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Reduplication in Malay

Nur Hairiana Alikamal.

2012

Nur, H. A. (2012). Reduplication in Malay. Final year project report, Nanyang Technological University. https://hdl.handle.net/10356/95407

Nanyang Technological University

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NANYANG TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

Reduplication in Malay

HG499 Final Year Project

Name: Nur Hairiana Bte Alikamal

Matriculation No: U0930391K

Supervisor: František Kratochvíl

Date of Submission: November 19, 2012

A Final Year Project submitted to the School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Nanyang Technological University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Bachelor of Arts in Linguistics & Multilingual Studies

2012

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Declaration of Authorship

I declare that this assignment is my own original work, unless otherwise referenced, as defined by the NTU policy on plagiarism. I have read the NTU Honour Code and Pledge.

No part of this Final Year Project has been or is being concurrently submitted for any other qualification at any other university. I certify that the data collected for this project is authentic. I fully understand that falsification of data will result in the failure of the project and/or failure of the course.

______Name Signature Date

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Acknowledgements

Above all, I would like to express my deepest appreciation to my academic advisor, Professor František Kratochvíl, who has continually given me valuable support, encouragement and guidance throughout the course of this project. His thoughtful comments, and expertise in research and scholarship have been extremely helpful towards the completion of this study. This experience was an amazing learning journey, to which I have gained invaluable knowledge and attained a deeper understanding of the Malay language.

This project would not be made possible without the team behind the Malay Concordance Project, who had allowed the use of its resources for studies in Classical Malay literature. I would also like to express my gratitude to my family and friends, for their unceasing encouragement and support. ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Act applies to the use of this document. Nanyang Technological University Library IV

Table of Contents

Acknowledgements...... III

Table of Contents ...... IV

List of Abbreviations ...... VI

List of Tables ...... VI

Abstract...... VII

1 Introduction...... 1

2 Reduplication In a Typological Perspective ...... 2 2.1 Full reduplication ...... 2 2.2 Partial reduplication...... 4 2.3 Imitative reduplication...... 6 2.4 Summary...... 8

3 Semantic Effects of Reduplication...... 9 3.1 Reduplication of Nouns...... 9

3.2 Reduplication of Verbs...... 11 3.3 Summary...... 12

4 Classical Malay...... 13 4.1 Current Study ...... 13

4.2 Story of Chronicle, of the Five Pandawa (Hikayat Pandawa Lima) ...... 14 4.3. Story of Chronicle, of Seri Rama (Hikayat Seri Rama) ...... 14 4.4. Story of Chronicle, of Iskandar Zulkarnain (Hikayat Iskandar Zulkarnain)....15

5 Results and Analysis ...... 16 5.1 Nouns ...... 16 5.1.1 Functions of full lexical reduplication in nouns ...... 16

5.1.2 Functions of RED + suffix –an in nouns...... 20 5.1.3 Summary...... 23 5.2 Verbs ...... 24 5.2.1 Functions of full lexical reduplication in verbs ...... 24 ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Act applies to the use of this document. Nanyang Technological University Library V

5.2.2 Functions of ber-RED in verbs ...... 25

5.2.3 ber-RED vs. ber-RED-an...... 28

5.2.4 Functions of meN-RED in verbs ...... 30

5.2.5 Functions of ter-RED in verbs ...... 32 5.2.5 Summary...... 33 6 Conclusion...... 34 Appendix A (Nouns)...... 35 Appendix B (Verbs) ...... 43 Bibliography ...... 51

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List of Abbreviations

2 Second Person NEG Negation 3 Third Person PL Plural AV Active Voice RECIP Reciprocal CL Classifier SG Singular EMP Emphatic EMP Emphatic

HIZ Hikayat Iskandar Zulkarnain POSS Posessive HPL Hikayat Pandawa Lima PREP Preposition HSR Hikayat Seri Rama UV Undergoer Voice MID Middle MID Middle

List of Tables

Table 1: Summary of full, partial and imitative reduplication in nouns

Table 2: Frequency of RED in nouns and its frequency of use in Modern Malay

Table 3: RED-AN nouns and the frequency of use in Modern Malay

Table 4: ber-RED verbs, types, and frequency of use in Modern Malay

Table 5: ber-RED-AN verbs, types, and frequency of use in Modern Malay

Table 6: meN-RED verbs and frequency of use in Modern Malay

Table 7: ter-RED verbs and frequency of use in Modern Malay

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Abstract

Although Austronesian languages are recognized for utilizing reduplication, no studies have been done on reduplication in Classical Malay. This study examines the morphosyntactic and semantic properties of reduplicated nouns and verbs in Classical Malay literature from the 1500s. It is also the first study of its kind to offer a diachronic perspective in the use of reduplication in Classical Malay and Modern Malay. Authentic Classical Malay texts – HPL, HSR and HIZ – from the Malay Concordance Project was used, and reduplicated words found in these texts were rated using a 5-point rating system. This rating system was based on my own language judgment and instinct, and assessed according to the language environment in Singapore. The findings show that reduplication in nouns mark only diversity in Classical Malay, but this semantic value has expanded to mark both diversity as well

as plurality in Modern Malay. There was also a lesser use of RED[N]-AN due to the

analogical pressure of full reduplication in nouns. The shift in function for RED[N]-AN in Modern Malay is also significant, and now marks adverbial and adjectival meanings. However, only semantic values of nouns are stifled; the semantic values of verbs remain mostly the same in Modern Malay.

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1. Introduction

Reduplication can be defined as the repetition of phonological material within a word for semantic or grammatical purposes (Rubino, 2011). It is a pervasive phenomenon that is common throughout various language families, including Austronesian languages such as Malay. Reduplication occurs in various structures and carries an assortment of meanings, which varies depending on the grammatical categories of the words.

The focal point of this study is to examine the structure, as well as the semantic properties of reduplicated nouns and verbs in Classical Malay literature in the 1500s, which is the time period that serves as the most standard and ideal in Malay literature (Teeuw, 1959). Since very little has been done on the relationship between the use of reduplication in Classical Malay and Modern Malay, a diachronic perspective between the two will be made.

Reduplication used to be viewed as a primitive approach to word formation, as reduplication is often associated with the phonological phenomenon in child language (Ghomeshi et al., 2004). This primitive view was proposed by Gonda (1954), in his article on Indonesian, where he believed that the more intelligent and modern mental structures of civilization are disregarding reduplication and iterative devices as part of the language. Nevertheless, reduplication has been widely attested in many languages as part of the grammar, and is far from being just primitive or elementary.

This study begins with the presentation of morphosyntactic properties of reduplication in §2, presenting the process from a typological perspective. The fundamental structures of reduplication in Modern Malay will also be incorporated in this section. I will later explore the semantic values of reduplication in nouns and verbs in §3. §4 looks at the history of Classical Malay, and overviews of the texts that will be the focus of this research. In §5, I offer a contrastive analysis of reduplication in Classical Malay and Modern Malay.

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2. Reduplication In a Typological Perspective

Reduplication is a morphological process that is typically characterized according to its scope, as full or partial reduplication (Inkelas, 2006; Rubino, 2011). In some languages, cases of imitative reduplication may also occur. Imitative reduplication refers to reduplication in which the two parts of the word are similar, but not identical (Sneddon, 1996).

2.1 Full reduplication

Full reduplication multiplies any amount and type of morphological material, including word stems (root with one or more affixes), roots, or entire words (Rubino, 2005). Therefore, it can take the form of either full-lexical reduplication or full-root reduplication. Full-lexical reduplication is often repeated once and without modification. An example of such reduplication in Niuean can be seen below:

(1) Niuean (Mohammad Haji-Abdolhosseini et al., 2002:480) kulami ‘blink’ vs. kulami-kulami ‘to blink repeatedly’

Such full-lexical reduplication can also be illustrated in Tausug (Austronesian, Philippines language).

(2) Tausug (Rubino, 2005:11) dayang ‘madam’ vs. dayang-dayang1 ‘princess’

Full-root reduplication can also occur in Tausug. This structure occurs when the verbalizing affixes of the word do not participate in the reduplication. For instance in (3), affix mag- is not reflected in the reduplicated form.

(3) Tausug (Rubino, 2005:11) magbichara ‘speak’ vs. magbichara-bichara ‘spread rumors, gossip’

In the case of Malay grammar, there are occurrences of both full-lexical reduplication as well as full-root reduplication.

1 The examples given in this research ignore the orthography of reduplication in cited studies, and are all written with a hyphen to distinguish the points of reduplication. ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Act applies to the use of this document. Nanyang Technological University Library 3

(4) Full-lexical reduplication in Indonesian (Macdonald, 1976:32) orang ‘human being’ vs. orang-orang ‘human beings’

In addition, Sneddon (1996) claims that Modern Malay words, whether simple or complex, can undergo full-lexical reduplication. Free bases like in example (4), as well as complex words that contain an affix or more, can also be reduplicated. Such complex words can be seen in (5) below.

(5) Indonesian (Sneddon, 1996:15) perubahan ‘change’ vs. perubahan-perubahan ‘changes’ (base word ‘ubah’) persatuan ‘society’ vs. persatuan-persatuan ‘societies’ (base word ‘satu’)

With regards to full-root reduplication, the affixes will not participate in the reduplication. Malay grammarians often refer to these affixes as imbuhan. According to the position of the affix, it may either be imbuhan awalan (prefixes), imbuhan akhiran (suffixes) or imbuhan pertengahan (infixes). In (6), we can see that imbuhan awalan ‘ber-’ is not reflected in the reduplicated forms, as this would be considered ungrammatical i.e. *berlari-berlari and *bertukar-bertukar.

(6) Full-root reduplication in Singapore Malay (own data, 2012) berlari ‘to run’ vs. berlari-lari ‘running’ bertukar ‘to switch’ vs. bertukar-tukar ‘to exchange’

The same rules apply for reciprocal full-root reduplication (Mohd Yusuf et. al., 2010), where the affix occurs only on the second word. As seen in (7), the affix me- is not reflected in the reduplicated words. Similar to the previous ber- examples in (6), it is ungrammatical to engage full-lexical reduplication on reciprocal words i.e. *memukul- memukul and *menukar-menukar.

(7) Reciprocal full-root reduplication in Singapore Malay (own data, 2012) pukul ‘to hit’ vs. pukul-memukul ‘to hit each other’ tukar ‘to change’ vs. tukar-menukar ‘to exchange’ ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Act applies to the use of this document. Nanyang Technological University Library 4

2.2 Partial Reduplication

Rubino (2005) claims that there are other reduplicative patterns in the languages of the world that avoid the repetition of exact or long sound sequences of the same kind. Rather, it undergoes partial reduplication, which may appear as a simple consonant germination or vowel lengthening, to a nearly complete copy of a base (Rubino, 2011).

It has been hypothesized that languages that utilize partial reduplication in their grammar also make use of full reduplication (Moravsik, 1978:328). Therefore, there will be semantic and grammatical distinctions between these two types of reduplication. For example in Squamish (Salishan; British Columbia language) (Kuipers, 1967), the VC sequences for total and partial reduplication are as follows:

(8) Squamish (Kuipers, 1967)

i) Total: (X) C1V1V2  C1V1V2 (X) C1V1V2 ʔk˚a’i  k˚a’i-ʔk˚ai ‘play hide and sick’

ii) Partial: (X) V1C2 (X)  (X) V1C2V1C2 (X) s-λ’lmu’t  sλ’l-λ’lmut ‘old people’

Therefore, in Squamish, it is evident that there is a clear distinction in structures and how they are utilized, especially for languages that employ both total and partial reduplications. In other languages like Madurese, the first VC sequence of the root word is omitted in the first copy, but retained in the second copy of the reduplicated form, as seen in (9).

(9) Madurese (Marantz, 1982) estre ‘wife’ vs. tre-estre-an ‘wives’

In Pangasinan (Austronesian, Philippines), there are various structures of partial reduplication. The example in (10) displays two of the many structures in which Pangasinan speakers use to signify plurality.

(10) Pangasinan (Rubino, 2005:11). i) amigo ‘friend’ vs. ami-migo ‘friends’ (-CV- structure)

ii) plato ‘plate’ vs. pa-plato ‘plates’ (C1V- structure)

In Mangyarrayi, noun plurals are reduplicated by repeating the first syllable that begins with a vowel, similar to the example (10i) amigo vs. ami-migo above. ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Act applies to the use of this document. Nanyang Technological University Library 5

(11) Mangyarrayi (Raimy, 2000:135) jimgan ‘knowledgeable one’ vs. jimg-imgan ‘knowledgeable ones’

In Malay, the most salient type of partial reduplication would be the first syllable

reduplication or C1V- structure, similar to the plato vs. paplato example mentioned in (10ii). Macdonald (1976) explained that for such reduplication in Malay, the first consonant of the root, followed by the vowel /ə/, is prefixed to the root.

(12) Indonesian (Macdonald, 1976:32) i) tapi ‘but’ vs. te-tapi ‘but’ ii) laki ‘man’ vs. le-laki ‘man’

Macdonald continued by stating that because the reduplicated form shares the same function and meaning as the base form, the former is proven to not be as productive and is often avoided by speakers. As a native speaker of Malay, I believe that this statement is an over-generalization. For instance, it is indisputable that both tapi and te-tapi in (12i) are a commonplace in Modern Malay, and are used interchangeably amongst speakers.

In addition, some partial reduplication can still be productive, especially when the meaning of the reduplicated word differs to that of the base form as seen in (13).

(13) Indonesian (Sneddon, 1996:21) i) tangga ‘ladder’ vs. te-tangga ‘neighbour’ ii) luhur ‘noble’ vs. le-luhur ‘ancestor’

Such reduplications are habitual in Modern Malay, but are subjected to the frequency of use. For example, while (13i) te-tangga is commonly used in conversations, (13ii) le-luhur is not. Instead, when referring to one’s ancestor, one would use the phrase nenek moyang that literally translates into ‘grandmother great-grandparent’. This term may be regarded as a word that derived from Colloquial, or Bazaar Malay, but is still widely accepted in Standard Modern Malay.

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2.3 Imitative Reduplication

The last morphosyntactic structure is the imitative reduplication, in which the two parts of the word are similar but not identical (Sneddon, 1996). Some studies refer to this phenomenon as the rhythmic reduplication, where the repetitions of certain elements create harmonizing sounds in speech (Mohd Yusuf et al., 2010).

According to Rubino (2005), imitative reduplication involves the creation of a root-like form that does not exist independently. It differs from the root by either a vowel or a consonant change, or both (Macdonald, 1976:32). This type of reduplication can also denote diminutive forms, as seen in (14) below.

(14) Tuvan (Rubino 2005:16) pelek ‘gift’ vs. pelek-selek ‘gift:dimunitive’

For diminutive ‘s’ reduplication In Tuvan (Altaic, Siberia), the entire base is copied, except for the initial consonant, which is then replaced by [s].

In Tamil (Dravidian, India), the initial CV of the root form is replaced by ki- in the reduplicated form. This imitative reduplication process is similar to the aforementioned form.

(15) Tamil (Rubino, 2005:16) puli ‘tiger’ vs. puli-kili ‘tigers and other beasts’

In Modern Malay, Macdonald (1976) identified three patterns of imitative reduplication that are most commonly utilized. Nevertheless, he maintained that there are no specific meanings that can be attributed to any particular pattern. The first pattern occurs when the consonants remain the same, but all the vowels change to some extent. Macdonald explained that more often than not, these vowels will change according to a regular pattern: /o/-/a/-/a/-/i/ or /u/-/a/-/a/-/i/ (1976:32). The three examples in (16) illustrate how the different vowels are employed.

(16) Indonesian (Macdonald, 1976:32) i) balik ‘reverse’ vs. bolak-balik ‘to and fro’ (/o/-/a/ and /a/-/i/) ii) kapit ‘keep close’ vs. kupat-kapit ‘dangling limply’ (/u/-/a/ and /a/-/i/) iii) umbang ‘float’ vs. umbang-ambing ‘drift to and fro’ (/u/-/a/ and /a/-/i/) ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Act applies to the use of this document. Nanyang Technological University Library 7

The second pattern can be seen in (17), where the vowels remain the same but the initial consonant is replaced with another consonant. In this case, consonant [c] is replaced with [b]. This is similar to the previously mentioned Tuvan and Tamil examples above.

(17) Indonesian (Macdonald, 1976:33) cerai ‘part, sever’ vs. cerai-berai ‘disperse’

The last imitative reduplication form occurs when both consonants and vowels change in part, so that the degree of similarity may be considerably reduced, as seen in (18).

(18) Indonesian (Macdonald, 1976:33) pecah ‘smashed’ vs. pecah-belah ‘pottery; shattered’

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2.4 Summary

We have explored the different morphosyntactic properties of reduplication that may occur in most languages, especially in Modern Malay. The table below is a summary of what has been discussed.

General Modern Malay

Full-lexical Full-lexical Niuean: kulami-kulami (X)-(X) Tausug: dayang-dayang Indonesian: orang-orang Full Full-root Full-root (AFX)(X)-(X) Tausug: magbichara-bichara Singapore Malay: berlari-lari

(X)C1V1(X)  (X)C1V1C1V1(X) C1(X)  C1(ə)C1(X) Partial Pangasinan: amigo  ami-migo Indonesian: tangga  te-tangga

1) Consonants remain, vowels change 1) Vowels remain, consonants change Indonesian: bolak-balik Tuvan: pelek-selek 2) Vowels remain, consonants change Imitative 2) Both vowels and consonants change Indonesian: cerai-berai Tamil: puli-kili 3) Both vowels and consonants change Indonesian: pecah-belah

Table 1: Summary of full, partial and imitative reduplication in nouns

According to Macdonald, “of the three types of reduplication, only full reduplication is of importance in the formal language” (1976:33). This bold statement is misleading, because even though full reduplication may seem like the most productive structure, the importance of partial and imitative reduplication should not be underestimated. The choice of reduplication is lexicalized and there is often no registered deviation or preferential, in both formal and colloquial varieties in most languages. In Modern Malay, full, partial and imitative reduplications are all structures that are employed and utilized in Standard Malay, as well as in Colloquial Malay. ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Act applies to the use of this document. Nanyang Technological University Library 9

3. Semantic Effects of Reduplication

In this section, I will be addressing first the semantics behind the reduplication of nouns (§3.1), followed by the reduplication of verbs (§3.2). It is important to not only examine the morphosyntactic properties of reduplication, but also consider the semantic effect of the process in relation to the meaning and word class membership of the reduplicated word of a root (Erelt, 2008).

3.1 Reduplication of Nouns

The most collective semantic value that reduplicated nouns carry would be to denote plurality. According to Rubino (2001:540), many languages, including Pangasinan, employ reduplication – in either full or partial form – to construct plural nouns. In addition to the

Pangasinan examples discussed previously in §2.2, where word structures -CV- and C1V-

were illustrated, partial reduplication through CV-, -CV-, CVC-, C1V-, CVCV- and Ce- structures are also commonly used in this language to denote the same meaning. The choice of partial reduplication depends on the word and the word class it belongs to. Similarly, in Washo, partial reduplication with a CV sequence as the penultimate syllable denotes plurality in nouns. With that in mind, for example, the reduplicated form of ‘gewe ‘coyote’ would become ge’we-we ‘coyotes’ (Yu, 2005:440).

One prominent use of reduplication in Malay would be to mark number in noun phrases. Haji (1974), described reduplication in nouns as indicating plural. Macdonald (1976:33) presented a similar take, but gave a wider definition and referred to reduplication as “the same as that of the non-reduplicated form but with the added connotation of variety, randomness, or repetition”. Therefore, by this definition, reduplication in nouns not only convey the meaning of plurality, but also the meaning of “all kinds of” (Carson, 2000:6). Carson illustrated this idea of reduplication as shown below:

(19) Nominal Reduplication in Malay (Carson, 2000:7) buku ‘book’ vs. buku-buku ‘books’ epal ‘apple’ vs. epal-epal ‘different kinds of apple’

The example epal-epal is said to be different from buku-buku as it is not strictly plural, and may be used to refer to different kinds of apple i.e. green apples, red apples, etc. However, there is a conspicuous flaw in Carson’s classification because buku-buku can also refer to ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Act applies to the use of this document. Nanyang Technological University Library 10

having different types of books on different subjects or topics. Therefore, buku-buku can have either a plurality semantic effect or an “all kinds of” semantic effect. This is similar in English, where a reduplicated count noun can indicate either plurality of individuals, or plurality of kinds (Chung, 2000:165). On the other hand, mass nouns like minyak-minyak ‘oils’ is only limited to referring to different kinds of oils.

Also, we have to take into consideration that reduplication in Malay to express plurality is not obligatory (Dalrymple and Mofu, 2009:5). This is widely observed in a variety of languages where the root is neutral for number (Link 1991; Kang, 1994). The noun buku is highlighted again in (20) to illustrate that it can be interpreted as plural, even though it is not reduplicated.

(20) Indonesian (Dalrymple and Mofu, 2009:5) (Apa isi peti itu?) Buku. what contents box that books ‘(What is in that box?) Books.’

In accordance to this point of view, Sneddon (1996) believes that reduplication to denote plurality does not occur when the object that is being referred to represents the entire category that it is in. As seen in (21) below, reduplication is unproductive for the noun anjing, as it is a general property that dogs like to chew on bones. Therefore, plurality within the statement was implied.

(21) Indonesian (Sneddon, 1996:16) Anjing suka tulang. dog like bones ‘Dogs like bones.’

On the other hand, even though it is also a general property for dogs to bark, the reduplicated noun in (22) below is only referring to a specific pack of dogs that are barking at that moment of utterance. This statement does not extend to include all dogs in general.

(22) Indonesian (Sato, 2009:202) Anjing-anjing meng-gonggong.

RED[dog] AV-bark ‘Dogs bark.’ ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Act applies to the use of this document. Nanyang Technological University Library 11

Reduplication may also produce a meaning that is different but still related to the meaning of the single base form (Sneddon, 1996:16). For instance, gula-gula ‘sweets’ was derived from the single base form gula ‘sugar’. Even when the meanings of the reduplicated and non-reduplicated words are not as obvious, we can still observe a shared connotation - as seen in pairs such as mata ‘eye’ and mata-mata ‘spy’, as well as langit ‘sky’ and langit- langit ‘ceiling’.

Even so, there are other occurrences of reduplication that do not have corresponding single bases. To clarify this, Sneddon (1996) highlighted words like cumi-cumi ‘squid’, kupu-kupu ‘butterfly’ and gado-gado ‘mixed vegetable salad’ that do not acquire a meaning when they occur in their single base forms. One particularly interesting example is gado-gado, which refers to a traditional vegetable dish that is served with peanut sauce, and often eaten before or after a meal. According to the Javanese dictionary (Robson et al., 2002), the term nggadho refers to the notion of eating an accompanying dish without the rice. It is possible that gado-gado may have derived from the word nggadho, as both words have a shared connotation of food, specifically food that does not involve rice. The single base form of cumi-cumi is also regularly used in restaurant menus, for instance, in names of dishes such as cumi bakar ‘fried squid’.

3.2 Reduplication of Verbs

Some Malay verbs are also often treated as single bases in dictionaries and possess no meaning when not reduplicated, such as pura-pura ‘to pretend’. It is also noteworthy that certain reduplicated forms and non-reduplicated counterparts do not share the same umbrella of meaning. For example, mati ‘to die’ shares a disparate relationship to mati-mati ‘to insist’. Similarly, tiba ‘to arrive, appear’, has a meaning that is less transparent when put against the reduplicated form tiba-tiba ‘suddenly’. Additionally, this tiba-tiba example also displays the use of reduplication to derivationally alter word classes.

Other reduplicated verbs like meminta ‘request’ and meminta-minta ‘beg’, display an increase in the degree of intensity. Similarly, in Perak Malay (Zaharani, 1988:150), tikam ‘stab’ becomes tikam-tikam ‘to stab repeatedly’ when reduplicated. This further accentuates the use of reduplication to signify intensity, which is not a theory that is unfamiliar to past research (Macdonald, 1976; Moravcsik, 1978; Rubino, 2005). In (23), the increase in intensity is obvious, as it displays deterioration in someone’s behavior or actions. ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Act applies to the use of this document. Nanyang Technological University Library 12

(23) Indonesian (Sneddon, 1996:20) menjadi ‘to become’ vs. menjadi-jadi ‘to become worse’

Reduplications in Malay verbs also often revolve around time and action. Most verbs that undergo reduplication indicate a continued action, or an action that is being done over a period of time, or repeatedly.

(24) Indonesian (Sneddon, 1996:20) Bu Yem mengurut-urut rambut anak-nya.

Mrs Yem AV-RED[stroke] hair child-3.POSS ‘Mrs Yem stroked her child’s hair (a number of times).’

Additionally, reduplication also provides a connotation of action done in a casual or leisurely way (Sneddon, 1996:20), which may also be appropriate for example (24) above. This can also be depicted in example (25) below.

(25) Indonesian (Sneddon, 1996:20) duduk ‘sit’ vs. duduk-duduk ‘to sit around’ berjalan ‘walk’ vs. berjalan-jalan ‘walk about, go for a stroll’

What is noteworthy from this is that reduplicated verbs may sustain one or more meanings, which allows us to paint a more accurate picture of a particular sentence.

3.3 Summary

The main morphosyntactic structure discussed for reduplication in nouns is RED, which carries the meaning of plurality and in some cases, the meaning of “all kinds of”. However, I illustrated how this same structure fails to denote the plural form when the root is neutral

for number. Moreover, this meaning of plurality may not be exclusive to RED; non- reduplicated nouns can also sometimes suggest plurality, i.e. when the noun in question represents the entire category it is in. Reduplication in nouns may have meanings that are 1) similar to their single base form, 2) different from their single base form or, 3) have no corresponding single bases. In the case of verbs, reduplication is not constrained to one structure. They carry various meanings such as degree of intensity, time or action, or referring to an act done in a casual or leisurely manner. ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Act applies to the use of this document. Nanyang Technological University Library 13

4. Classical Malay

A simple definition of Classical Malay literature is the written literature composed for the edification or entertainment of the Malay rajas and chiefs (Skinner, 1978), and associated with Malay as spoken in Johor and the Riau-Lingga Archipelago (Winstedt, 1927:30). According to the Terengganu Inscription Stone, which is an artifact that first introduced the Jawi script in 1303 (Teuku Iskandar, 2012), the Malay Peninsula embraced Islam in the early 14th century. It was not until the 15th Century that Islam was adopted as an official religion by the Malacca sultanate (Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas, 1970:24). As a consequence, the style of writing including certain vocabulary that was not found in Malay was greatly influenced by the Arabic language.

Classical Malay can be divided into two main categories: sacral/serious and profane/trivial (Skinner, 1978:467). The first being literature that is entirely confined to the medium of prose, which includes religious kitab literature from religious narrations and expositions. It also includes the chronicles or history during that era, which were often labeled as ‘sejarah’ and ‘salasilah’. The second category includes texts that were not functional in a religious or political sense, mainly literature that were written in verse i.e. syair, sajak, and prose romance, which were termed ‘hikayat’.

4.1 Current study

I will study authentic classical Malay texts from the Malay Concordance Project, an online corpus that has been created and compiled by an international consortium of scholars. This project provides information about the contexts in which the target words are used as well as the location of a particular term or name in texts, and the patterns of morphology and syntax. This corpus has sufficient data (150 sources of pre-Modern Malay written texts), and constitutes a solid database for this research of Classical Malay morphosyntax.

With regards to the frequency of use in Modern Malay, I will rate the reduplicated words found in the texts using a 5-point system (represented by the number of ‘+’), with 1 being the least frequent and 5 being the most frequent. This rating system will be based on my own language judgment and instinct, as I am a native speaker of Malay. This aspect in my methodology offers possibilities for future research, when corpora of Modern Malay become publicly available. Therefore, these words will be rated according to how they are ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Act applies to the use of this document. Nanyang Technological University Library 14

used in the language environment that I am familiar with. The three hikayat that will be the focus of this study are Hikayat Pandawa Lima (HPL), Hikayat Seri Rama (HSR), and Hikayat Iskandar Zulkarnain (HIZ).

4.2 Story of Chronicle, of the Five Pandawa (Hikayat Pandawa Lima)

The exact date to which HPL was first introduced remains uncertain, but scholars had offered several speculations. Brakel believes that the text may have dated between 1350- 1400, but scholars such as Braginsky and Khalid offered a more generic timeline, that HPL may have originated no later than the 1700s. The latest edition of HPL can be found in Kuala Lumpur, and was published by Khalid M. Hussain in 1992.

HPL is the shortest text of the three hikayat (85722 words), narrating a brotherhood shared between Sang Rajuna, Sang Setyaki, Sang Bima, Sang Sakula and Sang Sadewa. These characters were perceived as reincarnations of the gods (dewa-dewa), as seen in one of the most prominent events in this hikayat is the battle, which was between Pandawa Lima and the kings of Korawa. This Malay adaption of a Hindu literature had retained most of the representations of Hindu elements. In comparison to the Hikayat of Seri Rama (in §4.3), HPL had little or no Islamic connotations or symbols, therefore stayed mostly true to the original Sanskrit version.

4.3 Story of Chronicle, of Seri Rama (Hikayat Seri Rama)

HSR is the Malay literary adaptation of the Sanskrit version - a Hindu epic titled Ramayana. It was written in Perso-Arabic (Jawi) script after the coming of Islam by an unknown author (Singaravelu, 1968). HSR is a long text with 96123 words, and exists both in written as well as oral form through a traditional form of shadow play called Wayang Kulit, which was made popular in Kelantan (Dahlan Bin Abdul Ghani, 2012). The latest edition of HSR was edited by Achadiati Ikram, and published in Jakarta in 1980.

The grounds of this particular hikayat were to show the ideals of righteousness, love, loyalty, and selfless devotion - qualities that were appreciated by the Malay Muslims of Kelantan. These traits, combined with local traditions and beliefs, developed a story that was enjoyed by many. The hikayat revolved around numerous Gods (indera-indera, dewa- dewa) and people of royalty, mainly Seri Rama, his wife Siti Dewi, and his half-brothers ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Act applies to the use of this document. Nanyang Technological University Library 15

Baradan, Laksmana and Citraden. Though it is inevitable that elements of Hinduism will be reflected in the script, the influence of Ramayana in Malaysia was and is not as strong as on the Javanese (Haji Muhammad, 2009). The Hindu elements in the Malaysian version of HSR had been marginalized or woven unobtrusively by the emerging Islam as a new cultural and religious base.

4.4 Story of Chronicle, of Iskandar Zulkarnain (Hikayat Iskandar Zulkarnain)

The 1696 manuscript of HIZ can be obtained in Leiden University Library. This hikayat is the longest of the three, with 118322 words, which describes the exploits and achievements of Iskandar Zulkarnain, who was believed to be one of Prophet Muhammad’s companions. HIZ contains elements of Islam and was deeply influenced by the Al-Quran. According to Abdur-Rahman et al. (2011), the Muslims in the Malay Peninsula dedicated more attention to strengthening their faith in the late 16th Century and early 17th Century, which could be the reason behind the increase of Islamic representations in HIZ. Malacca also became one of the main centers to study about Islam then (Abdur-Rahman et. al., 2011:2). Hj. Khalid Muhammad Hussain, the editor of HPL, had also published HIZ in 1986.

The rational behind choosing HPL, HSR and HIZ was a balanced one. Firstly, there is a range of language influences and the elements they carry, i.e. Sanskrit and Arabic. Therefore, one of the main differences is that the three hikayat contain various degrees of Islamic elements and representations, which is a prominent factor in Classical Malay literature. This ultimately affects the nature of the story, as well as the vocabulary and use of language as a whole. Secondly, I am narrowing the research by looking at literature that was written in prose romance, or hikayat, which are more colloquial and not religious or politically inclined. This will therefore provide a close representation of the language spoken during that period, since official texts were controlled according to the norm, and everything that was not in accordance to it was condemned as incorrect (Teeuw, 1959).

Lastly, the dating of the texts was important, as the 1530s to 1570s is the time period to which Malay literature was culturally pre-colonial. Therefore, the language influences are restrained to mainly Arabic (Islamic elements) and Sanskrit (Hindi elements), and less or none from the Portuguese or Dutch. In this way, I am able to capture the earliest stage of Classical Malay as possible, which is valuable in this research. ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Act applies to the use of this document. Nanyang Technological University Library 16

5. Results and Analysis

In this section, I will address the morphosyntactic properties of reduplication as well as the semantic values they possess in the Classical Malay texts. I will also incorporate the use of language in relation to Modern Malay and examine how language change has, or has not, occurred and affected the usage of reduplication in this day and age. I will first address the reduplication of nouns in §5.1, followed by reduplication of verbs in §5.2.

5.1 Nouns

In the three texts, reduplication of nouns (see appendix A) only appear in the form of full- root reduplication, and reduplication with suffix -an. Here, I will illustrate how the frequency of nouns with said structures can aid our understanding in the use of reduplication in Classical Malay. It is notable that the highest frequencies of nouns are the ones that appeared very early on in the texts, hence would have had the highest impact on the development of stories in each hikayat. I will also highlight some examples of reduplication that deviate from the norm, i.e. reduplicated nouns that do not have corresponding single bases. For the purpose of this analysis, full lexical reduplication will

be marked as RED, and reduplication with suffix ‘an’ will be indicated as RED-an.

5.1.1 Functions of full lexical reduplication in nouns

An overview of the corpus reveals that RED noun with the highest frequency is raja-raja ‘kings’. The frequency for raja-raja is particularly high in HPL, the oldest text in this research, with 262 occurrences. This was despite being the smallest text with just 85722 words. There seems to be a decreasing trend of frequency for raja-raja across the three texts, with 104 occurrences in HSR, and 73 in HIZ. In my opinion, the frequency is much higher in the older texts as the protagonists in these stories were of royal descents. The character of Iskandar Zulkarnain, however, was not directly related to royalty even though the concept of raja-raja was still ubiquitous in that era.

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The next three most frequent words are as follows: Hikayat Pandawa Lima Frequency Modern Malay i. dayang-dayang ‘handmaidens’ 58 + ii. dewa-dewa ‘gods (female)’ 25 - iii. indera-indera ‘gods (male)’ 24 - Hikayat Seri Rama i. kanak-kanak ‘children’ 21 +++++ ii. vsida -sida ‘eunuchs’ 18 - iii. bunyi-bunyian ‘various sounds’ 14 +++ Hikayat Iskandar Zulkarnain i. alas-alas ‘pedestals’ 36 + ii. orang-orang ‘human beings’ 32 +++++ iii. buah-buahan ‘fruits’ 8 +++++

Table 2: Frequency of RED in nouns and its frequency of use in Modern Malay

An eminent pattern based on the frequency of nouns can be observed here: words in the later part of the century are more commonly utilized in modern Malay, rather than words found in earlier texts. One of the contributing factors to such a phenomenon would perhaps be the nature of the literature – HPL has elements of Hinduism, hence references to the Hindu Gods are inevitably recurrent, a quality that may be peripheral amongst Malay speakers today. While HIZ may also have religious tendencies, the hikayat described mostly rudimentary activities and customs that are still collective within the society today.

While we would expect the frequency of nouns to predict irregularities in reduplication, it may not be fully applicable here. In HPL for instance, while the reduplicated form of the noun laki ‘man’ occurred rather frequently, it was often used in three separate contexts:

1) The use of laki-laki to refer to men (plural). 2) The use of laki-laki to refer to a man (specific; singular; demonstrative noun). 3) The use of laki-laki to refer to one’s husband.

The different uses of the noun laki-laki will be further illustrated through extracts from the text, as seen in (26), (27) and (28). ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Act applies to the use of this document. Nanyang Technological University Library 18

(26) meng-ubah pakaian-nya cara laki-laki

AV-change clothes-3.POSS way RED[man] ‘(She) changed her clothes into how a male would dress’ [HPL13:38]

(27) se-orang laki-laki terlalu baik paras-nya

one.CL RED[man] overly good face-3.POSS ‘There is a man who has overly good looks’ [HPL45:4]

(28) Jikalau engkau laki-laki aku pun tiada mahu minta

If you.2SG RED[man] my even NEG want ask

sepah-mu

possessions-2SG.POSS ‘Even if you were my husband, I would not ask for your possessions.’ [HPL11:36]

Based on my judgment, the various forms of laki-laki listed above and the different semantic values they hold are still acceptable in Modern Malay, except for (28). In (26) and (27), they signify plurality and demonstrative respectively, which are terms that are still existent and practiced today. Even so, it is unquestionable that a more acceptable and grammatical form - lelaki-lelaki - is gradually replacing this earlier Classical Malay form. This is particularly interesting as the term is a combination of two forms of reduplication – imitative and full reduplications. From previous studies, it has been suggested that schwa is epenthetic in environments such as laki (Cohn, 1989; Sanchez et. al., 1992). Therefore, the single base lelaki was formed through a copy of the initial consonant, followed by schwa. Then, to designate the semantic value of plurality, a full-lexical reduplication of the base was employed.

However, in (28), the use of laki-laki is unacceptable in Modern Malay. It was used in Classical Malay to refer to one’s husband (singular) and even though it is reduplicated, it does not denote plurality. In Modern Malay, when trying to convey the same meaning, the form will not be reduplicated, as seen in (29) below. Even though it is still conventional to ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Act applies to the use of this document. Nanyang Technological University Library 19

use (29) below in everyday conversations, it is deemed as a form of Colloquial Malay. With regards to the Standard Malay in Singapore, the term laki has been completely eliminated and replaced with a more ideal term, suami. This could be due to the stigma that Colloquial Malay possesses, hence, suami may be perceived as a more respectful term to refer to one’s husband. Therefore, such a shift in semantics and acceptance by the society highlights the differences in language use between Classical Malay, and Modern Malay.

(29) laki aku husband my ‘My husband’ [own data]

There were also unique RED cases, such as words that do not have corresponding single bases. These words acquire no meaning when they occur in a single form, for instance, kupu-kupu ‘butterfly’ and paru-paru ‘a pair of lungs’. Therefore we can deduce that these words were introduced into the vocabulary in Classical Malay as an independent reduplicated form. Interestingly, these words are still a commonplace in Modern Malay.

According to the fourth edition of Kamus Dewan (2005), pe-paru possesses the same meaning as the original term, paru-paru. Therefore, we can observe a morphosyntactic change, from total-lexical reduplication to partial reduplication in Modern Malay. In addition, the single base form paru can be found in the second edition of Kamus Pelajar (Students’ Dictionary) to also mean ‘lungs’. This edition was published in 2008.

Even in Colloquial Malay, paru refers to a popular traditional dish of fried cow lung, coated in turmeric and often served as a side dish to rice. Therefore, this single form shares the same umbrella of meaning as the reduplicated form. In (30) I illustrate how paru can be used in a sentence:

(30) boleh makan nasi dan lauk paru sapi can eat rice and dish lung cow ‘(You) can eat rice, and the cow lung dish’ [own data]

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5.1.2 Functions of RED + suffix –AN in nouns

In Classical Malay, reduplicated nouns with suffix –AN display plurality or diversity of substance. In Table 2 below, we can observe nouns that have undergone derivation such as makan-makanan ‘an array of food’, where makan is a verb that means ‘to eat’. However, such cases are not frequent in Classical Malay.

Hikayat Pandawa Lima Modern Malay i. kayu-kayuan ‘woods, timbres’ + ii. buah-buahan ‘fruits’ +++++ iii. bunga-bungaan ‘flowers’ - iv. bau-bauan ‘various smells or odours’ +++ v. anak-anakan ‘offspring’ + vi. usung-usungan ‘palanquin’ - Hikayat Seri Rama i. bunyi-bunyian ‘various sounds’ +++ ii. buah-buahan ‘fruits’ +++++ iii. kayu-kayuan ‘woods, timbres’ + iv. minum-minuman ‘array of beverages’ - v. makan-makanan ‘array of food’ - vi. bau-bauan ‘various smells or odours’ ++++ vii. puji-pujian ‘praises’ +++ Hikayat Iskandar Zulkarnain i. buah-buahan ‘fruits’ +++++ ii. tumbuh-tumbuhan ‘growth; vegetation’ ++++ iii. bau-bauan ‘various smells or odours’ ++ iv. bunyi-bunyian ‘various sounds’ +++ v. makan-makanan ‘array of food’ -

Table 3: RED-AN nouns and the frequency of use in Modern Malay

In relation to Modern Malay, it is intriguing to see that only some words are retained and used on an everyday basis. For instance, kayu-kayuan ‘various woods or timbre’ is more commonly known as kayu-kayu, or through an imitative reduplication, kayu-kayan. This imitative reduplication can also be understood as pair-words, a term introduced by Zainal ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Act applies to the use of this document. Nanyang Technological University Library 21

Abidin Ahmad in 1924 (as cited in Chee, 1979:1). In this case, the first word kayu is regarded as the primary word while the second word, kayan, carries a qualifying, expanding or intensifying meaning of the first (Chee, 1979). Words of primary status have freedom of occurrence in morphosyntactical environments, but the secondary words do not. Therefore, with regards to Modern Malay spoken today, the secondary word only carries a semantic value when paired with the first, but cannot be treated as an independent word.

Other words that were not retained in Modern Malay are makan-makanan ‘an array of food’ (as seen in HSR and HIZ) and minum-minuman ‘an array of beverages’ (as seen in HSR). They were replaced with full-lexical reduplications, makanan-makanan and minuman-minuman respectively. HPL is particularly interesting because the text contains both terms, makan-makanan as well as makanan-makanan, even though they were used in similar contexts. Looking at (31) and (32) below, there are no obvious differences between the two. The only difference would be that (31) referred to food in general, or as a substance consumed for nutritional value. In (32), the statement referred to a specific set of food mentioned by one of the characters in HPL, Cemuras. Therefore the only distinction between the two would be the degree of specificity.

(31) Jikalau makan-makanan lamun tiada ber-kenan

if RED[food]-AN fantasy NEG AV.RECP[like] ‘If (he) does not even fancy fantasising about the array of food’ [HPL49:6]

(32) berapa makanan-makanan yang di-sebut oleh Cemuras

some RED-AN[food] that UV-mentioned by Cemuras ‘Some food that was mentioned by Cemuras’ [HPL67:20]

In Modern Malay, only makanan-makanan is retained due to regularization, since the meanings of both terms are too similar. Therefore, it may be unproductive to have two words that share the same function and meaning. In my opinion, makan-makanan can easily be mistaken as a verb + noun (to mean ‘eat food’) rather than a reduplicated noun, therefore avoided by speakers to prevent confusion.

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Also in HPL, between buah-buahan ‘fruits’ and bunga-bungaan ‘flowers’, the former would be more prevalent in usage as compared to the latter. When referring to the plural form of ‘flower’ in Modern Malay, full-root reduplication bunga-bunga would be sufficient. On the other hand, the term bunga-bungaan could have undergone semantic change as it now carries a metaphoric quality in Modern Malay to describe florid poetry, or flamboyant language. Perhaps the closest English equivalent to bunga-bungaan would be ‘flowery language’.

Based on the examples above, there seem to be a pattern of adjective and adverbial

derivations, hence it is possible that the reduplication structure RED[Noun]-AN, could have undergone a redistribution of function in Modern Malay.

According to Rosen (1977:319), the suffix –AN carries the meaning of pseudo-noun, where the metaphoric quality of a noun is derived from the meaning of another noun. She put forward the example kuda-kudaan ‘rocking toy horse’, which derived from the noun kuda

‘horse’. From this corpus, an exceptional RED-AN example would be anak-anakan ‘offspring; crop’, which derived from the noun anak ‘child’. Unlike the example Rosen gave, the connection between the two words in this anak example may not be as apparent. By taking this piece of information into account, we can comparatively establish the meaning of sentence (33), which will bring to light the meaning of anak-anakan in Classical Malay, and how it was used in the language.

(33) Paras-nya seperti anak-anak-an gading.

face-3.POSS like.PREP RED[child]-AN ivory ‘His appearances are as alluring as the ivory carvings.’ [HPL110:38]

From this statement above, we can deduce that it was uttered as a compliment to the man who was the subject of the conversation. His appearances were compared to ivory carvings, artefacts that were possibly valuable and attractive in that era. Lockard (2010:241) reports that ivory were admired and traded in the fifteenth century, hence proving the speculation to be true. Therefore, the phrase anak-anakan was metaphorically used to refer to the fruits, or the offspring of ivory.

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However, in Modern Malay, anak-anakan simply refers to dolls or puppets that little children play with. This could be due to the fact that the dolls resemble little children; hence this semantic value could have been derived from the traditional meaning of anak ‘child’. It therefore shares a different metaphorical connotation to how it was used in the 1500s.

Lastly, it is imperative to validate whether reduplication in Classical Malay marks the same meaning as Modern Malay, which is to denote plurality. Simatupang (1983:137-143) reinstates Gonda’s idea that reduplicated noun in Classical Malay texts were primarily used to indicate diversity, and not plurality, which may be a general property in contemporary Malay (Gonda, 1949:171-172).

It is undeniable that diversity and plurality have similar connotations and are often associated with each other; but there is a notable difference in how certain reduplications were employed. From (34i) and (34ii) below, while these words can be accepted as denoting plural today, they also carry a distributive sense and emphasize the qualities of separateness (Rafferty, 2002), which highlights the differences between the entities within that category.

(34) i. pekerjaan-pekerjaan ‘occupations’ [HPL104:24] ii. barang-barang ‘belongings’ [HSR5:9]

According to Gonda, “During the 20th century, the Malay languages has, in fact, extended the use of reduplicated nouns and they have, moreover, gradually assumed a purely plural meaning” (1949:179). He attributed this shift to the influence of the Dutch language; during their greatest territorial extend over Indonesia in the early 20th century.

5.1.3 Summary

To reiterate, the main structures of reduplication in nouns in Classical Malay are RED and

RED-AN. Firstly, regarding the frequency of use in Classical Malay, the frequency of RED

was noticeably higher than RED-AN. The decrease in frequency of RED-AN could probably be due to the analogical pressure of other reduplication structures. Secondly, it is notable

that most of these words with the RED structure are not common or widely used in Modern ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Act applies to the use of this document. Nanyang Technological University Library 24

Malay. In the case of RED-AN, the most interesting finding would be that there had been a possible shift in semantic effect, i.e. to have adverbial or adjective derivations. For instance, words like bunga-bungaan used to denote plurality, but now possess a metaphorical adjectival meaning.

5.2 Verbs

The remainder of this analysis examines the structures and semantics of reduplicated verbs. In contrast to the main structures in nouns (i.e. full reduplication), reduplicated verbs often

appear with suffixes, namely ber-, ber-RED-AN, meN- and ter-, which will be discussed in §5.2.2, §5.2.3, §5.2.4 and §5.2.5 respectively.

5.2.1 Functions of full lexical reduplication in verbs

Unlike the structure of reduplicated nouns, the structure RED is a rare occurrence for reduplicated verbs. From the three texts (see appendix B), only two words are of this structure. The first is pura-pura ‘to pretend’, which is also a verb that does not have a corresponding single base. The single form, pura, exists only in the names of cities such as Purabaya, Astinpura and Mandragapura from the text HPL, which is not relevant to the meaning of ‘to pretend’.

A possible reason as to why there may not be a single base form for pura-pura ‘to pretend’ could be that it has been pushed out from the Classical Malay vocabulary. Pura is a Sanskrit loan that means ‘city or temple’ hence it would be necessary to avoid any homonymy of words that has negative connotations. Instances of this process is well- known, take for example the pushing out of the word ‘quean’ [kwe:n] from the Old English vocabulary, as it sounds similar to the word ‘queen’ (Hock et al, 2009). Since the former refers to ‘an impudent or ill-behaved girl or woman’, it holds various degrees of negative connotations, which should not be associated with the female ruler of an independent state. Therefore, based on this reason, there could be a possibility of the existence of single base form pura that may have had negative connotations e.g. to lie or to be fake. To avoid this adverse association from being transferred to the names of cities, they could have been taken out from the vocabulary entirely.

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The second verb ingat-ingat ‘to be reminded of’ can be seen in the statement below.

(35) hendak-lah kamu sekalian ingat-ingat sekarang

should.EMP you.PL all RED[remember] now ‘All of you should be cautious from now’ [HSR49:4]

Here, it seems that the reduplication ingat-ingat ‘to be cautious’ does not share the same umbrella of meaning as the single form ingat ‘to remember’. Therefore, this structure in Classical Malay may be exclusive for words that entail a meaning that differs to that of the original single form. In addition, this meaning of ingat-ingat was also retained in Modern Malay, as illustrated below:

(36) hendak-lah kamu ingat-ingat ibu bapa kamu sebelum

should-EMP you.PL RED[think] mother father you.PL before

ber-tindak

AV-act ‘You should be cautious of your actions for the sake of your parents’ [own data]

One of the reasons as to why RED was not common in verbs could be due to the fact that reduplicating syllables are often preceded by one or more pre-verbs. This could be achieved through tense prefixes, argument prefixes, or a combination of these (Malone, 1997). Taking this into account, it is not surprising that the most frequent reduplication structure

for verbs is ber-RED, possibly because Classical Malay has more voice morphology.

5.2.2 Functions of ber-RED in verbs

From Table 2 below, it is apparent that the frequency of ber-RED shares a positive relation with the frequency of use in Modern Malay. In comparison to the previous reduplication structures for nouns, this relationship was an unexpected find. Based on the results, the words with this morphosyntactic feature are all generally still a commonplace in the Malay language today. Words such as berkata-kata ‘to speak’ and bermain-main ‘to play’ (from ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Act applies to the use of this document. Nanyang Technological University Library 26

HPL) are among the words that are used widely, even though they existed since the early 16th Century.

The verbs that have the structure ber-RED take the marker of 1) Active Voice (AV), 2)

Middle (MID), 3) Reciprocal (RECIP), 4) Random (RANDOM), or 5) State (STATE). The type of markers will be indicated in Table 4. Some of these markers are also applicable for the

structure ber-RED-an, which will be discussed in §5.2.3. ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Act applies to the use of this document. Nanyang Technological University Library 27

Hikayat Pandawa Lima Types Modern Malay

i. berkata-kata ‘to speak’ AV +++++ ii. berbaring-baring ‘to lie down’ MID ++++ iii. bermain-main ‘to play’ AV +++++ iv. bertiup-tiup ‘to blow’ AV ++++ v. bertikam-tikam ‘to stab’ RECIP ++++ vi. bersembur-sembur ‘to spray’ RANDOM ++ vii. berlari-lari ‘to run’ AV +++++ viii. ‘to have a fluttering berdebar-debar STATE ++++ heart; to be nervous’ Hikayat Seri Rama

i. berjalan-jalan ‘to walk’ AV +++++ ii. bertambah-tambah ‘to increase steadily’ AV +++++ iii. berkata-kata ‘to say’ AV +++++ iv. berseru-seru ‘to cry out’ AV ++ v. bernyala-nyala ‘smoldering’ AV +++ vi. berbelit-belit ‘serpentine’ AV +++ vii. bermain-main ‘to play’ AV +++++ viii. berdiri- diri ‘to stand around’ MID +++ ix. berjaga-jaga ‘to be careful’ AV +++++ Hikayat Iskandar Zulkarnain

i. berkisar-kisar ‘to rotate’ MID ++ ii. berkata-kata ‘to speak’ AV +++++ iii. berseru-seru ‘to cry out’ AV ++ iv. bermain-main ‘to play’ AV +++++ v. beringin-ingin ‘wanting’ RANDOM ++++ vi. berdiri-diri ‘to stand around’ MID +++

Table 4: ber-RED verbs, types, and frequency of use in Modern Malay ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Act applies to the use of this document. Nanyang Technological University Library 28

In the context of Modern Malay, ber- carries a wide range of meaning (Benjamin 1993:371-85). In a more event-orientated variety, ber- is often used to deduce aspectual meanings such as ‘aimlessness’, ‘habitual’, ‘stative’ and ‘non-punctual’ (Benjamin, 2009:306). For instance (37) below, berlari-lari ‘to run’ can be interpreted as a stative verb, and (38) illustrates a verb that depicts a sense of ‘aimlessness’.

(37) Darawati Purwa pun habis gempar ber-lari-lari

Darawati Purwa then completely anxious AV-RED[run] ‘Darawati Purwa runs anxiously’ [HPL53:25]

(38) Sang Bimanyu pun ber-baring-baring di pantai

The Bimanyu then MID-RED[lie] at beach ‘Bimanyu then lies down by the beach’ [HPL41:6]

However, while it may be conclusive that ber- carries various aspectual meanings; the

circumstances may differ for ber-RED-AN.

5.2.3 ber-RED vs. ber-RED-AN

The most prominent difference between ber-RED and ber-RED-AN would be that for the latter, the frequency of use in Modern Malay is generally significantly lower (see Table 3). However, it is also notable that this frequency of use in Modern Malay increased considerably in HIZ, proving that the reduplication during that period is closest to the variation of Malay today.

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Modern Hikayat Pandawa Lima Types Malay

i. berlontar -lontaran ‘to throw around’ RANDOM ++

ii. beramuk -amukan ‘to be in a rampage’ STATE (RESULT) ++ Hikayat Seri Rama

i. berjanji -janjian ‘to pledge agreements’ RECIP ++ bertangkis- ii. ‘to hit in self-defense’ RECIP ++ tangkisan

iii. bersuka -sukaan ‘to enjoy, rejoice’ STATE ++

iv. berkasih -kasihan ‘to be involved in courtship’ RECIP. (STATE) ++ Hikayat Iskandar Zulkarnain

1. berlari -larian ‘to run about’ RANDOM ++++

2. bertikam -tikaman ‘to stab in a fiery manner’ STATE +++

3. bersuka -sukaan ‘to enjoy, rejoice’ STATE ++

4. berkasih -kasihan ‘to be involved in courtship’ RECIP +++ ‘to familiarise or attempt 5. berjinak -jinakan STATE +++ something new’ ‘to cuddle; exchange of 6. berpeluk -pelukkan RECIP ++++ hugs’

Table 5: ber-RED-an verbs, types, and frequency of use in Modern Malay

The context of use also differs between ber-RED and ber-RED-AN. Firstly, ber-RED-AN is reciprocal in nature; therefore most verbs with this structure would involve two or more people (i.e. subject and object), such as in (39). This in contrast to (40), which utilizes the

same verb, but with a ber-RED structure. In addition, ber-RED-AN does not support the

marker MIDDLE.

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(39) Jikalau engkau mau ber-janji-janji-an dan teguh-teguh pada

if you want RECIP-RED[promise]-AN and RED[firm] to

kata-mu

words-2SG.POSS ‘If you want to pledge agreements and keep to your words’ [HSR5:4]

(40) Ali ber-janji-janji akan ber-ubah perangai

Ali AV-RED[promise] will AV[change] attitude ‘Ali promises that he will change his attitude’ [own data]

Therefore, while berjanji-janjian ‘to pledge agreements’ involves at least two people, berjanji-janji ‘to promise repeatedly’ can be done without an audience.

5.2.4 Functions of meN-RED in verbs

Firstly, compared to the previous grammatical structures, the frequency of meN-RED is

considerably low. On top of that, the frequency of meN-RED also decreases across time.

From Table 6, we can observe that meN-RED occurred the most number of times in HPL, but was only employed twice in HIZ. This could be due to the aspectual effect associated

with this structure, which restricts the type of sentences that meN-RED may occur in.

We would then expect its frequency of use in Modern Malay to also be low (see Table 6).

However, this was not the case, which also implies that meN-RED is a structure that is collective in the current variety of Malay.

Prefix meN- is commonly assumed to be an active voice marker (Soh, 2010), as seen in me-

RED (41), meng-RED (42) and meng-RED-kan (43) below.

(41) perempuan me-nangis, me-rengut-rengut bunyi-nya

woman AV-cry AV-RED[grunt] sound-3.POSS ‘(the) woman is crying, (her cries) are making a grunting sound’ [HPL31:9]

ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Act applies to the use of this document. Nanyang Technological University Library 31

(42) raja pun meng-gosok-gosok tangan-nya

king then AV-RED[rub] hand-3.POSS ‘The king rubs his hands together’ [HSR42:6]

(43) semuha-nya meng-gerak-gerak-kan kepala-nya

all-3.POSS AV-RED[move]-kan head-3.POSS ‘They moved their heads’ [HSR166:3]

Modern Hikayat Pandawa Lima Form Malay i. melambung-lambung ‘to bounce (an item)’ me-RED ++++ ii. merengut-rengut ‘grunt; complain’ me-RED +++ iii. menyambar-nyambar ‘to pounce; attack’ me-RED ++ ‘to hurt or do something iv. mengapa-apa meng-RED ++ towards someone’ ‘to slam an object v. menghempas-hempas meng-RED +++ repeatedly’

vi. menggila-gila ‘to be crazy over’ meng-RED ++ vii. mengalu-alukan ‘to welcome warmly’ meng-RED-kan + Hikayat Seri Rama i. memuji-muji ‘to praise; chant’ me-RED ++++ ii. menggosok-gosok ‘to rub together meng-RED ++++ iii. mengalu-alukan ‘to welcome warmly’ meng-RED ++ iv. mengempas-ngempas ‘to toss around’ meng-RED +++ ‘to make something v. menggerak-gerakkan meng-RED-kan ++++ move’ Hikayat Iskandar Zulkarnain menanti-nanti ‘to wait’ +++ i. me-RED

mengira-ngira ‘to count’ +++ ii. meng-RED

Table 6: meN-RED verbs and frequency of use in Modern Malay

ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Act applies to the use of this document. Nanyang Technological University Library 32

5.2.4 Functions of ter-RED in verbs

Regarding the frequency of use in Classical Malay, this structure occurred the least number of times (see Table 7). However, there is a positive relationship when compared to the frequency of use in Modern Malay. For this particular structure, it was harder to find the English equivalents, as these words not only represent the actions that were performed, it also indicates the state of mind of the person at the moment in time. In addition, these actions were often done involuntarily, which is consistent to the typical meaning of affix ter- in Malay. An example of reduplication with affix ter- can be seen in (44) below:

(44) kamu itu ter-cengang-cengang me-lihat zirafah yang

you.PL that ter-RED[gaping mouth] AV-see giraffe that

kenderaan Nabi Khidir vehicle Nabi Khidir ‘You were left speechless when you saw Nabi Khidir riding the giraffe as a form of transport’ [HIZ150:2]

Hikayat Pandawa Lima Modern Malay ‘to leave a gaping mouth; to be i. tercengang-cengang ++++ left speechless’ ‘to hesitate; to be in a state of ii. termangu-mangu +++ confusion and thunderstruck’ Hikayat Seri Rama ‘to blink repeatedly; to feel i. terkelip-kelip ++++ confused and unsure’

ii. tertawa-tawa ‘to laugh uncontrollably’ ++++

Hikayat Iskandar Zulkarnain ‘to leave a gaping mouth; to be i. tercengang-cengang ++++ left speechless’ ‘to be fragmented (i.e. head ii. terpenggal-penggal ++ from the body)’

Table 7: ter-RED verbs and frequency of use in Modern Malay ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Act applies to the use of this document. Nanyang Technological University Library 33

5.2.6 Summary

The morphosyntactic structures in the case of reduplication of verbs in Classical Malay are,

1) RED, 2) ber-RED, 3) ber-RED-an 4) meN-RED and 5) ter-RED. Firstly, the structure of RED has the lowest frequency, with only two words in the corpus, pura-pura ‘to pretend’ (does not have a corresponding single base form) and ingat-ingat ‘to be cautious’. Both words are retained in Modern Malay.

However, reduplication in verbs was often preceded with prefixes, such as ber-RED, that

has the highest frequency, i.e. berlari-lari ‘to run’. Also, the structure ber-RED shares a

positive relationship with Modern Malay. Next, the structure ber-RED-AN occurred less frequently, but the frequency of use increased in the later parts of Classical Malay literature. Typical members from this structure would be berlari-larian ‘to run about’ and berkasih-kasihan ‘to be involved in courtship’.

Structures like meN-RED and ter-RED are less frequent in Classical Malay, but share a positive relationship with the frequency of use in Modern Malay. For the former, there was a prominent drop in frequency of use in Classical Malay in the later part of the era. Typical members for these structures would be memuji-muji ‘to praise; chant’, and terkelip-kelip ‘to blink repeatedly’.

ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Act applies to the use of this document. Nanyang Technological University Library 34

6. Conclusion

One of the most significant findings in this research is the expansion of semantic value in the case of nominal patterns of reduplication. In Classical Malay, reduplication in nouns mark diversity exclusively, but in Modern Malay, reduplication in nouns mark diversity as well as the notion of plurality. Therefore, this finding supports the theory that the shift in language can be attributed to the influence of the Dutch language (Gonda, 1949). It is also noteworthy that the semantic values of nouns are stifled, but the semantic values of verbs remain mostly the same in Modern Malay.

The most unexpected discovery is the analogical pressure for the structure RED-AN, which

is losing out to the full reduplication RED in nouns. The shift to a more specialized grammatical function i.e. adverbial and adjectival is surprising, but provides an explanation

as to why most of the reduplicated words with the structure RED-AN in Classical Malay are not commonly used in Modern Malay. The fact that there are no such shifts in verbs suggests that the verbal reduplication is stable.

There are other changes in frequency that are due to societal change. Words like dewa-

dewa ‘gods (female)’ and indera-indera ‘gods (male)’ [RED], as well as usung-usungan

‘palanquin’ [RED-AN] would no longer be used in Modern Malay due to societal changes. Occurrences of reduplication that are rare in both nominal and verbal records would be words that have no corresponding single bases, which is a phenomenon that can still be observed in Modern Malay. Although, it seems that several of these words such as cumi and paru (both names of dishes) are regularly attested without reduplication. Gado-gado is the name of another dish, but has not joined this pattern of use (yet).

! 35!

ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Actapp SingaporeCopyright The ATTENTION: Appendix A (Nouns) i. Hikayat Pandawa Lima

Synopsis: Pandawa Lima narrates a brotherhood shared between Sang Rajuna, Sang Setyaki, Sang Bima, Sang Sakula and Sang Sadewa. These characters were said to be the reincarnations of the gods (dewa-dewa). One of the most prominent events in this hikayat would be the battle between Pandawa Lima and the kings of Korawa.

Modern

Root Form Gloss # Form Malay lies totheuseofthisdocument.N

kayu N kayu-kayuan N ‘woods, timbres’ 7 RED-an + 1.

buah N buah-buahan N ‘fruits’ 9 RED-an +++++ 2.

bunga N bunga-bungaan N ‘flowers’ 10 RED-an + 3. anyang TechnologicalUniversityLibraryanyang bau V bau-bauan N ‘various smells or odours’ 5 RED-an +++ 4.

anak N anak-anakan N ‘offspring’ 3 RED-an + 5.

usung V usung-usungan N ‘palanquin’ 2 RED-an + 6.

laki N laki-laki N ‘husband’ 3 RED - 7.

! ! 36!

ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Actapp SingaporeCopyright The ATTENTION:

laki N laki-laki N ‘men/males’ 23 RED + 8.

laki N laki-laki N ‘demonstrative:male’ 9 RED + 9.

raja N raja-raja N ‘kings’ 262 RED ++ 10.

dayang N dayang-dayang N ‘handmaidens’ 58 RED + 11.

dewa N dewa-dewa N ‘the gods (female)’ 25 RED - 12. lies totheuseofthisdocument.N budak N budak-budak N ‘children’ 15 RED +++++ 13.

gunung N gunung-gunung N ‘mountains’ 1 RED +++++ 14.

dara N dara-dara N ‘female virgins’ 1 RED ++ 15.

layang V layang-layang N ‘kite’ 5 RED +++++ 16. anyang TechnologicalUniversityLibraryanyang jawi N jawi-jawi N ‘type of plant’ 1 RED - 17.

panji ~ panji-panji N ‘banners’ 14 RED +++++ 18.

maharaja N maharaja-maharaja N ‘emperors’ 1 RED + 19.

indera N indera-indera N ‘the gods (male)’ 24 RED - 20.

! ! 37!

ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Actapp SingaporeCopyright The ATTENTION:

makanan N makanan-makanan N ‘array of food’ 1 RED +++++ 21.

sida N sida-sida N ‘eunuchs’ 2 RED - 22.

tuan N tuan-tuan N ‘masters’ 3 RED +++++ 23.

paru N paru-paru N ‘lungs’ 4 RED +++++ 24.

naga N naga-naga N ‘dragons’ 1 RED +++ 25. lies totheuseofthisdocument.N pekerjaan N pekerjaaan-pekerjaan N ‘occupations’ 1 RED +++++ 26.

kupu ~ kupu-kupu N ‘butterfly’ 1 RED +++++ 27.

orang N orang-orang N ‘people’ 1 RED +++++ 28.

bayang V bayang-bayang N ‘shadows’ 14 RED +++++ 29. anyang TechnologicalUniversityLibraryanyang saudara N saudara-bersaudara N ‘brotherhood’ 1 N-ber-N +++ 30.

! ! 38!

ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Actapp SingaporeCopyright The ATTENTION: ii. Hikayat Seri Rama

Synopsis: The story of Seri Rama centres around a prince of that name - the eldest of four sons and was destined to become king when his father, Maharaja Dasarata, retired from ruling. His stepmother however, wanted to see her son Bharata, Seri Rama's younger brother, to become king instead. She then ordered for his banishment and Seri Rama accepted this decree unquestioningly due to his undying loyalty to his father. His wife, Sita Dewi, and his brother, Laksmana, had also accompanied him to the forest retreat where they faced a series of obstacles.

Modern Root Form Gloss # Form Malay lies totheuseofthisdocument.N

raja N raja-raja N ‘kings’ 104 RED ++ 1.

kanak N kanak-kanak N ‘children’ 21 RED +++++ 2.

sida N sida-sida N ‘eunuchs’ 18 RED - 3.

tuan N tuan-tuan N ‘masters’ 12 RED +++

4. TechnologicalUniversityLibraryanyang

dayang N dayang-dayang N ‘handmaidens’ 6 RED +++++ 5.

pagi N pagi-pagi N ‘morning’ 4 RED + 6.

barang N barang-barang N ‘goods; belongings’ 2 RED +++++ 7.

! ! 39!

ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Actapp SingaporeCopyright The ATTENTION:

gunung N gunung-gunung N ‘mountains’ 2 RED +++++ 8.

seorang N seorang-seorang NUM ‘one by one’ 2 RED +++++ 9.

dua NUM dua-dua NUM ‘two by two’ 1 RED + 10.

panji N panji-panji N ‘banners’ 1 RED +++++ 11.

empat NUM empat-empat NUM ‘groups of four’ 1 RED + 12. lies totheuseofthisdocument.N bayang V bayang-bayang N ‘shadows’ 1 RED +++ 13.

bunyi N bunyi-bunyian N ‘series of sounds’ 14 RED-an +++++ 14.

buah N buah-buahan N ‘fruits’ 3 RED-an +++ 15.

kayu N kayu-kayuan N ‘woods; timbre’ 2 RED-an - 16. anyang TechnologicalUniversityLibraryanyang minum V minum-minuman N ‘array of drinks’ 1 RED-an - 17.

makan V makan-makanan N ‘array of food’ 1 RED-an ++++ 18.

bau V bau-bauan N ‘odour; smell’ 1 RED-an +++++ 19.

puji V puji-pujian N ‘praises’ 1 RED-an +++ 20.

! ! 40!

ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Actapp SingaporeCopyright The ATTENTION: iii. Hikayat Iskandar Zulkarnain

Synopsis: This hikayat describes the exploits and achievements of Iskandar Zulkarnain, who was believed to be one of prophet's companions. Hikayat Iskandar Zulkarnain contains elements of Islam and was deeply influenced by the Al-Quran.

Modern Root Form Gloss # Form Malay

raja N raja-raja N ‘kings’ 73 RED ++ 1.

alas N alas-alas N ‘pedestals’ 36 RED ++ lies totheuseofthisdocument.N 2.

orang N orang-orang N ‘human beings’ 32 RED +++++ 3.

pagi N pagi-pagi N ‘morning’ 8 RED +++++ 4.

kanak N kanak-kanak N ‘children’ 8 RED +++++ 5. anyang TechnologicalUniversityLibraryanyang kata V kata-kata N ‘words’ 2 RED +++ 6.

panji N panji-panji N ‘banners’ 2 RED - 7.

laki N laki-laki N ‘men’ 1 RED + 8.

rumah N rumah-rumah N ‘houses’ 1 RED +++++ 9.

! ! 41!

ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Actapp SingaporeCopyright The ATTENTION:

bakti N bakti-bakti N ‘devotion’ 1 RED ++ 10.

wazir N wazir-wazir N ‘viziers’ 1 RED - 11.

seorang N seorang-seorang NUM ‘one by one’ 1 RED ++ 12.

harta N harta-harta N ‘property; belongings’ 1 RED ++++ 13.

hulubalang N hulubalang-hulubalang N ‘commanders’ 1 RED ++++ 14. lies totheuseofthisdocument.N bayang V bayang-bayang N ‘shadows’ 1 RED +++++ 15.

parit N parit-parit N ‘drains’ 1 RED ++++ 16.

mayat N mayat-mayat N ‘corpses’ 1 RED ++++ 17.

tebu N tebu-tebu N ‘sugarcanes’ 1 RED ++ 18. anyang TechnologicalUniversityLibraryanyang buah N buah-buahan N ‘fruits’ 8 RED-an +++++ 19.

tumbuh V tumbuh-tumbuhan N ‘vegetation’ 6 RED-an ++++ 20.

bau V bau-bauan N ‘odour; smell’ 3 RED-an ++ 21.

bunyi N bunyi-bunyian N ‘series of sounds’ 3 RED-an +++ 22.

! ! 42!

ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Actapp SingaporeCopyright The ATTENTION:

makan V makan-makanan N ‘array of food’ 2 RED-an - 23. lies totheuseofthisdocument.N anyang TechnologicalUniversityLibraryanyang

! ! 43!

ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Actapp SingaporeCopyright The ATTENTION: Appendix B (Verbs) i. Hikayat Pandawa Lima

Synopsis: Pandawa Lima narrates a brotherhood shared between Sang Rajuna, Sang Setyaki, Sang Bima, Sang Sakula and Sang Sadewa. These characters were said to be the reincarnations of the gods (dewa-dewa). One of the most prominent events in this hikayat would be the battle between Pandawa Lima and the kings of Korawa.

Modern

Root Reduplication Form Gloss Malay lies totheuseofthisdocument.N

kata berkata-kata ber-RED ‘to speak’ 1. +++++

baring berbaring-baring ber-RED ‘to lie down’ 2. +++++

main bermain-main ber-RED ‘to play’ 3. +++++ anyang TechnologicalUniversityLibraryanyang tiup bertiup-tiup ber-RED ‘to blow’ 4. ++

tikam bertikam-tikam ber-RED ‘to stab’ 5. +++

sembur bersembur-sembur ber-RED ‘to spray’ 6. +++

lari berlari-lari ber-RED ‘to run’ 7. +++++

! ! 44!

ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Actapp SingaporeCopyright The ATTENTION:

debar berdebar-debar ber-RED ‘to have a fluttering heart; to be nervous’ 8. +++

lontar berlontar-lontaran ber-RED-AN ‘to throw around’ 9. +++++

amuk beramuk-amukan ber-RED-AN ‘to be in a rampage’ 10. +++

lambung melambung-lambung me-RED ‘to bounce (an item)’ 11. ++

rengut merengut-rengut me-RED ‘scowl; complain’ 12. ++ lies totheuseofthisdocument.N sambar menyambar-nyambar men-RED ‘to pounce; attack’ 13. ++

apa mengapa-apa meng-RED ‘to hurt or do something towards an object’ 14. ++

hempas menghempas-hempas meng-RED ‘to slam an object repeatedly’ 15. ++++

gila menggila-gila meng-RED ‘to be crazy over’ 16. ++++ anyang TechnologicalUniversityLibraryanyang alu mengalu-alukan meng-RED-kan ‘to welcome warmly’ 17. ++

pura pura-pura RED ‘to pretend’ 18. +++

bunuh bunuh-bunuhan RED-an ‘to commit killings’ 19. ++++

igau igau-igauan RED-an ‘to be half asleep’ 20. ++++

! ! 45!

ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Actapp SingaporeCopyright The ATTENTION:

resah resah-resahan RED-an ‘to feel restless’ 21. ++++

cengang tercengang-cengang ter-RED ‘to leave a gaping mouth; to be left speechless’ 22. ++++

mangu termangu-mangu ter-RED ‘to hesitate; to be in a state of confusion’ 23. +++++ lies totheuseofthisdocument.N anyang TechnologicalUniversityLibraryanyang

! ! 46!

ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Actapp SingaporeCopyright The ATTENTION: ii. Hikayat Seri Rama

Synopsis: The story of Seri Rama centres around a prince of that name - the eldest of four sons and was destined to become king when his father, Maharaja Dasarata, retired from ruling. His stepmother however, wanted to see her son Bharata, Seri Rama's younger brother, to become king instead. She then ordered for his banishment and Seri Rama accepted this decree unquestioningly due to his undying loyalty to his father. His wife, Sita Dewi, and his brother, Laksmana, had also accompanied him to the forest retreat where they faced a series of obstacles.

Modern Root Reduplication Form Gloss Malay lies totheuseofthisdocument.N

+++++ 1. jalan berjalan-jalan ber-RED ‘to walk’ ++++ 2. tambah bertambah-tambah ber-RED ‘to increase steadily’ +++++ 3. kata berkata-kata ber-RED ‘to say’

++++ TechnologicalUniversityLibraryanyang 4. seru berseru-seru ber-RED ‘to cry out’ +++ 5. nyala bernyala-nyala ber-RED ‘smoldering’ ++ 6. belit berbelit-belit ber-RED ‘serpentine’ +++++ 7. main bermain-main ber-RED ‘to play’

! ! 47!

ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Actapp SingaporeCopyright The ATTENTION: +++ 8. diri berdiri-diri ber-RED ‘to stand around’ ++ 9. jaga berjaga-jaga ber-RED ‘to be careful’ ‘to be in a competition’ ++ 10. tanding bertanding-tanding ber-RED ‘to pledge agreements’ ++++ 11. janji berjanji-janjian ber-RED-an ‘to hit in self-defense’ +++ 12. tangkis bertangkis-tangkisan ber-RED-an

‘to enjoy, rejoice’ ++ lies totheuseofthisdocument.N 13. suka bersuka-sukaan ber-RED-an ‘to be involved in courtship’ ++ 14. kasih berkasih-kasihan ber-RED-an ‘to praise; chant’ +++ 15. puji memuji-muji me-RED ‘to rub together’ ++ 16. gosok menggosok-gosok meng-RED anyang TechnologicalUniversityLibraryanyang ‘to welcome warmly’ + 17. alu mengalu-alukan meng-RED ‘to toss around’ ++++ 18. hempas mengempas-ngempas meng-RED ‘to make something move’ ++++ 19. gerak menggerak-gerakkan meng-RED-kan ‘to be cautious’ ++ 20. ingat ingat-ingat RED

! ! 48!

ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Actapp SingaporeCopyright The ATTENTION: +++ 21. kelip terkelip-kelip ter-RED ‘to blink repeatedly; to feel confused and unsure’ ++++ 22. tawa tertawa-tawa ter-RED ‘to laugh uncontrollably’

lies totheuseofthisdocument.N anyang TechnologicalUniversityLibraryanyang

! ! 49!

ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Actapp SingaporeCopyright The ATTENTION: iii. Hikayat Iskandar Zulkarnain

Synopsis: This hikayat describes the exploits and achievements of Iskandar Zulkarnain, who was believed to be one of prophet's companions. Hikayat Iskandar Zulkarnain contains elements of Islam and was deeply influenced by the Al-Quran.

Root Reduplication Form Gloss Modern Malay

1. kisar berkisar-kisar ber-RED ‘to rotate’ ++

2. kata berkata-kata ber-RED ‘to speak’ +++++ lies totheuseofthisdocument.N

3. seru berseru-seru ber-RED ‘to cry out’ +++

4. main bermain-main ber-RED ‘to play’ +++++

5. ingin beringin-ingin ber-RED ‘wanting’ ++++

6. diri berdiri-diri ber-RED ‘to stand around’ +++

7. kira berkira-kira ber-RED ‘to count’ ++++ TechnologicalUniversityLibraryanyang

8. ulang berulang-ulang ber-RED ‘to repeat’ +++++

9. cahaya bercahaya-cahaya ber-RED ‘to have light’ +++ ‘to run about’ 10. lari berlari-larian ber-RED-an ++++ ‘to stab in a fiery manner’ 11. tikam bertikam-tikaman ber-RED-an ++++

! ! 50!

ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Actapp SingaporeCopyright The ATTENTION: ‘to enjoy, rejoice’ 12. suka bersuka-sukaan ber-RED-an ++ ‘to be involved in courtship’ 13. kasih berkasih-kasihan ber-RED-an +++ ‘to familiarise or attempt something new’ 14. jinak berjinak-jinakan ber-RED-an +++ ‘to cuddle; exchange of hugs’ 15. peluk berpeluk-pelukkan ber-RED-an ++++ ‘to cheer’ 16. sorak bersorak-sorakan ber-RED-kan ++

‘to chop; crack an object’ lies totheuseofthisdocument.N 17. tetak bertetak-tetakkanlah ber-RED-kanlah + ‘to wait’ 18. nanti menanti-nanti me-RED +++ ‘to count’ 19. kira mengira-ngira meng-RED +++ ‘to welcome warmly’ 20. alu alu-alukan RED-kan ++ anyang TechnologicalUniversityLibraryanyang ‘to leave a gaping mouth; to be left speechless’ 21. cengang tercengang-cengang ter-RED ++++ ‘to be fragmented’ 22. penggal terpenggal-penggal ter-RED ++ !

! ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Act applies to the use of this document. Nanyang Technological University Library 51

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