Mode Стр. 1 из 93 Mode (from Lat. modus: ‘measure’, ‘standard’; ‘manner’, ‘way’). A term in Western music theory with three main applications, all connected with the above meanings of modus: the relationship between the note values longa and brevis in late medieval notation; interval, in early medieval theory; and, most significantly, a concept involving scale type and melody type. The term ‘mode’ has always been used to designate classes of melodies, and since the 20th century to designate certain kinds of norm or model for composition or improvisation as well. Certain phenomena in folksong and in non-Western music are related to this last meaning, and are discussed below in §§IV and V. The word is also used in acoustical parlance to denote a particular pattern of vibrations in which a system can oscillate in a stable way; see Sound, §5(ii). For a discussion of mode in relation to ancient Greek theory see Greece, §I, 6 I. The term II. Medieval modal theory III. Modal theories and polyphonic music IV. Modal scales and traditional music V. Middle East and Asia HAROLD S. POWERS/FRANS WIERING (I–III), JAMES PORTER (IV, 1), HAROLD S. POWERS/JAMES COWDERY (IV, 2), HAROLD S. POWERS/RICHARD WIDDESS (V, 1), RUTH DAVIS (V, 2), HAROLD S. POWERS/RICHARD WIDDESS (V, 3), HAROLD S. POWERS/MARC PERLMAN (V, 4(i)), HAROLD S. POWERS/MARC PERLMAN (V, 4(ii) (a)–(d)), MARC PERLMAN (V, 4(ii) (e)–(i)), ALLAN MARETT, STEPHEN JONES (V, 5(i)), ALLEN MARETT (V, 5(ii), (iii)), HAROLD S. POWERS/ALLAN MARETT (V, 5(iv)) Mode I. The term 1. Mensural notation. In this context the term ‘mode’ has two applications. First, it refers in general to the proportional durational relationship between brevis and longa: the modus is perfectus (sometimes major) when the relationship is 3 : 1, imperfectus (sometimes minor) when it is 2 : 1. (The attributives major and minor are more properly used with modus to distinguish the relation of longa to maxima from the relation of brevis to longa, respectively.) In the earliest stages of mensural notation, the so-called Franconian notation, modus designated one of five to seven fixed arrangements of longs and breves in particular rhythms, called by scholars rhythmic modes. In these stylized patterns both long and breve could have two possible durations: if the shortest breve is assigned the value 1, the breve could be 1 or 2, the long 2 or 3; for example: B L + B L (1–2 + 1–2), L + L (3 + 3), B B + L (1–2 + 3) and B B B + B B B (1–1–1 + 1–1–1). See also Notation, §III, 2 and 3, and Rhythmic modes. 2. Interval. Hucbald of St Amand (c850–930) listed nine ‘modes’ in his De harmonica, ranging from semitone to major 6th by semitonal increments, giving examples from the chant repertory for each (GerbertS, i, 105; ed. Traub, 26ff). His discussion was transmitted verbatim through Berno of Reichenau (d 1048; GerbertS, ii, 64). In chapter 4 of his Micrologus (after 1026) Guido of Arezzo gave six ‘modes’ ‘by which the scale degrees are linked’ from the semitone to the 5th with the exception of the tritone. He then mentioned an expansion to eight, adding the major and minor 6ths, and to nine, including the octave. Wilhelm of Hirsau (d 1091; CSM, xxiii, chap.21) reported both traditions – Guido’s six ‘modes’ and Berno’s nine – replacing the word ‘modes’ with ‘intervals’, and he added examples from plainchant for the minor 7th and the unison. (Further references to early traditions for modus meaning ‘interval’ may be found in Frutolfus of Michelsberg’s Breviarium, ed. Vivell, p.64, n.11.) The designation of interval by modus was repeated in manuals and treatises of later times, especially in Germany. In book 1 of Ornithoparchus’s Musicae activae micrologus (1517) chapter 7 is entitled ‘De modis seu intervallis’, which in Dowland’s translation of 1609 became ‘Of Moodes, or Intervals’. As late as 1716 J.H. Buttstett, objecting to calling the unison an interval, repeated an old tradition that ‘The unison is not a mode but rather the first foundation of other modes, as [is] unity of the numbers’ (Ut, mi, sol, re, fa, la, p.29). 3. Scale or melody type. It is essential to distinguish between ‘mode’ as a concept in the history and theory of European music and ‘mode’ as a modern musicological concept applied to non-Western music, though the latter naturally grew out of the former (see below, §V, 1). As an indigenous term in Western music theory the term is applicable in three separate successive historical stages: to Gregorian chant, to Renaissance polyphony, and to tonal harmonic music of the 17th century to the 19th. These three stages of modality in European music were historically continuous in the higher levels of a single musical culture. The nucleus of the concept of mode in its basic Western form may be illustrated in two early 11th-century Italian formulations: ‘A tone or mode is a rule which distinguishes every chant in its final [scale degree]’ (Pseudo-Odo, Dialogus de musica, GerbertS, i, 257); and ‘The first degree A and the fourth, D, are alike and are designated “of a single mode” because both have a tone beneath and [have] tone–semitone–tone–tone above. And this is the first “similarity in the scale degrees”, that is, the first mode’ (Guido: Epistola de ignoto cantu, GerbertS, ii, 47). The famous definition from the anonymous Dialogus emphasized both the classificatory function of mode and the primacy of the final scale degree; Guido here stressed the scalar–melodic environment of any given scale degree, thus providing a structural definition for mode. These and other elements of mode and modality had a considerable earlier and subsequent history in medieval theory and practice, but they epitomize the two most important features: classification, and tonal structure. In the first part of the 16th century theorists began to use first the eight medieval modes of Gregorian chant and then also an extended system of 12 modes to account for such features of polyphonic music as the choice of cadential pitches and of pitches for the opening imitative entries, as well as to specify aspects of range and contour in individual melodic lines. How real these theories of polyphonic modality were for 15th-century musicians is moot; but from the mid-16th century until well into the 17th polyphonic modality was a central feature of many repertories as well as of many theories. Finally, during the 17th century various systems of polyphonic modes played complex roles in the development of theoretical systems made up of pairs of major and minor keys in what has come to be called tonal Harmony or harmonic Tonality. All three stages of European modal theory emphasized the classificatory and scalar aspects of mode, though one can observe or infer important melodic and motivic features that may be called ‘modal’ in some phases of medieval and Renaissance theory and practice. But since the 20th century the use of the term ‘mode’ in English has been broadened to the extent that melodic type and motivic features are now given equal weight with scale type in musicological parlance. The mk:@MSITStore:D:\NGD\NGD2001.chm::/Entries/S43718.htm 01.10.2013 Mode Стр. 2 из 93 broader concept came into the scholarly literature during the first quarter of the 20th century in studies of eastern Mediterranean musical styles and Eastern Christian liturgical music, from which it has become the basis of the common understanding of ‘mode’. A new basic definition from Idelsohn’s Jewish Music in its Historical Development (1929) was given wide currency in the English-speaking world when it was taken over by Reese for his Music in the Middle Ages (1940, p.10): ‘A MODE … is composed of a number of MOTIVES (i.e. short music figures or groups of tones) within a certain scale’. In Winnington-Ingram’s Mode in Ancient Greek Music (1936) both the scalar and the melodic aspects of mode are summarized, in a broad geographical and cultural context that includes both the historical Western definition and the then new aspects proposed by Western scholars of Asian and Middle Eastern music: Mode is essentially a question of the internal relationships of notes within a scale, especially of the predominance of one of them over the others as a tonic, its predominance being established in any or all of a number of ways: e.g., frequent recurrence, its appearance in a prominent position as the first note or the last, the delaying of its expected occurrence by some kind of embellishment. [p.2] Mode may be defined as the epitome of stylized song, of song stylized in a particular district or people or occupation; and it draws its character partly from associations contracted in its native home, reinforced perhaps by the sanctions of mythology. This is true of the Chinese tyao, the Indian rāg, and the Arabian maqam; and probably of the [ancient] Greek [harmonia]. [p.3] To the terms above, for which ‘mode’ is used as a translation, should be added ēchos, used in the music theory of the medieval Byzantine Church to describe the direct model for what became the mode of Gregorian chant theory. To the non- Western technical terms one might add Persian dastgāh or āvāz, pathet in Javanese gamelan music, and Japanese chō – with its usual enclitic, chōshi – a word cognate with Chinese diao, and written with the same ideograph. Taking the term in the modern, twofold sense, mode can be defined as either a ‘particularized scale’ or a ‘generalized tune’, or both, depending on the particular musical and cultural context.