Cambridge University Press 978-1-108-72474-6 — an Introduction to Japanese Society Yoshio Sugimoto Index More Information

Home , Ambassador Atom, Hiroshi Miyazawa, Yamato period

Cambridge University Press 978-1-108-72474-6 — An Introduction to Japanese Society Yoshio Sugimoto Index More Information

Index

Abe, Shinz¯o,236, 303, 312 alternative culture, 285 abilities, of employees, 116–17 characteristics, 287 abortion, 186–8 communes and the natural economy, 299–300 academic world system, 52–3 Cool Japan as, 311 achieved status, 73–4, 81 countercultural events and performances, 298–9 Act on Land and Building Leases (1991), 122 historical examples, 297 Act on Promotion of Women’s Participation local resident–volunteer support movements as, and Advancement in the Workplace (2016), 325 182 mini-communication media and online papers, activism, see resident movements; social 297–8 movements nature of, 297 administrative guidance (gyosei¯ shido¯), 232, 235–6, social formations producing, 286 338 amae (active dependency), 29, 43, 51 administrative systems amakudari (descending from heaven), 232–5, 251 during Heian period, 9 Amaterasu Ōmikami, 6–7, 267 during Kamakura period, 10 ambiguity, manipulation of, 337–8 during Yamato period, 7 Ame no Uzume, 6 adoption, 196 Ampo struggle, 318, 321 AEON, 110 ancestor worship, 266, 281, 295 aging society, 47–8 animators, working conditions, 307 declining birth rate and, 86–7 anime, 27–8, 46–7, 302, 311 life expectancy in, 84–6 animism, 203, 266–7 rise in volunteering and, 323 annual leave, 120 woman’s role as caregiver in, 181 anomie (normlessness), 48 Agon-shu¯ (Agon sect), 273 anti-development protests, 324–5 agricultural cooperatives, 326 anti-nuclear demonstrations, 92, 317–21 agricultural organizations, 239 anti-pollution protests, 325 Ainu people, 4, 201 apology, letters of, 338–9 autonomous lifestyle of, 97 apprenticeships, 113 employment, 202–3 armed forces, 338 folk culture, 203, 295 see also Self-Defense Forces formal recognition, 202–4 art forms, 296 government treatment of, 202–4 Article 9 Association, 324 historical circumstances, 201 arubaito (side jobs), 123, 159 in Karafuto, 4 Asahi Shimbun (newspaper), 30, 255, land taken from, 202 258–9, 302 population, 32, 202 Asano Takuminokami, 13 Ainu Recognition Law, 203 Ashikaga Takauji, 10 Akihito (emperor), 261 Ashio Copper Mine, 18 Akishino (imperial prince), 279 Asia Barometer survey, 162 Akita prefecture, 99 Asia-oriented capitalists, 262 Aleph cult, 274 ‘Asian values’,44–5 Alien Registration Ordinance (1947), 210 Aspects of Social Change in Modern Japan (Dore), Allied countries (Paciﬁc War), 21 42 alphabet, Japanese, 8 asset inheritance, 75–7

370 | Index

Astro Boy, 301 bunshu¯ (segmented masses), 126, 286 Atarashii Mura (New Villages), 299 buraku (settlement), 204 athletics buraku communities, 14 international competitions in, 32 blacklists of, 206 school clubs, 152 geographical distribution, 101 Atomu taishi (Ambassador Atom), 301 history, 205 attitudinal ‘correctness’, 152 human rights demanded by, 20 Aum cult, 274 number of, 204–5 authoritarian vertical relationships, 100 outcast types in, 205 authoritarianism, see friendly authoritarianism in Tokugawa period, 14 types, 208 bakufu (shogunate regime), 9 Buraku Kaih¯oD¯omei (Buraku Liberation bamboo-shoot tribe, 299 League), 207 banking sector, 110 buraku liberation movements, 207, 224 baseball, 32, 99 burakukai (hamlet associations), 334 Bash¯o,297 burakumin, 14, 201 ‘basic goods’, 74, 76 antidiscrimination legislation for, 206–7 Basic Law on Dietary Education (2005), 153 discrimination and prejudice against, 32, 171, Basic Law on Intellectual Property (2002), 130 204–7, 224 Bear Festivals, 295 employment patterns, 206 Beheiren (citizens’ movement against Vietnam historical circumstances, 201 War), 331 marriage patterns, 205–6 bills, drafting of, 245 population, 204–5 birth rate, declining, 86–7 reclassification of, 205 bishojo¯ (beautiful girl character figures), 312 bureaucracy ‘black enterprises’, 121 national, see public bureaucracy blue-collar workers, 65, 67–8 during Tokugawa period, 16 attitudes towards foreign workers, 218 Western theories of, 52 English proficiency among, 163 business community new management system for, 133–4 administrative guidance and, 232, 235–6, 338 Bon season (Buddhism), 270–1 collusion with public bureaucracy, 233–6 book industry, 258–9 deregulation push by, 238–9 boys, school uniforms for, 155 media’s relationship to, 260 Buddhism public officials’ relationships with, 232–6 believers, number of, 265 school-based recruitement by, 144–6 Bon season, 270–1 in three-way deadlock, 230–2 combative side of, 270 see also large corporations; small businesses in daily life, 271 (chush¯ o¯ kigyo¯) life after death beliefs, 268 business transactions, legitimation of duality in, lineages, 268–9 55–6 new religions derived from, 273 origins, 268 Cabinet Office, 245 sects, 268, 297 Cabinet Personnel Management Bureau, 236 Shinto and, 267, 269 Camp Schwab, 248 streams, 268 capital–labor cooperation, 133–4 temples, 247, 276 capitalism ‘Build nuclear power plants in Tokyo’ (book), 253 adaptation of Anglo-American, 49–50 bukatsu (extracurricular activities), 152, 292 adoption of, during Meiji period, 18 bullet train, 102 Confucian, 50 bullying (ijime), in schools, 155–6 corporate capitalism, 116

Index | 371

ie civilization and Japanese-style, 50 in educational sphere, 272 in Japan, 43, 116, 126–30 history, 271–2 stockholder capitalism, 116 Christmas, 272 tenno¯ vs shosha¯ , 261–2 The Chrysanthemum and the Sword (Benedict), 40 US-oriented vs. Asia-oriented, 262 chugen¯ (mid-year gifts), 247 women’s lives and, 182 chukan¯ (middle class), 82 see also cultural capitalism; industrial capitalism Chuky¯ometropolitan¯ area, 102 capitalist class, 20, 62–3, 66, 78 chury¯ u¯ (middle class), 82 car industry, 253 chusan¯ (middle class), 82 casual workers, 123–4, 126 chusan¯ kaikyu¯ (middle class), 81 casualization, of the workforce, 123–4, 317 ‘Chushingura¯ ’ (The treasury of loyal retainers), 13 Central Community Chest of Japan, 334 chush¯ o¯ kigyo¯ (small businesses), 108 Central Pharmaceutical Affairs Council, 187 chuzaisho¯ (police substations), 336 centralization, during Tokugawa period, 12–13 citizens’ movements, see resident movements charitable works, 281 citizenship, 209–11, 219 cherry blossoms, 294 civic cultural groups, 293 chii (achieved status), 81 Civil Code (1896), 17, 172–3, 189 chiiki seikyo¯ (local cooperatives), 326 civil society chijimi shiko¯ (miniaturizing orientation), 30 fragmentation of, 315–17, 319–21 Child Abuse Prevention Law (2000), 189 interest groups, see interest groups Child Care and Family Care Leave Law (1992), non-government organizations, 319, 324, 328 181 non-profit organizations, 319, 322–4 childcare, availability of, 86 resident movements, 324–6 child-rearing, workforce participation and, seikatsusha, 330–1 177–8 social movements and solidarity in, 317–21 children volunteer activities and, 315–16, 319, 322–3 abuse of, 189 clans, 7, 9–10 born out of wedlock, 173 class divorce and, 191–2 analysis of, 59, 81 of migrant workers, 218 capitalist class, 20, 62–3, 66, 78 violence towards parents by, 189 ‘class of privilege’,79 China classification, 62–74 ‘history war’ with, 256 commoners’ class, 14–16 territorial disputes with, 257 cultural trends and, 283, 292–3 trade relations with, 13, 262 data on, 61–2 wars with, 21–2 distribution, 63 Chinese civilization, influence on Japan by, 8 education and, 61, 146–8 Chinese residents (of Japan), 32 English-language learning and, 162–4 choj¯ u¯ giga (frolicking animals and humans) scrolls, ideology of equal opportunity and, 341 46, 312 Japanese emic concepts of, 81–2 chokai¯ (town block associations), 334 karyu¯ shakai,59 chonaikai¯ (town block associations), 334–5 Korean residents vs Japanese nationals, 214 Chongryun (General Association of Korean labor force classification and, 66–9 Residents in Japan), 209, 213 land ownership and, 36 Ch¯oshu¯ region, 17, 19 life trajectory and early locations of, 62 Christianity middle class, see middle class banning of, 271–2 multiclass model of society, 35–7 believers, number of, 265, 272 new middle class, 62–4, 78 charity work, 272 old middle class, 63–5, 78 commodification of, 272 otaku culture and, 308

372 | Index

class (cont.) Article 14, 173 physical characteristics associated with, 66 Article 24, 175, 195 privileged class, 20 interpretation of, 337–8 reproduction of, 36–7, 68, 74–9 proposed revising of, 238, 242–3 shifting public discourse on, 58, 80 constitution, Meiji (1889), 17–18, 20 social mobility and, 66, 80 Constitutional Democratic Party of Japan, 231, status inconsistency, 69–73 238 underclass, 63–4, 66, 68 constitutional government, 20 volunteering and, 323 construction industry working class, 63–4, 78 daily laborers in, 111 working poor class, 123 on deregulation, 239 class afﬁliation, 31, 59–61 duality and corruption in, 55–6, 338 class struggle model, 59 foreign workers in, 217 class transcendentalists, 73–4 small businesses in, 108 cleaning, of classrooms, 153 consumer behavior patterns, 126–8 climate, 98 consumer-oriented society, 93 Cold War, 210, 338 consumption taxation scheme, 80 collective responsibility (rentai sekinin), 334 contents industry, 303–4 collective singing, 339 contraception, 186–7 collectivism contract employees, 124 in schools, 151–2 contrition, for wrongdoing, 338–9 shift from individualism to, 48 control, in Japanese society, see friendly colonization, 2, 19 authoritarianism comedy, 102 control-oriented education (kanri kyoiku¯ ), 154–8 comfort women (ianfu), 255–6 Convention on the Civil Aspects of International comike (comic markets), 301 Child Abduction (1980), 192 commerce associations, 326 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees commodities (UN) (1981), 200 ‘basic goods’, 74, 76 convergence debate, 47–50 cultural capitalism and, 126–30 convoy system, 252–3 from local industries, 98–9 Cool Japan, 45–6 ‘upper goods’,74 as commercial market, 303–4 commoners’ class, 14–16 Gross National Cool index, 45, 300, 310 communes, 299 in image market abroad, 304–6, 309 Communist Party, see Japanese Communist Party Japan literacy and, 309–10 community activists, female, 184–6 labor conditions of production, 307 community-based organizations, 185 main consumers, 310 community chest drives, 334 otaku culture and, 307–8 companies, see large corporations; small businesses paradoxical nature of, 310 (chush¯ o¯ kigyo¯) as part of contents and media industries, 303 Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for political economy of, 300–13 Trans-Paciﬁc Partnership, 239 soft power and, 310–11 conformity, see friendly authoritarianism Cool Japan Promotion Council, 303 Confucian capitalism, 50 cooperatives, 299–300, 326, 331 Confucianism, 8 core group, in academic systems, 52 Confucius, 8 core subcultures, 39–40 conscription, 18, 22 corporate capitalism (hojin¯ shihonshugi), 116 consensus society, Japan as, 29 corporate welfare arrangements, 115 constitution (1946), 23 corporationism (kaishashugi/kigyoshugi¯ ), 116 Article 9, 324, 337–8 corporations, see large corporations

Index | 373

correspondence high schools, 147 daily laborers, 111 cosplay events, 299 daimyo¯ (feudal lords), 10–13 cottage industries, 15 dance, 270, 295 counterculture, see alternative culture dango¯ (bid-rigging), 55–6 Creative Industries Promotion Office, 303 danka (Buddhist parishioner) system, 276 cults, 273–4 dankai no sedai (clod and lump generation), 91 cultural capital, 77, 293 Datsu-a Nyu¯ o¯ (Quit Asia and join Europe), cultural capitalism 201 industrial capitalism vs, 45, 127 de facto relationships (jijitsu-kon), 173, 176, 196 information revolution and, 129–30 Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples labor union decline and, 132–3 (UN) (2007), 203 mass customization, 302 democratic model of education, 167 rise in, 126–30 Democratic Party for the People, 231, 238 see also Cool Japan; cultural export industry democratic principles, 20, 332 cultural consumption, pattern of, 292–3 demography cultural essentialism, 54, 312–13 aging population, 47–8, 84–8 see also Nihonjinron (theories of Japaneseness) declining birth rate, 86–7 cultural exchange programs, 40 population distribution, 25–6 cultural export industry, 45–6, 128 dento¯ geino¯ (traditional performing arts), 285 see also Cool Japan deregulation cultural literacy, 221 business community push for, 238–9 cultural nationalism, 45, 312 neoliberal expansion and, 233 cultural products, 300, 303 as political orientation, 250 cultural relativism debate, 50–4 political parties on, 237–8 cultural uniqueness, 46 union decline and, 132 cultural workers, 128–30 detention, police, 337 culture development projects, protests against, 324–5 of Ainu people, 203 developmental conservative approach to of commoners in Tokugawa period, 15 education, 167–8 defining, 284 developmental-state model (political economy), elite vs popular, 283, 286 236–7, 241 food culture, 46, 99, 101 dialects, 34, 104–5 homogeneity assumptions, 28–31 discipline, in schools, 150–1 Japanese, dualities of, 283–6 discrimination life culture, 330 against Ainu people, 32 national ethos glorified through, 46 against burakumin, 32, 204–7, 224 Nihonjinron-style stereotyping’sinfluence on, 44 intersectional, 225 nobility culture, 9 against Korean residents, 209–10, 214 orthodox culture, 77 against Okinawans, 32 patterns-of-culture approach, 41 divided-society model, 59 political culture, 245–50 divorce sports, 99 arbitration, 191 traditional vs imported, 284–5 barriers to, for women, 173–4, 191 visually oriented, 312 domestic violence as reason for, 188 see also folk culture; mass culture; popular rate of, 173–4, 191 culture trends, 191 customs, traditional religious, 281 dokodemo door (door to wherever you like), 46 cyberbullying, 156 domestic violence, 188–9 cyberspace, worker delocalization and, domesuchikku baiorensu (domestic violence), 188 129–30 donations, political, 246–7

374 | Index

Doraemon (anime character), 46 physical, 153 double codes, legitimation of, 54–6 regimentation and its costs in, 153–8 regulatory pluralist approach to, 166 earthquakes school–business interactions in, 144–6 Great East Japan Earthquake (2011), 92, 250 social class lines and, 146–8 Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake (1995), 322 state control of, 148–53 Great Kant¯oEarthquake (1923), 21 successes of Japanese, 158 East Asian model (capitalism), 50 textbook authorization system, 149, 338 eastern Japan, 34 during Tokugawa period, 16 economic competition vs social justice, 263 tournament type, 139 economic recession, 35, 44, 58, 80, 118 yutori kyoiku¯ , 166 economic sectors, 128–9 see also teachers; specific educational institutions economic structures, see capitalism; educational backgrounds industrialization intergenerational reproduction of, 36, 69, 147 economic-superpower expansionists, 262 labor force classification by, 66–9 economics, Nihonjinron-style stereotyping and, marriage and, 78–9 44 social stratification and, 61 Edo, 12–13, 15–16, 100 status inconsistency and, 70–3 Edo period, see Tokugawa period educational credentialism, 136, 142 education egalitarian horizontal networks, 100 attitudinal ‘correctness’, 152 egalitarianism, 30–1, 80, 165, 340–2 commercialization of, 142–4 ‘8050’ quandary, 157 competing orientations, 164–8 ekiben (boxed lunches), 99 conformist socialization patterns in, 150–3 elections, 79 curriculum guidelines, 149–50 electoral system, 231–2 democratic model, 167 electronic media, 104, 259 demography and stratification, 137–48 elementary schools, 137, 146, 150–1, 336 developmental conservative approach to, 167–8 elite culture dietary education, 153 civic cultural groups, 293 disciplinarian ethics in, 150–1 popular culture and, 283, 286, 292–3 double-schooling, 138 school curricula’s popularization of, 292 English language learning, see English-language social education and, 292–3 learning elite structure of society, rifts in, 261–3 examination-oriented culture of, 141–4 emic concepts, 51 extra-school education, 143 of class, 81–2 family socialization and, 146–7 Japanese, cross-cultural study of, 51 five-day week in schools, 143 seikatsusha, 330–1 formal level of, 137–8 of social relations, 340 juku schools, 143 subcultural relativism using, 53–4 Kumon method, 128 for understanding folk culture, 294 league type, 139 emotive moralizing, 339 ‘liberalization of’, calls for, 165 emperor, as organ of the state, 20, 261 literacy and numeracy standards, 158 employee evaluation, 116–17, 124–6 during Meiji period, 18 Employees’ Pension Insurance, 87–8 mode of teaching, global adoption of, 49 employment, 63–4 moral, 149, 153 Ainu patterns of, 202–3 nationwide achievement test, 168 arubaito, 123, 159 neoliberal approach to, 165–6 burakumin patterns of, 206 parental investment in, 143 casual workers, 123–4, 126 phases, 137 changes in traditional structure, 48

Index | 375

by firm size, 26 examination-oriented education culture, 141–4, of foreign workers, 216–17 341–2 freeter workers, 124 exoticism, 45 of the global generation, 94–5 expansionism, during Meiji period, 19 graduates recruited for, 144–6 extended families, 194–5 haken workers, 183 extracurricular activites (bukatsu), 152 after high school, 140 ezoshi¯ (ancient picture books), 312 koseki papers and, 174 labor force classification and analysis, 66–9 fads, mass media and, 288–9 life expectancy’s impact on, 86 families lifetime employment system, 35, 109, 118 corporations’ impacts on, 119 as networkers, 184–6 education and socialization processes of, non-regular workers, see non-regular workers 146–7 part-time workers, see part-time workers extended families, 194–5 precariousness of, 35 nuclear families, 193–5 regular workers, see regular workers registration framework, see household by sector, 128 registration system (koseki) tanshin funin, 122 residential arrangements and family norms, Employment Security Law (Shokugyo¯ antei-ho)¯ 194–5 (1949), 145 structure of, 48, 100 empresses, 8 family metaphor, used by corporations, 118–19 English language family tombs, 175, 294 global dominance of, 160–4 farmers, 14, 20, 64–5, 103 name order conventions, 161 farmland ownership, 7 proficiency, 161–4 Federation of Electric Power Companies, 327 English-language learning feminism, 37, 51 debates around, 160–1 Festival of the Weaver (Tanabata), 294 as an economic commodity, 162, 164 festivals, 99, 294–5 regional and class divide in, 162–3 feudal domain (han), 12, 18 in schools, 161–2 feudal lords (daimyo¯), 10–13 at universities, 160 feudal period, 5, 10–12, 100, 335 enka (popular ballads), 284 see also specific periods enrollment rate (schools), during Meiji period, 18 Fifteen Years’ War (1931–45), 21–3 enterprise pension schemes, 87 financial assets, 75–7 enterprise songs, 339 financial groups, 110 enterprise unionism, 130, 132–3 Fiscal Investment and Loan Program (Zaisei entertainment media, 288–90 T¯oyushi¯ Keikaku), 240–1 environmental disasters, 18 folk culture, 285 Equal Employment Opportunity Law (1985), 181 of the Ainu people, 295 equality of opportunity, 340–2 characteristics, 287 establishment, 229–30, 261–3 dances, 270 see also business community; parliament; public emic concepts for understanding, 294 bureaucracy local festivals, 294–5 eta (amply polluted/highly contaminated) caste, marginal art, 296 205 nature of, 294 ethnic minority groups, see minority groups in Okinawa, 295 see also specific minority groups regional variation of, 99, 295–6 ethnocentrism, Japanese, 199–201 social formations producing, 286 etic concepts, 51 songs, 99, 271 examination hell, 141 food culture, 46, 99, 101

376 | Index

foreign residents views on nuclear power after, 254 cultural background, 215 volunteer help after, 322 koseki system and, 175 funerals, 174–5, 247 population, 32, 215 futok¯ o¯ (school nonattendance), 156 foreign visitors, cultural perceptions of, 40 foreign workers, 31–2, 201 gakureki shakai (society oriented inordinately to attitudes towards, 218 educational credentialism), 61 categories, 216–17 gakuseki (school registry), 175 employers of, 216–17 gakushu¯ shidoy¯ ory¯ o¯ (official guidelines for school exploitation of, 218 teaching), 149 historical circumstances, 201 ganbari (endurance and persistence), 30, 341 of Japanese descent, 216 Gautama, Siddhārtha, 268 labor market conditions attracting, 216 gekiga (manga genre), 301–2 population, 215 gekokujo¯ (where the low dominated the high and skilled professionals, 218–19 mighty), 10 students as, 217 gemeinschafts (communities), 119 trainee program, 217–18 gender undocumented, 218 Cool Japan and stratification of, 312 unskilled workers, 217, 219 distribution, 25 visa categories, 219 equality and, 172, 184–6 foxes, 276 household registration system and, 171 free-market model (political economy), 237, 241 inequality and, 179–80, 184 see also deregulation; privatization labor force classification by, 66–9 Freedom and People’s Rights Movement, 20 value orientation and, 37 freeter (job-hopping) workers, 124 gender gap, 170, 181 Friday (magazine), 289 gender identities, diverse, 195–6 friendly authoritarianism General Council of Trade Unions of Japan comparison of types, 343 (S¯ohy¯o),132 manipulation of ambiguity, 337–8 general middle-class model, 59 moralizing and ‘mind correctness’, 338–42 generational subcultural groupings mutual surveillance within small groups, 332–5 characteristics, 89 nature of, 332 global generation, 89, 94–5 power as visible and tangible in, 336–7 postwar generation, 88–9, 91–2, 95 soft coercion of, 332 prosperity generation, 88–9, 92–5 fufu¯ bessei (different surnames despite formal recent history’s phases relative to, 88–9 marriage), 174 socialization experiences, 89 Fuji (tabloid newspaper), 289 value orientation shift between, 95–6 Fujin Koron¯ (magazine), 290 wartime generation, 88–91, 95 Fujiwara, Masahiko, 46 workforce composition and, 66–9 fuki¯ iin (students in charge of discipline), 152 Genji clan, 9–10 fukoku kyohei¯ (‘Enrich the nation and strengthen Genji monogatari (The tale of Genji) (Murasaki), 9 the armed forces’), 18 geographical variation, see regional variation Fukuoka prefecture, 99 geography of Japan, 97–8 Fukushima nuclear plant disaster geopolitical centers, 5 aftermath, 255 gesellschafts (associations), 119 anti-nuclear demonstrations, 92, 317–21 gift-giving, 247 cause and consequences, 250–1 Gini index, 35, 75 hardship on the periphery revealed by, girls, school uniforms for, 155 253–4 Girls’ Festival (Hina Matsuri), 294 TEPCO and the nuclear village, 251–3 Global Gender Gap index, 181

Index | 377

global generation, 89, 94–5 Hayato clan, 7 globalization Heian-ky¯o, see Kyoto deregulation and, 239 Heian period, 8–9 of Japanese society, 44, 225–7 Henoko, 248 nationalism vs, 241–3 hensachi (deviation score), 143–5 shosha¯ capitalism and, 261 high schools, 137 go-nin gumi (ﬁve-household) system, 335 elite academic, 141 Gosakuramachi Tenn¯o(empress), 8 options for graduates, 139–40 government population distribution after graduation, 139 branches of, 232 tuition fees, 142 bureaucracy, see public bureaucracy variation between, 138, 147 duality and corruption in, 56 higher education institutions education controlled by, 148–53 cost of, 142–3 local, 248–50 enrollment in, 137 media’s relationship to, 260 junior colleges, 140 municipal, 233, 248–50 tiers of, 160 neighborhood associations and, 334–5 variation in, 140 prefectural, 233, 235, 248–50 see also universities in three-way deadlock, 230–2 hikikomori (social withdrawal), 156–8, 316, see also parliament 341 Great East Japan Earthquake (2011), 92, 250 Himiko (Yamataikoku leader), 7 Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake (1995), 322 himin, futsu¯ no hito (ordinary people), 331 Great Kant¯oEarthquake (1923), 21 Hina Matsuri (Girls’ Festival), 294 Gross National Cool index, 45, 300, 310 hinin (nonhuman people) caste, 205 group model (Japanese society), 29–31 Hirade, Ikuo, 339 gymnastics exercises, 151 hiragana (writing system), 8 gyosei¯ shido¯ (administrative guidance), 232, 235–6, Hiroshima, 23 338 hi-seiki shain (non-regular workers), 63–6, 123 ‘history war’ Hague Convention on the Civil Aspects of comfort women issue, 255–6 International Child Abduction (1980), 192 over military past, 255–8 haibutsu kishaku undo¯ (abolish Buddhism and Nanjing Massacre, 256 destroy temples) movement, 267 South Korean laborers, 256 haiku, 15, 297 territorial disputes, 257 hairstyles, student, 150 transnational approach to, 257 haka mairi (visiting a grave), 175 Yasukuni Shrine and war criminals, 256 Hakata textiles, 99 hitogara (human quality), 116 haken (temporary) workers, 183 Hizen-han, 17 haken shain (temporary workers), 124 hojin¯ shihonshugi (corporate capitalism), 116 han (feudal domain), 12, 18 Hokkaid¯o,4, 97 han (small-group) system, 333–5 Ainu population, 4, 32, 97, 202 han-ko¯ (domain schools), 16 character of residents, 98 hanami (cherry blossoms), 294 Nibutani dam construction in, 202 Hansen’s disease, stigmatization of, 225 home-based private lessons, 293 Happiness Realization Party, 280 homelessness, 69 harakara (fraternity), 340 homogeneity, 28–31, 33–4 hare (gala), 294–5 Honda, 112 harmony, 29 H¯onen (Buddhist teacher), 268 Hasegawa, Machiko, 302 honne (true feelings), 54–5, 117, 119 Hashimoto’s model (class), 62–6 honseki (permanent address), 172

378 | Index

Honshu,¯ 97 self-image, 40–1 Ainu population, 97, 202 types of national, 223–4 attacks on, 7 ideological capital, control of, 39–40 colonial militiamen in, 4 ideological centralization, 104–5 Japanese identity in, 4 ie civilization, 50 horizontal egalitarian networks, 100 ie system, 17, 172, 175–6 hours of work, 120–1, 133 iemoto system, 293 House of Councillors, 231–2 Ienaga, Sabur¯o,149 House of Peers, 19 igo (Chinese chess), 292–3 House of Representatives, 19, 79, 231–2 ijime (bullying), 155–6 household registration system (koseki), 171–6 ikigai, 30, 51 children born out of wedlock and, 173 illegitimate births, 173 divorce deterred by, 173–4 image(s) family tombs, 175 associated with Japan, 38 head of household in, 172–3 cultural export industry and rival, 45–6 ie ideology and, 172, 175–6 of Japan abroad, 304–6, 309 marriages to non-Japanese and, 190 Japanese self-image, 40–1 minority group discrimination by, 171, 206 immigrant workers, see foreign workers operation of, 171–2 Immigration Control Law, 219 resident card system, 171–2 Imperial Covenant (1868), 17 same-sex marriages and, 195–6 Imperial Household Law (1947), 8, 261 seki and, 175 imperial Japan, 5 surname after marriage in, 174 colonies, 2 household types court, during Kamakura period, 10 distribution, 192 diet (1889), 19 extended families, 194–5 Imperial Rule Assistance Association (Taisei nuclear families, 193–5 Yokusan-kai), 22 single-person, 192–3, 317 imperial succession, 8 households imported culture, 284 asset holdings of, 75–6 Inari shrines, 276 independance of, 100 income, 35, 70–3, 77 in neighborhood associations, 334 independent small proprietors (jieigyo¯), 64–5, police-associated, 336 112–13 power in, 17 indigenous people, see Ainu people size of average, 86 individualism, shift from collectivism to, 48 tasks, gender inequality and, 184 industrial capitalism, 45, 127 housewives, 63, 66, 178, 183–5 Industrial Patriotic Society (Sangy¯oH¯okoku-kai), Human Revolution movement, 273 22 hyakusho¯ (farmers), 14 industrial policy, 49 hyojun-go¯ (standardized Japanese language), industrial sector, 110, 132, 326 105 industrial strikes, 133–4 hyosatsu¯ (nameplate), 175 industrialization convergence debate and, 47–50 ianfu (comfort women), 255–6 during Meiji period, 18 ianu (pieces of shaved wood), 295 during Tokugawa period, 15 identity inequality deconstructing Japanese, 219–24 absence of, 74 ethnic identities, 34 educational, 146–8 regional identities, 34, 98–9 extent vs Western countries, 80 relative to Westerners, 199–201 free-market paradigm and, 241

Index | 379

gender, 179–80, 184 islands increase in, 59–62 major, 97–8 in Japanese society, 35–7 small isles, 98 kakusa shakai thesis, 35–7, 59–62, 79–81 territorial disputes over, 257 reproduction of, 74–9 Itt¯o-en(Social Welfare Corporation) commune, information revolution, 92–3, 129–30, 298 299 information technology, social movements’ use of, Izumo Shrine, 266 320–1 infrastructure programs, during Meiji period, 18 jabisen (long lute), 99 inheritance Japan of assets, 75–7 attacks on, 10 for illegitimate children, 173 changing image overseas, 40–7, 304–6, 309 primogeniture and, 16, 172 Chinese influences on early, 8 of social and cultural resources, 36–7 as a conglomerate of subnations, 97–9 tax on, 76, 81 eastern vs western, 34, 100–2 Inland Sea, isles, 98 expansionary attempts by, 6 interest groups geography, 97–8 affiliation changes in, 316 geopolitical centers, 5 defined, 327 history, 2, 88 economic interest groups, 327–8 map of, 3 formation of, 328 national boundaries, 1–6 LDP backing by, 243–4 population, see population public bureaucracy lobbying by, 245 as a sea-dependent society, 8 strategies of, 328 ‘third opening’ of, 242 targets, 327 Japan Agricultural Cooperatives, 262, 327 types, 329 Japan Association of Corporate Executives (Keizai zoku parliamentarians and, 245 Doy¯ ukai),¯ 239 International Convention on the Elimination of Japan Association of Lifeology (Seikatsu Gakkai), All Forms of Racial Discrimination (UN) 331 (1969), 224 Japan Broadcasting Corporation (NHK), 27, 151, International Manga Research Center, 312 259 International Military Tribunal for the Far East Japan Business Federation (Keidanren), 239 (Tokyo Trial), 256 Japan Chamber of Commerce and Industry international relations, 238 (Nissh¯o),239 internet, 129–30, 320 Japan Conference (Nippon Kaigi), 242–3 Inter-Parliamentary Union, 181 Japan Exchange and Teaching Programme, 162 inter-personal relationships Japan Federation of Bar Associations, 337 among women, 51 Japan Interest Group Study, 327–8 as basic unit of action, 30 Japan literacy, 309–10 in bureaucratic organizations, 52 Japan Medical Association, 243 extent of, in Japan, 51 Japan as Number One (Vogel), 43 group orientation of, 29 Japan Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Association, in Kyoto, 101–2 234 intersectionality, 225 Japan Post Group, 241 intersocietal relativism, 54 Japan Post Holdings, 235 intrasocietal relativism, 54 Japan Postal Workers’ Union (Nihon Yusei¯ K¯osha ippan-shoku (ordinary employees), 178–9 R¯od¯oKumiai), 132 ‘iron solidarity’, 320 Japan Restoration Party, 231 Ise Shrine, 267 Japan Road Contractors Association, 327 Ishihara, Shintar¯o,45 Japan Teachers’ Union, 154, 167

380 | Index

Japan Trade Union Confederation (Reng¯o),132, modernization theory, 41–3 134, 230, 238 monocultural model in, 28 Japan Trucking Association, 234 mysterious Japan, 304–5 Japanese Brazilians, 31, 216 particularistic approach to, 43 Japanese civilization, 50 patterns-of-culture approach, 41 Japanese Communist Party, 167 popular images of Japan and paradigms in, emergence of, 20 304–5 on militarization, 238 revisionist analysis, 43 parliamentary seats held by, 231 trichotomous phases, 306 strength of, 61 universalistic approach to, 42 Japanese culture, dualities, 283–6 ‘Japanese-style’ management Japanese language, see language, Japanese changes in styles of, 48 Japanese model, 43–4 as dominant work model, 113 Japanese people employee ability defined in, 116–18 by generation, see generational subcultural family metaphor as socialization device in, groupings 118–19 demographics, see demography global proliferation of, 49 identity of, see identity key features, 114–16 living overseas, 216–17, 225–6 performance-oriented management vs, 114 mythological origins of, 6–7 small businesses and, 109 self-image, 40–1 superior–subordinate relationship in, 117–18 stereotypes, 27–8, 40 worker support for, 118, 125 types, 219–20 Japaneseness Japanese society aspects, 219–20 age structure’s impacts on, 85 at the individual, psychological level, 29 Cool Japan discourse and, 309–10 at the intergroup level, 29 cultural export industry and representations of, criteria for determining, 221–4 45–6 defining, 219–24 dual codes in, 54–6 theories of, see Nihonjinron (theories of generalisations about, 26–8 Japaneseness) globalization and, 44, 225–7 Japan’s Maternal Protection Law (1996), 188 homogeneity assumptions about, 28–31, 33–4 jiba sangyo¯ (local industries), 98–9 monocultural model, 28–31 jiban (solid blocs of voters), 245 multiclass model, 35–7 jichikai (self-government associations), 334 multicultural model, 37–9 jieigyo¯ (small-business proprietors), 64–5, 112 multiethnic model, 31–4 jijitsu-kon (de facto relationships), 173 patterns of transformation, 47–8 jima (island), 98 prejudice embedded in, 224 Jinja Honch¯o(Association of Shinto Shrines), 279 rifts in elite structure of, 261–3 jinkaku (personhood), 116 soft control in, see friendly authoritarianism jishu kanri (voluntary control), 333 see also civil society jitsuryoku (manifest ability), 116 Japanese state, formation of, 4–5 jizake (sake rice wines), 99 Japanese studies JK (jishu kanri) activity (total quality control calls for globalization in, 44 movement), 333 Cool Japan discourse, 45–6, 304, 306 job market, see labor market Eurocentric tendencies in, 53 job mobility, 109 frameworks in, 42 job rotation, 122 groupist Japan, 304–5 J¯odo (Pure Land), 268 key influences on, 41, 47 J¯odo Shinshu¯ (Buddhist sect), 268, 270, 297 learn-from-Japan campaigns, 43 J¯odoshu¯ (Buddhist sect), 268

Index | 381

jomin¯ (everyday life people), 286, 331 kateinai rikon (divorce within marriage), 191 joruri¯ (puppet theatre), 15 ke (routine life), 294 jory¯ u¯ kaikyu¯ (upper class), 81 kegare (impurity), 294 joseki (exit from a register), 175 Keidanren (Japan Business Federation), 118, 239, journalists, 258, 260 254 juku schools (after-school coaching), 143 keiretsu (enterprise grouping) system jumin-hy¯ o¯ (resident card) system, 171–2 business conglomerates and, 20 junior colleges, 140 function of, 110 junior students (kohai¯ ), 150 in media organizations, 259–60 junkai renraku (patrol liaison), 336 small businesses in, 110–11 jurisdictional sectionalism, between ministries, university hierarchy akin to, 159–60 233 keiyaku shain (contract employees), 124 Keizai D¯oyukai¯ (Japan Association of Corporate Kabuki theater, 15 Executives), 239 Kadokawa Corporation, 27 kenjin-kai (prefectural associations), 98 Kaifu, Toshiki, 246 kenmin-sei (prefectural character), 98 kaikyu¯ (class), 81 kenmin-shotoku (prefectural income), 104 kaishashugi (corporationism), 116 kigyoshugi¯ (corporationism), 116 kaiso¯ (stratum), 81 kiken (dangerous), 216 kakei (family line), 81 Kikkawa’s model, 66–9 kaku (series of ranks), 81 kimonos, 99 kakusa shakai (disparity society), 35–7, 59–62, Kinai (Kinki) region, 4, 7, 16, 205 79–81 Kinai (Kinki) subnation, 5 Kamakura period, 9–10 kinship networks, 48, 100, 214, 340 kami (object of Shinto worship), 266, 268 Kintetsu, 110 Kamo no Ch¯omei,1 Kira K¯ozukenosuke,13 Kamui gaiden, 302 kiseki (registry of those in posthumous world), Kanagawa prefecture, 103 175 kanbun (Chinese classical literature), 292 kisha kurabu (reporters’ clubs), 258, 260 kanji (Chinese characters), 8, 312 Kishi, Nobusuke, 246 kanjin (inter-personal relationship), 30, 51 kitanai (dirty), 216 see also inter-personal relationships kitsui (difﬁcult), 216 Kankokujinron (theories of Koreanness), 225 koban¯ (police box) system, 49, 336 kankon sosai¯ (cash contributions), 247 kobun (devoted followers), 340 kanpo¯ (traditional medicine), 8 kodokushi (lonely, unattended death), 317 kanri kyoiku¯ (control-oriented education), 154–8 koenkai¯ (supporters’ associations), 245 Kansai Electric Power Company, 254 K¯ofuku no Kagaku (Happy Science), 280 Kansai region, 33, 100–2, 105 kohai¯ (junior students), 150 kanshi (classic Chinese poetry), 293 Koizumi, Shinichir¯o,240 Kant¯o region, 100–2 Koizumi reform, 240–1 Kant¯osubnation, 5 Kojiki (Records of ancient matters), 6, 267 Karafuto, 4 kojin shihonshugi (stockholder capitalism), karaoke, 102, 291–2 116 karoshi¯ (death caused by excessive work), kokkei-bon (comical novels), 15 120–1 Kokutetsu R¯od¯oKumiai (National Japan Railway karyu¯ shakai (lower-stratum society), 35, 59 Workers’ Union), 132 kaso¯ shakai (lower-stratum society), 81 Komeito, 231, 238, 279 kasochi (depopulated areas), 103 Kon, Wajir¯o,331 katakana (writing system), 8 konjo¯ (determination), 154 kateinai boryoku¯ (intra-family violence), 188–9 Konk¯oky¯o,297

382 | Index

Korea kyots¯ u-go¯ (common Japanese), 105 ‘history war’ with, 255–6 kyudan¯ (impeachment), 207 invasion attempts on, 7, 12 kyud¯ o¯ (Japanese archery), 292 Japan’s colonization of, 19 Kyu-dojin¯ hogoh¯o(Law for the Protection of territorial disputes with, 257 Former Savage Natives), 203 Korean residents (zainichi), 201 Kyush¯ u¯ island, 7, 97 advancement of, 214–15 character of residents, 98 assimilationist orientation, 213 folk songs, 99 communities, tensions within, 209 local industries, 99 comparative class distribution, 214 missionary work on, 271 discrimination and prejudice against, 209–10, resident movement in, 325 214–15 generation gap, 211 labor force, see workforce geographical distribution, 101 labor market historical circumstances, 201, 209 pull factors, 216 identity orientations of young, 212–13 push factors, 216 individualistic orientation, 213 rationalization in, 123–6 killing of, in Tokyo, 21 two-tier structure of internal, 178–82 loyal to their home country, 212–13 women’s employment profiles and, 176–86 marriage patterns, 211–12 labor movements, 131–2 multicultural orientation, 213 Labor Standards Act (1993), 120 nationality issues, 209–10 labor unions, 326 naturalization and surname issue, 211 capital–labor cooperation, 133–4 population, 32, 208 enterprise unionism, 130, 132–3 studies on, 34 loss of power, 130 voting rights, 210, 215 membership decline in, 130–3, 316 Korean War, 209–10 membership statistics, 26 Koseki Law (1872), 171, 173 new-type, 131 koseki (household registration) system, 171–6 non-regular workers’, 130 see also household registration system (koseki) plural-type, 130 koshinjo¯ (private detective agencies), 206 policymaking processes and absence of, 230 kosupure (cosplay), 299 shunto¯, 134 kot¯ o¯ senmon gakko¯ (technical colleges), 137 types, 130–1 kukai (hamlet associations), 334 Labour Standards Inspection Office, 121 Kumon method, 128 Land Development Bureau, 202 kuni (nations), 98 land-improvement associations, 243–4 Kwantung Army, 21 land ownership kyoiku¯ tokku (special educational zones), 166 Ainu dispossessed of, 202 Kyoto class and, 36 as capital, 8 during Heian period, 9 Bon season in, 271 primogeniture and inheritance of, 16 character of residents, 98 during Tokugawa period, 12 inter-personal relationships in, 101–2 urbanization and, 103–4 local industries, 99 during Yamato period, 7 during Meiji Restoration, 17 land registers, 11 popular culture in, 15 land tax, 9, 14, 18–19 during Warring States period, 10, 12 landlords, 19, 21, 122 Kyoto International Manga Museum, 312 language, Japanese Kyoto-Osaka-Kobe nexus, 98, 101 Chinese influence on, 8 Kyoto Seika University, 312 dialects, 34, 104–5

Index | 383

Japanese alphabet, 8 rural support of, 262 legitimation of duality underlying, 54–6 on state-led education, 167 name order in, 161 young members of, 95 ‘standard Japanese’, 105 zoku parliamentarians and, 245–6 large corporations life club cooperatives, 299, 331 amakudari appointments, 233–5 life culture, 330 blue-collar workers in, 133–4 life expectancy, 84–6 convoy system and, 252–3 lifestyle discrimination against women in, 179 population density and, 97 employee evaluation by, 116–18 shifting values and, 73–4, 96 English communication in, 161 lifetime employment system, 35, 109, 118 family metaphor as socialization device in, lifetime single ratio, 193 118–19 ‘Lightly Educated Guys’ (‘LEGs’), 68 gender equality in, 182 literacy, 16, 158 gift-giving in, 247 literary coterie magazines, 293 inter-personal relationships in, 52 literature, 9, 15 ‘Japanese-style’ management and, 114–16 local cooperatives, 326 manipulation of ambiguity in, 338 local festivals, 99, 294–5 as minority of businesses, 108 local governments multinationalization of, 239 interregional competition, 249–50 paternalistic arrangements in, 52 lobbying by, 249 percentage employed by, 26, 108 national bureaucracy and, 248–50 small firms vs, 109 neighborhood associations and, 334–5 songs specific to, 339 project implementation by, 249 unionization rate in, 131 see also municipal governments; prefectural late-developer hypothesis (multiple convergence governments model), 49 local industries, 98–9 law enforcement, 49, 336–7 lost decades, 35 Law for the Protection of Former Savage Natives loyalty, 29 (Kyu-dojin¯ hogoh¯o),203 Law on the Promotion of the Elimination of magazines, 196, 289–90, 293 Buraku Discrimination (2016), 207 see also manga laws Mahathir Bin Mohamad (Malaysia’s PM), during Heian period, 9 44 during Yamato period, 7 Mahayana Buddhism, 268 learn-from-Japan campaigns, 43 Mainichi (newspaper), 258–9 Lee Kuan Yew (Singapore’s PM), 44 Makiguchi, Tsunesabur¯o,279 Legislation for Peace and Security (2015), 238 management models, comparison, 114 ‘LEGs’ (‘Lightly Educated Guys’), 68 managers, subordinates’ relationship with, 52, leprosy, stigmatization of, 225 117–18 LGBT communities, 195–6 Manchukuo nation, 22 liaison cards, 336 Manchurian Incident (1931–3), 21–2 Liberal Democratic Party (LDP), 231 manga, 300 inherited constituencies in, 79 American animation’sinfluence, 301 interest groups supporting, 243–4 as cultural export, 46 nationalistic principles supported by, 242 commodification and distribution of, 301 on militarization, 238 gay, 196 policy formation reforms under, 245 history, 46, 301, 312 power base, 237–8 learning Japanese language using, privatization reform agenda, 240–1 309

384 | Index

manga (cont.) mass customization, 127, 302 mass customization, 302 mass hysteria, 288–9 overseas fans of, 311 maverick businesses, 111–12 printed vs digital, 302–3 media establishment readership, 27–8 business and government connection to, 260 related products, 302 centralized nature of, 258–9 salaryman, 63 characteristics, 258 sales, 301 distribution market, 259 shojo, 302 kisha kurabu, 258, 260 study of, 312 similarities to large corporations, 259–60 women cartoonists, 302 Tokyo-centric nature of, 104 manufacturing sector, 108, 132, 176, 217 media industry, Cool Japan market and, 303–4 Man’yosh¯ u¯ (Collection of 10,000 leaves), 8 medical professionals, LDP and, 243 manzai (dialogue shows), 102 medical schools, admissions into, 148, 342 marginal art, 296 medicine, traditional, 8 Marine Corps Air Station Futenma, 248 medium-sized subsidiaries, in keiretsu networks, marriage(s) 110 arranged, 190 Meiji (emperor), 12, 266 attitudes towards, 193, 316 Meiji constitution (1889), 17–18, 20 average age of, 87 Meiji period, 5, 17–20 burakumin to non-burakumin, 205–6 Meiji Restoration, 12, 17, 32, 202, 205, 208, 244 ceremonies, 190 Meiji Shrine, 266 in Christian churches, 272 men educational backgrounds and, 78–9 average life span, 84 gift-giving at, 247 in capitalist class, 62 interclass, 78 class distribution, 63 intraclass, 78 as domestic violence victims, 188 between Koreans and Japanese, 211–12 dominant male subculture, 39 koseki system and, 173 household work by, 184 love marriages, 190 marriage and, 78, 87 same-sex, 175, 195 new-middle-class, 64 socialization and, 77–9 number of, in Japan, 25 surname after, 174 underclass, 66 to non-Japanese nationals, 32, 190–1 men’s workforce participation women’s views on, 37, 87 as non-regular workers, 123 mass culture, 77, 285 distribution, 66–8 characteristics, 287 employment stratiﬁcation, 109 consumer orientation aspect of, 292 mental illness, 156–8 cost-effective diversions, 290–2 merchant class, 12, 17, 19–20 cross-status consumption and, 292–3 meritocratic ideology, 341–2 entertainment media, 288–90 Metropolitan Coalition Against Nukes, 317 home-based private lessons, 293 mibun (status position), 81 karaoke, 291–2 middle-aged female graduates (eight segment nature of, 77, 287–8 analysis), 68 pachinko pinball, 290–1 middle-aged female nongraduates (eight segment racism in, 201 analysis), 68 radio, 289 middle-aged male graduates (eight segment social formations producing, 286 analysis), 67 tabloid press and magazines, 289–90 middle-aged male nongraduates (eight segment television, 288–9 analysis), 67

Index | 385

middle class ‘Japaneseness’ of, 219–21 breakdown of, 59–62 koseki papers and, 171, 206 emic conceptions of, 82 multi-ethnic model of society and, 32–3 new and old, 63–5 population, 33 self-identification as, 31, 59–61 regional distributions of, 101 during Taish¯odemocracy, 20 see also specific minority groups middle schools, 137, 146 min’yo¯ (folk songs), 99, 284 Miki, Kiyoshi, 330 MITI and the Japanese Miracle (Johnson), 43 Mikitani, Hiroshi, 254 Mitsubishi, 110 militarization, 238 Mitsubishi UFJ Financial Group, 110 military Mitsui, 110 conscription and, 18 miuchi (relatives or comrades), 340 history of, 255–8 Miyazawa, Kiichi, 330 during Meiji period, 19 miyazukae (court service), 115 military class, see samurai class Mizuho Financial Group, 110 military discipline, in schools, 150–1 mizuko jizo¯ (doll-like statues), 188 Minamata (Kyush¯ u),¯ 325 mizushobai¯ (hostesses), 183 Mindan (Korean Residents Union in Japan), 209, modernization, during Tokugawa period, 15–16 213 modernization theory, 41–3 miniaturizing orientation, 30 money politics, 245–7 mini-communication publications (mini-komi), Mongolian Empire, 10 297–8 monocultural model of society, 28–31 mini-komi (mini-communication), 297–8 moral education, 149, 153 Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, moralizing techniques 233, 246, 327 community of sanctions, 340 Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry, 246, comparison of, 342 251, 303, 327 emotive moralizing, 339 Ministry of Education, 148–50, 154, 156, 166, friendly authoritarianism and, 338–42 233, 246, 338 ideology of egalitarian competition, 340–2 Ministry of Finance, 240 physical correctness, 339 Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 224 ‘moratorium generation’, 93, 124 Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare, 186–7, multiclass model of society, 35–7 195, 233–4, 246 Multicultural Japan (book), 34 Ministry of Home Affairs, 172 multicultural model of society, 37–9 Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications, multicultural paradigm 235 convergence debate, 47–50 Ministry of International Trade and Industry, 49, cultural relativism debate, 50–4 246 legitimation of double codes, 54–6 see also Ministry of Economy, Trade and subcultural relativism, 53–4 Industry temporal fluctuations in understanding Japan, Ministry of Justice, 216, 337 40–7 Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport, Multiethnic Japan (Lie), 34 233–4 multiethnic model of society, 31–4 minority groups multiple convergence thesis, 49–50 advocacy by, 224–5 municipal governments, 233, 248–50 comparison, 201 mura okoshi (village revitalization movement), 104 defining, 33 Murasaki Shikibu, 9 discrimination and prejudice against, 32–3, 224 Murayama, Tomiichi, 257 historical circumstances, 201 Muromachi period, 10–11 invisibility of, 33 music, 284, 295, 339

386 | Index

mutual surveillance, 332–5 New Year’s Day, 247, 294 mysticism, 273–4 newspapers, 255, 258–9, 289, 298 mythology, 6–7, 267, 278 NHK (Japan Broadcasting Corporation), see Japan Broadcasting Corporation (NHK) Nagano prefecture, 99 Nibutani area, 202 Nagasaki, 23 nicchoku (students on daily duty), 152 nakama (mates, fellows), 340 Nicchu¯ Sens¯o(Second Sino-Japanese War) name order, in Japanese, 161 (1937–45), 21–2 nanahikari-zoku (privileged groups), 37 Nichiren sect, 297 Nanjing Massacre (1937), 256 Nihon (Japan), 4 Nara period, 7 Nihon-rashisa (Japanese-like qualities), 29 Narita International Airport, 325 Nihon shoki (Chronicles of Japan), 6, 267 Naruhito (emperor), 261 Nihon-teki (Japanese-style) tendencies, 29 nashikuzushi (gradual dismantling), 338 Nihon Yusei¯ K¯oshaR¯od¯oKumiai (Japan Postal national boundaries, 1–6 Workers’ Union), 132 national bureaucracy, see public bureaucracy Nihonga (Japanese-style painting), 284 National Confederation of Trade Unions Nihonjin (Japanese), 4 (Zenr¯oren),132 Nihonjinron (theories of Japaneseness), 29–31 National Health Insurance scheme, 218 Cool Japan as postmodern, 313 national identity, see identity critical analysis of, 44 National Japan Railway Workers’ Union cultural export industry and, 46 (Kokutetsu R¯od¯oKumiai), 132 cultural influence of, 44 National Land Improvement Political League, dominant male subculture and, 39 243 ethnic superiority and, 201 National Pension scheme, 87 Japanese self-image and, 40 National Police Agency, 188 Nii, Itaru, 330 National Police Reserve, 338 Niigata prefecture, 99 see also Self-Defense Forces Nikkan Berita (online newspaper), 298 national seclusion (sakoku), 13–14 Nikkan Gendai (tabloid newspaper), 289 national universities, 139 Ninja bugei-cho¯ (Ninjas’ martial arts notebooks), nationalism 301 cultural, 45, 312 ninjas, 11 globalization vs, 241–3 ninjutsu, 11 Nationality Law, 209–10, 219 Nintendo, 112, 128 NEET (youth not in education, employment, or Nippon Kaigi (Japan Conference), 242–3 training), 124, 140 Nippon Steel, 110 neighborhood associations, 326, 334–5 Nissh¯o(Japan Chamber of Commerce and decline in, 316, 334 Industry), 239 features, 334 nobility culture, 9 during Pacific War, 22 noky¯ o¯ (agricultural cooperatives), 326 post-Fukushima role of, 322 Nomura Research Institute, 75 nenko¯ chingin (seniority-based wage), 48, 115 non-government organizations (NGOs), 319, neoliberal approach to education, 165–6 324, 328 nepotism, 52 non-profit organizations (NPOs), 319, 322–4, Netherlands, trade relations with, 13 326 networkers, 184–6 non-regular workers, 63–6, 68, 123–4, 126, 317 new middle class, 62–4, 78 noren wake (splitting a shop sign curtain), 113 new rich, 35 Northern and Southern Court period, 10 New Tokyo International Airport, 325 noryoku¯ (latent general ability), 116–18 new-type unions, 131 Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency, 251

Index | 387

nuclear disasters, see Fukushima nuclear plant other-reliance school (Buddhism), 268–9 disaster outcast system, 205, 208 nuclear experts, government and business overseas Japanese, 216–17, 225–6 interdependence with, 251–2 overtime, 120 nuclear families, 193–5 oyabun (patriarchal godfather figure), 340 nuclear power supply anti-nuclear demonstrations, 92, 317–21 pachinko pinball, 290–1 division over continuation of, 254 Pacific century (capitalism), 50 location of plants, 253–4 Pacific War (1941–5), 21–3 numeracy standards, 158 painting, 284 nyuseki¯ (entry into a register), 175 Panasonic, 112 parasite landlord class, 19, 21 obesity score, 86 parent–teacher associations, 326 occultism, 273–4 parliament occupation, status inconsistency and, 70–3 culture of, 245–50 Oda Nobunaga, 11 structure and composition, 231 Ōishi Kuranosuke, 13 in three-way deadlock, 230–2 oiwake (folk song), 99 women in, 181 Okinawa zoku politicians in, 245–6 folk culture, 295 Parsons, Talcott, 42 Ryuky¯ u¯ Kingdom, 3 part-time schools (teiji-sei kok¯ o¯), 147 US presence in, 4, 23, 248, 295 part-time workers Okinawan people, discrimination against, 32 casualization of labor and, 123–4 Ōkuninushi no Mikoto, 266 high school students as, 147 old middle class, 63–5, 78 performance-based model and, 126 omoiyari (sense of empathy), 196 women as, 63, 66, 123, 177–8, 183–4 omote (the face), 55 particularistic approach to Japanese studies, omotenashi bunka (hospitality culture), 30 43 Ōmotoky¯o,297 pāto (part-time), 123 online citzens’ newspapers, 298 patriarchy, 182–3 organ theory of government, 20 pattern variables, 42 Oriental capitalism, 50 peace movements, 324, 331 orthodox culture, 77 Pearl Harbor, raid on, 22 Osaka pension system, 87–8 commercial history of, 102 performance-based wage system, 124–6 culture, 100 performance-oriented management, 114 during feudal period, 100 performances, school, 151 food in, 101 ‘peripheral’ subcultures, 39 popular culture in, 15, 102 periphery group, in academic systems, 52 zainichi Koreans in, 101 permanent employment (shushin¯ koyo¯), 48 Osaka-Kyoto-Kobe metropolitan area, permanent residents, 32 102 physical characteristics, social class and, 66 otaku (geek / nerd) culture, 27 physical correctness, 339 characteristics, 307 physical education, 150–1, 153 commodities of interest, 307 pictocentrism, 312 consumption and creation of ‘cool’ culture by, poetry, 8, 15, 293, 295, 297 307–8 police system, 336–7 manga and anime, 27 see also law enforcement of the global generation, 94 policy development, 230, 245–7 stratification of, 308 political apathy, 132

388 | Index

political consciousness, of the postwar generation, pork-barreling, 245–7 92 postal system, 241, 244 political culture postmasters, as LDP supporters, 244 local politics against national bureaucracy, postmodernism, 73, 306, 311–12 248–50 postwar generation, 88–9, 91–2, 95 money politics, 245–7 poverty, 36, 72, 74 public bureaucracy’s power in, 245 power companies, 251–4 reform challenges, 245–50 prefectural character, 98 regulation vs deregulation, 250 prefectural governments, 233, 235, 248–50 transparency in, 245–7 prefectures, 18, 98 political donations, 246–7 prejudice political economies, 236–43, 300–13 against Ainu people, 32 Political Funds Control Law (2008), 246–7 against burakumin, 32, 204–7 political parties, 231, 237–8, 244, 246 intersectional, 225 Political Party Subsidization Law (1994), 246 Japanese society’s inherent, 224 politics against Korean residents, 215 duality and corruption in, 56 against Okinawans, 33 as ex-bureaucrat career route, 235 primary schools, see elementary schools local, 248–50 primary sector (economies), 128–9 religion’s involvement in, 278–80 primogeniture, 16, 172 right-wing idealogy in, 257 print media, 104, 258–9, 289–90 in three-way deadlock, 230–2 Prison Law (1908), 337 see also government prison system, 337 pollution, 325 private lessons, 293 polytheism, 266 private pension programs, 87 popular culture private sector, see business community anime, see anime private universities, 139 in contemporary Japan, 15 privatization, 132, 240–1 diversity of, 303 privileged class, 20 elite culture and, 283, 286, 292–3 Programme for International Student Assessment manga. see manga survey (OECD), 158 in Osaka, 15, 102 progressive educators, 167 otaku and, 27 progressive taxation, 80 overseas student learning using, 309–10 property assets, 75–7 regional, 99 property ownership, see land ownership social dissent inﬂuenced by, 320 prosperity generation, 88–9, 92–5 types of, 285–6 protest movements, see resident movements; social see also alternative culture; folk culture; mass movements culture psychology, Nihonjinron-style stereotyping and, popular elite culture, 292–3 44 popular songs, as military commodities, 339 public bureaucracy, 102–3 population administrative guidance and, 232, 235–6, 338 density, 97 amakudari, 233–5 distribution, 25–6 appointments to, 236 minority group, 33 career progression in, 234–5 of small isles, 98 convoy system and, 252–3 status-inconsistent individuals in the, 70, 72 dominance of, 232–6 Tokugawa status system for, 14–15 English requirements for, 161 workforce, 67 jurisdictional sectionalism, 233 populism, 257 local government and, 233, 248–50

Index | 389

policy formation by, 245 the state and, 278–80 private sector collusion with, 233–6 worshipper’s earthly expectations from, 275–6 regulatory control by, 232–3 religious groups, 316 special-status corporations, 240 Reng¯o(Japan Trade Union Confederation), 132, in three-way deadlock, 230–2 134, 230, 238 women in, 181 rentai sekinin (collective responsibility), 334 Public Ofﬁces Election Act (1994), 246 resident card system, 171–2 public sector unions, 132 resident movements public universities, 139 geographic basis of, 326 Puyi (emperor), 22 prevalence of, 324–6 relationship to the state, 326 quality control, 333 in rural areas, 325 quaternary sector (economies), 128–9, 176 seikatsusha in, 331 shifting trends in, 325 racial purity, 34 retirement system, 86–8 radio, 289 reverse convergence hypothesis, 49 railways, 18, 190 revisionist analysis of Japanese society, 43 rakugo (traditional Japanese comic storyteller), rice riots, 21 187 risshin shusse (careerism), 341 Rakuten, 112, 161, 254 Rissh¯o-K¯osei-kai(religion), 273 ramen noodles, 99 ronin¯ (lordless samurai), 139–40 recruitement, of graduates, 144–6 royal family, 261 refugees, 200 ruling class, 14, 17 regional blocs, 98–9 see also samurai class regional identities, 34, 98–9 rural areas regional variation depopulation, 103–4 center vs periphery, 102–4 interest groups in, 328 eastern vs western Japan, 100–2 political interests, 262 ideological centralization, 104–5 resident movements, 325 Japan as a conglomerate of subnations, 97–9 Russia, territorial dispute with, 4, 98, 257 language, 104–5 Russo-Japanese War (1904–5), 4, 19 in local industries, 98–9 ryotei¯ (high-class restaurants), 56 in popular culture, 99 Ryuky¯ u¯ dance, 295 regular workers, 63–7, 123 Ryuky¯ u¯ Islands, 32, 98–9, 295 regulatory control, bureaucratic, 232–3, 250 Ryuky¯ u¯ Kingdom, 3 regulatory pluralist approach to education, 166 reisai kigyo¯ (very small ﬁrms), 111 Sakai, 12 Reiwa Shinsengum (political party), 244 sake rice wines, 99 relational status, 73–4 sakoku (national seclusion), 13–14 relative poverty rate, 36 salaries, see wages relativity of relativities theory, 54 salarymen, 20, 63, 115, 119 religion(s) same-sex marriage, 175, 195 attitudes towards, 265 samurai class Buddhism, 265, 268–71 ascent of, 9–10 as business, 276–8 bureaucratization of, 16 Christianity, 265, 271–2 education of, 16 as multicultural, 265 land ownership by, 12 new religions, 272–4 during Meiji Restoration, 17 revitalization of, amid secularization, 280 ninjas, 11 Shinto, 265–8 stories about, 13

390 | Index

samurai class (cont.) Second Sino-Japanese War (Nicchu¯ Sens¯o) during Tokugawa period, 12–14 (1937–45), 21–2 during Warring States period, 11–12 secondary sector (economies), 128–9 san (addressing others), 119 secularization, religious revitalization amid, 280 Sangy¯oH¯okoku-kai (Industrial Patriotic Society), Security Maintenance Law (1925–45), 279 22 seibo (year-end gifts), 247 Sankei (newspaper), 258 Seich¯ono Ie (House of Growth), 279 Sanwa, 110 seii-tai-shogun¯ (shogun), 9 satori (enlightenment), 269 seikatsu (livelihood), 330 Satsuma region, 17, 19 seikatsu bunka (life culture), 330 Sayama case, 207 Seikatsu Gakkai (Japan Association of Lifeology), Sazae-san (comic strip), 302 331 scholarships (shogakukin¯ ), 142 seikatsu-gaku (life studies, lifeology), 331 school uniforms, 155 seikatsu kurabu seikyo¯ (life club cooperatives), 331 schools seikatsu taikoku (lifestyle superpower), 330 achievement related to geographical distribution seikatsusha (emic concept of citizens), 330–1 of, 146 seiki shain (regular workers), 63–7, 123–4 attendance issues, 156 Sekai Mihikari Bunmei Ky¯odan(World Divine attitudinal ‘correctness’ in, 152 Light Organization), 273 bullying in, 155–6 seken (community of sanctions), 340 changing, 122 seki (register), 175 collective integration in, 151–2 Sekigahara, 12 corporal punishment in, 154–5 sekuhara (sexual harassment), 189–90, 195 culture variation between, 147 Self-Defense Forces, 238, 242, 262, 279, 338 curriculum guidelines, 149–50 self-employed workers, 67, 111–13 discipline in, 150–1 self-image, 40–1 egalitarianism in culture of, 165 self-reliance school (Buddhism), 269 elite culture popularized by, 292 sengyo-shufu¯ (full-time housewives), 184–5 employee recruitement from, 144–6 senior students (senpai), 150 English teaching in, 161–2 seniority-based wage (nenko¯ chingin), 48 enrollment, 18 Senkaku island, 257 family socialization and, 146–7 senmon gakko¯ (specialized vocational colleges), five-day week in, 143 137, 140 kyoiku¯ tokku (special educational zones), 166 senpai (senior students), 150 lunches provided by, 153 senryu¯ (poetry form), 15, 297 during Meiji period, 18 sento¯ (communal baths), 296 moral education, 149, 153, 336–7 separation of powers (government), 232 physical correctness in, 339 seppuku (suicide by disembowelment), 13 physical examination programs, 152 service overtime, 120 ranking, 145–6 service sector, 132, 217 regulations, 155 Seto Inland Sea, isles, 98 socialization at, 150–3 ‘7040’ problem, 157 songs specific to, 339 sex teacher control in, 153–4 education about, 187 textbook authorization in, 149 in mass media, 187 during Tokugawa period, 16 premarital, 187 violence by students in, 156 sexual diversity, 195–6 see also elementary schools; high schools; middle sexual harassment (sekuhara), 189–90, 195 schools; specific types of schools sexual revolution, 187 Sea of Japan, isles, 98 sexuality, control of the female body and, 186–8

Index | 391

shakai no teihen (bottom of society), 81 Shukan¯ Shonen¯ Jump (manga magazine), 301–2 shigin (recitation of Chinese poems), 293 shunto¯ (spring offensive), 134 Shikoku island, 97 shushin¯ koyo¯ (permanent employment), 48 Shikoku islanders, character, 98 shusse (social mobiliy), 81 shima (island), 98 sick leave, 120 Shimane prefecture, 99 silk production, 18 shimatsusho (letter of apology), 339 singing, collective, 339 shimin (citizen), 330 single-person households, 192–3, 317 shin-heimin (new commoners), 205 singles culture, 196 shin jinrui (new race), 93 Sino-Japanese War (1894–5), 19 Shinkansen bullet train, 102 Small Business Standard Law (1963), 108 Shinky¯ocommune, 299 small businesses (chush¯ o¯ kigyo¯) Shinnyo-en (religion), 273 definition, 108 Shinran (Buddhist priest), 268, 297 employment structure, 125 Shinreiky¯o(God-Soul Sect), 273 gender equality in, 182 shinryaku (aggression), 149 in keiretsu network, 110–11 shinshutsu (advancement), 149 Korean residents’ operation of, 214 Shinto large firms vs, 109 believers, number of, 265 numerical dominance, 108–9 Buddhism’s relationship with, 269 percentage employed by, 26, 108–9 features, 266–7 songs specific to, 339 history, 266 types, 109–13 life after death beliefs, 268 unionization rate in, 131 local festivals and, 294 women-run, 183 as national religion, 278–9 small groups, mutual surveillance within, 332–5 popular thinking influenced by, 267–8 small proprietors (jieigyo¯), 112–13 shrines, 266–7, 276–7 Social Democratic Party, 167, 238 state’s use of, 267 social education, 292–3 violence against Buddhism by, 267 social justice vs economic competition, 263 Shiso¯ no kagaku (journal), 331 social mobility, 66, 80–1 shito hitoku kin (expenses unaccounted for), 55 social movements, 317–21 shoen¯ (privately owned estates), 9 Ampo struggle, 318, 321 shogakukin¯ (scholarships), 142 characteristics of participants, 318–19 shogunate regimes civil fragmentation reflected in, 319–21 Kamakura, 9–10 internet-based social capital developed by, Muromachi, 10–11 320–1 Tokugawa, see Tokugawa period organizational structure, 319–20 shojo¯ (manga genre), 302 post-Fukushima, 92, 317–21 shok¯ okai¯ (industry and commerce associations), process over outcomes, 320 326 student movements, 317–18 Shokugy¯oantei-h¯o(Employment Security Law) during Taish¯odemocracy, 20–1 (1949), 145 social relations shokuiku (dietary education), 153 emic concepts of, 340 shokutaku shain (part-time employees), 124 fragmentation of, 315–17, 319–21 shosha¯ capitalism, 261–2 social stratification shosh¯ u¯ (individualized, divided, and small-unit class position and sensitivity to, 81 masses), 126, 286 classification, 62–74 shoten-gai¯ (stores), 64 educational achievement and, 61 shrines, 247, 256, 266–7, 275–7, 279 eight segments of, 66–9 shuban¯ (students on weekly duty), 152 English proficiency and, 162–4

392 | Index

social stratification (cont.) stockholder capitalism (kojin shihonshugi), 116 ideology of equal opportunity and, 341 stockholders, ‘Japanese-style’ management and, 115 inequality in, 59–62 strategic power-seekers, 262 Japanese emic concepts of, 81–2 Stratification and Social Psychology (SSP) project, life trajectory and early locations of, 62 36, 62, 66 during Meiji restoration, 17 student movements, 317–18 multiclass model of society, 35–7 student unions, 320 of otaku culture, 308 Students Against Secret Protection Law, 317 perceptions of, 74 Students Emergency Action for Liberal shifting public discourse on, 58 Democracy, 317 status inconsistency, 69–73 Studio Ghibli, 254 in the Tokugawa period, 14–15, 205 subcontractors, under keiretsu control, 111 Social Stratification and Mobility (SSM) project, subcultural regions, 34 36, 61–2, 70, 77 subcultures social withdrawal, 156–8 core subcultures, 39–40 socialization cultural relativism within, 53–4 cultural capital and, 77 intergenerational reproduction of, 36–7, 76 family metaphor used by corporations for, 119 ‘peripheral’ subcultures, 39 of generational subcultural groupings, 89 proliferation of, 38 marriage and, 77–9 rank-ordering of, 38 at school, 150–3 succession, rules about, 8 sociology, cultural imperialism in, 51 sudoku puzzles, 128 soft power, 310–11 Sugawara Michizane, 276 SoftBank, 112, 254 suicide, 51 sog¯ o-shoku¯ (employees on managerial track), 178, Suiheisha (buraku organisation), 20, 207 181, 184 Sumitomo, 110 sohei¯ (priest-soldiers), 270 Sumitomo Mitsui Financial Group, 110 S¯ohy¯o(General Council of Trade Unions of sumo wrestling, 32, 99 Japan), 132 superiors, subordinates’ relationship with, 52, Soka Gakkai (religion), 273, 278–9, 297 117–18 Son, Masayoshi, 254 surnames Sony, 112 after marriage, 174 soshi¯ kaimei (creation and revision of names), 211 after naturalization, 211 soshitsu (latent specific ability), 116 surveillance, 332–5 soto (outside or exterior), 55 sushi restaurants, 128 South Korean laborers, 256 Suzuki, Zenk¯o,246 special educational zones (kyoiku¯ tokku), 166 Suzuki method, 128 special-status corporations (tokushu hojin¯ ), 240–1 swing voters, 317 spiritual wealth, 61 syncretism, 266 spirituality movements, 274–5 sporting day (undo-kai¯ ), 151 tabloid press, 289–90 sports tada no hito (run-of-the-mill people), 331 regional culture of, 99 taibatsu (physical punishment), 154 student participation in, 152–3 taiiku (physical education), 153 traditional Japanese, 284 Taiju (political organization), 244 sports newspapers, 289 Taisei Yokusan-kai (Imperial Rule Assistance spring offensive (shunto¯), 134 Association), 22 ‘standard Japanese’ language, 105 Taish¯odemocracy, 20–1 status, 69–74 taishu¯ (undifferentiated, uniform, large-scale stereotypes, 27–8, 40 mass), 126, 286

Index | 393

Taiwan, 19 T¯ohoku region, 17, 253 Takahama town, 254 Tokugawa Ieyasu, 12 Takashi Saito,¯ 46 Tokugawa period, 12–16, 32, 205, 271, 335 Takeshima island, 257 Tokushima prefecture, 271 Tanabata (Festival of the Weaver), 294 tokushu hojin¯ (special-status corporations), ‘Tank¯o-bushi’ (Coal-miners’ song), 99 240–1 Tannisho¯ (Notes lamenting deviations), 269 Tokyo tanshin funin (single postings), 122 as capital, 17 tatemae (façade), 54–5, 117, 119 cultural dominance of, 104–5 taxation, 9, 14, 18–19, 76, 80–1 culture, 100 teachers economic power concentrated in, 102–3 excessive control by, 153–4 food in, 101 as moral authorities, 336–7 islands, 98 at universities, 159 see also Edo violence against, 156 Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO), violence by, 154–5 251–3 technical colleges (kot¯ o¯ senmon gakko¯), 137 Tokyo Medical University, 341 Technical Intern Training Program, 217–18 ‘Tokyo ondo’ (folk song), 271 teiji-sei kok¯ o¯ (part-time schools), 147 Tokyo Trial, 256 television, 32, 288–9 Tokyo-Yokohama metropolitan area, 102 television stations, 104 Tominaga, Ken’ichi, 47–8 temples, 247, 276 tonarigumi (neighborhood associations), temporary workers, 124, 183 22, 335 tenancy, 19–20, 122 Tosa-han, 17 tender system, corruption in, 55–6 Toshiba, 110 Tenjin shrines, 276 total quality control movement, 333 Tenmangu¯ shrines, 276 totalitarian rule, 22 tennis, 32 Toyama prefecture, 21 tenno¯ (emperor), 10 Toyota, 110 tenno¯ (emperor) capitalism, 261–2 Toyotomi Hideyoshi, 11 terakoya (temple schools), 16 tozama (outsider) provinces, 17 territorial blocs, during formation of Japanese trade, national seclusion policy and, 13–14 state, 4–5 traditional culture, 284–5 territorial boundaries, 1–6 traditional medicine, 8, 101 territorial disputes, 4, 98, 257 traditional religious customs, 281 tertiary institutions, see higher education Trans-Paciﬁc Partnership agreement, 241, 263 institutions Tsurumi, Shunsuke, 296, 331 tertiary sector (economies), 128–9, 176 tsush¯ o¯ (popular name), 174 Test of English as a Foreign Language, 161 21 Up Japan (documentary), 62 Test of English for International Communication, 161 uchi (inside or interior), 55, 119 textbook authorization system, 149, 338 uchi–soto (inside–outside), 119 textiles, 99 ujiko (Shinto shrine parishioner) system, 277, 294 Tezuka, Osamu, 301 ukiyo-e (woodblock prints), 15, 46 theater performances, 15 underclass, 63–4, 66, 68 Theravada Buddhism, 268 undo-kai¯ (sporting day), 151 three-way deadlock (Japanese establishment), unionization rates, 130–1 229–30 UNIQLO, 161 tochi kairyoku¯ (land-improvement units), 243–4 uniqueness, promotion of, 43 Tochigi prefecture, 18 United Nations, 200, 203, 224, 262, 338

394 | Index

United States of the prosperity generation, 93 Japan analysis frameworks and, 42, 47 shift from collectivist to individualist, 48, 96–7 Japan’s cultural export industry in, 46 venture businesses, 111–12 military bases of, 248 vertical authoritarian relationships, 100 in Okinawa, 4, 23, 248, 295 Viagra, 187 raids on Japan by, 23 village structures, in eastern and western Japan, trade relations with, 14 100 wars with, 21 vocabulary, duality underlying, 54–6 United States–Japan Security Treaty, 297, 318 vocational training, 112, 137, 140 United States-Japan Status of Forces Agreement volunteer associations (1960), 248 afﬁliation changes in, 315–16 United States-oriented capitalists, 262 emergence of, 322–3 universalistic approach to Japanese studies, 42 groups, 326 universities K-shape pattern of, 323 corporatization of, 159 participation in, 323 cost of, 142–3 proliferation of, 323 employee recruitement from, 145 response to Fukushima disaster, 322 English language learning at, 160 social movements connected to, 319 graduate numbers, 26, 137 three-dimension typology, 326–7 hierarchical structure of, 159–60 types, 326–7 institutional sexism in, 341–2 voting behaviour, 263, 317 medical school admissions, 148 voting rights prestigious, patterns in, 148 expansion of, 20 promotions in, 159–60 of Korean residents, 210, 215 social backgrounds of students in, 36 during Meiji period, 19 student lifestyle in, 158–9 subsidies for, 142 wages tiers of, 160 education and, 138 types, 139–40 overtime payments, 120 University of Tokyo, 36, 148 performance-based system and, 124–6 ‘upper goods’,74 seniority-based structure, 114, 118 ura (the back), 55 wakon yosai¯ (Japanese spirit and Western ura banashi (inside accounts), 55 technology), 201 ura guchi (back door), 55 war criminals, 256 Uraga, 14 ware ware Nihonjin (we, the Japanese), 340 urban interests, 262 Warring States period, 10–12, 270 urban resident movements, 324–5 wartime generation, 88–91, 95 urbanization, 16, 103–4 washoku (Japanese-style food), 311 utaki shrine, 295 Welcome Newly Weds (television show), 187 Utsukushii kuni Nippon (Japan as a beautiful western Japan, 34 nation), 312 Western sociology, ethnocentric nature of, 51 Western theories of bureaucracy, 52 value compartmentalization, 311 Westerners, Japanese identity relative to, 199–200 values white-collar workers, 62–4, 67–8, 115, 163, 218 ‘Asian’,44–5 women changing orientation of, 95–6 abortion and, 186–8 gender differences, 37 as caregivers of elderly, 182 lifestyle values, 73–4 changing attitudes towards family life by, 86–7 of the global generation, 94 childbearing average in, 86 of the postwar generation, 92 class distribution, 63

Index | 395

contraception and, 186–7 small business operators, 183 control of the female body, 186–90 as sog¯ o-shoku¯ , 178, 181, 184 culture-dependant view of, 51 two-tier structure of internal labor market, 178–82 in de facto relationships, 176 variables affecting, 176–7 divorce and, 173–4, 191 work ethic domestic violence and, 188–9 of the postwar generation, 92 family tomb burials of, 175 of the prosperity generation, 93 feminist consciousness in, 37 work practices foreign migrant, 32 hours of work, 120–1, 133 full-time housewives, 184 international evaluation of, 107 household work by, 184 karoshi¯ and, 120–1 ie ideology and, 172 physical correctness as part of, 339 institutional sexism and opportunities for, 341–2 reforms to, 118, 120 inter-personal relationships among, 51 social costs, 120–2 in Kabuki theater, 15 tanshin funin, 122 life cycle perspective of married, 176 Workers’ Accident Compensation Insurance, 218 life expectancy, 84 Workers’ Accident Compensation Insurance Act manga and, 302, 312 (1947), 121 marriage and, 78, 87, 174 Workers’ Collective Network Japan, 300 married, types of, 182–6 workers’ collectives, 184–5, 299 new-middle-class, 63 workers’ entitlements, 120 in nuclear families, 193–4 workforce number of, in Japan, 25 aging of, 88 part-time housewives, 63, 66, 178, 183–4 by sector, 128 in positions of power, 180 casualization of, 123–4, 317 reign of, 8 cultural capitalism and, 128–30 sexual harassment of, 189–90 eight-segment analysis of, 66–9 as silk spinners, 18 labour union membership of, 130–3 social movements for rights of, 20 rationalization of, 123–6, 132 social orders permeating lives of, 182–3 women in, see women’s workforce participation as sociological minority, 170 working class, 63–4, 78 status, 100 working poor class, 123 values, 37 working population, 66–9 voting rights of, 19 Workstyle Reform Law (2018), 120 women’s workforce participation, 67–8 World Economic Forum, 181 age and wage differentials, 181 World War II, 22–3, 90–1 as career women, 184 demographics, 176 Xavier, Francis, 271 foreign workers, 217 haken workers, 183 yakiniku (Korean-style grilled meat), 214 industrial classiﬁcation, 176 Yamagishi, Miyoz¯o,299 inequality of, in powerful positions, 179–80 Yamagishi-kai commune, 299 as ippan-shoku, 178–9 Yamamoto, Taro,¯ 244 labor participation rates, 177 Yamataikoku state, 7 legislation encouraging, 181–2 Yamato period, 7 M-shaped curve of, 177–8 Yanagita, Kunio, 331 mizushobai¯ , 183 Yano Research Institute, 27 networkers, 184–6 ‘Yasugi-bushi’ (folk song), 99 as non-regular workers, 63, 66, 123 Yasukuni Shrine, 256, 279 as part-time workers, 63, 66, 123, 177–8, 183–4 yoga¯ (Western oil painting), 284

396 | Index

Yokohama, 103 zaibatsu (business conglomerates), 20, 22 Yomiuri (newspaper), 258–9 zainichi Koreans, see Korean residents (zainichi) Yoshimoto Kogy¯ o,¯ 102 Zaisei Toy¯ ushi¯ Keikaku (Fiscal Investment and young female graduates (eight segment analysis), 68 Loan Program), 240–1 young female nongraduates (eight segment Zaitoku-kai, 215 analysis), 68 Zen Buddhism, 269 young male graduates (eight segment analysis), 68 Zenkoku Tokutei Yubin¯ Kyokuch¯oka(National young male nongraduates (eight segment Postmasters Association), 244 analysis), 68 Zenr¯oren(National Confederation of Trade yukar (lyric poems), 295 Unions), 132 yutori kyoiku¯ (pressure-free education), 166 zoku (tribe) parliamentarians, 245–6 yuzen-zome¯ (silk kimonos), 99 zoni¯ (rice cakes boiled with vegetables), 294