Deco references concentrate on the obvious examples such as architecture and interior design and perhaps superfically mention dress. In reality, works which claim to examine Art Deco dress discuss clothing worn during the twenties and thirties, which may or may not have been influenced by the Art Deco style. Any material which specifically examines Art Deco and its influence on dress 10 takes the year 1925 as its starting point. Yet Art Deco as a style is evident as early as 1904 in avant garde designs.

Moreover, no empirical study has been conducted which systematically examines clothing from this period and documents exactly which garment characteristics have been influenced by the Art Deco style.

A study which examines the influence of Art Deco on women's dress during the early portion of this century, would partly fill a void which obviously exists in this area. It would also result in worthwhile interdisciplinary research between clothing and art.

~ss~~Eiion~

If dating the women's garments has not been previously conducted by the individual collections or if general categories such as late 1920s have been used, it will be assumed that side-seam shaping of the garment will ensure approximate dating and thus eliminate inappropriate garments

(Garling, 1985). After 1925, the basic tubular dress lost its shapeless, rectangular form as sides began a process of shaping. This fact will facilitate categorization of dresses and coats.

The research will focus on women's garments which display a clear and obvious Art Deco influence since researchers are generally agreed upon what constitutes the 11

Art Deco style. Furthermore, it is assumed that certain Art

Deco attributes will be prevalent in all selected garments.

The study will include a range of clothing items i.e. day and evening dresses, coats and capes found in five Midwestern costume collections. Therefore the sample is not totally representative of all garments worn between 1915 to 1925 but is rather a purposive one. These garments have survived the ravages of time due to a number of reasons including the fact that they were valued by the wearer.

The terms 'attributes' and 'characteristics' will be used interchangably to avoid repetition as will the terms

'dress', 'garments' and 'clothing.'

Limitations

This research is limited to women's garments worn between 1915 to 1925 and selected from five Midwestern costume collections. It does not include accessory items such as shoes, hats, handbags or jewelry which also may have been influenced by the Art Deco style. Nor does it include items worn by men during the decade in question.

Definitions -~------The following operational definitions will serve to focus the scope of the present research. 12 aesthetics: the study of human behavior in creating, perceiving, understanding and being influenced by art (Child, 1968) .

Art Deco: a decorative style that emerged after the turn of the twentieth century and expressed itself most fully during the period between the wars. The style favors the geometric stylization of forms through abstraction and streamlining (Klein, McClelland & Haslam, 1986). Unlike previous movements in applied arts, including Art Nouveau, Art Deco had no founder nor philosophy and therefore does not include specific schools such as De Stijl or the Bauhaus.

Art Nouveau: an essentially decorative, romantic style which stressed that ornamental value of the curved line. Its hallmark is a sinuous and interlacing line, derived from natural, usually floral forms (The Main St. Press, 1977) .

Attribute/ characteristic:an inherent quality or distinctive feature (The Oxford English Dictionary, 1988).

Belle Epoque: the period of time between the coronation of Edward VII and the beginning of World War 1.

Fashion: the prevailing style at any given time Nystrom, 1928); and a way of behaving that is temporarily adopted by a discernible proportion of members of a social group because that chosen behavior is perceived to be socially appropriate for the time and situation (Sproles, 1979).

Style: the characteristic or distinctive mode of expression, the prevailing taste in some field of art or in artifacts; the 'permanent element of fashion' (Lang, 1961 & Nystrom, 1928) . CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Relevant literature will be drawn from both the areas of

clothing history and art since the inherent nature of this

study suggests an interdisciplinary approach. Although

specific research was scarce, the amount of material that

related in some way to the areas of early twentieth century

fashion and/or the Art Deco style was extensive. Therefore,

for the purpose of the study the literature review will be

presented and discussed in a number of major sections. These

are the aesthetic model of fashion and the art movement model, the relationship between art and dress, the art deco

style, the art deco era, and the history of 1915 to 1925

dress.

_bestheti.£ Mo,9~1 .2.f fashi.Q!!

11 Aesthetics 11 has been defined as the study of human

behavior in creating, perceiving, understanding and being

influenced by art (Child, 1968). Yet aesthetics is not

simply the manner in which an individual artist perceives or

13 14 understands the world through the embodiment of his art. At a broader level, it also includes the group's collective taste, specifically their ideal of what is beautiful in form and style (Storm, 1987). Moreover the aesthetic ideal is never static since it develops within the context of a culture and an era. According to Banner (1983), standards of beauty fall into the realm of cultural conventions; therefore beauty or the cultural ideal also intersects with various segments of society including art, theater and even advertising.

Hollander (1978) suggests that the 'natural' beauty of the body and the 'natural' beauty of clothes have been taught to the visual self through art. Furthermore art demonstrates what is deemed natural in regard to human looks and it is only by equating oneself with this standard that one can feel satisfaction. To this end each individual attempts to create an 'ideal' appearance or as close as possible to that ideal

(Nanu, 1981).

According to some researchers, the aesthetic approach to analyzing the fashion phenomenon is often overlooked since aesthetics is viewed as the study of art rather than of fashion (Sproles, 1985). This is a somewhat difficult situation to comprehend since dress is an aesthetic product as it adorns the human body.

Dress may be viewed as a creative form of expression 15

(Squire, 1974) and at times, as an art form in itself.

Although it is important to bear in mind that dress can often

succeed and function as dress, without succeeding as art

(Hollander, 1978) due to the duality of its function, i.e.

practical and aesthetic. Contrary to this viewpoint,

Vreeland (1981) emphatically believed that fashion was not

art since she distinguished between the pure aesthetism of

art and the 'gaudy dynamics' of fashion. Despite this,

Vreeland maintained that art often inspires fashion.

There is no comprehensive theory of the fashion process

in fact, Bull (1975) suggests 11 . the theories of, or

rather notions, about fashion which have been put forward

over the decades, though frequently weak in formulation and

often contradictory have often been accepted as obvious and

correct by the fashion world and general public 11 (p. 460) .

Any comprehensive theory of fashion would need to include the

relationship between art and dress since it is an important

factor determining the direction taken by specific fashion movements. Often the forces that give rise to the

development of certain styles in the fine arts also operate

in the fields of fashion (Horn and Gurel, 1981).

Art Moy~~~~i tlod~l

The Art Movement Model proposed by Horn and Gurel (1981)

identifies apparent relationships between evolving fashion 16 and various art movements. The researchers suggest that the factors which contribute to the cultural milieu in which an art form develops and the creative forces which are exerted on the creators of dress, are basically the same powers that influence artists, architects and sculptors. In certain eras, there often exists a commonality of expression between the essential elements, forms and lines of an art style and the period's Ze!tg~!~~·

Illustrations of the interrelationships between dress and other art forms can be identified within most eras.

Researchers (Horn and Gurel, 1981; Roach and Musa, 1980;

Storm, 1987) theorize that fashions in dress over the last one hundred and fifty years have reflected the essential spirit of various art movements such as Neo-classicism,

Romanticism, Cubism, Expressionism, Abstraction and

Surrealism. It has even been suggested that contemporary art developments such as Pop, Op and Punk art have found almost immediate expression in recent fashion and its fads.

Moreover, the concept that the forces which give rise to the development of certain styles of art are also operative in the fashion arena (Horn, 1975) is not restricted to the past one hundred and fifty years. Costume historians often contend that one or more of the fine arts of coeval or past periods have influenced historic styles of clothing,

For example, Contini (1977) established similiarities between 17

the motifs in clothing and in the other arts in Ancient

Egypt, Bronze Age Crete, and twentieth century Europe,

Perhaps the major criticism to be levelled against the

Art Movement Model is one of lack of documentation. Exactly

how and why fashions are derived from or influenced by

various art movements is incomplete. Obviously research is

required to develop this viable idea into a complete

theoretical model which could be utilized in future research.

The Relationship bei~ee~ ~rt an~ Dres~

Given that a relationsip of some kind exists between art

and dress, researchers have further acknowledged that the

aesthetic characteristics of dress, the fine arts, interior

design and architecture of a particular era are

simultaneously influenced by, or are reactions to, the same

Zeitgeist that affects the other cultural arts such as music,

literature and the performing arts (Roach and Musa, 1980),

While it is often assumed that the fine arts initially

develop a concept or style which in turn influences dress,

Hollander (1978) has proposed that this situation may be

reversed in some instances. This theory maintains that the

human body depicted in art may reflect what is current in

dress and the culturally ideal body it is designed to

enhance.

Although artistic concepts don't necessarily have to be 18

filtered through another form of artistic expression before

they become observable in dress design, many costume

historians believe that the art of dress does tend to possess

visual qualities which parallel those found in other major

art forms. Roach and Musa (1980) refer to this similiarity

as 'cultural consistency.'

Obviously due to its very nature, the degree of cultural

consistency between the aesthetics of dress and other forms

of artistic expression is more evident in some periods than

in others. This depends on how pervasive the style became or

if it remained an alternative form of expression adhered to

by the avant-garde (Roach & Musa, 1980).

Furthermore the relationship between art and dress can be examined through the artistic means of expression used in

clothing. According to Nanu (1974) the 'remodelling' of the body and hair through the use of clothing and hairstyle is

consistent with three dimensional art while the use of color

in garments and make-up belongs to two-dimensional art. Thus

the actual artistic elements themselves have affected dress.

In ancient civilizations and during the Renaissance,

sculpture and costume revealed the relationship which existed between man and the universe and was solved according to

humanistic principles, i.e. man was given a central position.

However with the acceptance of Romantic art, the dominance of

nature overshadowed man and therefore the human figure was 19

often reduced to little more than a contour incorporated into

Gothic, Baroque, and Art Nouveau styles (Nanu, 1974),

In theory the relationship between color and dress is

more important than the form-art relationship since every

epoch has used this element to express a particular state of

mind. For example, during the Renaissance bright colored

clothes in primary colors, especially scarlet, were worn.

This corresponded to the period's admiration of courageous people. However during the eighteenth century, a time of

escape into nature, the Rococo style lent itself to pastel colors (Nanu, 1974).

More recently, researchers (Farrell-Beck and Petsch,

1984) examined the theoretical relationship between the fine

arts and couture clothing in regard to the specific aspect of color. They compared and contrasted the hues used in paintings by Henri Matisse and Pablo Picasso with the couture garments of Gabrielle Chanel and Madelaine Vionnet,

emphasizing the years 1918 through 1929. They discovered colors used by all four artists and colors which were used in

specific years.

A number of costume historians entertain the theory of an interrelationship between the aesthetic qualities of dress

and the general cultural expression in the other arts. Roach and Musa (1980) illustrate the 'art-fashion connection'

through the Rococo style which was the dominant artistic 20

expression of the mid-eighteenth century. This style favors

soft forms, hues of light to medium value, delicate lines and motifs and small scale decoration, all of which are evident

in furniture design, interiors and paintings of this period.

Dress of the upper classes incorporated light and medium

value colored, floral designs in women's gowns, the brocades

used in men's waistcoats and in the printed cotton toiles

used in interiors of this era.

Researchers, Horn and Gurel (1981) have examined the

connection between traditional fine arts of the eighteenth

and nineteenth centuries and apparent influences on styles of

clothing. Most notable was the adaption of Nee-classicism in

the middle of the eighteenth century following the discovery

of the ancient cities of Pompeii and Heraculanem. Everything drew inspiration from the artwork found in the ancient

excavated cities, including clothing. To adopt a truly

classical character, women's fashion emphasized a slender,

vertical line through high-waisted dresses of soft white muslin, flat slippers or sandals, Greek hairstyles and to

complete the composition, a drapped shawl. Horn and Gurel conclude "costume was entirely in tune with the aesthetic philosophy that permeated all forms of the day" (p. 334).

The beginning of the nineteenth century saw a

transformed world as the appearance of a middle class resulted in a bourgeois society (Boucher, 1987). The early 21 nineteenth century is characterized as the period of

Romanticism which was in reality an age of revival since there appeared to be a fusing together of an assortment of

divergent styles including Baroque, Rococo and Neo-Gothic.

Taste of the nineteenth century ran towards 'a passion for

things Antique' and dress developed a somewhat eclectic style

in order to create the 'picturesque.' 11 This trend reflected

improvements in business, a rise in the standard of living and the strengthening influence exercised on costume by

literature and history 11 (Boucher, 1987, p. 366). As a consequence, there is evidence of sharp Gothic forms,

Renaissance ruffs, the falling sleeves and collars of the

Baroque and even a taste for the Oriental (Horn and Gurel,

1981). This Romanticism movement developed at a time when

liberal political ideas were emerging and there was a lively taste for music, poetry and things either spiritual or historical (Boucher, 1987).

Yet as the Industrial Revolution gained momentum at midcentury, objects which had once been hand-crafted were now

factory produced. Ultimately the designs for clothes and

furniture were dictated by the majority taste. The Victorian

Era is characterized as a period of continual conflict between the ideals of tradition and reform (Horn and Gurel,

1981). While popular taste favored Revivalism, a number of

notable reformers including William Morris, Oscar Wilde, 22

Walter Crane and other members of the British Arts and Crafts

Movement were using aesthetic, moral and even rational

grounds to argue against the European drift towards

industrialization and commercial designs (Brunhammer, 1983;

Robinson, 1988).

Most parallels which are drawn between dress and a

specific art style usually relate to those of the twentieth

century. Quite a deal of literature has investigated Art

Nouveau (Horn and Gurel, 1981; Roach and Musa, 1980; Storm,

1987). This style lasted from the late nineteenth century to

the early part of the twentieth century. All have noted a

consistency between dress design and design in interiors,

furniture, architecture and jewelry. Art Nouveau designs

incorporated the distinctive use of free flowing curves,

irregular and often asymmetrical shapes, naturalistic surface

treatments and soft pastel colors (Robinson, 1988).

There was a tendency to decorate the surfaces of

objects, buildings, metalwork or furniture with excesses of

applied designs which often took their inspiration from

nature. This phenomenon was paralleled in women's fashions with their abundant use of applied decoration.

A noteworthy consistency is evident during the so-called

Art Deco period often associated with the 20s and 30s. Art

Deco is an eclectic style drawing inspiration from a variety

of often irreconcilable sources (Duncan, 1986). It is a 23

decorative style which evolved from one which favored the

romantic aspects to a more austere, functional approach.

It is often difficult to identify with any accuracy, the

actual style itself let alone, differentiate its apparent

influences on other aspects of the arts (Klein, McClelland &

Haslam, 1986). Yet Art Deco's trademark is its insistent use

of geometry and symmetry, its emphasis on geometric, linear

or static circular forms and its incorporation of bright, pure colors (Roach & Musa, 1980). During this period,

architecture, furniture, interiors and ultimately, dress

responded to this style. In fact, Amayo (1975) maintains

that "the elegant, restrained purity of line in much Art Deco

is often a translation of the simpler lines of clothing then

being created" (p. 5). While much has been written regarding

Art Deco, very little research has concerned itself with Art

Deco's direct influence on dress i.e. how did the style manifest itself in actual garments? Although it is often

assumed that there is an apparent link between Art Deco

and dress, the extent of this influence is yet to be

addressed.

Storm (1987) has hypothesized that the influence of a particular artist, work of art or art style may continue for

centuries. She cites the example of Sonia Delaunay, a

textile designer of the early twentieth century who inspired

Perry Ellis' 1984 Sweater Collection. More recently, Benatar 24

(1989) stated that "Art and fashion have shared a mutually

inspiration al relation ship. . 11 (p. 452) . In Spring 1988,

St Laurent borrowed Van Gogh's !~~se~ for his sequined jacket

designs. In the same year, Bill Blass embellished his summer

evening blouses with elaborate Matisse interiors.

Surrealism was much like Art Deco since the period of

the 1930s saw an exchange of concepts and ideas between

artists and fashion designers, the most famous of these being

Elsa Schiaparelli's collaborations with Couteau and Dali.

Schiaparelli was one of the first designers to use the zipper

for decorative effect, to put fake lobsters on dresses,

beaded rococo mirrors and Couteau drawings on dinner jackets.

She even collaborated with Dali to create such avant garde

outfits as the 'desk' suit and the 'tear' dress (Adams,

1987) .

In the 1960s, Pop Art dominated the artistic world and was immortalized through the popular works of

artist/designers Lichenstein and Warhol. Since this movement

emphasized the common and created illusions to confuse the viewer, this was successfully translated into fashion.

During this decade, one could identify examples of fabrics

printed with belt lines that were not belts, painted buttons down the front, strands of pearls and bow ties around the

neck and large zippers on the front of garments when in actuality they opened in the back (Horn and Gurel, 1981) 25

Likewise Op Art is often associated with Pop Art but

differs from others art forms since it creates disorder

through the illusion of visual motion. This is often

achieved through juxtaposing geometric shapes and lines of

contrasting hues. It is relatively easy to identify the

influence of Op Art on clothing of sixties since textile

designs incorporated simple geometric patterns of pure colors

often on A-line dresses (Horn and Gurel, 1981).

While there are obvious examples of congruence between

the aesthetics of dress and various art styles and movements throughout history, this relationship does not simply apply

to the visual arts. Heard (1924) hypothesized that aesthetic

changes occur firstly in the public domain, i.e.

architecture, and then in the private domain, i.e. dress.

Both Horn and Gurel (1981) and Storm (1987) maintain that the most obvious relationship between architecture and fashion is

in the emphasis on height in Gothic cathedrals and the

hennin, the poulaines and the extended sleeve lengths of

Gothic dress. Another obvious example is the similarity between the chitons and the columns of Ancient Greece.

Furthermore, Storm (1987) claims that Ancient Egypt's

architecture was closely related to all of its dress since the triangular shape inspired architecture, hairstyle and

costume.

Fashion has often had a close association with the 26 performing arts which were at no time more influential than

the Ballets Russes' almost instantaneous effect on women's

fashions during the early part of the twentieth century. 11 It

is difficult to exaggerate the importance of the Ballets

Russes for haute couture between 1909 and 1914 11 (Behling,

1979, p. 2). The 1910 premiere of 11 Scheherazade 11 caused a

sensation when it was performed in Paris. Its oriental

costumes, exotic dancing, and theme of lust and love

had an immediately discernable impact on fashion with French

designers eagerly incorporating bright contrasting colors with an Oriental theme to create fashionable turbans and

harem pants. According to Hillier (1968), the pure, bright

colors were the best and most lasting legacy of the Ballets

Russes to Art Deco,

Cultural events have also played a major role in

influencing the aesthetics of dress in a particular era.

Following the discovery of the Tomb of Tutankhamen in 1922, a

two year fashion trend followed which was ref erred to as

'Tutmania'. Yet the King Tut discovery was not the first time an Egyptian historical event had influenced dress

(Foreman, 1978). The 'claft' was ultilized by Napoleon's

soldiers during their Egyptian campaign and ultimately became

the rage of fashionable women in Paris (Foreman, 1978).

In 1922, when news of the Tutankhamen Tomb discovery was

made, designers vied with one another to be the first to 27

incorporate Egyptian motifs, hieroglphics, and colors into

their fabric and jewelry designs. The 'Mummy Wrap', the

'Tut' bathing suit and the 'Tutankhamen overblouse' are

evidence of the remarkable influence this discovery had on

1920's fashion.

Through this discussion, it appears that the nexus between art and dress is an important determinant in the

direction specific fashion movements follow. Using Heard's

(1924) concepts of the Public and Private Domain of Art, the

researcher developed a model that would represent

schematically the various divisions which exist within the

broad field of art (Figure 1). As a result, it was possible to visualize the directional modes of influence, and to gauge

the apparent strengths of such factors. Yet as previously

stated, a particular art style or movement may be more pervasive in one particular era than another.

Using the schematic, it is possible to visualize the

relationship between art and dress. For example in the

illustration, art is divided into two distinct branches, Fine

Art which includes painting, sculpture, and architecture and

Decorative Art which refers to jewelry, interior design, and dress. The latter is sometimes referred to as Applied Art.

These two areas are not mutually exclusive since a specific

style may emerge within the Fine Arts and carry over into the

Decorative Arts. The reverse is also possible, that is, a 28

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I I I I I I I I I !]J I er: I ··":"'" ... ~ I I I I I I I I I I I

u E G.l Ci .• f. ...!

u u

CL. en 29 style may develop within the Decorative Arts and affect the

Fine Arts. Although it appears that an Art Style is generally conceived and developed in an area of Fine Art before it influences the Decorative Arts.

Some Fine Arts find expression in the Public Domain, since art within this branch is created for the public. For example, architecture is not designed with the individual in mind. It is conceived by the architect for an audience who will view, use, and appreciate the building. In contrast, the Decorative Arts are considered part of the Private

Domain. This term refers to the concept of art for an individual rather than the group since dress, and in particular couture clothing, is specifically designed for one individual with no real regard for the appreciation of others.

The Public Domain and the Private Domain interact with each other in the flow of information about various art styles and movements which are developing. The influence appears to be stronger within the Public Domain since an art style is usually realized in the Fine Arts and reaches the

Private Domain, gradually through the Decorative Arts.

Finally, the Arts, which also include theater, dance, and literature, appear to act as an intermediary between the

Public Domain and the Private Domain. The Arts are often influenced by the art styles and movements within the Fine 30

Arts which are adapted and offered to an audience at a more personal level. In this way, the influences within the

Public Domain are filtered through the Arts and ultimately affect the Private Domain.

To clarify this discussion it may be useful to consider a specific art style and examine the manner in which it fits in to the Art-Dress Model. During the early portion of the twentieth century the Art Deco style, although never classified as fine art, influenced the Public Domain i.e. architecture, sculpture and to a lesser extent, painting. At the same time, since, it was a decorative art, the Art Deco style had a marked effect on the Private Domain especially dress, i.e. clothing, jewelry and accessories.

Moreover the fine arts of the period expanded to include

Fauvism and Cubism. Russians such as Leon Bakst, Erte and

Sonia Delaunay and other major artists such as Picasso and ...... Matisse influenced the Private Domain through their involvement within the theater, designing costumes and sets

(Behling, 1979; Kery, 1986) . The arts, especially the

Ballets Russes, ultimately had a direct influence on the dress of the period.

Fashion mirrors a society's aesthetic philosophy (Horn and Gurel, 1981), and the forces that are exerted on fashion designers are much the same as those which affect architects, painters and interior designers. Illustrations of the 31 interrelationships between dress and other art forms are visible throughout history and have developed not only from the fine arts but the decorative arts, performance arts and other cultural events. Yet this art-fashion connection is in a precarious position since to understand its significance one must adopt an interdisciplinary approach. At this point, little research has been conducted which has examined the art-dress nexus specifically that relating to Art Deco prior to 1925, as the primary focus of study. A fundamental understanding of the actual Art Deco style is necessary before this relationship can be examined.

The ~E~ ~eco ~~Y!~

A comprehensive definition of Art Deco is almost impossible given that it is such an eclectic style, drawing inspiration from contemporary sources such as the more austere aspects of Art Nouveau (Hillier, 1968) to the surface mannerisms of such avant garde movements as Cubism, Fauvism,

Futurism and Abstraction (Arwas, 1980). Yet the style also drew on almost every historical influence from the Ballets

Russes in the 1910s, the discovery of King Tutankhamum's tomb in the 1920s to the science fiction of Buck Rogers in the

1930s.

To many art historians, Art Deco represents a decorative style which existed in the period between the wars 32

specifically from the end of Art Nouveau to the rise of the

Bauhaus (Veronesi, 1968). Art Deco is obsessed with geometry

and therefore the style was partly based on a return to

Classicism, because unlike Rococco or Art Nouveau, it

favoured symmetry and the rectilinear. According to Klein

(1986) Art Deco represents the geometric stylization of forms

achieved through abstraction and streamlining of the

essentials. Style and stylization are perhaps its most

obvious distinguishing features (Arwas, 1980). Yet since the

style does not involve any reworking or re-evaluation of the

inherent problems within the creative process, it does not

include specific schools such as De Stijl and the Bauhaus

(Klein, McClelland & Haslam, 1987).

According to Brunhammer (1983) architecture and

decorative art including Art Deco were more or less

consequences of the greater currents that revolutionized

painting in Europe between 1905 and World War I. The

activity of the Bauhaus from its foundation by Walter Gropius

in 1919 to its closure in 1933 is significant since its

philosophy maintained, there was no difference between artist

and craftsman. Therefore there was no professional art.

In hindsight, the Bauhaus was the beginning of a theory of modern design. Its products were functional in concept, free

from decoration and their aesthetic appeal relied on the

relationship between balance, proportion and intended 33 function (Robinson, 1988). While the extent of the Bauhaus influence was considerable, this was not the case in France during the Art Deco period. "The reasons are political, nationalistic and ideological for the aims of the Bauhaus were in complete opposition to the wishes of post-1914 French society" (Brunhammer, 1983, p. 11),

Likewise the De Stijl movement (1909) was an conscious attempt to synthesize all forms of plastic expression including painting, sculpture, architecture, interior decoration, furniture, and performing arts on the basis of the Neo-Plasticist doctrine. This doctrine favors the exclusive use of right angles in horizontal-vertical positions and the three primary colors to which are added

'non colors', white, black and grey (Brunhammer, 1983).

Yet unlike the Bauhaus and the De Stjl, Art Deco was not a movement since it had no founder, no manifesto and no philosophy (Klein, McClelland & Haslam, 1986).

Parenthically, there was an underlying belief that designers and artists were creating a totally new twentieth century design style. Therefore, while there was no stated philosophy, there was no doubt an implied suggestion of a

'modern' style. Art Deco emerged simultaneously throughout

Europe because designers and decorators were stimulated by the demands of a society which had undergone restructuring following World War I (Robinson, 1988). 34

Basically Art Deco can be divided into two quite distinct styles, Battersby (1988) used the term 'Art Deco' to describe decorative art up to 1925 and 'Modernist' for post-1925 art. Hillier (1971) separated Art Deco into the feminine, elegant yet somewhat conservative style of pre-1925 and the masculine reaction of the 1930s with its emphasis on the machine age and new materials such as chrome and plastic.

Similarly other writers (Duncan, 1986; Klein, McClelland &

Haslam, 1986; Robinson, 1976 and Veronesi, 1968) maintain that during the first quarter of this century, two distinct areas of design dominated the European decorative arts.

Chronologically, the first of these was the more austere

Austrian/German style which appealed to the intellect since it advocated logic and geometry. Functional design was the essence of the style and ornamentation was given secondary status. In short, it was an authentic twentieth century style with an emphasis on functionalism, mass production and new age materials (Duncan, 1986). The second decorative movement revolved primarily around the fashion world in particular French designers. In some ways, this style represented continuity as although it was inspired by

Modernist Art it was ultimately a Cubist modification of the

Art Nouveau vernacular achieved through the streamlining and geometric formality of conventional ideas. This 'French Art

Deco' was a florid, colorful and romantic style and as such 35 appealed to the emotions. Clearly, the obvious difference between the two styles parallel the 1920s tubular chemise and the 1930s bias-cut gown.

The most distinguishing aspect of Art Deco is its Cubist derived geometry. Shapes became bolder and simpler, and forms of every description became angular. However a number of subjects tended to be intrinsically suited to this treatment and have become known as the "symbols of Art Deco"

(Klein, McClelland & Haslam, 1986).

During the 1890's, Aubrey Beardsley created many of the decorative motifs used in Art Deco designs. In particular the formalized rose which became highly individualistic although parallels are evident between the geometric roses used by so many French artists including Paul Iribe and those originally 'invented' by Charles Rennie Mackintosh and his associates. This symbol has become the so-called 'trademark' of Art Deco. Likewise the sunburst or sunray symbol with its clearly defined circle surrounded by radiating lines, the ziggurat or staged tower of pyramid form and the formalized fountain motif with its arc-shapes are probably the most recognizable (Appendix A) .

Art Deco's simple geometric shapes lend themselves to pure primary colors and sharp color contrasts, an antithesis to the lucid floral forms, irregular curves and pastel hues of the early Art Nouveau. A typical color combination is red, 36

black, and silver since red and black provide a solid

background and silver acts to define or highlight. The color

spectrum of Art Deco is bright and sharp. The style has a

severe look, therefore colors such as 'acid' green and

'tango' orange were popular as they successfully

differentiated shapes (Klein, McClelland & Haslam, 1986).

Since Art Deco is viewed as a response to the demands of

the machine (Hillier, 1971), 'streamlining' is an important

aspect of the style. The laws of aerodynamics imposed sleek

lines on all facets of design. If any ornamentation was

incorporated, it was contained, stylized and purposely flat

(Klein, McClelland & Haslam, 1986).

To summarize, Art Deco's hallmark is its geometry.

Shapes are simple and bold while forms are angular. Colors,

unlike Art Nouveau, are clear and bright, with red, black and

silver being a popular color combination. Sharp colors such

as green and orange are often utilized to distinguish shapes

from a solid background.

Following this examination of the Art Deco syle, it would be detrimental to the study to discuss the decorative

style in isolation. Therefore for this research to have any validity it is imperative to discuss the era in which the Art

Deco style dominated and ultimately left such a lasting

impression on twentieth century design. In fact, Robinson

(1988) claims that "Art Deco. . is today regarded as the 37

most influential, the most original, the most visually

coherent, and the most aesthetically complete style of design

created in this or the previous century" (p. 30).

The Art Deco Era

The beginning of the twentieth century was a period of

sensational change as new discoveries, new forms of

literature and art and new modes of thinking would change

forever traditional Western mores. Such technological

wonders as the electric light, the telephone, moving pictures

and the automobile resulted in enormous changes in lifestyle

(Kery, 1986) . This was a period of radical social reform as people demanded political freedom and social justice.

Working classes were becoming more assertive as to their

perceived role in society. The era seemed filled with

strikes, riots, bombings, revolutions, assassinations and

earthquakes. Little wonder that Western society began to

change in response to the pressure of the times and as a

consequence so did its expressive needs and aspirations

(Robinson, 1988).

Paris was the center of an extraordinary outburst of

creative energy. In fact, the city offered such a rich

climate of creativity that it became the spawning ground of a

number of art movements including Fauvism, Cubism and

Surrealism. According to Vreeland (1977) Paris was " 38

intoxicated with its new art, new music, new literature,

entirely new way of life, and, of course, with its new

clothes" (p. 8).

In 1900 the Exposition Universelle was held in Paris to

celebrate the arrival of the new century and to confirm that

Paris was still the unrivalled cultural center of the Western world in the decorative and fashionable arts. The

orientation of the Exhibition was however towards the new

century. While the Exhibition demonstrated the culmination

of the Art Nouveau style, it also sounded its passing

(Battersby, 1988).

Following the Exhibition, French designers were

disoriented for a while until the advent of a number of

disparate occurrences were stylisticly absorbed (Arwas,

1980). The liberation of color appears to have come first

with the Fauvist exhibition in 1905. During the years 1906

to 1910, a style of design began to emerge which involved the

intellectual as well as the visual. Many avant garde

designers sought to create and establish an expression of

their lives in the new century (McClinton, 1972). They began

experimenting with the simpler relationships to be found in

geometric shapes, textural surfaces and angular forms of

construction (Robinson, 1988). However it appears that the

wealthy patrons of these designers were not ready for such a

dramatic change. 39

This situation is somewhat surprising since prior to

this period many new developments had occurred: the Wright

Brothers had successfully demonstrated the real possibility

of air travel; Pierre and Marie Curie had been awarded the

Nobel Prize for physics and Albert Einstein had made

scientific history with his theory of relativity.

Furthermore, Sigmund Freud had made public his controversal

theories relating to the new fields of psychiatry and

psychology. Fundamental to all contemporary thought at this

time was the Darwinistic mentality of survival of the fittest

(Kery, 1986; Robinson, 1988 & Vreeland, 1977). (The reader is

ref erred to general history sources such as Th~ ~~E~~icl~ ~i

th~ twentieth century (1987) for a more detailed discussion

of such developments and to Th~ art~ Qf ih~ tw~~ii~~ (1986) pp. 234 - 243 for a comprehensive chronology of artistic

developments of this era) .

Artists and designers in the United States and Europe

responded by replacing the overpowering opulence and clutter

of the Belle Epoque with clean, clear lines, angular

geometric shapes and pure colors as displayed in the early

designs of Frank Lloyd Wright and Josef Hoffmann (Brunhammer,

1983). Many felt they were on the verge of a completely new

twentieth century mode of design and attempted to rid their work of all 'monetary' beauty. It was not long before these

designers began to realize that pure functionalism was too 40

austere for many of their customers. Thus it became the task

of these designers to advocate function as the determining

factor of their new design yet to be guided by a certain

amount of fantasy, luxury and embellishment when actually

designing (Robinson, 1988).

During the latter part of the first decade of the

twentieth century, a small group of avant-garde designers had

experimented with early forms of Art Deco. European forms of

decoration were discarded since these designers sensed their

customers had begun to tire of the curvilinear shapes and

pastel colors of the Art Nouveau style (Robinson, 1988).

By the end of the 1910's, a new generation of customers

had come of age and the angular forms and simple shapes of

the experimental Art Deco style were to find favor with the

new members of the haute monde. Interestingly the principal

patrons of the Art Deco style were neither the avant-garde

nor the possessors of 11 old11 money but were often involved

with the style - the couturiers Jacques Doucet, Jean Lanvin,

Madeleine Vionnet, and Paul Poiret all designed Art Deco

fashion at the same time as they collected Art Deco objects

and decorated their homes in the fashionable style

(Lesieutre, 1974 & Arwas, 1980).

In 1908, Poiret,published the first of his famous ablums

11 of design, "Les Robes de Paul Poiret , illustrated by Paul

Iribe (Figure 2). The album's plates reflected Poiret's 41

Figure 2 - Paul Tribe's illustration fran 'Les Robes de Paul Poiret' , l908 fran M. Battersby's Art Deco Fashion, 1984, p. 6. 42

'revolutionary' ideas concerning fashion since the designs were in both 'Directoire' and 'Oriental' styles and followed a general line of long, straight, high-waisted dresses.

Ornamentation was reduced to a bare minimum and there was an apparent simplicity of both cut and fabric (Battersby, 1974)

Parenthically, it was Vionnet who persuaded her clients to dispose of their corsets and wear garments which showed their subtle curves and feminine contours to full advantage.

Critics condemned this style of dressing as indecent, lewd, licentious and even obscene (Robinson, 1988). However

Poiret's Art Deco fashions were just as controversal as those of Vionnet.

In 1911, a second album "Les Choses de Paul Poiret 11 illustrated by George Lepape was published (Figure 3) .

"These two unique albums are today regarded as landmarks in the development of both Art Deco design and Art Deco illustration" (Robinson, 1988, p. 50).

Encouraged by often influential patrons, designers began to design a new range of products which were characterized by angular geometric shapes, clear bright hues, unusual surface treatments, rare and often exotic materials, refined detailing and superb draftsmanship (Robinson, 1988). Soon the new style was being widely worn and avidly collected by the haute monde.

Critics of the day condemned these new Art Deco fashions ..:wD I •••. ·=· =· • ,,._..,,,_,.,.,~- Ip. •. ,fl llUUIJ - .... ill •• ,., WWW.

~ ~;.e-7~~~:.,/ / ,/l/)J'' . ./ / ~~ II '· -,/' - "·v· .... ( __'fl.· /~/-,_:,, h-·· {1~--..: (

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'~-

. ( \' I' If,) CllO,)f~ llf PJ\VLPOIRET

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Figure 3 - Cover & inside page of the albun 'l.es Choses de Paul Poiret' illustrated by Georges l.epape, 1911 .i::-­w fran C. l.epape's Fran the Ballets Russes to Vogue, 1984, pp. 43 & 44. 44 yet the styles continued to develop. Moreover, during this period of enormous creativity, the moralists did not confine their attacks to the new fashions. The new styles of painting by Picasso, Matisse and Braque, new books, new forms of music, new styles of architecture, new theatrical plays and new operas and ballets were not spared criticism .

Diaghilev's Ballets Russes 11 . produced an effect . which no ballet before or since could equal'' (Battersby,

1984, p.61). The impact on the decorative arts was immense and this influence continued unabated until the outbreak of the First World War in 1914 (McClinton, 1972). Yet these ballets seemed to parallel the general mood of the era.

The new century required an entirely new attitude toward life, irrevocably severing all ties with the nineteenth century (Vreeland, 1977). With the Ballets Russes came a number of Russian artists who produced new designs and color combinations which were incorporated into the fashion world

(Figure 4). Artists particularly the Delaunays caused a sensation as early as 1914 with a new use of color in their art and textiles designs. Behling (1977) has referred to the interchange between the world of the theater and the fashion world as a symbiotic relationship.

Also in 1910, there had been an influential exhibition of modern decorative art from Munich which despite critical disdain proved immensely popular and had a decisive influence 45

Figure 4 - Costtm! for the ballet 'la Peri' by Leon Bakst, 1911 fran J. Booillon's Art Deco, 1989, p. 86. 46

on the decorative idioms of the Art Deco style (Battersby,

1988). The year 1911 was crucial in the development of Art

Deco. It was the year in which Cubism spread beyond the

circle of Picasso and Braque. This new generation of artists

felt that they were, or ought to be, distinctively twentieth

century (Hillier, 1968). Thus the art they produced became known as 'Modern Art.'

The success of Art Deco prompted influential figures in

the art world to propose an Exhibition Internationale des

Arts Decoratifs to be held in Paris in 1915. However it was

postponed to 1916 but the outbreak of World War 1 in 1914

shelved the project indefinitely. After the Armistice in

1918 it was resurrected in an attempt to restore France's

glory (Arwas, 1980).

In the period 1912-14 it was generally acknowledged

that, although the Parisan couturiers were the creators of

fashion styles, it was the illustrators who were the true

inventors of the new Art Deco mode of fashionable design

(Robinson, 1976). Artists such as George Lepape, George

Barbier, Paul Iribe, Leon Bakst and Erte invented new images

that permeated the imagination of the haute monde (Robinson,

1988) and greatly influenced in shaping and coloring the

changing style of fashion (Behling and Dickey, 1980).

The war years necessitated an interruption to the

development of Art Deco but in the years immediately 47

following the Armistice of 1918, all branches of the

decorative arts in France were engaged in intense activity.

Battersby (1988) suggests that it was as if to reassert

French leadership in matters of taste and demonstrate to the

rest of the world that in spite of a war that had left the

country close to bankruptcy, France's creative energies were

undiminshed and her supremacy in fashion was still

unrivalled. While the fashionable life regained its momentum, it was obvious that many aspects of Western society

had changed. This change was most evident among the younger

generation who began to live life for the moment. The very

nature of the aftermath of the First World War was a period

of hectic frivolity and gaiety (Hillier, 1971) and this mood was expressed in jazz rhythms.

An exhibition of African art in Paris in the 1920's

brought the forms and motifs of another culture to the notice

of designers. The design, color and texture of this native

art influenced a number of artists while the masks and

sculpture of the French Congo became an important influence

in Cubist paintings. In the 1920s everything Afro-American came into fashion - jazz music and dances including the Black

Bottom, the Charleston, and the Turkey Trot (McClinton,

1971) .

Designers, illustrators, and film makers followed the

trend. Members of the established haute monde were joined by 48

almost 10,000 new US millionaires who became known as the

'nouveau riche' (Robinson, 1988). While the war years had

brought enormous prosperity to much of the United States, the

war effort had also resulted in a number of technological

advances including new materials such as cellulose, acetate

and plastic.

The war had changed many aspects of Western life, for

all levels of society and as a result the entire social

structure of the Western World changed (Robinson, 1988). It was in the midst of this climate the new generation of

European and American designers, artists and illustrators

found themselves. Moreover in Germany, the economic collapse

of the manufacturing industries gave rise to the

establishment of the Bauhaus design theories which emphasized

attention to function and practicality. This in turn started

a search for a more austere mode of design, free from

decoration, based on new production methods and materials of minimal cost (Lesieutre, 1974).

Thus the post-war Art Deco style was based upon the concepts of modernity, extravagance and luxury (Robinson,

1976). Although not as aesthetically refined as the early

Art Deco designs, they did possess one feature which

differentiated them from earlier works, they avoided prettiness. The Art Deco pieces of the early 1920s were

smart, elegant, stylish and luxurious. 49

In fact, by the 1920s, the Art Deco illustrators had

become so inventive in composing the right style and setting

for each of their illustrations, that they had a distinct

influence on subsequent Art Deco designs. They affected not

only the couturiers, who were always ready to pick up the

latest nuances and variations, but also the designs of

furniture, textiles, carpets and ceramics (Robinson, 1988)

Yet this interaction between designers, couturiers,

illustrators and artists had in fact been a reciprocal

relationship since the early 1900's when experimental forms

of Art Deco had been affected by the oriental influence of

the Fauvists and Cubists (Arwas, 1980).

Just as the Paris Exposition Universielle of 1900 had

been held to celebrate the arrival of the new century, twenty-five years later the L'Exposition Internationale des

Arts Decoratifs et Industriels Modernes was held to celebrate the arrival of the second quarter of the twentieth century.

Similarly the 1900 Exhibition was used to proclaim French

supremacy in the decorative and fashionable arts through a

celebration of the Art Nouveau style of design. These soft pastels, free flowing forms and curvilinear shapes were swept

away and the feature of the 1925 Paris Exhibition was a style

of design based on clear, acid colors and angular shapes.

The Exposition des Arts Decoratifs et Industriels consecrated the design work of those artists who had been 50

developing their sumptous style in the years since Josef

Hoffmann had exhibited his first designs (Arwas, 1980),

Although it was basically a French showcase for French

designs, one factor remained constant throughtout the

exhibition. It was not to be a celebration of past

achievements but a forward-looking exhibition and the theme

'modern' was reiterated throughout (Arwas, 1980).

The following quotation from the official catalogue of

the 1925 Paris exhibition emphasizes the close relationship

which had developed during the previous decades between women's fashions and art.

The best men's tailors and shirtmakers may be in London but there is no woman who does not dream of being dressed in Paris. This supremacy in the field of fashion has brought to France not only financial profit but a far-reaching influence overseas. It is right that fashion should take a privileged place among the decorative arts displayed in the Grand Palais, for fashion is essentially an art . . Fashion, like all other arts, interprets the beauty. An elegant woman in a beautiful dress constitutes a harmony and rhythm of line and colour.

The Exhibition, essentially French, was unmistakably

twentieth century. Furthermore it marked the end of

traditional influences and the beginning of the union between

art and industry (McClinton, 1971).

As the Art Deco style developed and changed during the

first quarter of the twentieth century, women's fashions

experienced an evolution towards simplicity. To fully 51

comprehend the Art Deco era, it will prove invaluable to

systematically examine the general history of 1915 to 1925

dress. The Qeli~~~ior, a fashion magazine of the era, was

selected as a suitable primary source from which to draw visual parallels. Described by Hollander (1980) as a

relatively sedate women's magazine, Ih~ ~elin~ato~ is a

reliable example of early twentieth century fashion.

Specifically the publication offers descriptions and detailed

sketches of the latest French design collections, commentary

on what Parisan women were actually wearing and discussion on how these styles were being altered and adapted by their

American counterparts.

Th~ Delineator was published throughout the period 1915

to 1925 unlike a number of others including 1~ Ga~~tt~ 9~ Bon

Ion and tl~rper~ J2~~~~!:.· While Ihe Qelineato!:_ will be used

extensively throughout this discussion, a number of secondary

sources will also be utilized.

tli~tory of 1~15 iQ l~~~ Qre~~ The declaration of war in August 1914 changed the world

of haute couture, as within a few days most of the large

Parisian fashion houses had closed at least temporarily

(Battersby, 1988). "War or no war, Paris was determined that

her role as creator of fashion and arbitrator of elegance was

not going to be usurped by either London or New York" 52

(Robinson, 1976, p. 62). However the war did not halt the

inevitable evolution of new styles of clothing (Behling,

1977). During the war, fashion reflected the spirit of the

times and therefore the practicalities and necessities of wartime. The fashion silhouette went through a number of

dramatic changes during this time yet styles seemed to evolve

naturally towards the low-waisted chemise dress of the 1920s.

The typical silhouette of 1915 combined a full skirt and

a waistcoat bodice with an accentuated collar. There was a

move towards greater simplicity and not surprisingly the princess line was favored by many designers. The skirt

lengths on dresses from couturiers such as Worth, Paquin, the

Callot Soeurs, Redfern and Doucet ranged from midcalf to just

above the ankle (Behling, 1977). The handkerchief hemline was also seen in this year. Muslin, organdie and tulle were

often embroidered and used for daywear while for evening

dresses metallic embroidered fabrics were combined with gold

and silver lace (Battersby, 1988). It is interesting to note

the December issue of 1915, The Delineator made mention of a

somewhat modern notion of fashion. 11 The new French fashions

recognise but two ages - young and younger. Middle Age has been indefinately postponed: old age does not exist'' (p. 89)

Hemlines were not the only part of the fashion

silhouette that began to show evidence of change. During

this period, the waist dropped from an Empire line to its 53

natural position and as floor length draped skirts began to

rise. They also became enormously full. Battersby (1988)

suggests that these full skirts were a practical solution to

the disappearance of automobiles as they gave women the

freedom to walk. However some of the simpler dresses

required twenty and some even thirty yards of tulle to

achieve an exaggerated look of feminity (Robinson, 1976)

In 1916, the majority of designers dropped their

hemlines so just the feet showed and skirts became very full

almost assuming crinoline proportions, and often featured

paniers. According to the January issue of Ih~ ~~lirr~~~Q~,

there was a belief that the French dressmakers were

deliberately designing styles based on the fashions of the

Franco-Prussian War Period (1870s) . Since Paris houses were

re-establishing the bodice and were approaching the

crinoline with featherbone and wire. The collars of the

dresses extended to the ear-lobes often completely concealing

the neck to the chin. This was to be a much copied fashion

innovation of 1916 (Behling, 1977). During 1916, English

things became chic in Paris and under the war conditions, the

English tailored suit by designers such as Redfern, became very popular. These garments were usually in the natural

shades of dust, olive drab and other service colors

~~lirr~~~Q~, January 1916). Evening dresses tended to be

conservative although they were ankle-length and less 54 voluminous than those worn during the day (Battersby, 1988).

Research suggests that there were essentially two fashion silhouettes that were popular during the years 1916 and 1917. The Louis Seize silhouette with a full skirt with puffs of fabric over the hips and a silhouette of straight lines with a normal waistline which dominated the fashion scene of 1916. This style was often described as 'the new military smartness' or 'war-time simplicity' since both dresses and suits possessed a uniformlike appearance. The barrel silhouette gave variety to this military look. By

1918, a number of other silhouettes were vying for dominance, one being a straight gown with a dropped waistline. The boat neckline became very popular in 1917 and 1918.

By 1918, the Louis Seize look had disappeared and designers began to show dresses which emphasized straighter lines. Hemlines during this year lowered to around the ankle. Furthermore the House of Worth featured gowns with a dropped waistline that were similar to the silhouette of the

1920s.

The end of the war saw the fashion houses in a state of confusion as far as design was concerned. Some designers were hoping for a return of pre-war styles while others were facing the reality that the elaborate and impractical fashions of the pre-war years were anachronistic in a world of harsher realities (Battersby, 1988). Women, from 55

necessity had tasted a certain physical freedom of movement

during the war and were not prepared to surrender any of

their new liberty (Lesiuetre, 1974). It seemed a new

conception of fashion was imperative but fashion designers

for a least a year, continued as though there had not been a

disruption to the fashion scene.

In 1919 Parisian haute couture once again began to

resume its dominant role although it took several years

before fashion settled down and developed a general style

which was uniform among all couturiers. According to

Battersby (1988), the oriental influence could still be

observed in harem skirts which were worn in the evening.

Skirts were either swathed and cut into paniers at

the hips or in two or three gathered tiers. As the year progressed this eclectic mixture continued although there

seemed to be a slight favoritism toward the sack dress and

'v' necklines. Many evening dresses were almost floor length

and there was a passion for embroidery and other decorative

techniques.

Embroidery takes its toll of the new fashions and there is very little that escapes it . The thinner summer tissues, silk crepes and cotton voiles are much beaded, while the heavier-than-air-materials are embroidered and braided. Batik is responsible for a new combination of stencilling and embroidery.

The waistline however was still in the normal position and

the bodices of dresses were unfitted, with the bust flat as 56

it was to remain for the rest of the decade.

During the 1920s, women visually transformed themselves

into feminized versions of their male counterparts and the

gamine was born. Milbanks (1989) maintains that twenties

fashion can be summed up in a single garment, the tubular

dress. Although it did not suddenly appear on the fashion

scene nor was it worn throughout the entire decade since

during the twenties, women were offered a number of choices.

The following quote from the December 1920 issue of The

~~lin~ator succinctly summarizes the fashion philosophy of

the day.

There is no more fascinating study than the psychology of dress . To-day the ego of the modern woman, her craving for self-expression, her insistance on her own individuality reveals itself in the multipicity and variety of styles which permit each woman to dress her own part. She may be demurely Victorian in a Lanvin frock, or as exquisitely classic as a figure on a Greek vase in the draperies affected by Callot. She may choose the sac coat of the English flapper or resort to the draped wrap that becomes, in the hands of the Parisan, a thing of artifice and coquetry. But first and foremost she is herself, and her motto, whether displayed under three ostrich plumes or a new coiffure, is "I Choose" (p. 89) .

The year 1920 was much like 1911 in terms of fashion

since there was a broad range of styles. Most couturiers

were combining various design elements from fashions seen

before and during the war in an attempt to create something

new. Hemlines hovered between midcalf and just below the knee. Likewise the waistline wandered from the normal line 57

to the hip. One of the most popular skirt silhouettes was a

belle shape with a natural waistline although there was also

a trend towards the sack dress. An obvious trend in 1920 was

to add color to haute couture with the introduction of a riot

of brillant hues including deep shades of sapphire, emerald

and turquoise (Th~ ~~lin~~tor, November 1920). Suits had

long, blazerlike jackets while coats with wrap or surplice

fronts were popular (Milbanks, 1989). However dresses tended

towards a soft fullness, often with many ruffles, hip

draperies, tunics or harem hems <1he ~~li~eator, March 1920).

There was little change in the general line during 1921

although hemlines began to move down. Some dresses favored

a medieval look. Middle Age details such as long, trailing

sleeves, bateau necklines, low girdled belts, deep tones, and pseudo 18th century embroideries were incorporated by a

number of designers (Milbanks, 1989). The majority of

designers showed a midcalf length or lower and there was a

preponderance of natural waistlines. According to Battersby

(1988), the lack of any significant change during this year

was somewhat like a holding of breath in wait for the rapid variations that would be characteristic of the remainder of

the decade. Day dresses tended to lack imagination but the

evening gowns of this period could easily be described as

works of decorative art. Kery (1986) suggests that the term

'wearable art' could have been born during this era, for 58

fashions were often exquisite works of art which developed to

such a state of excellence that fashion was to be given its

own exhibition space at the 1925 Paris Exposition .

. each being an exclusive and painstaking creation designed for a particular lady of society. Each was individually made, piece by piece, with linings and interlinings and boning and a thousand hooks and eyes. Fabrics already rich in textures were not allowed to rest on their laurels, but were trimmed with fabulous gold lace and elaborate embroideries in beads and sequins and jewel-like stones (Robinson, 1979, p. 74).

As the style (but not the surface decoration) of dresses

became simpler, wraps and cloaks became more luxurious

(Milbanks, 1989).

In 1922, the hemlines of dresses dropped almost to the

ankle and the waistline dropped to the level of the hips or

was nonexistent. Designers accentuated the emphasis on vertical line through tunics of striped fabric or by vertical

pleats and tucks (Battersby, 1984). Parenthically during

this period, fashion illustrators began to depict this

linearity through models with tubular bodies and elongated

limbs (Kery, 1986). "This new fashion in feminine shape with

its straight-edged, almost harsh silhouette was in the same mold as the Art Deco style of design, as in the same manner,

the buxom, corseted curves of the Gibson Girl echoed the taste for Art Nouveau during the Belle Epoque" (Robinson,

1976, p. 76). However 1922 dresses were not always a tubular

shape, some dresses had dropped waistlines with tiered and 59 ruffled skirts. These taffeta day and evening dresses were inspired by an exhibition of Costume of the Second Empire held in Paris in June 1922 (Battersby, 1988). According to the May 1922 issue of The ~eline~i~~. many of the 'smart shops on the avenue' were featuring the 'robe de style'.

Apparently these dresses had been copied quite faithfully from the off-the-shoulder bodice and spreading skirt of the

Eugiene period. The bateau neckline appeared on most models, and in this year the craze for silver was applied to dress and numerous accessories. In 1922, many evening gowns were straight sheath-like gowns although they were almost always covered with embroideries of crystal beads. They also had a marked preference for silver cloth with panels of silver lace and silver flowers

Fashions of 1923 seemed to be in a state of flux. There existed an indecisiveness which seemed to be a reflection of the times (Behling, 1977). The vertical emphasis continued, the skirt length was still at ankle-length even for day dresses and the waistline was at hiplevel. In some instances the waist was unmarked which seemed to be an indication of the chemise dresses to come (Battersby, 1988). Evening gowns were decidedly formal. They were sleeveless with greater length than previous years since they reached the ankles and touched the floor in points of panels, sashes and draperies

By 1923, fashion seemed to be divided into four basic styles: the sheath, the circular, the bouffant and the draped. The straight-hanging dress for day and evening was advocated by couturiers such as Chanel. The spareness of this streamlined silhouette was contrasted with such opulent materials as brocades, embroideries and all-over beading.

The bouffant style was a more nostalgic, feminine look.

These romantic fashions were exemplied by the designs of

Poiret, Lanvin, Drecoll and Callot Soeurs and favored the full-skirted 'robe de style' made in taffeta and organdies and embellished with ribbons, flowers and lace (Milbanks,

1989) .

Generally day fashions were being steadily modified by a taste for sport, which was to become more and more pronounced as the decade progressed (Robinson, 1979). Dresses continued to be smart but became more functional especially for younger women. Collections of 1923 gave some indication of the shorter skirts which would arrive the following year. To achieve this linear effect the bust was flattened and the hips suppressed in corsets.

In 1924, geometric designs were everywhere in fashion.

Beaded dresses were elaborated decorated with sunbursts, ziggurats and lots of fringes (Milbanks, 1989).

In the winter of 1925, the knee length skirts which have come to characterize the 1920s decade were introduced. 61

Although they rose to unprecedented heights, they would not reach their highest point until the following year. The waistless sheath with no indication of bust or hips was still the predominant style. Extra fullness beneath a tunic effect was achieved by means of pleats or a circular cut. Dresses were sleeveless and often favoured a "V" neckline. The Paris forecast for Spring 1925 claimed the ensemble outfit would be the most important costume of the season C1he ~eli~~~i~~.

February 1925). Evening gowns became increasingly 'vampish' with daring decolletages which often exposed the back to the waist with only a minimal covering for the breasts

(Battersby, 1984).

The year 1925 marked the beginning of a new era but much of the fashion innovation displayed dated back a decade or more. The change in fashion was quite distinct, with the exotic Orientalism and bold colors of the Ballets Russes giving way to a streamlined functionalism that produced the flat-chest, boyish shape and the short-skirted, waistless tube worn by the flappers (Kery, 1986). Both of which were a striking contrast to the tightly corsetted, full-bosomed, bell-shaped styles of a generation before,

§.~~!:.Y The literature reviewed provided a solid basis for the 62 present research. It described the aesthetic model of fashion specifically the Art Movement Model proposed by Horn and Gurel (1981) and aimed to establish the existence of a significant relationship between art and dress through examples of a number of art movements and styles. Since the study's main focus is the Art Deco - dress nexus, the Art

Deco style was defined and the style's development during the early part of the twentieth century was examined. Finally the evolution of women's dress during the Art Deco era was described in order to fully appreciate the disparate and complex aspects that may in some way affect the study.

The resulting review of literature offers a number of insights into the relationship between Art Deco and dress and as such, suggests a worthwhile yet neglected area of research. Although it appears that the Art Deco style reached its florescence prior to 1925, the first stage of the research required the identification of Art Deco garments and their particular traits. To this end, five hypotheses were formulated to guide the collection and analysis of data.

1. Garments described as 'Art Deco' will emphasize linearity evidenced by a tubular or rectangular silhouette.

2. Garments described as 'Art Deco' will emphasize geometry evidenced by the incorporation of geometric 63

forms and/or structural design features within the garment.

3. Garments described as 'Art Deco' will emphasize purity of color evidenced by the incorporation of saturated primary colors and/or sharp, color contrasts in dress design.

4. Garments described as 'Art Deco' will emphasize geometry evidenced through applied design i.e. geometric/stylized motifs.

5. Art Deco garments will often incorporate fabrics which emphasize surface texture, unusual textural combinations and metallic surface treatments. CHAPTER III

METHOD

It was the purpose of this research to identify the

Art Deco style as it was expressed in women's garments from the decade 1915 to 1925. Using examples from five selected

Ohio historic costume collections, the investigator conducted a detailed analysis which identified specific Art Deco attributes as they were represented in the items selected for study. Since the study required in-depth analysis of a range of clothing items, including capes, coats, evening dresses, and day dresses of the period, an art-historical approach was selected as the appropriate methodology to facilitate the qualitative analysis.

This chapter, devoted to the presentation of the method used in the research, includes sections focusing upon sampling procudure, selection and development of the instrument, data collection, and analysis of data.

~~mEling f~QQ~gur~~

A total of five Ohio historic costume collections were

64 65 selected to provide crucial data for the research. It was anticipated, that due to their locale, several midwestern collections might offer a broader range of expression than might have been found in one city. Specifically, the Ohio historic costume collections would enable the investigator to select garments across the ten year period including items from the mid to late teens, early twenties and mid twenties.

Likewise such collections would include designer names, dressmaker and homemade examples of American and European women's garments. Furthermore, the use of five collections would facilitate the selection of quality examples of Art

Deco garments from the decade in question.

The historic costume collections included the Historic

Costume and Textiles Collection at The Ohio State Univeristy

(Columbus); the Kent State Museum at The Kent State

University (Kent); the Mary C. Doxsee Collection for

Historic Costume and Textiles at The Ohio University

(Athens); the Western Reserve Historical Society (Cleveland) and the Cincinnati Art Museum (Cincinnati) . These five collections were selected for the quality and quantity of women's items from the decade 1915 to 1925.

Each institution was contacted by the investigator through an introductory letter explaining the purpose of the research and requesting assistance. Preliminary responses to questionaires from curators enabled the researcher to 66 determine accessibility, the range and size of the sample, whether garments could be photographed and convenient times to collect data (Appendix B) .

Only those garments dated between 1915 to 1925 were considered for the study. However since it is an acceptable and often necessary practice of a number of historic costume museums and collections to classify items under fairly broad time periods e.g. late 1910s, early 1920s, etc. such garments were considered on the basis of approximate dating within the decade in question. It was anticipated that a number of

1920s garments including both dresses and capes would be classified in this manner.

The study was limited to ten garments from the decade

1915 to 1925. To reach this total, one, two or three garments were selected from each of the five Ohio collections, depending on the quality of the garments available. If more than three garments from a single collection were considered appropriate to include in the study, they were photographed, analyzed and sketched. After all five collections were visited, the researcher selected examples that had not been represented in the study. This process necessitated selecting a garment from each of the categories, i.e. capes, coats, evening dresses and day dresses. Moreover, the investigator ensured that each time period, including mid to late teens, early twenties and mid- 67 twenties was included. An attempt was also made to select items with designer labels, those without, and homemade examples from both European and American sources. This process ensured that a diverse range of quality Art Deco garments was utilized for the study.

Within each costume collection, garments which displayed a clear and obvious Art Deco influence and were dated between

1915 and 1925 were selected. Art Deco characteristics such as linearity, geometry, purity of color, surface texture and stylization formed the basis for garment selection.

As previously mentioned, this sample included a wide range of expression. It was anticipated that such a sample would contribute to a clearer understanding of the florescence of the Art Deco style in women's dress during the

1915 - 1925 decade. Furthermore, the identification of Art

Deco attributes such as linearity, geometry and purity of color in a diverse sample of garments, would substantiate the claim that Art Deco was a fully developed style prior to the

1925 Exposition in Paris.

lnst~~~eni ~~1~£tign ~n1 ~ev~lo:Em~ni

A total of ten garments were analyzed, photographed, and sketched for the study. To aid in the collection of data, the investigator employed a systematic method to identify Art

Deco variables that exist within dress. Since only selected 68

Art Deco garments were included in the study, it was not necessary to include non-Art Deco variables.

The initial stage of this process involved compiling a list of the various ways in which Art Deco characteristics would manifest themselves in women's garments. These features included silhouette, geometric forms, texture

(fabric), color and color combinations, structural design, applied design and geometric/stylized motifs (Appendix C) .

The resulting information was grouped into categories which provided the basis for the proposed instrument of analysis.

Since no historical research had addressed this issue, data concerning Art Deco characteristics was obtained from a compilation of sources. An Art Deco checklist was developed loosely modelled upon an observation form used by Garling

(1985) in her photographic and written catalogue of Art Deco influence on 1925-1929 dress design. Since Garling's (1985) research was predominantly concerned with how Art Deco effects were achieved through structural features and construction techniques, greater emphasis was placed on categorizing a full range of specific Art Deco attributes which influenced dress.

As a style, Art Deco was a highly diverse and eclectic expression of an art form, and its development followed an evolutionary path (Kery, 1986). The result is a necessary investigation which would isolate Art Deco characteristics 69 which have become the so-called 'trademarks' of the style.

However since most descriptions of Art Deco apply to other media, it was imperative to identify comparable parallels between the characteristics of the decorative style and its manifestations in dress.

In brief, the characteristics most prominent in the Art

Deco style include an emphasis on the linear, the geometric in particular, and the incorporation of pure, bright colors.

To aid in the analysis process, it was important to identify how these attributes were reflected in dress. Table 1 summarizes the manner in which Art Deco characteristics may be expressed in dress.

From the summary table, the Art Deco characteristics were developed into catergories on an Art Deco checklist

(Appendix D) . This checklist ensured the uniform collection of relevant data.

In order to test the validity of the proposed instrument, the checklist was examined and assessed by a professor from the Art History Department. Although this was a single rater outside the clothing area, it was felt that her knowledge of twentieth century decorative arts would provide a valid evaluation. Alterations considered necessary were made prior to the commencement of the study.

To establish the reliability of the above mentioned instrument and the proposed testing method, a preliminary Table 1 - Sunrnary of Art U:!co Characteristics Expressed in Dress 70

Linearity:

1. rectangular/tubular silhouette 2. basic simplification in lines of clothing

Gearetry:

1. geanetric forms within dress design 2. structural design manipulations 3. gearetric motifs

Purity of Color and/or Sharp Color Contrasts:

1. primary colors 2. use of solid backgm.md and highlight/definition

Surface Texture:

1. fabrics with snnoth, clean surfaces 2. materials with the ability to capture/reflect light i.e. metallics 3. tm.usual coobinations of materials within one ganrent

Stylization:

1. applied design features 2. stylized motifs 3. two-

Ohio State Collection and an afternoon dress from the Mary C.

Doxsee Collection for Historic Costume and Textiles at The

Ohio Collection, was conducted. Moreover this pilot test ensured the appropriateness of the testing method as judged by an outside researcher. This pretest ensured the instrument's applicability to a range of garments. It also allowed for any weaknesses or problems within the checklist to be identified and revised before the analysis of the actual garments commenced. Paoletti (1982) suggests that while it is advisable to use a tested instrument already in use, a preliminary test of an adapted instrument by readers other than the researcher will result in the detection of bias and ambiguity.

Data ------Collection As previously mentioned, a total of ten women's garments were selected for detailed analysis in five historic costume collections. Only those items which revealed an obvious Art Deco influence were considered by the investigator. A full frontal photograph and if neccessary, a backview of each garment were taken. T-stands or mannequins were used against a uniform background. Prior to data collection, the researcher was aware if these items were 72 available for use within the collection or if they needed to be supplied by the investigator. If there were excessive weaknesses at the shoulder area, the garments were to be photographed flat.

As part of the analysis, general information was recorded and then specific details were extensively noted on the Art Deco Trait Checklist (Appendix D). Since the incorporation of Art Deco designs and motifs were a vital facet of the research, detailed sketches of these motifs were made. It was anticipated that the photography, documentation and sketching process would require three to four hours per garment.

The resulting data formed the basis for in-depth qualitative analysis of the ten Art Deco garments. Using an art historical approach, each clothing item was discussed in much the same manner as any artwork, that is, by systematically examining and analyzing the various components of the work or the garment. According to Barnet (1989), such a complex task requires a logical progression through applicable artistic elements and principles from major to minor aspects e.g. subject matter, line, media, color, space, composition, and decorative line. (For a more detailed discussion of this topic, Chapter 2 in ~Eiii~g ~~B~i art by

Sylva Barnet is recommended by the researcher) .

The analyses of these garments formed the basis for the 73 final stage of the research which involved a synthesis of all relevant data. Visual parallels, including written descriptions and figures, were drawn to supporting sources which included architecture, interior design, fine arts and other well-documented Art Deco fashions.

To illustrate and clarify this discussion, the investigator referred to photographs of individual garments.

To further aid this process, attention was drawn to specific decorative details which were evident in the various sketches of Art Deco designs and motifs used to decorate the selected garments.

Resulting data was presented in the form of summary tables. Such information assisted in clarifying the assumptions made regarding the articulation of the Art Deco style in dress in the decade prior . Each of the Art Deco characteristics - linearity, geometry, structural design, color, applied design, geometric/stylized motifs, surface texture and metallic surface treatments identified within the stated hypotheses, were discussed using appropriate examples from the five Ohio historic costume collections. This discussion also utilized and expanded upon the Art-Dress

Model (Figure 1) introduced in Chapter II. CHAPTER IV

PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS

The very nature of qualitative research, specifically that which utilizes an art-historical methodology, requires detailed and systematic analysis. To facilitate this discussion, the first section of the research presents a written description of the ten Art Deco garments from the decade 1915 to 1925. The garment analyses are grouped in the general categories of capes, coats, evening dresses, and day dresses. Appropriate visual parallels from early twentieth century fine and decorative arts are used to demonstrate how

Art Deco traits found expression in a range of diverse artforms, including dress. This discussion will focus upon the flowering of the Art Deco style prior to 1925.

The second part of the research discusses the findings in light of the five stated hypotheses with the aid of summary tables. The Art-Dress Model discussed in Chapter II is also utilized to further understand the unique interrelationships which existed between the arts, during the early part of the twentieth century.

74 75

To aid in this discussion, the findings will be presented under the following headings:

1. Review of Selection Process.

2. Presentation of Analyses of Garments by Categories.

3. Discussion of Hypotheses.

4. Summary.

1. R~y!_ew .Q.f ~~1.~cti.Q.!l Pr.Q_£eS~

Five midwestern historic costume collections were used in the study. With the aid of curators and collection assistants, a total of thirty-five garments from the period

1915 to 1925 were photographed. Of these, twenty-five garments were eliminated from the study. Garments were rejected if they possessed a number of characteristics shared by another garment in the sample. For example, garments were selected in each of the four categories, capes, coats, evening dresses and day dresses. An attempt was made to represent each time sub-period of the decade, (mid-to-late teens, early twenties and mid twenties). Furthermore, whether garments were European or American and whether they were attributed to a designer, dressmaker or homemade source were also secondary criteria for selection (Table 2).

It was not the intent of the investigator to use this criteria to make comparisons between the various categories i.e. designer vs. homemade. Rather, the ten Art Deco items Table 2 - Sumnary of SecondaI:y Criteria far Selection of Art ~o GaJ::Irents

SE0JNDARYCRITERIA

Ti.ma Provenance Production Sources Type of GarI!E!lt early mid late Eur. Amar. Unkncl\.m I::esign. Dress. H/Made - Canes

l. Blade satin evening x x x 2. Teal velvet evening x x x

Coats

3. Gray satin evening x x x 4. Gold & blacl.t lama evening x x: x:

Evening Wear

s. Fotmal black evening x x x: 6. Mauve evening x: x x 7. I.'lioma.l bl.ac!:t evening x x x

Day Wear

8. Orange ensali:Jle x x x 9. Green & gold aftem:x:n x: x: x 10. InfOtIDal. black & gi:eec. day x x: x

Total 1 4 5 4 s l 2 7 l

~ 77 formed a heterogeneous group which offered a diverse selection of quality garments from the decade in question.

The in-depth analyses of the Art Deco garments will be presented by category and will be accompanied by appropriate visual parallels. A list of the ten selected items is as follows:

1. a black satin evening cape (Accession# 69.8.1) £i~£~ 1920 from the Western Reserve Historical Society, Cleveland, Ohio.

2. a teal velvet evening cape (Accession # 1988.318.122) ci~£~ 1920 from the Ohio State University Historic Costume and Textiles Collection, Columbus, Ohio.

3. a gray satin evening coat designed by Leffingwell's of New York, Chicago and Paris (Accession # 1966.1225) £irca 1915 from the Cincinnati Art Museum, Cincinnati, Ohio.

4. a gold and black lame coat £i~ 1920 from the Kleibacker Collection on loan to The Ohio State University Historic Costume and Textiles Collection, Columbus, Ohio.

5. a formal black evening dress (Accession # 1983.001.0280) £irca 1925 from The Kent State University Museum, Kent, Ohio.

6. a mauve evening dress designed by Hattie Carnegie (Accession# 1983.001.0328) ci~ca 1925 from The Kent State University Museum, Kent, Ohio.

7. an informal black evening dress (Accession# 72.7.1) £ir£~ 1925 from the Western Reserve Historical Society, Cleveland, Ohio. 78

8, an orange dress and coat ensemble (Accession# 1964.792 ab) £i~£~ 1925 from the Cincinnati Art Museum, Cincinnati, Ohio,

9. a green and gold afternoon dress (Accession # 1978. 391 ab) £ire~ 1921/23 from the Cincinnati Art Museum, Cincinnati, Ohio.

10. an informal black and green day dress £ire~ 1925 from the Mary C. Doxsee Collection for Historic Costume and Textiles at The Ohio University.

Two evening capes were selected for analysis. The first

was a black silk cape (Acc.# 69.8.1) from the Western Reserve

Historical Society, Cleveland and the second was a teal

velvet evening cape (Acc.# 1988.318.122) from The Ohio State

University Historic Costume and Textiles Collection. Both

garments exemplify the ease with which the Art Deco style was

incorporated into the luxurious evening attire of the early

twentieth century.

The Cleveland evening cape was designed in Paris in 1920

by an unknown designer. The garment features a moderate

tuxedo collar in black silk which extends down the front to

the waistline. The cape encloses the body to mid-calf length

and lacks any structural details which would interfere with

this purity of line. It does however, utilize three curved

seams at the shoulder area which serve to fit the garment to

the curved contours of the shoulders (Plate I) . Plate I - Black satin evening cape circa 1920 79· fran the Western Reserve Historical society, Cleveland, Ohio. 80

The sheen of the black silk is effectively contrasted with a lining of pale pink/apricot marabou feathers (see

Glossary, Appendix E). This lining covers the interior of the cape and gives the outside surface a somewhat padded appearance.

The outer cape is covered in a chain-stitch, machine embroidery in pale apricot, green and gold metallic thread.

This pattern extends over the shoulder area to the waist and is repeated in reverse around the hem. The result is a heavily decorated upper and lower portion and a low waistline free from ornamentation. This creates the illusion of a waist/hipline.

The geometric pattern which covers the black silk cape consists of three rows of small squares in apricot, green, and gold (Figure 5) . This design is interrupted by a scalloped pattern which is repeated three times so that one scallop shape is dispersed between the preceeding two. In the center of each scallop is a stylized leaf motif, Several rows of gold chain-stitch complete this pattern. Within each of the resulting areas is a formalized flower, the center of which leads to a large tearshaped motif. The series of rectangular shapes are once again repeated.

The Ohio State evening cape shares a number of common features with the Cleveland example, yet possesses some distinct differences. The cape is in a teal blue, crushed • • • • • • 81 • • • • • •

• • • • • • • •

.. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Figure 5 - Detail of Clevelarrl evening cape. 82 velvet with a large blue fox, fold-down collar (Plate II)

It is lined in blue silk, a shade darker than the teal velvet.

The garment features side seaming and a soft gathering at the shoulders to accommodate the curves of the human form, in much the same way as the Cleveland cape. Apart from these structural manipulations, both evening capes are linear in their overall appearance.

As was typical of women's clothing of this period, the

Ohio State cape is elaborately decorated with crystal and white bugle beading and gold embroidery. These colors combine well with the subtle tones of the fur collar and are highlighted by the deep blue of the velvet.

An examination of the Ohio State cape's beading reveals a fountain motif in reverse, that is, the water is flowing down rather than upwards (Figure 6) . There is an emphasis on water motifs including shapes to represent bubbles, splashes and sprays of cascading water. This fountain motif covers the lower half of the evening cape. The sprays of water repeatedly join in the center of the garment. Each spray is interspersed with gold and silver shapes which represent bubbles. These in turn are surrounded by white angular shapes symbolizing splashes of water.

The fountain motif ends in a single pattern at the center back of the cape. This design is repeated around the Plate II - Teal velvet evening cape circa 1920 83 fran The Ohio State University Historic Costl.l!ll? & Textiles Collection, Colurrtms, Ohio. @ @

Figure 6 - Detail of Ohio State evenlllg. cape • 85 garment so that, in the front the pattern curves upwards at the front openings.

Unlike the Cleveland cape which lacks ornamentation at the waistline, the shoulder area and hemline border of the

Ohio State cape are free of beading. These two areas tend to balance each other in much the same way as the fur collar balances the cape's lavish embroidery.

Although the Cleveland and Ohio State capes are excellent examples of early twentieth century evening wear, they incorporate a number of features which are congruent with other capes of this period, particularly those influenced by Art Deco. Their linear silhouettes, emphasis on textural combinations and selection of sharp color contrasts are clearly in keeping with the Art Deco style.

Specifically, the use of elaborate surface decorations on both capes is characteristic of the style.

In regard to the Cleveland example, the fascination with birds and their exotic feathers is a constant feature of many Art Deco fashions, particularly those for masquerade and fancy-dress occasions. A ponchoir illustration~~ ~~1 ~~

~~gvages by Andre Marty (1921) shows two young women fleeing a fancy dress ball (Robinson, 1988, p. 119). One is dressed in a bell-shaped skirt of long brown feathers and a headdress of red and turquiose feathers. The other wears a triangular 86 skirt of bright yellow feathers.

A Vog~~ cover from 1916 by George Plank shows a model wearing a fantastical white seagull costume (Packer, 1980, p.

48). The outfit is complete with wing sleeves, down bodice and beak hat.

However the similarities between the Cleveland evening cape and other decorative arts of the era, do not end with the incorporation of feathers into the design process. The most eye-catching aspect of the Cleveland garment is its intricate embroidered pattern. The emphasis on symmetry and rectilinear forms evident in the cape's embroidery, is paralleled in most architecture and interior designs of the early twentieth century, in particular the works of Josef

Hoffmann (Bayley, Garner & Sudjic, 1986). Hoffmann's buildings possess an insistent geometry and a noticeable overall squareness. As with the evening cape, the Hoffmann style of architecture focused on the rectilinear and placed squares within squares to create an aesthetically balanced arrangement (Klein, McClelland & Haslam, 1986).

Likewise the analogy is even more apparent between the evening cape's use of geometry for decorative effect and the geometric style in both structure and ornament of Frank

Lloyd Wright. Wright's interiors, particularly his stained glass doors executed for the D. D. Martin House, in Buffalo,

New York (1904) focus on the decorative value of line and 87 shape (Figure 7). The decorative design of these doors evokes a geometric purity through their refined formalism.

The Cleveland cape's use of the cascading scallop, often used to represent falling water in Art Deco design (Klein,

McClelland & Haslam, 1986), is also evident in other works of early twentieth century art particularly in the applied arts.

Two clear examples of this Art Deco ornamentation are a porcelain urn and a porcelain vase both from the National

Porcelain Manufactory at Sevres commissioned in 1924-1925

(Klein, McClelland & Haslam, 1986, p. 88 & Brunhammer, 1983, p. 144). Both items are decorated with scallop designs around the upper portion while the middle and lower portions are left relatively unadorned much in the same way as the

Cleveland evening cape.

Unlike the Cleveland cape which incorporates both rectilinear and scallop motifs to embellish the surface of the garment, the Ohio State cape uses the formalized fountain motif to achieve a comparable effect. The prominence of this motif within the evening cape is perhaps, its most significant Art Deco feature.

From its inception in Ancient Egypt, the fountain motif has been a frequently reoccuring theme in Art Deco imagery particularly in metalwork. Most noteworthy are the works of

Edgar Brandt. His green patinated and silver-plated radiator cover with wire-mesh backing grill features a stylized 14 ~ 1-1

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Figure 7 - Frank Lloyd Wright's leaded glass doors for D. D. Martin House, Buffalo, New York, 1904. 89 fountain as its central and singular motif (Figure 8). The same motif is also repeated in wrought iron in the center of his fretwork chairs (Brunhammer, 1983, p. 64). One of the designer's major pieces, the wrought-iron screen 11 1' Oasis 11 was heightened with gold and exhibited at the 1925

Exhibition (Bouillon, 1989, p. 170). It incorporates fountains and waterfalls within a screen of tropical vegetation. Brandt also used the Art Deco motif repeatedly in doors and entranceways. The entrance doors of Cheney

Brothers, New York c. 1925, are in wrought iron with a gilt­ bronze application of the fountain motif above the actual doors (Duncan, 1986, p. 191).

Moreover this two-dimensional motif was extended into three-dimensional art by Roger-Henri Expert. In his Cactus

Fountain at the Colonial Exhibition in Paris in 1931, the architect designed a metal structure to symbolise an actual fountain (Bouillon, 1989, p. 232).

However the use of the fountain motif has not been limited to metalwork. The cascading arcs have been successfully replicated in the medium of glass. In the interior of the Parfumerie Francaise at the Paris 1925

Exhibition, the architect, Rene Lalique featured a glass

11 f ountain 11 to serve as the central focal point for the store

(Figure 9). Likewise, a moulded glass decorative panel c. 1925, by the same artist uses a similar stylized fountain Figure 8 - Radiator cover by Edgar Brandt c. 1920s. Figure 9 - Glass 'fountain' by Rene Lalique for interior of the Parfunerie Francaise at the Paris ~925 Exhibition fran M. Battershy's The Decorative Twenties, 1988, p. 38. 92 cascade (Battersby, 1988, p. 90).

The relative simplicity of the fountain motif has resulted in its appearance in many branches of early twentieth century fine and decorative arts. A somewhat stylized version of the design appears on a book binding of

Morocco leather with gilt tooling by Georges Crette (Arwas,

1980' p. 225) . Simple curvilinear lines and rows of small circles are used to represent the upward movement of the water in a similar manner as the design on the Ohio State evening cape.

In summary, the two evening capes possess a number of attributes which may be attributed to the influence of Art

Deco including linear silhouette, sharp color contrasts and unusual textural combinations. Most noteworthy is the use of lavish surface ornamentation on both examples. The designer of the Cleveland cape utilized embroidery while the creator of the Ohio State garment combined embroidery with beadwork to capture a well-known Art Deco motif.

---Coats The Cincinnati Art Museum and the Kleibacker Collection on loan to The Ohio State University Historic Costume and

Textiles Collection provided two fine examples of Art Deco evening coats. The Cincinnati coat (Acc.# 1966.1225) was designed by Leffingwell's of New York in 1915 while the Ohio 93

State coat is a later example, £~~£~ 1920. Due to their relative age differences, the two coats were designed somewhat differently yet both displayed a clear Art Deco influence.

The Cincinnati coat is constructed primarily of grey satin with an overall silver and gold metallic pattern of embroidered Art Deco roses (Plate III). As indicated in

Plate III, the front of the coat is wide and hangs straight from the shoulders. The garment lacks any structural details that would deviate from its simple linearity. Its only closure is a clasp at the neckline which prevents the somewhat heavy coat from falling off the shoulders.

Wide kimono sleeves fall to the wrists. These sleeves are joined to a wide single pdnel in the back of the coat, which falls from soft gathering at the shoulder area (Plate

IV). At waistlevel, the sleeves are joined to a row of long, silk fringe which ends just above a band of fur at the hemline. The fringing combined with the coat's floor-length, further emphasizes the linearity of its silhouette.

The smoothness of the satin is in sharp contrast to the severity of the metallic pattern which covers the entire surface of the coat. Likewise, the combination of smooth satin and soft fur adds an unusual textural interest. A large grey fur collar falls to the shoulder area while a wide Plate III - Gray satin evening ooat circa 1915 94 designed by Leffingwell's of New York, Olicago and Paris fran the Cincirmati Art Museun, Cincirmati, Ohio. Plate IV - Backview of gray satin evening coat. 95 96 band of the same, is applied to the hem to balance the garment and define its edges.

The Cincinnati evening coat is lined in bright red panne velvet which provides an interesting contrast to the grey satin. Due to the gathering in the front of the coat, the lining is easily observed with the slightest movement of the garment.

The grey satin is embroidered with an eye-catching pattern of metallic Art Deco roses which covers the entire surface of the coat. It is not random but rather, it is carefully composed of large, full-blown, stylized roses surrounded by smaller flowers and foliage (Figure 10) .

In contrast to the Cincinnati garment, the Ohio State coat appears to be a comparatively 'modern' garment with its woven gold and bronze design of tropical leaves. The garment clearly emphasizes a strong rectangular silhouette with no side shaping. Structurally this geometric emphasis has been repeated through the incorporation of a very large, fold­ back, fur collar and matching cuffs and three-quarter length, raglan sleeves (Plate V). Unlike the Cincinnati coat, the

Ohio State coat falls to below the knee. Its only closure is a clasp at the neckline.

The Ohio State coat is constructed of a gold, bronze and black lame. In a similar manner to the textural combinations used in the Cincinnati coat, the Ohio State example contrasts 97

Figure 10 - Detail of Cincinnati evening coat. Plate V - Gold and black lanE evening ooat circa 1920 98 fran the Kleibacker Collection on loan to The Ohio State University Historic CostUTE & Textiles Collection, Colunbus, Ohio. 99 the apparent severity of the metallics with the lush softness of the fox fur at the collar and cuffs. The body of the

Ohio State evening coat is lined in black crepe back satin while the inner edges of the sleeves and hem are lined in black silk velvet.

As previously mentioned, the evening coat features an overall design of large tropical palm leaves in bronze and gold on a black background (Figure 11). These leaves overlap each other in random fashion and reveal glimpses of the radiating sun motif. Other parts of the design incorporate a series of decorative circular motifs.

Although the Cincinnati evening coat is similar to other coats of the 1910s, the Ohio State coat is highly representative of 1920s evening wear although both were designed prior to the so-called 'Flapper Era'. However both garments possess a number of attributes which clearly suggest a direct influence from the Art Deco style. Their simple, unstructured line and use of geometric forms within the garment are very much in keeping with Art Deco bias.

Likewise the use of a number of distinct materials within one garment to create unusual textural effects and the use of metallic fabrics highlight the role of Art Deco in both evening coats.

While the source of inspiration was the Art Deco style, 100

Figure 11 - Detail of Ohio State evening coat. 101 a number of visual parallels exist between the Cincinnati evening coat and the arts of the early twentieth century. The most noticeable feature of the coat is the use of fringing or tassels at the back of the garment which, as a decorative detail, serve to lengthen the silhouette. Commonalities may be found between the Cincinnati evening coat, and an ermine and 1924 velvet coat/cape by Eduardo Benito (Packer, 1983, p. 65). Both garments are generous in their drape of lush fabric. While the Cincinnati coat incorporates a row of long noted silk fringe, the Benito coat/cape creates a fringe of ermine to achieve the same decorative effect.

A second example of this fringing is found in Erte's evening wrap, c.1915, which he designed for the music-hall and comedy star, Gaby Deslys (Figure 12). This wrap features an elaborate fringe of knotted tassels which extend around the back of the wrap from armlevel to the floor.

Another striking parallel suggests how a two-dimensional source may be extended to three-dimensional art. Points of similarity between the Cincinnati evening coat and a chryselephantine statuette by Solange Bertrand are obvious

(Arwas, 1980, p. 156). While the figurine is cast in polished gilt patinated, silver-inlaid bronze and tinted ivory, one can observe a full, fold-back collar in a non­ patterned material which may represent fur. The coat is generous over the shoulder area and falls to the floor with a 102

Figure 12 - Erte's costune for Gaby Deslys c. 1915 fran Erte's Theatrical CostUTEs,1979, p. 5. 103 layer of fringing at the hem. Most striking is the formalized floral motif which covers the surface of the

Bertrand statuette. This pattern is reminiscent of the stylized Art Deco roses used to embellish the Cincinnati coat. Both patterns incorporate large, full-blown roses surrounded by connecting foliage.

Stylistic parallels are easily distinguished since the

Art Deco rose has been incorporated into almost every aspect of the fine and decorated arts. The formalized rose is clearly evident in the decorative works of Aubrey Beardsley

(1890s) and in the lacquered plaques and panels of Carl Otto

Czeschka (1906) who helped establish the stylized basket of flowers as an emblem of the Art Deco style (Bouillon, 1989, p. 29).

However, it was Paul Iribe in 1908 who used Beardsley's rose to create a symbol and signature for Paul Poiret. It is possible to identify the Art Deco rose as a prominent motif on the Poiret fabrics for Andre Groult and the brocaded silks for Bianchini-Ferier (Bouillon, 1989, p. 93).

Perhaps one of the most well-known examples of the Art

Deco rose is the cover of the catalogue of the Nineth Salon of the Societe des Artistes Decorateurs, held in Paris in

1914 (Figure 13). Designed by Francois-Louis Schmied, the cover is a perfect example of everything that was French Art

Deco: controlled presentation, strict setting, repeated 104

Figure l.3 - Cover of the catalogue for the 9th Salon de la Societe des Artistes Decorateurs, 1914 by Francois-Louis Schmeid fran D. Klein's In the "():?co Style, ct986, p. 43. 105 geometric motifs and the central image of a bouquet of formalized roses in a vase of purified design.

Clearly the formalized rose was incorporated into a wide range of the arts, including interiors such as wallpaper, carpets, draperies and upholestry fabrics. Yet the motif also became a feature of many furniture pieces of the early twentieth century. An excellent example is the three-legged corner cabinet designed by Emile-Jacques Ruhlmann in 1916.

True to the French Art Deco style, the cabinet is lacquered rosewood inlaid with ivory, ebony and rare woods to create a large urn, filled and surrounded by a wealth of flowers and foliage (Figure 14) .

In much the same way as the designer of the Cincinnati evening coat incorporated the Art Deco rose, the creator of the Ohio State coat favored large tropical leaves to create a pleasing visual effect. This decorative motif was not restricted to dress, as it was frequently used by designers/artists in several branches of early twentieth century art.

The use of bold tropical plants is revealed in a brocade manufactured by Bianchini-Ferier in Paris (1923) which features a variety of large tropical leaves placed randomly over the fabric (Brunhammer, 1983, p. 100). In a similar manner to the Ohio State coat's design, the visual effect of the brocade is very much one of a lush jungle. 06

\.

Figure 14 - Three-legged comer cabinet by Emile-Jacques Ruhlmarm, 1916 fran J. Bouillon's Art Deco, 1989, p. 116. 107

This theme of exotic leaves is repeated in a leather binding by Pierre Legrain for Paul ~i Yi!:.9:ini~ by Bernardin de St Pierre, c,1925 (Figure 15), The cover is compiled of stylized tropical leaves in shades of green and brown. It displays a number of similarities with Edgar Brandt's motifs in the screen 11 l'Oasis 11 (Brunhammer, 1983, p. 62). This panel also features popular Art Deco motifs including Art

Deco roses and fountains.

A final example of the use of tropical foliage as a decorative motif is found in a wallpaper sketch by Joseph

Urban, 1930/31 (Duncan, 1986, p. 168). The wallpaper depicts detailed leaves in gold and green and was used in the dining roan of the Central Park Casino, New York.

In contrast to the Cincinnati evening coat which features a single motif, the Ohio State lame coat incorporates a number of Art Deco motifs including the much used stylized radiating sun design. Likewise its use of decorative circles filled with linear pattern was a common feature in many decorative artworks of the period.

A simplified version of the circular motif is found in a morocco binding for Andre Salmon's book of poems 1~

~al~~~i c.1920 (Bouillon, 1989, p. 154). The cover designed by Pierre Legrain is compiled of six overlapping circular forms which surround the title,

A later and more elaborate example is a firescreen by Figure 15 - leather binding by Pierre legrain, c. 1925. 109

Paul Fehes (1930-31) in wrought iron, aluminium and applied

copper which utilizes a selection of Art Deco motifs. The

central female figure is surrounded by a border of semi­

circles and stands upon a grouping of circular forms which

are almost identical to those in the Ohio State coat (Figure

16) . Each shape is filled with a different linear pattern.

Visually, the Cincinnati and the Ohio State coats appear

to lack any points of similarity. Through detailed analysis,

a number of commonalities appear evident, specifically the

incorporation of unusual textural combinations, the

preference for metallic surface treatments and the use of Art

Deco floral motifs. While the Cincinnati evening coat

features the Art Deco trademark, the stylized rose, the Ohio

State garment combines tropical leaves, the sunburst motif, and decorative circular patterns to embellish its surface.

]Y.§.!!i.!!9 ]£.§§.§..§§. Three evening dresses were included in the study. Two garments were selected from the Kent State University Museum

and one from the Western Reserve Historical Society,

Cleveland. The evening dresses ranged from formal to

relatively informal attire and were all Qi£Q~ 1925.

Despite museum dating, the researcher included these garments

since their lack of side shaping indicated they were dated no

later than 1926. no

., 1 '

·'~ ·1 .~ ·'·'~ ; ':i°j 1i I ""'"~~

Figure 16 - Wrought iron, aluninun and applied copper firescreen by Paul Feher (1930-31) fran J. Bouillon's Art Deco, 1989, p. 244. 111

The formal evening dress (Acc.# 1983.001.0280) from the

Kent State University Musuem was part of an exhibit titled

"The Fabulous Twenties'' and as such, was displayed on a

mannequin. The garment is an excellent example of what

costume historians have described as "luxurious works of

decorative art" (Robinson, 1976, p. 74). The garment is

elegant in its simple use of the vertical, exemplified by a

plunging V-neck in the front and a corresponding but

excessively lower treatment in the back (Plate VI).

The garment features a slight Empire waistline in the

front which dips to a more natural one at the back. The

dress is of three-quarter length in the front with a long, pointed train which trails to the floor, at the rear. The

low scooped back combined with this train results in a

draping effect which adds to the overall linear aspect.

The Kent State evening gown is constructed of black net

over black silk satin. The net is elaborately embroidered

with black, gold and silver bugle beads. A silver geometric pattern of serpentine diamond shapes covers the entire

surface of the dress although it is denser on the upper body.

Likewise the shoulder straps and neckline are beaded in

alternate rows of black, gold and silver beads.

The beading is most noteworthy on the train where the

edge is heavily worked in a border of interlocking diamond

shapes. At the center of each shape is a large black Plate VI - Fomal black satin evening gown circa 1925 112 fran The Kent State University Museum, Kent, Ohio. 113

rhinestone surrounded by gold embroidery and finally outlined

in alternating rows of black and gold beads. This pattern is

repeated on two panels which extend up both sides of the

skirt.

The bottom portion of the train displays an eye-catching

motif of large diamondlike shapes extending outwards towards

the silver serpentine pattern. On both sides of the central

figure are two stylized birds with large curvilinear beaks,

facing each other (Figure 17).

A second example from the Kent State Museum's exhibit

was a mauve evening dress (Acc.# 1983.001.0328) designed by

the American designer, Hattie Carnegie. More so than the

previous example, this evening dress reveals the

fashionability of clean lines and geometric forms in women's

dress of the 1920s. The dress clearly emphasizes a

rectangular silhouette. It is basically a shapeless shift with soft gathering at a natural waistline (Plate VII)

Structurally the designer has repeated this geometric

emphasis through the incorporation of a boat neckline and

angular armscyes. Sleeve bands run vertically from the

shoulder and are attached to a horizontal base around the

upper arm. Scarflike pieces of chiffon are attached to the

bands and serve to elongate the entire form.

The garment falls to below the knee although the chiffon

pieces at the arm bands fall to the lower calf. There is 114

Figure 17 - Detail of Kent State evening gown. Plate VII - Mauve evening dress designed by Hattie Carnegie 115 circa 1925 fron The Kent State University Museun, Kent, Ohio. 116 also a tied scarf at the waistline which creates an asymmetric look.

The dress is primarily constructed of a mauve textured silk chiffon which is faced with an orange-red, silk chiffon.

A red underdress is revealed both at the large armscyes and at the skirt sides which are split from waistline to hem.

This lining is also visible through the diaphanous chiffon.

Like the formal black gown, the mauve evening dress is also elaborately beaded. The chiffon is decorated with purple and silver bugle beads in a pattern which combines traditional stylized floral forms and Greek-style geometric shapes (Figure 18) . Each of these rectangular designs is beaded in silver, crystal beads which are in turn, outlined by an outer row of purple beads. The gathering in the lower portion of the skirt creates the impression of a more compact design. The sleeve bands are also beaded in alternate rows of silver and purple beads.

Parenthically, this use of heavy beading on such fragile fabric assists the evening dress to fall into the straight, tubular silhouette characteristic of the period. At the same time, the gathering at the waistline and the flowing scarves soften what would be a somewhat severe look.

The third example of evening wear was from the Western

Reserve Historical Society, Cleveland (Acc.# 72.7.1). This garment differs from the two Kent State dresses in that, it 117

Figure 18 - Detail of Kent State evening dress. 118 is a more informal garment. However, like so many examples from the mid 1920s, the designer of the Cleveland dress has drawn heavily on Egyptian motifs and designs to embellish the surface of an otherwise tubular garment (Plate VIII) .

Otherwise, little background information is available on the dress except that it was designed in France by an unknown dressmaker.

The dress is primarily constructed of black crepe. It is reminiscent of the previous example, in that the designer has combined a soft fabric with heavy and extensive beading.

A small scooped neck and dropped waistline add to the

Cleveland dress's simple structure. Long sleeves have been added at a later date. According to the curator of the

Western Reserve Historical Society, fabric had been removed from the skirt lining to create these sleeves. Originally the dress would have been a sleeveless chemise with large armscyes, very much in keeping with fashionable styles of the day.

Like the two previous examples of 1920s evening wear, the Cleveland dress is beaded. The dress features a stylized floral motif in pure green, red, royal blue and gold bugle beads (Figure 19). Its scooped neck incorporates an elaborate necklace effect as the beads are used to symbolize chains with Egyptian lotus flowers and opening buds hanging downwards. Plate VIII - Infannal black evening dress circa 1.925 11'9 fran the Western Reserve Historical Society, Cleveland, Ohio. 120

Figure 19 - Detail of Cleveland evening dress. 121

The lower portion of the chemise is more elaborately decorated with beading in saturated color. The deeply scalloped hemline incorporates a scarab beetle pattern with an individual beetle in blue, red or green occupying a single scallop area. Above the beetles, on the lower portion of the skirt, are stylized water motifs in zig-zag bands of blue and gold. These run horizontally around the skirt at knee level.

Rising from the water are small buds, young and full-blown lotus flowers. The largest of these is in the center of the dress and balances a similar flower which hangs from the neckline.

While all three evening dresses are c.1925, it is important to recognize distinct sources of inspiration, in regard to their decorative motifs. The designer of the Kent

State evening gown clearly favored angular lines and forms and incorporated the diamond motif extensively in its elaborate beading.

The diamond motif was used extensively in a number of decorative arts of the early twentieth century since its pure clean lines and simple form complemented a similar approach in architecture and interior design. Furniture designs by

Emile-Jacques Ruhlmann frequently incorporated panels of diamond motifs. A typical example is an amboyna corner cupboard c.1920-25 which features a door decoration with 122 a diamond shaped motif in ivory (Brunhammer, 19~3, p. 49).

Ceramic pieces were also decorated with a similar design treatment. A nickel silver and silver vase c. 1926 by Claudius

Linossier displays a glazed pattern of overlapping diamond shapes while a stoneware vase by Georges Serre c. 1917-29 is decorated with a similar pattern of etched diamond motifs

(Brunhammer, 1983, p. 110 & 141).

While the Kent State gown uses a variety of decorative motifs from disparate sources, the overall appearance of the garment recalls comparisons to the work of the fashion illustrator/artist, Erte. The majority of Erte's evening designs favored a linear silhouette which incorporated an elaborate trainlike effect at the back. The illustrator's love for geometric patterning is evident throughout his fashion sketches. However, the diamond motif figured prominently as a border to a cape in the December 1919 issue of Ha~Eer~ Baza~~ (Erte, 1976, p. 59). Erte designed a lavish wrap which featured a graduated diamond pattern made entirely from small tails. A street suit designed with a straight black velvet jacket, featured in the April 1925 issue of the same magazine. The hem and sleeves of the jacket are decorated with the same diamond motifs as are the pockets (Figure 20). In more recent years, Erte continued to use the diamond for decorative effect. His 1986 work La

~2~Eig~g~~ incorporated both the triangle and diamond to 123

-- - --

Figure 20 - Erte's street suit from April 25 issue of Harper's Bazaar. 124 create a curvilinear line around an elaborate cape (Lee,

1988, p. 139). Unique trousers are also constructed through the use of the diamond shape.

The comparison between the black evening gown and the designs of Erte do not end with the use of the diamond motif.

The train of the Kent State gown is beaded and embroidered with a variety of stylized forms. Most noteworthy among these are the two bird's heads at the side of the train. A large mumber of Erte's designs reveal close visual parallels.

An evening wrap from the March 1922 issue of li~EE~E~~ ~~~~~E features two embroidered gold parrots whose beaks hold the wrap's voluminous drapery (Erte, 1976, p. 87). More recently, in 1988, Erte designed [~~th~£ ~ow~ (Lee, 1988, p. 35). The bodice of which was constructed of two birds-of­ paradise while their tails became the body of the dress. In

~opac~bana (1983), the illustrator used two large parrots to establish the curvilinear form for his bell-shaped evening dress (Lee, 1988, p.108).

Clearly, the black evening gown reveals the impact of the fashion illustrator, Erte. The second example from Kent

State, a mauve evening dress draws from a number of distinct sources. However the task of identifying visual parallels between the Kent State evening dress and other artworks of the period, is made less troublesome by a number of distinguishing features unique to this particular item. The 125 use of scarves at the sleeve bands and at the waistline is comparable to the free-flowing garments worn by the avant- garde dancer, Isadora Duncan. Such devices were an aid in her presentation of modern, balletlike movements. Yet during the early part of the twentieth century, numerous designers used scarflike pieces of fabric to soften the fashionable rectangular silhouette. The illustrator Georges Lepape included such attachments to his angular gowns. An advertising leaflet for 1~~ ~agasin~ ~~ ~~irr~~~E~, 1922 used a model wearing a boat-neck evening gown with long strips of beaded fabric falling from the shoulders to below the waist

(Lepape & Defert, 1984, p. 102). In 1924-25, 1~ ~~~et~~ ~~ bon ~Qn featured an orange evening gown by Jeanne Lanvin, with thin beaded straps. To these were attached long flowing scarves which trailed to the floor (Lepape & Defert, 1984, p.

106)

In contrast to the black evening gown, the mauve dress effectively combines two intense colors, purple and red.

This is reminiscent of the brillant hues used by the French designer, Paul Poiret. A 1912 ponchoir illustration is based exclusively on these two colors (Arwas, 1980, p. 206). The body of the evening wrap is a deep purple while the shoulder area is embellished in crimson, The Poiret model reveals the inner lining which is also crimson. The cape achieves an effective color contrast in much the same manner as the Kent 126

evening dress.

The mauve evening dress is beaded in two very distinct motifs, the Art Deco rose and the geometric fret. Originally

an ancient Greek motif, the fret design is clearly evident in

a wide range of decoration arts including fashion

accessories. A vanity-case of imitation ivory c. 1925 is

decorated with an almost identical motif as that on the

evening dress (Battersby, 1988, p. 138). In each of the four

corners is a geometric fret pattern which extends outwards to

connect with its counterpart.

Likewise, a knotted rug by Bruno Da Silva Bruhns,

c. 1925-30, is based on a central design of interlocking triangles surrounded by an alternating Greek border and

undulating line (Figure 21). This is the same pattern used

in the beading on the Kent State evening dress and suggests

that both designers favored the decorative motifs observed in

classical Greek artifacts.

However this Greek motif also, finds points of

similarity in the fine arts particularly architecture. There

are striking commonalities between the Kent State fret design

and the rectangular shapes and forms used by J. L. Mathieu

Lauweriks in the 1909 interior design of a Christian art

exhibition at Dusseldorf (Bouillon, 1989, p. 83). The

harmony of the interior is achieved through the manipulation

of rectangular shapes and the decorative value of the 127

Figure 21 - Knotted rug by Bnmo da Silva Bruhns c. 1.925-30 fran Y. Brunhamner's Art ~co Style, 1.983, p. 98. 128 straight line. While Lauweriks utilized zig-zag imagery, the architect also valued the stepped shape which is repeated in a variety of shapes and sizes. Furthermore, the main wall and four pillars suggest a definite Greek influence.

Similarly, a fret border treatment is used to adorn the entrance hall of Bilsborrow Hall near Preston, Lancashire

(Battersby, 1988, p. 160). The interior was designed by

Woolfall and Eccles of Liverpool in 1923 and although the furniture is in the neo-Tudor style, the ceiling is highly reminiscent of Ancient Greek decorative motifs.

In much the same manner as the Kent State evening dress incorporated Greek motifs, the Cleveland evening dress displays a strong Egyptian influence in its selection of decorative motifs. The Art Deco style was extremely receptive to Egyptian designs. Although 'Tutmania' was initiated in the decorative arts of the 1920s, it gradually influenced the fine arts. A somewhat unique example of the utilization of an Egyptian theme is the semi-Cubist work, 1~~

~ani~ by Jean Dunand (Figure 22) . This small lacquered panel features two women, one white and one black, embracing.

Both figures are complete with geometric patterned loin clothes, headdresses and one wears a typical Egyptian style collar.

While a general Egyptian influence is observable within a wide range of fine and decorative arts of the period, the 129

Figure 22 - I.es Amants by Jean IXlnarrl c. l920s. 130

lotus motif in particular, is a prominent, singular

decorative motif. The elevator doors of the Chrysler

Building, New York, c. 1927-30 utilize a number of Egyptian

elements from the exterior of the William van Alen building.

Most noticeable is the stylized lotus flower which is the prime focal point of the design (Figure 23). Stylistically, the design is almost an exact replica of the beaded flowers

found on the Cleveland evening dress.

A much more elaborate treatment is given to the entrance

of the Circle Tower Building, Indianapolis (1929-1930)

(Duncan, 1986, p. 190). A maze of flora including lotus

flowers are carved into a limestone arch. The bronze doors are divided into a number of archs, each one depicting an

Egyptian figure in differing poses.

Just as the designer of the Cleveland evening dress used the lotus as the dominant motif of the dress, so did a number of other designers of three-dimensional works. Charles

Schneider produced a range of cameo-glass, vases, pitchers, bowls, and lightfittings with stylized floral, plant, animal and insect designs. One such overlaid glass vase c. 1925 is decorated with a number of lotus flowers (Arwas, 1980, p.

258)

It is relatively easy to identify commonalities between the Cleveland evening dress's use of the lotus design and

similar designs in other works of art. However, it is also 131

Figure 23 - Elevator doors of the Chrysler Building, New York, c. 1927-30. 132

possible to identify points of similarity between the scarab

beetles at the hem of the dress and other stylized insects

used for their decorative qualities. A number of glass

vases, bowls and cups inscribed 'La Verve Francais' are based

on designs of conventionalized butterflies, snails and other

insects. An acid-etched, glass vase was manufactured by

Charles Schneider in the early 1920s and depicts large

stylized beetles. The base and neck of the vase consist of a

stepped motif of elongated hexagons (Figure 24) . This

interest in insects is further evidenced in the textiles designs by E. A. Seguy (1924) with a collection of somewhat

grotesque beetles appropriately titled 'Insectes' (Robinson,

1988, p. 138). Apparently these designs would form the basis

for twenty different sheets of textiles.

Although three evening garments c, 1925 were selected

for analysis, each was clearly unique in style, fabric and decorative features. However, all displayed a range of Art

Deco attributes particularly in regard to their surf ace

embellishments. The formal black evening gown from Kent

State is reminiscent of the work of Erte. However the mauve

evening dress from Kent State and the black informal evening

dress from Cleveland draw inspiration from antiquity, Greek and Egyptian respectively. 133

Figure 24 - Glass vase manufactured by Charles Schneider, early 20s fran M. Battersby's The Decorative Twenties, 1988, p. 94. 134

~~ ~~~~~~~

A dress and coat ensemble (Acc.# 1964.792 ab) £~~£~ 1925 and an afternoon dress (Acc.# 1978.391 ab) £i~£~ 1921/23 from the Cincinnati Art Museum and an informal day dress (Acc.#

178) circa 1225 from the Mary C. Doxsee Collection for

Historic Costume and Textiles at the Ohio University were selected as quality examples of early twentieth century daywear. According to Colette of Y.Qgy~ by 1925, dress was

II . short, flat, geometrical and quadrangular. Feminine wear is fixed along the line of the parallelogram. And 1925 shall not see the comeback of soft curves, arrogant breasts and enticing hips" (Bouillon, 1989, p. 86). A description which could easily describe the three dresses in their unfitted appearance.

The first example from the Cincinnati Art Museum was an American dress and coat ensemble. The outfit was based on a simple vertical design and consisted of a straight, sleeveless slipdress with a scooped neckline and an unfitted rectangular coat with cap sleeves (Plate IX). The front of the coat fastens together at its V-neck yet remains open down the front to reveal the slipdress underneath.

Both garments are in a bright orange crepe de chine.

The soft drape of the fabric and the heavy beading around its edges, enable the garment to take its characteristic tubular

form. However the orange fabric also serves to highlight the Plate IX - Orange dress and ooat ensemble circa 1925 135 fran the Cincinnati Art Museun, Cincinnati, Ohio. 136 bronze and black rectangular motifs which cover the front and back of the coat.

The slipdress lacks any structural manipulations that would distract from its linearity. Its perfectly straight

line is interrupted by a single row of black and gold beads above the hem.

Yellow embroidery floss trims the edges of the neckline,

sleeves and front openings. The geometric border around the

neckline extends down the front panel of the dress. A small border of the same design adorns the sleeve edges and

hemline of the coat. This yellow border pattern is outlined

in rows of black and bronze bugle beads.

A dispersed geometric design of small black and bronze beads covers the coat surface. This dispersed pattern is repeated in a large geometric motif which seems to serve to emphasize the coat's apparent low waistline (Figure 25).

Similarly, an afternoon dress from the Cincinnati Museum of Art was designed in the United States by an unknown dressmaker. The dress features a low rounded neckline with drop shoulders and long, rectangular sleeves with thin ties at the wrists (Plate X) . The sleeves are constructed of alternate bands of blue-green and green chiffon. The hemline

is calflength. As in the previous example, the afternoon dress lacks shaping although it does have two triangular gold

flaps of lame low on the hips which serve to support 137

Figure 25 - Detail of Cincinnati enserrble. Plate X - Green arrl gold afternoon dress circa 1921-23 138 fran the Cincinnati Art Museum, Cincinnati, Ohio. 139 triangular gores inserted on both sides of the skirt. These devices simply add more fabric to the base of the skirt but do not deviate from the shapeless chemise.

The Cincinnati dress is constructed of blue-green silk chiffon. Although the sash belt is in a deeper shade of green chiffon, as are a number of bands in the sleeves. The chiffon features woven geometric designs in pale gold pile consisting of large radiating suns interrupted by angular lightning bolts. These motifs are surrounded by a series of three stepped, scallop designs and random triangular forms

(Figure 26) .

In contrast to the two Cincinnati garments, an informal day dress from the Ohio University offers some insights into the realm of homemade American clothing. The dress is basically a rectangular form with a slightly raised waistline and falls to below the knee. It features a scooped neckline which is bound and short sleeves with turn-back cuffs

(Plate XI) .

In a similar manner to the godets used in the Cincinnati afternoon dress, the creator of the Ohio day dress has incorporated a row of gathering on both sides of the skirt about waistlevel. This serves to soften the tubular nature of the garment. Strips of fabric have been attached, front and back to these areas. When tied, the presence of a waistline is suggested. Three press-studs on the left 140

Figure 26 - Detail of Cincinnati afternoon dress. Plate XI - Infonnal black arrl green day dress circa 1925 141 fran the Mary C. fuxsee Collection for Historic Costuie & Textiles at 'Ihe Ohio University, Athens, Ohio. 142 shoulder act as the garment's closures.

The Ohio day dress is constructed of polished cotton.

The bodice and sleeves are in a medium green and the skirt and cuffs, in black. These colors juxtaposed create a dramatic visual effect.

The dress differs from the two Cincinnati examples in that the surface of the afternoon dress is entirely covered with machine embroidery in royal blue, rose, pastel green and yellow. Bands of geometric pattern are repeated horizontally from the neckline to the hem of the dress. The sleeves feature a single vertical pattern which extends to the cuffs which are also embroidered.

The embroidery pattern begins with a row of the battlement design. This is proceeded by several large panels which feature the tree-of-life motif. Small angular shapes run down each side of these panels, creating a doublet effect. Below this is a row of somewhat abstract faces with large eyes and noses yet lacking mouths. These are followed by a horizontal band of animal motifs. Although the animal is not known, it does appear to be of the four-legged, tailed variety. The pattern is completed with a wide panel of purely geometric shapes which utilize diamond and triangular designs (Figure 27). The complete pattern is then repeated.

The sleeves are decorated with two rows of the battlement design while the cuffs are covered in a zig-zag and circular 143

Figure 27 - Detail of Ohio day dress. 144

pattern.

Although each of the three day garments are of American

origin, all follow very closely with European fashionable

trends of the Art Deco era. Each features a rectangular

silhouette, the incorporation of geometric forms within the

garment and strong color contrasts. These characteristics

are paralleled by numerous examples of early twentieth

century fine and decorative art.

Clearly the Cincinnati ensemble exemplifies the

insistence of the Art Deco style on linearity (see Glossary,

Appendix E). In the case of the ensemble, this is expressed

through the garment's simple rectangular silhouette. The design also incorporates straight edges and lacks any

structural devices or fabric manipulations that would deviate

from the linear aspect of the form.

While the decorative arts of the early twentieth century, including dress, favored the rectilinear rather than

the curvilinear, the same was also true of the fine arts.

The oil paintings of Frank Kupka clearly favor ornamental patterning particularly the rectilinear. His A~~~ng~m~ni ~i

Y~~ti£~1~ (1911) offers a rich harmony of color and a verticality that is comparable to stained glass windows

(Bouillon, 1989, p. 67). The purity of the rectilinear shape was incorporated into almost every aspect of early twentieth 145

century 'modern', artistic endeavors. The shape was eagerly

utilized in public and private interiors. Eduard Josef

Wimmer's cabinet (1910-1914) in mother-of-pearl, boxwood and

marquetry, achieves an astonishing optical effect through the manipulation of rectangles (Bouillon, 1989, p. 40).

The Cincinnati garment's linearity parallels many works

of art; this is not the only design principle of the ensemble

which finds a comparison. The use of saturated color which was unknown prior to Leon Bakst's Ballets Russes, is clearly

evident in fashion illustrations of the era. Perhaps the most well-known is the Georges Lepape example in ~es ~h£~~~ ~~

~~ul ~£iret (1911) (Figure 28). This illustration features a

slender young model wearing a starkly tubular gown in yellow with bands of black fur at the floor-length hem and cuffs and

a bright orange empire sash. Similarily in Ih~ IhE~~ QE~£~~ by Georges Barbier c. 1920s, the central figure is adorned

in a bright orange evening gown and matching turban (Klein,

McClelland & Haslam, 1986, p. 56). A band of yellow covers

the chest and a ribbon of black sequins creates both an

Empire and hip line.

As previously mentioned, during this artistically creative period, the exchange between all branches of the

arts was marked. A clear example is the lavish costume of the Chinese conjuror, designed by Pablo Picasso in 1917, for

the far~g~ ballet (Figure 29). Interestingly, this garment's 14

Figure 28 - Illustration by Georges l.epape fran the albun 'l.es Choses de Paul Poiret' , 1911 fran c. l.epape's Fran too Ballets Russes to Vogue, 1984, p. 50. Figure 29 - Picasso's costune for: the Chinese conjurer in the ballet Parade, 1917 fran J. Bouillon's Art D:!co, 1989, p. 135. --- 148

color combination of orange, yellow, black and gold are

identical to those used in the Cincinnati coat and dress of

1925.

Yet perhaps the most interesting aspect of the

Cincinnati ensemble is its use of Aztec-inspired geometric

designs. While the stepped pyramid or ziggurat was utilized

extensively in the stepback designs of the first American

skyscrapers, it was also incorporated into many interiors.

The elevator doors for the Union Trust Company (now the

Guardian Building) in Detroit (1929), feature an Aztec­

inspired geometric pattern in metal and glass while the upper

frame is surrounded by a stepped pattern in red marble

(Duncan, 1986, p. 189). The interlocking shapes are highly

reminiscent of the black and bronze embroidery which covers the Cincinnati ensemble.

The stepped form was also utilized by many furniture designers of the period. Paul Frankl designed 'skyscraper'

furniture including a skyscraper bookcase (1925-1930) which

is based on the concept of rectangles on rectangles (Duncan,

1986' p. 36) .

Furthermore, the motifs used in carpets designed by Maja

Andersson Wirde (1932) are Pre-Columbian in inspiration. The

stylized animals have been borrowed from ancient textiles and the stepped pyramid from Aztec architecture (Figure 30). In

the carpets of Eliel and Loja Saarinen specifically g~g ~~~~' •

Figure 30 - Carpets designed by Maja Andersson Wirde c. 1932 from D. Klein's In the Deco Style, 1.986, p. 184.

~ "' 150

1925-1929, Indian and Pre-Columbian art elements are

discernible in their use of geometric abstraction (Bouillon,

1989, p. 242). In gggL N2~~, framing elements include a

series of ziggurats and a play on the pyramidal form.

As in the previous example of daywear, the Art Deco

influence on the Cincinnati afternoon dress is somewhat easy

to discern. The garment's simplicity and nonfussiness parallels a similar treatment in other branches of early

twentieth century arts. Moreover, the selection of the color contrasts of green and gold is typical of the Art Deco style.

The use of godets on an otherwise shapeless garment was

fashionable from the mid twenties until the end of the 1930s.

A 1925 Vogu~ cover by Bolin depicts a model wearing a

straight white chemise with godets around the dropped waistline (Packer, 1983, p. 152).

While the designer of the Cincinnati ensemble selected

Aztec-inspired motifs, the creator of Cincinnati afternoon

dress favored another typical Art Deco motif. The radiating

sunburst was a prominent design of the Art Deco era and as

such was incorporated into a vast range of applied arts. A wrought iron and shellac mantlepiece designed by Jules Bouy c,1930 uses the radiating sun shape in the fixture's central panel (Duncan, 1986, p. 101) .

The decorative value of the motif is used to full advantage by Clement Rousseau in his furniture design. An 151

ebony chair overlaid with green, pink and white shagreen (see

Glossary, Appendix E) incorporates the radiating sun motif on both sides of the chair back (Figure 31) , A similar concept

is used by Eliel Saarinen in his furniture design. His round table has a paquetry top which utilizes the radiating sun design. While the chair backs also favor similar lines

(Bouillon, 1989, p. 242).

In contrast to the Cincinnati ensemble which features one decorative motif, the ziggurat, the Cincinnati afternoon dress combines a number of motifs to create an interesting visual effect. The sunburst motif on the afternoon dress is diagonally interrupted by a lightning bolt. This particular motif was readily incorporated by Art Deco designers and artists interested in the decorative value of the line. A morocco binding by Soudee utilizes different linear patterns to adorn the book's cover. However the verticality of the design is broken by a diagonal lightning bolt (Figure 32),

A radiator grill from the Chanin Building, New York, designed by Jacques Delamarre, 1927 reveals the extent to which all aspects of a building were incorporated into the

Art Deco decorative scheme (Klein, McClelland & Haslam, 1986, p. 179). In this grill, the stepped ziggurat represents the skyscraper's exterior which is surrounded by lightning bolts

symbolizing energy,

Furthermore, in a painted folding screen by Giacomo 152

Figure 31 - Ebony chair overlaid in green, pink and white shagreen, designed by ClE!llent Rousseau. 153

Figure 32 - ~occo binding by Sotrlee c. 1920s. 154

Balla, 1916-17, the use of rays of light, lightning bolts and

cloud formations are relatively easy to identify (Bouillon,

1989, p. 160). Like much of the arts of this period, Balla's

screen emphasizes linearity, two-dimensionality and the decorative value of line in much the same way as the

Cincinnati afternoon dress.

The Ohio day dress differs from the other daywear

examples in that, it is a homemade garment. Interestingly,

since the garment is American, the dressmaker has selected a

fabric pattern which favors American Deco imagery rather than

European. Motifs from Ancient American cultures such as the

Incas and Mayans are evident. However the influence of

American Indian design is also identifiable within the

embroidery design.

Similarly, the Cincinnati ensemble and the Ohio dress draw on ancient American sources for design inspiration.

This influence is clearly visible in the early architecture

of Frank Lloyd Wright. In particular, the Barnsdall

(Hollyhock) house in Los Angeles, designed in 1917, is one of the architect's first experiments with Mayan forms (Figure

33) . The house is divided into two rectangular sections by a cornice which features Mayan motifs. These motifs find points of similarity with the triangular and diamond pattern used in the embroidery on the Ohio dress.

However the use of Ancient American designs were not /.,.,. • :'.~'." ,I' • .!1:,;f~..

·.·:::;/~..

...... i...... \:·,...;..

Figure 33 - Frank Lloyd Wright's Bamsdale (Hollyhock) house, Los Angeles designed in l9l7 fran D. Klein's

In the Deco Style, 1986, p. 185. ,...... U1 U1 156

limited to three-dimensional forms although these were easily

incorporated into the streamlined architecture of the period.

The geometric motifs were also popular in interiors

particularly floorcoverings. Three knotted rugs c.1925-30, by Bruno Da Silva Bruhns were clearly influenced by Berber work (Figure 34). Like Wirde and the Saarinens, Bruhns

utilized geometric designs borrowed from Mayan, Inca and

North American Indian sources to achieve an aesthetically pleasing product.

The influence of American Indian designs within the Ohio

University garment is paralleled in both the fine and

decorative arts of early twentieth century America. Louis

Comfort Tiffany incorporated Indian motifs into a range of artwork including a hanging lamp with a leaded glass shade

(Klein, McClelland & Haslam, 1986, p. 30). The design is virtually pure Art Deco yet was conceived as early as 1889.

Likewise a vase of silver, turquoise and beaten copper by

Tiffany and Co., 1900, shows the contribution of Indian design to American art (Klein, McClelland & Haslam, 1986, p.

159) . The overall shape and surface decoration of the vase derive from traditional Indian basket weaving and emphasize

the beauty of geometric pattern.

A somewhat 'modern' adaption of American design is

utilized by Jean Dunard in his polychrome, lacquered

fireplace (Arwas, 1980, p. 84). The use of the battlement 157

Figure 34 - Three knotted rugs c. 1925-30 by Bnmo da Silva Bruhns fran Y. Brunharmrar's Art Deco Style, 1983, p. 197 .

• 158

design is reminiscent of a similar design used in the Ohio

garment.

Differences and similarities exist between the three

day dresses. Each garment was designed for a specific

purpose using different fabrics and decorative effects. Yet

they all display an obvious Art Deco influence in line, color

and design motifs which are paralleled in other examples of

early twentieth century artwork.

~~mm~EY Through detailed analysis of the ten selected garments

from the decade 1915 to 1925, it was possible to identify

specific characteristics which could be attributed to the Art

Deco style. However, these Art Deco features were not

restricted to early twentieth century dress. To further

establish the nexus between art and dress, visual parallels were drawn between Art Deco traits observed in the garments and the same traits which found expression in a range of fine and decorative arts of the period,

Furthermore, the central characteristics of the Art Deco

style i.e. linearity, geometry, purity of color, unusual surface texture and metallic surface treatments were

observed in all the ten garments. Since each garment was designed in the decade 1915 to 1925, this would suggest that the Art Deco style was fully articulated prior to the 1925 159

Exposition in Paris.

The information resulting from the detailed analysis of the ten Art Deco garments is discussed in relation to the

five research hypotheses. The Art-Dress Model described in

Chapter II is incorporated into the proceeding discussion to

seek to clarify how Art Deco dress from 1915 to 1925 was

influenced by other branches of the arts.

Hypothesis 1: Garments described as 'Art Deco' will emphasize linearity evidenced by a tubular/rectangular silhouette.

Ten garments were selected for the research. These items included two evening capes, two evening coats, three

examples of evening wear and three examples of day wear.

Table 3 summarizes the various silhouettes. Four of the ten garments - the Cincinnati evening cape, the Cincinnati evening coat, the Kent State formal evening gown and the

Cincinnati afternoon dress - clearly displayed a tubular silhouette. Each garment lacked any side shaping or

structural manipulations that would in any way deviate from its obvious linearity. Due to the simplicity of these garments, this linearity was generally expressed vertically rather than horizontally. 'Fable 3 - Surrnary of Linearity Trait Distribution

Capes a Coats Evening Dress Day Dref5 Total

Silhouette 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Rectangular x x x x x 5

Tubular x x x x 4

Triangular x l

Other 0

Note. a See pages 77 a."'ld 78 for key to garment nunbers.

~ 161

Five of the ten items - the Ohio State evening coat, the

Kent State evening dress, the Cleveland informal evening

dress, the Cincinnati ensemble and the Ohio informal day

dress - were classified as having a rectangular silhouette.

The rectangular silhouette differed slightly from the tubular

since sharper lines were evident within the garment. This

was often achieved through angular shoulders, horizontal

seams to accentuate the waist or hipline and vertical edges.

Only one garment, the Ohio State evening cape was

classified as displaying a triangular silhouette although

perhaps the term 'trapezoid' would have been more applicable.

The evening cape was gathered slightly at the neckline which

resulted in a flaring effect at the bottom of the cape.

Art Deco's emphasis on linearity or the decorative value

of line, is expressed in the majority of the ten garments.

However this particular attribute is clearly evident in all

branches of early twentieth century fine art. Linearity is

perhaps most visible in the architecture of Josef Hoffmann

and the Wiener Werkstatte (see Glossary, Appendix E) and

numerous public and private sculptured forms. As linearity became a dominant factor in the Public Domain, its influence was translated to the Private Domain.

§~2met!:_Y

Hypothesis 2: Garments described as 'Art Deco' will 162

emphasize geometry evidenced by the incorporation of geometric forms and/or structural design features within the garment.

Geometry was incorporated into Art Deco garments through various construction details. These details produced geometric forms within the actual garment. Table 4 summarizes the geometric forms evident within the ten selected garments.

The fold-back collar was the most common and was a feature of the Ohio State evening cape and evening coat and the Cincinnati evening coat. Interestingly, all three collars were of fur. The three evening wear garments and three day wear garments were collarless. Finally, the

Cleveland evening cape differed in that it featured a shawl collar.

The majority of neckline treatments favored the scooped or small round type. A small round neckline was perhaps the most practical to incorporate with the large fold-back collar. The Ohio State evening cape and evening coat and the

Cincinnati evening coat were examples of this neckline. A scooped neckline was featured on the formal Kent State evening gown, the Cleveland informal evening dress and the

Cincinnati afternoon dress. Two garments combined two different necklines. The Kent State formal evening gown combined a V-neckline at the front and a scooped one at the back while the Cincinnati ensemble featured a scooped Table 4 - S1.1111myof Geooetty Trait (Geooetric FOII15)Distribution

(;apes Coats Evening Dress lay Dress Total

Traits l. 2. 3. 4. s. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Collars

standing 0 fold-back x x x 3 shawl x 1 no collar x x x x x x 6

Necklines

V-neck x x x x 4 square a scooped/rrund x x x x x x x 7 1 boat x

Sleeves

raglan x 1 cap x x 2 1 k:invno x long x x 2 with cuffs x x x. 3 sleeveless x x x x 4

Waistlines

natural x x 2 dropped x x 2 hip line .0 empire x l no waistline x x x x x x 6 ,.... 0\ UJ 164

neckline on the slipdress and a V-neck on the coat. The only

garment to incorporate a boat neckline was the Kent State

evening dress.

A variety of sleeves were evident within the ten

selected garments. Two dresses including the Cincinnati

ensemble and the Ohio day dress featured cap sleeves.

Similarly two garments, the Cleveland evening dress and the

Cincinnati afternoon dress utilized long sleeves with cuffs.

Rectangular sleeves were featured on two coats. The

Cincinnati evening coat's design incorporated kimono sleeves while the Ohio State evening coat used raglan sleeves. Four

garments were classified as sleeveless although two of them were, in fact, capes. The Kent State formal evening gown and

evening dress were both sleeveless examples.

The predominance of non-waistlines was the most common

with six of the ten garments being classified in this manner.

Two dresses, the Cleveland informal evening dress and the

Ohio day dress, displayed the dropped waist. Two evening

dresses, the Kent State formal evening gown and evening dress

favored the natural waistline. Furthermore, the Kent State

formal evening gowm was classified as having both a natural

waistline, in back, and an Empire waistline, in front.

Art Deco's fondness for geometry resulted in the

incorporation of geometric forms within the actual dress 165

design. This emphasis on geometry was not restricted to

early twentieth century dress. Initially this geometric purity was visible in the Public Domain, particularly European

architecture. It was quickly incorporated into the Private

Domain via interior design and decoration. Most notable

was Frank Lloyd Wright's decorative designs which captured

the refined geometrical formalism of the Art Deco style.

Structural ~~~isn

The geometric aspects of Art Deco dress design were

emphasized through a variety of structural manipulations.

The range of structural design options are summarized in

Table 5.

None of the ten selected garments incorporated pleating

to break the inner space of the garment. Traditional side

seaming excluded, three garments used seaming to create angular shapes within the garment. The Cleveland evening

cape featured curved seaming at the shoulders. Both the

Cleveland evening dress and the Ohio day dress used seaming

at hiplevel to create horizontal lines.

Gathering tended to be the most widely used structural

design feature. The Ohio State evening cape and the

Cincinnati evening coat incorporated gathering at the

shoulder area. The Kent State evening dress featured a

gathered waist. Both the Cleveland evening dress and the Table 5 - Smmary of Ge~tryTrait (Structural Design) Distribution

Capes Coats Evening Dress Day Dress Total

Types l. 2. 3. 4. s. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Pleating x I Seanring x x x 3 Gathering x x x x x x 6 Tucking/Inserts x 1 Flouncing/Fringing/Tiering x 1 Bands/Panels x x 2

Darts/Shirring 0 Others 0

...... ~ 167

Cincinnati afternoon dress used gathering for set-in sleeves.

The Ohio day dress used rows of gathering at hiplevel.

Only one garment, the Cincinnati afternoon dress incorporated inserts. In this case, godets were used to create angular forms within the garment. Likewise, only the

Cincinnati evening coat featured fringing to divide the garment into two distinct planes. The Kent State evening gown featured vertical panels which emphasized the garment's linearity, while the Kent State evening dress incorporated sleeve bands to add geometric interest.

Art Deco favored geometry and while this concept was successfully translated into early twentieth century dress design, it was conceived as early as the first decade of this century in the Public Domain, most notably, architecture.

The Glasgow School (see Glossary, Appendix E) and particularly its architect, Charles Rennie Mackintosh favored strong rectilinear contours. Similar to Art Deco dress, architecture of this period was comprised of squares, chevrons and other geometrical shapes. As the early twentieth century

Fine Arts, i.e. architecture became more geometric so did the

Decorative Arts, i.e. interior design. This resulted in a move towards more simplified clothing, often achieved through geometric manipulation. 168

Color

Hypothesis 3: Garments described as 'Art Deco' will emphasize purity of color evidenced by the incorporation of saturated, primary colors and/or strong color contrasts in dress design.

It was anticipated that the majority of Art Deco garments would favor bright, pure hues. Results are summarized in Table 6. However, five of the ten items - the

Cleveland evening cape, the Ohio State evening coat, the Kent

State formal evening gown, the Cleveland informal evening dress and the Ohio day dress used black as their principal color. This was not surprising given the fact that most of these garments were designed to be worn in the evening. The remainder of items were classified in the

Pure Colors category. The Ohio State evening cape was blue; the Kent State evening dress, purple; the Cincinnati ensemble, orange; the Cincinnati afternoon dress, turquoise; and the Ohio day dress was classified as having both black and green as its main colors.

Only one garment was not in the black or pure color category. The Cincinnati evening coat was grey. Although its use of an overall silver metallic motif could have placed it in the metallic catergory rather than grey.

Four of the ten garments incorporated bright colors into their dress design. The Cincinnati evening coat, the Kent

State evening dress, the Cleveland informal evening dress and Table 6 - Swmacy of Color Trait Disttibuticn

Capes Coats Evening Dress Day Dress Total

Colors l. 2. 3. 4. s. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10 xa ob

x 0 Black x x 3 1

Pure Colors l orange x 3 red 0 0 0 magenta 0 l pink l purple x x l turquoise 2 0 0 l blue x l 0 green l yellow 0 ~ x l 1 lflhi.te 0

Cait>inations

black, red & silver oran.,oe & green x l orange & black x x 2 --green·& black Note. a X = main color. b 0 = secon:l.aJ:y color...... 0\ '-li> 170

the Ohio day dress used red, pink, blue, green and yellow as

minor colors. Generally these colors were used as a

highlight against a black background.

Two garments fitted into the color combinations

categories. The Cleveland evening cape combined orange and

black, and green and black while the Ohio day dress combined

green and black in its dress design.

Art Deco's incorporation of pure, saturated color, often accompanied by black and a variety of metallics, was evident within the ten selected garments. This use of bright primary colors as opposed to muted, pastel shades was a direct result

of the influence of the arts specifically the Ballets Russes,

on early twentieth century dress. The Ballets Russes added wealth and color of ornament to the decorative arts and couturiers and dressmakers responded. Ultimately this

influences would affect the major arts of the period.

Matisse aptly pointed out the importance of this influence.

11 In early Russian ballets, Bakst threw in colors by the bucketful. It was magnificent but without expression .

The only resulting advantage was that color from then on was welcome everywhere, even in the department stores" (Bouillon,

1989, p. 85).

~E.E.li~9: ;Qes_ign Hypothesis 4: Garments described as 'Art Deco' will 171

emphasize geometry evidenced through applied design i.e. geometric/stylized motifs.

In keeping with Art Deco's geometric bias, applied

decoration was incorporated into the dress design. Table 7

summarizes these applied design options.

While each of the ten Art Deco garments incorporated

some form of surface design treatment, the majority utilized

beading or embroidery or a combination of the two. The Kent

State evening dress and the Cleveland informal evening dress

used beading while the Cleveland evening cape and the Ohio day dress favored embroidery. The Ohio State evening cape,

the Kent State formal evening gown and the Cincinnati

ensemble combined the two design techniques. Interestingly,

no garment featured painting, applique, three-dimensional attachments, printing or batik. However, three garments the

Cincinnati evening coat, the Ohio State evening coat and the

Cincinnati afternoon dress - used a woven form of decoration.

Art Deco as a decorative style placed a marked emphasis

on surface decoration. During the period in question,

extravagantly decorated garments featured designs closely allied to contemporary painting. This influence from the

Fine Arts is somewhat understandable given the involvement of artists such as Sonia Delaunay, Mario Fortuny

and Raymond Duncan in textile design. Raoul Dufy and Jean

Dorville designed embroideries, silk and other fashion Table 7 - SUJJllCUYof GeOOEtcy Trait (Applied Design) Distribution

Capes Coats Evening Dress ray Dress Total Types L 2. 3. 4. s. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10

Beads sequins I I x x 5 rtrinestones/pearls x x x

v Ehtiroidecy x x J\. x x 5

Printing 0

Applique 0

Buckles/buttcns/ ribbons/ corsages 0

Painting 0

Batik 0

3 Woven x x x

..... -...J N 173

fabrics. Furthermore, the exchange between such artists as

Cocteau, Leger, Picasso and Matisse and theater resulted in

sensational costumes and set designs. As previously

mentioned, the Arts played a major role in revolutionalizing

early twentieth century dress.

§eom~iric/~,iylize9 Moiii~

While the surface of each of the ten garments was

decorated, the range of geometric/stylized motifs was wide.

Table 8 displays the variety of motifs identified.

As anticipated, the use of geometric motifs was most

common. The Cleveland evening cape, the Ohio State evening coat, the Kent State formal evening gown and evening dress,

the Cincinnati ensemble and the Ohio day dress all featured geometric designs.

Two items, the Cincinnati evening coat and the Kent

State evening dress incorporated the Art Deco rose. The Ohio

State evening coat and the Cincinnati afternoon dress

featured the sunburst design. Two garments, the Cincinnati

ensemble and the Ohio day dress, utilized Aztec/Pre Columbian motifs, while the designers of the Cleveland evening cape and the Ohio State evening coat used stylized floral motifs.

The Kent State evening gown and Ohio day dress featured

stylized fauna motifs.

Only one garment, the Ohio State evening cape displayed Table 8 - Summy of Gea!Etry-- Trait (M:Jtifs) Distribution Capes Coats Evening Dress Day Dress Total

Types L 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Geanetric x x x x x x 6 2 Art Deco rose x x

Sunburst x x: 2

Ziggurat

Fountain x l l ~ti.an x

Aztec/Pre-Colulbi.an x x 2

Machine parts

Lightning bolts x 1

Flora x x 2 2 Fauna x x

Ii.man x l

,...... ~ 175 the fountain motif. Likewise a single item, the lightning

bolt motif was featured in the Cincinnati day dress.

Furthermore, while the Ohio day dress incorporated a number

of designs, it included the only example of a stylized human motif.

A number of geometric/stylized motifs have become

synonymous with Art Deco and are clearly identifiable within the ten selected garments. However, these designs were borrowed from practicdlly every conceivable art and historical event in order to create a unique twentieth century decorative art .

. In the endless search for new decorative motifs, nothing was too far-fetched. First there was Persian and Russian and Oriental art, then Egyptian design with the discovery of King Tutankhamen's tomb in 1922, then African primitive forms, the American Indian and Aztec, and finally even the skyscrapers and modern machines that themselves had incorporated all of the above (Klein, 1986, p. 3) .

Such motifs were incorporated into a wide spectrum of

early twentieth century arts from both the Public and Private

Domains, Specific Art Deco motifs appeared simultaneously in

interiors, on furniture, in jewelry pieces and in dress design of this era.

Hypothesis 5: Garments described as 'Art Deco' will often incorporate fabrics which emphasize surface texture and metallics. 176

The ten Art Deco garments were classified according to

four unusual types of textures. These findings are

summarized in Table 9.

Three garments, a velvet evening cape and a lame evening coat from the Ohio State University and an embroidered satin

evening coat from the Cincinnati Art Museum were designated as displaying a luxurious texture. Likewise three garments,

a crepe evening dress from the Western Reserve Historical

Society, a silk chiffon afternoon dress from the Cincinnati

Art Museum, and a polished cotton day dress from the Ohio

University were classified as having a smooth texture. The

satin evening cape from Cleveland and the formal, satin

evening gown from the Kent State Museum were termed shiny.

While the silk chiffon evening dress from Kent State and the

silk chiffon afternoon dress from Cincinnati were listed in

the textured grouping.

Furthermore, unusual textural combinations were also a characteristic of the Art Deco style. Garments which combined disparate fabrics or materials within their dress design were classified according to this combinations. Three garments - the Ohio State evening cape, the Cincinnati

evening coat and the Ohio State evening coat combined fur and

fabric. Only the Cleveland evening cape combined feather and

fabric. Five of the ten garments - the Ohio State evening

cape, the Kent State formal evening gown and formal evening Table 9 - Summy of Surface Texture Trait Distribution

Capes c.oats Evening Dress Day Dress Total

Types 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10

!J.Jsttous x x 3

Srootll x x x 3

Shiny x x 2

Textured x x 2

Canbinations

Fur & fabric x x x 3 Feather & fabric x l Beading & fabric x x x x x x x 6 Embroidery & fabric x x 2

,...... ""'-' 178 dress, the Cleveland evening dress and the Cincinnati

ensemble - utilized beading and fabric. Finally two garments, the Cleveland evening cape and the Ohio day dress combined embroidery and fabric to create an interesting textural effect.

The Art Deco style typically united various materials within the dress design, primarily to create unusual and

often startling textural combinations. This utilization of unusual textures within an individual article was developed by early twentieth century interior designers, primarily

'modern' furniture makers. Furniture examples by Jacques-

Emile Ruhlmann are somewhat typical of the exotic, rich materials used in Art Deco furniture. This concept was quickly extended into the Private Domain to include jewelry, accessories, and clothing.

tl~talliQ Surface Tr~~tments

Art Deco's enthusiastic use of metallic surface treatments translated into a wide range of threads and

fabrics used in dress design. Table 10 summarizes the use of metallic surface treatments.

Eight of the ten Art Deco garments - the Cleveland evening cape, the Ohio State evening cape, the Cincinnati evening coat, the Ohio State evening coat, the Kent State

evening gown, the Cleveland informal evening dress, the Table 10 - Sumiary of Metallic Surface Trait Distribution

Capes Coats Evening Dress Day Dress Total

Types 1. 2. . 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Gold x x x x x x x x 8

Silver x x x x 4

Bronze x x 2

Copper 0

r-' "'-I '° 180

Cincinnati ensemble and afternoon dress - incorporated gold

into their dress design.

Four garments - the Ohio State evening cape, the

Cincinnati evening coat, the Kent State evening gown and

evening dress - featured silver. Two items, the Ohio

State lame coat and the Cincinnati ensemble utilized bronze metallic color.

None of the garments used the metallic color, copper.

Only one garment, the Ohio day dress, did not incorporate

metallic thread or fabric. This may have been the result of

its intended purpose as day wear rather than evening wear.

The ability to capture and reflect light was a vital

component of the Art Deco style and was incorporated into

dress design through the use of lames, metallic laces, brocades and embroideries. However, the use of reflective materials was not restricted to early twentieth century

dress. Their use was more pronounced in other branches of

art, especially the interiors of public buildings such as theatres, hotels and offices.

~um!!!ary

Five research hypotheses were formulated to guide the research. Using the information obtained through an in-depth analysis of a heterogeneous group of ten Art Deco garments 181

from the five historic costume collections, it was possible

to identify which Art Deco attributes were emphasized and the ways in which these traits found expression, in dress.

Within the sample, it was found that linearity was

expressed through a tubular or rectangular silhouette.

Geometry was evidenced by the incorporation of geometric

forms and structural design features within the dress design.

Purity of color expressed through the introduction of

saturated, primary colors was not as prevalent as

anticipated. This was partly due to the large number of

evening wear garments included in the sample, It was found

that Art Deco garments did incorporate bright hues as

secondary colors. This was often as a highlight against a black background. Sharp color contrasts were also emphasized particularly black, green and orange. Geometry was further

emphasized through applied design including a range of geometric and/or stylized Art Deco motifs, Furthermore, the

incorporation of surface texture, unusual textural combinations and metallics were common Art Deco features of

the ten selected garments.

This research substantiates the belief that Art Deco as a style reached its florescence prior to 1925. All ten

garments selected for the study were designed in the decade

1915 to 1925, yet all the characteristics commonly associated with Art Deco are clearly evident in all the garments. 182

These findings are not surprising given that Art Deco

was a decorative art. Unlike the fine arts which initially

influence the Public Domain before filtering into the Private

Domain, the Art Deco style developed during a highly unusual period where the distinction between the two branches was

often blurred. This overlap resulted in an active

interchange between a number of influential artists and

designers and as such, the Art Deco style appeared

simultaneously in both the Public and Private Domains.

Comparisons between the Art Deco traits observed in the ten

selected garments and the same traits found in examples of

early twentieth century art demonstrate the articulation of

the Art Deco style during the period in question.

Furthermore, these findings offer some insights into the manner in which Art Deco characteristics found an expression

in art, including dress. CHAPTER V SUMMARY

Int£2~ucti2rr

The eclectic Art Deco style developed during a unique period when the distinction between art and dress became less

obvious than it had been formerly. During the first quarter

of the twentieth century, all the arts, including dress, were moving in a new and innovative direction, often influencing and complementing each other, as an extraordinary interchange among all the arts occurred. These strong interconnecting

links between the fashion world and the art world resulted in a marked similarity between the aesthetic elements of this period's decorative arts and the garments and accessories designed for women.

Unfortunately there are major gaps within the existing literature, especially empirical research which examines the

Art Deco style. Although works relating to Art Deco as

expressed in architecture, interior design, furniture,

sculpture, and jewelry are numerous, those which examine Art

Deco dress are less so and relatively non-existent in the

183 184 period prior to the Paris Exposition in 1925. Moreover the

year 1925 is often used as a starting point for any

exploration of Art Deco dress. Since the central

characteristics of the style are evident in a range of media prior to this date, it is reasonable to assume that the Art

Deco style did not automatically come into existence to coincide with the Paris Exhibition. Rather, the decorative

style had been developing since the early years of the twentieth century in designs by Josef Hoffmann and the Wiener

Werkstatte, and Charles Rennie Mackintosh and the Glasgow

School.

As previously mentioned, during this period, artists and designers from different disciplines united in an attempt to

create a new twentieth century mode of design. Ultimately this led to an unusual stylized integrity, as craftsmen worked in a total design environment, designing everything

from the actual building, its furniture, carpets, curtains,

cutlery and even, the gardens. Dress did not escape this artistic influence nor did it wait until 1925 to display its

Art Deco features,

Furthermore, accounts of Art Deco dress are often general descriptions of 1920s and 1930s fashions which may or may not have been influenced by the Art Deco style. While

Art Deco had a marked influence over the art and dress of this period, it would be naive to believe that it was the 185

only style in existence. However, it is not within the scope

of this study to compare Art Deco with non-Art Deco art of the early twentieth century.

Despite the frequent use of the term 'Art Deco' to describe the period, the actual Art Deco attributes which manifest themselves in dress are rarely the main focus of

study. Therefore the body of literature which claims to discuss Art Deco dress offers no insights into what actually constitutes an Art Deco garment.

The purpose of this research was to identify the Art

Deco style as it is expressed in women's dress during the decade 1915 to 1925. Previously established Art Deco traits from other media were used to explore their presence and use

in garments. Since the study was primarily concerned with the manner in which the Art Deco style manifested itself in clothing, ten actual garments from five historic costume collections were selected for detailed analysis. It was anticipated that Ohio costume collections would offer a heterogeneous group of quality Art Deco garments from a variety of original sources.

The objectives were to identify Art Deco attributes in capes, coats, evening dresses and day dresses, from the period 1915 to 1925. Typically the 1925 Exposition is cited as the flowering of the Art Deco style in dress. Nonetheless the major traits of the style are evident in other media (and 186

in dress) prior to this date.

Examination of ten garments with diversity in type,

source and quality from the state of Ohio allowed the analyst

to explore Art Deco expression pre-1925. It was hypothesized that Art Deco garments would emphasize the central

characteristics of the Art Deco style, i.e. linearity, geometry, purity of color, surface texture and metallic

surface treatment. It was believed that the same Art Deco attributes identified in dress would be present in other branches of early twentieth century arts as well. If Art

Deco traits were evident in a wide range of artforms in both

the Public and Private Domain in the decade 1915 to 1925, then would give credence to the belief that Art Deco was a

fully-developed style prior to the 1925 Paris Exposition.

An art-historical methodology was adopted by the

investigator, to facilitate the in-depth, qualitative analysis of the ten Art Deco garments. This approach

required the systematic examination and analysis of the various components of the garment in much the same manner as any artwork. In fact according to Squire (1974) 11 without insight and interpretations, all dress deteriorates

into dead documents, to finish simply as old clothes" (p.

21). To aid the exploration, photographs of the actual garments and detailed sketches of motifs were utilized. In

order to examine the interrelationship between dress and 187 art during the period in question, visual parallels were

drawn between specific Art Deco attributes within the garments and comparable examples in other branches of early twentieth century art.

~~i~E Ii~~i~~~ Each of the ten selected garments exhibited traits which may be attributed to the Art Deco style. All emphasized the central Art Deco characteristics of linearity and geometry.

The majority of garments did not incorporate primary color as their principle choice but rather primary color was used for a secondary highlight or defining purpose only. All garments favored unusual surface textures, and the majority utilized

Art Deco's fondness for metallic surfaces.

1iQ~~Eity. The Art Deco style emphasized the linear rather than the curved line of the preceeding Art Nouveau style.

Analyses of the ten selected garments revealed that this restrained purity of line was expressed through a rectilinear or tubular silhouette and a basic simplification in the lines of early twentieth century dress. While all garments included in the study incorporated linearity into their design, the day wear examples expressed this trait most effectively. Specifically, the Cincinnati ensemble captured the essence of linearity through a completely unstructured 188

garment. The lack of any structural manipulations combined

with sharp, straight edges created an overall linear

appearance. Furthermore, the utilization of vertical and

horizontal applied decoration added yet another dimension to

the garment's linearity. As such, Hypothesis 1 which related

to Art Deco linearity was accepted.

~~£~~~~~· Art Deco favored geometry which was largely

derived from Cubism (Klein, McClelland & Haslam, 1986) The

tendency toward simple, bold shapes and angular forms, was

incorporated into the selected garments through a variety of construction details which produced geometric forms within

the actual dress design. The gold and black lame coat from

the Ohio State University Collection was an excellent example

of the manner in which geometry could be expressed in dress through geometric forms. This evening coat was composed of

simple rectangular shapes and featured large, unfitted kimono

sleeves.

Furthermore, it was found that the geometric aspects of design could also be accentuated through several structural

design features. The evening wear category appeared to utilize structural design features more so than the other

groupings. Specifically, gathering was used to divide the area into varying planes and accentuate the vertical,

horizontal and diagonal lines. Seaming was used to create 189

angular shapes within the garments while bands and panels

tended to emphasize the linearity aspect of the Art Deco

evening wear. Hypothesis 2 which related to Art Deco

geometry was accepted in light of these findings,

The geometric elements of the Art Deco style lent

themselves to pure, bold, saturated colors and/or strong color contrasts. However, analysis of the ten Art Deco garments revealed that such colors were not generally used as the principle color but rather as a secondary color. The teal blue evening cape from The Ohio State University, the orange ensemble, the turquoise afternoon dress from the Cincinnati

Art Museum, and the purple evening dress from The Kent State

University Museum, favored pure, bold colors. At the same time, the Cleveland evening cape and evening dress effectively utilized a wide range of primary colors against a

solid black background. While this does not support

Hypothesis 3 which related to Art Deco's use of primary colors, it is suggested that the number of evening wear items in the study may have resulted in the dominance of the color, black. Furthermore, while the typical color combination black, red and silver was not identified within the sample, the hard-edged, sharp combinations of green, orange and black were evident. This was clearly observable in the design of the Ohio day dress. Although the fabric was decorated in a 190 multi-colored embroidery, the garment was basically divided

into a green upper portion and a black lower portion.

Furthermore, the Cleveland evening cape combined a black

satin, outer surface with an orange feathered, inner surface.

Motifs. Art Deco's obsession with geometry demanded that

everything from flowers to the human form become stylized.

In fact, style and stylization are key distinguishing aspects

of Art Deco (Arwas, 1980). In regard to the garments

selected for the study, it was found that a variety of

applied design treatments could be utilized to express this concept. Most notable being, the use of beading, sequins and

embroidery to create geometric designs.

Moreover, the so-called symbols of Art Deco were all

utilized for decorative effect. The formalized rose motif was featured prominently in the metallic surface of the gray

satin evening coat from the Cincinnati Art Museum. The same motif was combined with a geometric form in the Kent State

evening dress of purple chiffon. The sunburst was identified

in the fabric design of the Ohio State evening coat while a more stylized version featured in the woven design of the

Cincinnati afternoon dress. The Ohio State evening cape

incorporated the stylized fountain motif into its elaborate beading. The Art Deco garments also featured a range of geometric and stylized motifs. Specifically the Cincinnati 191 ensemble featured a beading/embroidery surface treatment which was composed solely of geometric shapes. The Ohio day dress combined geometric forms with stylized fauna and human motifs to create an aesthetically pleasing appearance. These

findings support Hypothesis 4 which related to Art Deco's

emphasis on geometry.

I~~i~E~· Art Deco artists and designers felt they were creating an entirely new twentieth century mode of design, one which promoted the spirit of the new age (Robinson,

1988). Therefore the style required materials which

suggested sleekness and speed. The designers of the ten

selected garments incorporated this concept into their dress design through a variety of means. A number of garments

featured fabrics which emphasized texture whether it was a

lustrous texture such as a brocade or velvet, a smooth texture as in silk, or a shiny texture such as satin. Two garments were classified as possessing a 'textured' surface.

The Kent State evening dress was constructed of crinkled silk chiffon while the fabric of the Cincinnati afternoon dress

featured a woven pile design.

Furthermore, the Art Deco garments combined disparate materials in a variety of unusual ways. Fur and fabric, beading and fabric, and embroidery and fabric were popular

combinations, Most interesting was the pairing of marabou 192

feathers and satin fabric in the Cleveland evening cape.

Art Deco's fondness for metallic surface treatments was clearly evidenced in the sample. In most instances, the use

of metallic textures related to metallic colored threads, beads or sequins. However the Ohio State evening coat was constructed of a black and gold lame fabric. Hypothesis 5 which related to Art Deco's emphasis on surface texture

including the use of metallic surface treatments was accepted

in light of these findings.

In regard to the Art Deco garments from the decade 1915 to 1925, linearity was expressed through a tubular or rectangular silhouette. Yet this concept was also found to be evident in the architectural designs of the period, particularly the works of Josef Hoffmann.

Geometry was incorporated into dress design through geometric forms and structural design features. However, geometric formalism was clearly visible in European architecture and interior design during the early part of the twentieth century. Perhaps the most notable was the architecture of Charles Rennie Mackintosh and the decorative designs of Frank Lloyd Wright.

Purity of color was incorporated into dress through the use of saturated, primary colors and sharp, color contrasts.

However, this occurrence was a direct result of the Ballets

Russes and is clearly evident in Leon Bakst's costumes and 193 set designs of the 1910s.

The style's bias toward surface decoration resulted in an abundant use of applied decoration, particularly geometric and stylized motifs. This in turn fostered a move towards the abstract, to incorporate more geometric elements and

simplify all design in all branches of the decorative arts including dress.

Surface texture, unusual textural combinations, and metallic surface treatments were used to suggest a notion of modernity. Satins, laces, sequins and rhinestones were eagerly combined in dress design. Yet the combination of distinct materials was also favored by early twentieth century interior designers and is clearly evident in the furniture pieces of such craftsmen as Jacques-Emile Ruhlmann.

The use of reflective materials was not restricted to dress but was widely utilized in the interiors of numerous public buildings.

l!.!!Eli£atio~~

Art Deco was unique because it was a decorative style rather than a fine art. Therefore it did not need to move in the traditional manner from the Public Domain, e.g. architecture into the Private Domain, e.g. dress. As an art

style, it appeared simultaneously in both domains resulting

in a remarkable exchange between the two major branches of 194 art.

Furthermore, Art Deco developed during an exceptional period of creative growth and experimentation. This resulted

in artists and designers from disparate disciplines working together, working as a team on a single project, or working

in each others field in a conscious effort to be a part of the new century and its innovative artforms.

Due to the unique era in which the Art Deco style developed, the 'cultural consistency' (Roach & Musa, 1980) between the aesthetics of dress and other forms of artistic

expression was more pronounced than in other periods. By

identifying visual parallels between Art Deco attributes in dress and those identifiable in other branches of early twentieth century art, it is possible to gauge the pervasiveness of the Art Deco style during this period.

The findings of this study confirm that the central characteristics of the Art Deco style, i.e. linearity, geometry, purity of color, surface texture and metallic surfaces, were clearly evident in the ten Ohio garments from the decade 1915 to 1925. Since all the garments expressed a range of Art Deco traits, it may be implied that other garments from this period would display a similar influence.

Consequently studies of garments that feature linear

silhouettes, geometric forms and incorporate pure color and/or sharp color contrasts could reasonably be presumed to 195 be Art Deco garments. The utilization of applied

decoration to create geometric or stylized motifs, textured

fabrics, unusual textural combinations, and metallic surface

treatments would further substantiate this presumption.

The heterogeneity of the ten selected garments suggests that an Art Deco influence would be present in other garments

from the decade 1915 to 1925. Furthermore such an influence may also be present across a range of categories.

Moreover, a major implication of this study, is that the Art Deco style evolved during the early part of the twentieth century. If the style was present and fully developed, not only in fine art but in dress, in the decade

1915 to 1925, as this research suggests, what happened to the

style following the 1925 Paris Exposition? The hallmarks of

French Art Deco were opulent ornamentation, rich colors, and

lush textures; this coincided with the exotic fashions of the

1910s, which drew heavily on Oriental themes. As Art Deco

evolved, the French style gave way to a less ornate style which was the precursor to the Austrian/German style. To this end, the 'boyish' look of the 1920s flapper was born as clothes became more tubular. As the Austrian/German Art Deco

swept away the remnants of the French style the abandonment of ornamentation was evidenced by the introduction of streamlining. This design concept was incorporated into dress design through the bias-cut gowns of the 1930s. The 196 simplification and purification which was occurring in the decorative arts during this period led to distinct changes in clothing as each decade established its own unique Art Deco

style.

Recommendations

This research has taken steps towards providing a more comprehensive understanding of what constitutes an Art Deco garment, While the use of ten garments enabled in-depth, detailed analysis, the size of the sample restricts the generalizations which may be inf erred regarding Art Deco dress, in general. Therefore, future research needs to

either expand or restrict the scope of this study.

To enable viable generalizations to be drawn regarding

Art Deco dress, a larger sample of garments needs to be used

from a wider selection of historic costume collections. To prevent this task becoming unmanageable, it is suggested that

one category of garments, e.g. evening wear, be selected for study. It may also be necessary to limit the range of garments to a certain time period rather than a decade,

The present study could be expanded to include an

investigation of Art Deco dress found in different locations,

i.e. larger cities, other countries, etc. While the present

research focused on Art Deco in general, it may prove 197 valuable to examine the specific branches of the style. The

dearth of information regarding American Deco is a clear

indication of a neglected area. There are indications of differences between typical European Art Deco motifs and typical American Deco motifs. European motifs favored

lightning bolts, greyhounds, borzois (a breed of Russian dog), antelope, gazelle and long slender women while American motifs emphasized machine-like parts, airplanes, trains, oceanliners, Aztec/Egyptian symbols, stepped designs and

fountain motifs (McClinton, 1972).

Comparisons may indicate regional variations in the pervasiveness of the Art Deco style. Furthermore, a study along similar lines could include accessory items such as shoes, hats, handbags, and jewelry, among others.

Future research could restrict its emphasis to specific

Art Deco attributes rather than Art Deco attributes in general. For example, it may prove fruitful to identify the

inspiration behind the so-called symbols of Art Deco or typical Art Deco motifs. Worthwhile interdisciplinary research could result if examples of these motifs were identified in a range of decorative arts including dress.

Furthermore, the history and development of the Art Deco rose and its use in textile/dress design and fashion illustration would be a valuable research topic.

While the present research examined the relationship 198 between the Art Deco style and dress, a similar approach could be taken to identify the nexus between dress and other art styles and movements. For example, the collaborations between Dali and Schiaperalli could be investigated to judge the influence Surrealism played on the fashions of the 1930s.

More contemporary topics could examine the influence of Pop and Op Art in the 1960s or the Punk Movement on fashions of the 1970s.

Conclusions

During the early part of the twentieth century, a unique relationship existed between art and dress. The Art Deco

style, although a decorative style, influenced all branches of the arts including women's clothing. During the decade

1915 to 1925, Art Deco attributes such as linearity, geometry, purity of color, surface texture and metallic

surface treatments are clearly evident in both the Public and

Private Domains, dismissing the assumption that Art Deco was not a significant influence until 1925. Since these Art Deco attributes are identifiable in a wide range of artworks, it would be incorrect to assume that the decorative style was simply emerging during this period. The present research

suggests that the style was fully developed prior to the 1925

Paris Exposition.

While all clothing from this period is not necessarily 199

Art Deco inspired or influenced, it is possible to identify certain features which may be attributed to Art Deco. To this end, this study was able to off er some insights into what consistutes an Art Deco garment.

The utilization of an art-historical approach to the qualitiative analysis promotes greater depth in the research findings. Moreover the use of such a methodology makes it possible to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the relationship between Art Deco and dress, particularly during the decade 1915 to 1925. LIST OF REFERENCES

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------( 1 9 81 , June) . " I s fas hi on art? " ~.§.!:.i.£!!.!!. ~Lti~:L._ i§., 12' 87-88.

Wilson, E. (1985). hgg~Qed in g~~~~~~ f~~higQ ~QQ ~gg~~QiiY· London: Virago Press. APPENDIX A TYPICAL ART DECO MOTIFS

206 207 1. Art Deco rose:

2. FoLtntai n:

3. Sunburst:

4. Zigqurat: APPENDIX B QUESTIONNAIRE FOR IDENTIFICATION OF ART DECO GARMENTS

208 209

Title of Collection ______~------Curator Address ______Telephone No ______

1. Are women's garments from the decade 1915 - 1925 available

for study in the collection? Yes ______No

2. Could you estimate the number of garments dated between

1915 to 1925 in each of the following categories?

Day dresses ______Evening dresses ______~-----

Coats~---~------~-- Capes __~------3. Can photographs of items be taken by researcher? No ______Yes_~----- If not, can photographs be purchased? Yes _____ No ______

4. Does the collection have either a mannequin or T-stand

which the researcher could use to take photographs?

Yes ______No

5. Does the researcher have permission to visit the

collection? Yes _____ No _____

6. Please specify which dates would be most convenient for

a visit by the researcher?

Thank you for your anticipated assistance.

Robyn Gibson-Quick Department of Textiles & Clothing The Ohio State University APPENDIX C DRESS FEATURES FOR ANALYSIS OF ART DECO INFLUENCES

210 211

1. Silhouette

a) tubular b) rectangular/boxlike c) triangular

2. Geometric Forms

a) rectangular sleeves b) square cuffs c) 'V'/square necklines d) standing collars

3. Texture a) lustrous b) smooth c) shiny

4. Colors

a) black b) bright colors: orange, red, magenta, pink, purple, turquoise, blue, green, yellow c) metallic: gold, silver, bronze, copper d) combinations: black, red & silver, orange, green & black

S. Structural Design

a) pleating b) seaming c) tucking/inserts d) flouncing, fringing & tiering e) bands/panels f) darts/shirring

6. Applied Design

a) beads/sequins/rhinestones/pearls b) embroidery 212

c) printing d) applique e) buckles/buttons/ribbons/corsages f) painting g) batik

7. Geometric/stylized motifs

a) Art Deco rose b) sunburst c) ziggurat d) fountain e) Egyptian f) Aztec/Pre-Columbian g) machine parts h) lightning bolts i) flora j) fauna k) human APPENDIX D ART DECO TRAIT CHECKLIST

213 214

Date ______~------

Collection______Item______Accession No_~------

Label/Designer______~------~------

Provenance_____ ~--~---- Year ______

ART DECO TRAIT CHECKLIST

1. Silhouette------~~------

2. Geometric Forms_~----~------

3. Texture __~--~------~------4. Color ______

Color Combinations_~-----~------

Metallic~------~--~------~-~------

5. Structural Design _____~------

6. Applied Design------~----~------

7. Decorative Motifs ______APPENDIX E GLOSSARY

215 216

Ih~ ~~t~ ~n~ ~raft~ tlQY~m~nt - a reaction against the overly ornate mid-Victorian designs which dominated England during the 1850s and 1860s (Robinson, 1988).

~g~i~m - an artistic movement which discarded decoration in favor of analytic, realist and objective vision of form CBrunhammer, 1983).

Q~gt~QheE ~er~Qgng - an association of artists, industrialists and designers, founded in 1907 by the German architect Hermann Muthesius. It was "concerned with giving manual labor its dignity back by ensuring the concerted action of art, industry and craftsmen by a campaign of propaganda and education, and by the assertion of a common will" (Brunhammer, 1983, p. 8). f~gyi~m - an art movement which exalted pure painting; sensation expressed in two-dimension without modelling or chiaroscuro. The group included Matisse, Braque, Vlaminck, Derain, Rouault and van Dongen and were often referred to as 'the wild beasts of color' (Brunhammer, 1983) . f gtgEi~m - a desire to destroy the past in the name of the future. The first Futurist manifesto was drawn up in 1909 by Tommaso Marinetti. As a poet, he demanded that artists should cut themselves off from the past (Klein, 1986) .

Th~ Ql~~g_Q~ ~Qhggl - a group of artists including Rennie Mackintosh, Margaret Macdonald, Herbert and Frances McNair who were involved in the applied arts. Specifically their work was an attempt to create an environment for Aubrey Beardsley's figures and where Beardsley's ornamental motifs would decorate furniture, metalwork, textiles and posters. The Glasgow School artists designed buildings, houses and restaurants. To create a stylistic integrity throughout, they also designed the furniture, lampshades, carpets, curtains, cutlery and even, in some instances, gardens (Klein, 1986) .

Haut~ tlgnde - members of high society; the fashionable (Robinson, 1988).

1~~ QEieniales - the collective term for 'The Firebird' and 'Scheherazade' ballets performed in Paris during the 1910s (Behling, 1977). 217 kirr~~~ii.Y - the quality or value of the line (Oxford English Diet i onary, 1988) . tl~~~QQg - a tuft or plume of the soft white downy feathers found under the wings or tail of a large West African stork or heron; often used for trimmings (Oxford English Diet i onary, 1988) . fE£i£=m£4~En Moyem~ni - a group of individuals during the late nineteenth century which included the English designer Christopher Dresser whose designs were admired for their clean, uncluttered shapes and functional detailing; the Austrian designer Michael Thenet, whose early experimental work involved bentwood; Sir George Cayley, who was a pioneer in streamlining and other craftsmen-designers responsible for many of the vernacular forms (Robinson, 1988).

B~~~i~n f£n~iE~2tivi~m - the constructivist theories of Naum Gabe, Antoine Fersner and El Lissitsky inspired the Russian architects of the 1920s. Their teachings were close of those of the Bauhaus, yet were more concerned with architecture than with decorative art (Brunhammer, 1983).

Sh~gE~~n - a type of untanned leather with a rough granular surface, prepared from the skin of the shark or seal and frequently dyed green (Oxford English Dictionary, 1988)

~~ineE Werkstatte - the group was founded in 1903 by Josef Hoffmann and Koloman Moser. The Weiner Werkstatte united artists from various disciplines and produced artforms which rejected historical references, adopted a decorative range treated with clarity, attached a high priority to straight lines, geometric forms, a linear framework and pure colors (Brunhammer, 1983).